Council for Exceptional Children

Analysis of Classroom Discipline-Related Content in Elementary Education Journals

Author(s): Elizabeth L. Hardman and Stephen W. Smith
Source: Behavioral Disorders, Vol. 28, No. 2 (February 2003), pp. 173-186
Published by: Council for Exceptional Children
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23889164
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FORUM ^
Martha Coutinho and Maureen Conroy, Editors

Analysis of Classroom Discipline-Related Content

in Elementary Education Journals
Elizabeth L. Hardman and Stephen W. Smith
University of Florida

ABSTRACT: For most elementary teachers, maintaining classroom discipline is a daily concern, one
that can be rewarding and at the same time a source of frustration. The inclusion of students with
emotional or behavioral disorders and other students with behavioral problems can strain even the
most competent classroom teachers and may add to the already increasing demands to maintain
discipline in today's classrooms. Because maintaining positive classroom discipline is one of the
foremost concerns of teachers and other education professionals, we analyzed the discipline
related content of a purposively selected sample of 13 elementary education journals published over
a 10-year period, determining the number and type of articles published and the articles' thematic
content. We found that only I % of the articles were about classroom discipline, and the content
often failed to define specifically and substantively the teacher's role in identifying and mediating
behavior problems. We argue that the attention to classroom discipline in elementary education
journals is not commensurate with teachers' level of concern about classroom discipline and that
scholars in elementary education may not perceive this topic to be an important curriculum issue
and/or a primary responsibility of the classroom teacher.

| The inclusion of students with emotional or

behavioral disorders (E/BD) has created a con

tentious discussion among education profes

sionals. The 1997 discipline amendments to

the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA) require general education teachers to

intensify their inclusion efforts by affording all

students with disabilities supplementary aids

and services specific to their behavioral and
social needs, thereby acknowledging the rela
tionship between student behavior and learn
ing (Cable, 1999; Yell, 1998). The elementary
years provide the context for the inclusion of
most students with disabilities (U.S. Depart
ment of Education, 1998), but students with

that the inclusion of students with E/BD in the

general education classroom may create a set

ting event for disciplinary action (e.g., Katsi

yannis & Maag, 1998). In as much as 3% to

6% of the school-aged population exhibits
maladaptive behavior that is severe, pervasive,
and chronic enough to warrant special servic
es, the inclusion of students with E/BD will tax

the most competent of classroom teachers

(Kauffman, Lloyd, Baker, & Riedel, 1995) and
will significantly impact teachers' efforts to
maintain classroom discipline (Katsyiannis &
Maag).
Discipline is already one of the most uni
versal and troubling problems facing elemen

E/BD are far more likely to be placed in the

tary teachers (Bender & Mathes, 1995;

most restrictive educational settings (Kauffman,

Langdon, 1997; Reed, 1989; Veenman, 1984),

and over the past 32 years, Gallup polls have

2001). Perhaps this differential treatment in

placement occurs because elementary teachers
believe that misbehaving students create addi

consistently documented public concerns

about the need for improved classroom disci

tional burdens on their efforts to maintain a

pline (e.g., Rose & Gallup, 2000). In a Phi

safe, harmonious learning environment (Lang

don, 1997). Indeed, even researchers predict

Kappa Delta poll, 58% of teachers reported

that students are frequently disruptive, and

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

February 2003 / 173

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50% reported disobedience as a concern

(Langdon, 1997). Moreover, Tulley and Chiu
(1 995) analyzed the discipline problems expe
rienced by 135 student teachers and estimated
that 15% of students break rules on a regular

basis and an additional 5% are chronic rule

Inappropriate behavior, noncompliance,

and conflict can occur in the most positively
structured classrooms. Unfortunately, students

who consistently break rules and cause dis

ruption change a relaxed and caring atmos
phere into a guarded and anxious one (Bacon,

breakers who are out of control most of the

1990) where few social and academic gains

time. Disruption, defiance, and inattention

are made (Colvin, 2002). Conversely, effective

discipline maintains a classroom as a harmo
nious and highly efficient place for learning

seem to represent the most frequent forms of

misbehavior; serious behavior problems (e.g.,

theft by force, carrying weapons, drinking
alcohol, taking drugs) are occurring at less fre
quent but still alarming rates (Langdon, 1997;

Menacker, Weldon, & Hurwitz, 1989). For

example, Menacker and colleagues found that

more than 50% of the sixth- and eighth-grade
students they surveyed reported that money,
clothing, or personal property was stolen from
them at least once during the school year. In
addition, 35% indicated that they had been
victims of theft more than once, 32% reported
that they had carried a weapon to school at

least once, and 14% said they had done so

more than once. More recently, Moeller
(2001) disclosed that during the 1990s an
increase occurred in the number of guns
brought to school as well as theft, tardiness, lit
tering, violating rules, cursing, and being dis
ruptive. As a result, Moeller stated that student

antisocial behavior and aggression are far too

common in our nation's schools.

Some professionals point to an increasing

number of students at risk for school failure as

a major contributor to educators' frustrations

about guaranteeing a safe and orderly school
environment. Davis and McCaul (1990) esti
mated that at least 30% of the student popula
tion is at risk for school failure and warned that

these students frequently engage in substance

abuse and dangerous sexual practices and

exhibit a variety of emotional/behavioral and

medical/physical problems. Although the

intensity of their maladaptive behavior may
range from mild to severe (Mulkerne, 1992), it
will likely lead to the development of undesir
able outcomes such as ineffective student

teacher interactions, insufficient student serv

ices, and a negative school climate (Davis &

McCaul). According to Moeller (2001), the

negative relationship between academic

achievement and later antisocial behavior and

aggression seems due primarily to a common

set of variables present at the time these chil
dren enter school that affect behavior and aca

demic performance in complicated ways.

174 / February 2003

and may be the ultimate determinant of a

teacher's effectiveness in meeting the educa
tional goals set forth for students (Carlson &
ParshalI, 1996; Reilly, 1990). Therefore, the
inclusion of students with E/BD and the

increasing number of students at risk for

school failure are sources of heightened con
cern about maintaining classroom discipline
and academic excellence in elementary class
rooms. As a result, teachers are actively seek
ing information about effective methods of
classroom discipline. For example, the results
of a poll of teachers indicated that the most
requested topics of information are classroom
behavior, disruptive behavior, and discipline
("Information Needs Survey," 1997).
In 1992, Evertson and Harris suggested
that to find solutions to discipline problems
researchers should assess present methods of
classroom discipline. We maintain, however,

that researchers have evaluated classroom dis

cipline, consistently finding that teachers

rarely use positive reinforcementespecially
when addressing social behaviorfrequently
reinforce inappropriate behavior, and often
ignore opportunities to use positive reinforce
ment for those who need it (e.g., Maag, 2001 ;
Strain, Lambert, Kerr, Stagg, & Lenkner, 1983;
White, 1975). As a result, we believe that a dif

ferent kind of analysis is needed. To develop a

more comprehensive assessment of what

teachers are doing to address discipline prob

lems and why, perhaps researchers should

examine the dialogue among teacher educa
tors and other education professionals about

classroom discipline. Professional journals

provide a highly accessible forum for scholars

to communicate solutions to unresolved prob

lems in schools and are an accessible resource

for dialogue about important curricular issues.

Interestingly, in 1985, Schloss and

Maxymuik reported the results of an analysis
of discipline-related articles found in five ele
mentary education journals between the years
1962 and 1982 and concluded that their data

"offers a pessimistic view of discipline related

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

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literature. . (p. 66). Specifically, they found

that the ratio of databased articles dropped
over the 20-year period, calculating a percent
age of 57.5 for the first 10 years and a per
centage of 27.9 for the final 10-year period.
Moreover, using liberal criteria for article
selection as discipline-related, these authors
reported a low of 0 articles published in 1967
and a high of 13 in 1978. Since 1985, howev
er, concerns about school violence and disci

pline problems have continued to increase

(Moeller, 2001). Therefore, we set out to con

duct our own analysis of discipline-related

content published in elementary education
journals over a 10-year period. Specifically,

we examined the amount and content of

scholarly writing in a purposively selected

sample of 13 peer-reviewed education jour
nals to determine the number and general type
of articles (i.e., research or descriptive) and the

articles' thematic content.

Method
Journal Selection
Our objective was to develop a list of journals
that publish authoritative information about

best practice in elementary education and

might also be information-rich sources of
scholarly dialogue about classroom discipline.
To accomplish our goal, we queried national
ly prominent professors in elementary educa

tion and conducted a search of the literature

base to find information about classroom dis

cipline. We developed the following criteria to

define the term authoritative: the journal must

be (a) peer reviewed and (b) commended by

elementary scholars as an important source of
information on best practice. With the help of

two elementary education professors at our

university, we generated a list of 12 nationally

known academics whom we believed were

significant and influential figures in the field of

elementary education. To generate an initial

journal list that was authoritative, we agreed
that responses from six of those listed would
be adequate.
We mailed a request to these six professors
asking each one to return a list of 10 to 15
journals that, in their estimation, are the most
prominent journals in elementary education.
Our objective was to determine a sample of
journals teacher educators considered to be
influential sources of scholarly discourse on
important issues in elementary education, so
Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

we did not specifically ask our respondents for

journals that might include discipline-related
articles. All six professors responded, with a
total of 29 journals. We decided, a priori, to
include only those journals nominated by two
professors or more because we wanted to use
some confirmatory factor rather than just gen

erate a list. Thus, we selected 14 of the 29

nominated journals to examine further.
We then examined each of the 14 journals
to confirm whether it was peer reviewed and a

possible source of discipline-related articles.

We reasoned that 4 of the 14 journals,

Language Arts, The Reading Teacher, Reading
Research Quarterly, and Social Studies, are
focused on specific academic topics and may
not be likely sources for discipline-related arti
cles. A subsequent search of the contents of
each journal supported our supposition, so we
eliminated these journals from the list. We also
eliminated Teaching and Teacher Education
because it has a broad international focus, per
haps examining student and classroom disci
pline beyond our own relevant domestic con
cerns. We searched the table of contents of

Teaching and Teacher Education, however,

and found only one discipline-related article
over a 10-year period. We eliminated Instruc
tor because it is a teacher magazine that focus
es on teachers' perspectives and did not meet
our authoritative criteria. Our refining process
reduced the preliminary list to eight journals

whose content contains scholarly dialogue

about important elementary education issues
and whose scope did not preclude the topic of
elementary classroom discipline: Elementary

School Journal; Phi Delta Kappan; Harvard

Educational Review; Journal of Teacher Educa

tion; Young Children; Childhood Education;

Educational Leadership; and Action in Teacher

Education.

Our next step was to expand the prelimi

nary list. We obtained an exhaustive list of
education-related periodicals included in the
collection of a state university library system
and then reduced this list of 1,176 journals by
applying a series of filters. First, we eliminated

any journal no longer in circulation. Then we

examined titles and eliminated journals not
specifically focused on elementary education,
such as special education, international, or
secondary or higher education journals (e.g.,
Exceptional Children, International Journal of
Education Development, Journal of Higher
Education). We also eliminated journals that

focus on a particular academic area in ele

February 2003 / 175

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mentary education (e.g., Music Teacher, The

Journal of Social Studies Education), and those
that were not peer reviewed. This process pro

duced a list of 80 journals that potentially

and major descriptors. When necessary, how

ever, we read the article to determine whether

it met our selection criteria. We selected any

article for analysis if it was applicable to ele

could include articles relevant to classroom

mentary classrooms, addressed a student

discipline.

behavior problem, and offered a solution that

could be implemented by the teacher. Finally,
we made a list of selected articles by journal,
including volume and issue number, title, and
page number.
We evaluated the reliability of our article

We searched the Educational Resources

Information Center (1988 to 1999) using the

key words ADHD behavior management,

behavior management discipline, and elemen
tary classroom discipline to identify which of
the 80 journals would be the best sources of
information on discipline. We created a fre
quency and ranked the 80 journals from high
est to lowest according to the number of arti

cles each contained from the ERIC search. We

then eliminated any journal with fewer than

two discipline-related articles in the last 10
years, yielding a list of 11 journals: Elementary

School Journal; Phi Delta Kappan; Action in

Teacher Education; Teaching Education; Con
temporary Education; Journal of Educational
Research; American Educational Research

Journal; Young Children; Childhood Educa

tion; Educational Leadership; and the Journal
of Research and Development in Education.
Our final step was to work with both lists

to identify a sample of journals that were

authoritative and were likely sources of infor
mation about classroom discipline. We select
ed from the ERIC search those that were peer
reviewed and not in our original list, including
Teaching Education, Contemporary Education,
Journal of Educational Research, American
Educational Research Journal, and the Journal

of Research and Development in Education,

because they proved to be the most likely

sources for discipline-related articles. The final

list included 13 journals: Teaching Education;

Action In Teacher Education; Contemporary
Education; Journal of Educational Research;

selection method by asking 26 preservice

teachers to review one volume of an assigned
journal using our selection criteria that it: (a)
was applicable to elementary classrooms; (b)
addressed a student behavior problem; and (c)
offered a solution that could be implemented
by the teacher. We calculated reliability by
dividing the number of agreements by the sum

of disagreements and agreements, obtaining

an interrater agreement of .99.

Content Analysis
We read each of the discipline-related articles,
marking phrases and words that identified the
behavior problem, the solution, and specific
references to the teacher's role in addressing
discipline problems. We then created a table
using the following headers: Title, Date, and
Journal Name; Type of Article (e.g., research or
descriptive); Problem Behavior; Solution; and
Teacher's Role, and a clerical assistant tran
scribed marked information from each article's

text to the corresponding table column (i.e.,

Behavior Problem, Solution, and Teacher's
Role). The first author subsequently coded the
text contained in each category to identify pat
terns and themes pertinent to each category.

Results

Phi Delta Kappan; Elementary School Journal;

American Educational Research Journal;
Harvard Educational Review; The Journal of

Number of Articles

Teacher Education; Young Children; Child

We found a total of 6,785 feature articles pub

hood Education; Educational Leadership; and

the Journal of Research and Development in

lished in the 13 journals from 1989 up to

Education.

1999. Only 77 articles met our criterion as

discipline-related, establishing an overall per

centage of discipline-related articles at 1%

Article Selection

We hand-searched each journal's table of con

tents for discipline-related articles published
between January 1989 and December 1998.
In most cases, we determined the appropriate
ness of the article by reading the title, abstract,

176 / February 2003

(.011). Educational Leadership published the

most discipline-related articles over the 10
year period, with a total of 25, and Childhood
Education published the highest percentage of
discipline-related articles (2.6%). We did not

find any discipline-related articles in The

Journal of Teacher Education and Harvard

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 1 73-186

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TABLE 1

Number of Discipline Articles by Journal (1989-1999)

Total

Discipline

Discipline

Articles (Total)

Articles (%)

Number of

Related

Articles

Journal

Related

Action in Teacher Education

369

0.5

American Educational Research Journal

303

0.7

Contemporary Education

538

1.3

Elementary School Journal

322

1.5

Harvard Educational Review

173

Journal of Educational Research

386

1.3

294

0.3

377

1187

11

0.9

299

0.7

Journal of Research and Development

in Education

Journal of Teacher Education

Phi Delta Kappan

Teacher Education
Childhood Education

383

10

2.6

1568

25

1.6

Young Children

586

1.2

Educational Review, two of our original eight

Research Type

Educational Leadership

journals. Table 1 shows the number and per

centage of discipline-related articles by jour
nal from 1989 to 1999. Table 2 provides the
number and percentage of discipline-related
articles published by year and shows that edi
tors published more discipline-related articles
(14) during 1997 than any other year and pub

lished the fewest (3) during 1989 and 1998.

We found no trends in the publication rate of

discipline-related articles.

We categorized 64 articles as descriptive,

because they provided readers with strategies

to use when confronted with classroom disci

pline problems, and 13 articles as research.

The research exemplars reported purposeful
manipulation of an independent variable(s)
with two or more groups (e.g., experimental
and control/comparison group) to determine
the effectiveness of a treatment(s) on a
dependent variable(s). As shown in Table 3,

TABLE 2

Number and Percentage of Discipline-Related Articles Published by Year

Total Number

Discipline-Related

Year

of Articles

Articles

1989

696

10

1.4

1990

646

0.5

1991

690

10

1.4

1992

716

1.2

1993

707

1.0

1994

692

0.7

1995

640

1.4

1996

678

1.2

1997

668

14

2.0

1998

652

0.3

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186 February 2003 / 177

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TABLE 3

Number of Discipline-Related Research Articles by Journal (1989-1999)

Number of
Total

Number
of Articles

Journal

Discipline
Related

Articles (%)

American Education Research

Journal
Elementary School Journal

Research Topics
Conflict resolution

303

2 (0.7)

Recess timing

322

5 (1.6)

Prereferral interventions

Problem behavior

Inattentive/disruptive
behavior

Comprehensive
management system
Social integration/mild
disability

Journal of Educational Research

386

5 (1.3)

Conflict management
Functional analysis
Task completion

Classroom behavior

Aggression

Journal of Research and

Development in Education

294

only 4 of the 13 journals published experi

mental studies about classroom discipline. We

1 (0.3)

Social communication

Storey, Lawry, Ashworth, Danko, & Strain,

1994, p. 362) to define the behavior problem.

did not find any examples of qualitative

Some described disruptive behavior with

research or single-subject research designs.

terms such as "trouble . . . bad . . . playful"

(Fachin, 1996, p. 438) or "hell-raising . . . ram

Behavior Problem

bunctious" (Divoky, pp. 599, 600), and one

author cited specific behaviors such as

The behavior problems authors most often

addressed were disruption, inattention, aggres
sion, conflict, and antisocial behavior. We

"singing" or "making loud noises" (Fachin, p.

438).
We found inattention to be the focus in 13

found 14 articles in which authors discussed

articles. Authors usually described this as

emotional problems such as "depression . . .

"attention" or "inattention" problems (e.g.,

Linehan, 1992; Pellegrini, Huberty, & Jones,
1995). Sometimes the focus was more specifi
cally defined as "off-task" (Wasson, Beare, &

regressive behavior. . . persistent tiredness and

anxiety . . . withdrawn" (e.g., Linehan, 1992,

pp. 62, 63), but only one author discussed

E/BD as a significant concern when discussing
classroom discipline (Kauffman et al., 1995)

Disruption and Inattention

Throughout 77 articles the most frequently dis

cussed behavior problem was classroom dis

ruption and student inattention. In 21 articles
authors described disruptive behavior using
phrases such as "disruptive children" (Dutt,
1995, p. 215), " classroom disturbance" (Finn,

Pannazzo, & Voelke, 1995, p. 425), or "dis

ruptive behaviors" (e.g., Divoky, 1989, p. 603;

178 / February 2003

Wasson, 1990, p. 163), "poor time manage

ment, poor organization" or "incomplete/slop
py work" (Smith & Misra, 1992, p. 354). We
found 7 articles that defined hyperactivity as
the source of inattention and disruptive behav

ior (e.g., Brophy & McCaslin, 1992; Fachin,

1996).

Aggression and Conflict

We found 31 discipline-related articles in

which authors discussed aggression and 4 that
focused on conflict. In the 31 articles about

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 1 73-186

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aggression, authors used general terms such as

1991), and in 2 articles authors suggested

"aggression" or "violence" (e.g., Gable,

Manning, & Bullock, 1997; Piel, 1990), but

referral to special education (Fachin, 1996;

Heston). We found only 4 articles in which

Johnson and his co-authors (1996) defined

authors stressed early intervention (e.g.,

aggression as "verbal force" and "verbal

insults" (p. 280). In 3 articles, authors

Burgess & Streissguth, 1992; Finn et al., 1995).

addressed fighting (cf. Cullinan, Sabornie, &

Crossland 1992; Gable et al.; Johnson et al.),
and Barone (1997) discussed the behavior of

We found 34 articles that recommended

social skills instruction, which occasionally

included the teaching of values. For example,
Kohn (1991) suggested that teaching social

bullies. We found 4 articles that discussed

skills should include "classroom-based pro

conflict as a form of aggression (e.g., Johnson,

grams to help children develop a prosocial ori

entation," an examination of "values already
in place ... consider trading them in for a new
set" (p. 499), and teaching "them to care" (p.
500). In contrast, some evaluated the effective

Johnson, Dudley, Ward, & Magnuson, 1995;

McLaughlin, 1994).
Antisocial Behavior

We found 22 discipline-related articles that

described antisocial behavior as the problem,
but the word "antisocial" occurred only once
(cf. Barone, 1997, p. 82). Authors typically
used a variety of terms to discuss antisocial
behavior. For example, within the scope of one

article, Smelter, Rasch, Fleming, Nazos, and

Baranowski (1996) described children's behav
ior as "behaviorally disordered . . . bad" (p.
430) and "socially unacceptable behaviors . . .
sneerjingj at the teacher. .. aberrant behavior"
(p. 431). Likewise, Trapani & Gettinger (1989)
defined the problem as children who are "less
accepted," exhibit "problems interacting . . .
problem behaviors. . . negative verbal interac
tions," and "misinterpret nonverbal communi

cations" (p. 1). Others described student

behavior as "hostile" (Kohn, 1991, p. 498), and
"distasteful" (Gronlund, 1993, p. 21).
Solutions

After defining the behavior problem to be

addressed, authors of all 77 articles included a
solution for the defined problem. These solu
tions generally prescribed methods of preven
tion, identification, and/or intervention in

ness of specific interventions such as peer

mediation (e.g., Johnson et al., 1995; Johnson
et al., 1996; McLaughlin, 1994), peer tutoring
(Fachin, 1996), and conflict resolution (e.g.,
Brendtro, 1995).
Authors advised the use of positive rein
forcement to address specific discipline prob
lems in 7 articles. For example, Linehan (1992)
proposed "incentives and rewards rather than
punishment" (p. 62), and others encouraged
implementing a token economy, using positive

reinforcement, and/or praise (e.g., Canter,

1989; Fachin, 1996; Smith & Misra, 1992).
The authors of 4 articles addressed modi

fying instruction to address discipline prob

lems. Wasson and colleagues (1990) recom

mended "drawing these students out and
focusing them on instructional tasks " (p. 165).

Gable and colleagues (1997) implied that the

solution to discipline problems might lie in a
teacher's ability to "make instructional and/or
environmental modifications for purposes of
prevention and intervention" (p. 41).
Prevention

The authors of 32 articles suggested that the

teacher's style of classroom management has a

In 44 of the 77 articles authors proposed a

variety of interventions including teaching

significant influence on classroom discipline.

In 1 6 articles authors supported an authoritar
ian management style as most conducive to
obtaining desirable behavior. These authors
expressed a need for "tougher discipline" and
"improve[dJ. . . supervision efforts," and sug
gested that adults should "act as authority fig
ures" by "setting firm limits on unacceptable
behavior" (Barone, 1997, pp. 81, 82). In con

social skills, using positive reinforcement, and

trast, the authors of 10 articles argued for dem

addressing classroom discipline problems.

Intervention, however, was the most frequent
ly discussed solution, followed by prevention
and identification.
Intervention

modifying instruction to address student

behavior problems. In 4 articles, authors
advised the use of punishment to resolve
behavior problems (e.g., Harris, 1991; FHeston,

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

ocratically managed classrooms to prevent

behavior problems. For example, Beyer (1996)

described well-disciplined classrooms as

places where teachers demonstrate "demo
February 2003 / 179

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cratic teaching . . . sharing a pedagogical

power," places where teachers "wrestle with
their [children's] voicelessness" (p. 97), and

Doyle (1997) suggested that schools must

model democratic capitalism, honesty, for
bearance, toleration, respect for self and oth
ers, courage, and integrity.

In 14 articles authors recommended a nur

turing management style to prevent discipline

problems. Barone (1997) advised creating an

environment "characterized by warmth, posi

tive interest," where students experience

"involvement with adults" (p. 82). Carlile
(1991) advocated teacher training in ways to

make classrooms places to heal, and others

described teachers as reflective practitioners,
socially concerned, thoughtful, caring, and
committed people (e.g., Beyer, 1996; Watson,
1998).
We found 9 articles that focused on the

importance of good teaching to prevent disci

pline problems. For example, Harris (1991)

suggested that well-disciplined classrooms
should be organized to "maximize student
task engagement and success" (p. 157).
Pellegrini and colleagues (1995) examined the
effects of recess timing on children's behavior

and concluded that "children's efforts should

be distributed during the course of the day" (p.

860) and that children need "breaks from

demanding cognitive tasks" to facilitate learn

ing (p. 861).
Problem Identification

We found only 13 articles in which authors

advised describing and understanding behav
ior problems before determining solutions. In
these articles, authors recommended collabo
ration among professionals (e.g., Cable et al.,
1997; Lantieri, 1995; Sindelar, Griffin, Smith,
& Watanabe, 1992), consultation with experts
(e.g., Divoky, 1989; Sautter, 1992; Smelter et

al., 1996), and assessment (e.g., Brophy &

McCaslin, 1992; Lasley 1989; Storey et al.,

pline problems. In fact, all 52 articles that dis

cussed the teacher's role suggested ways to
prevent behavior problems in the classroom.
Preventer

Authors advised teachers to teach social skills,

be authoritarian, provide effective instruction,

and provide a positive atmosphere to prevent

behavior problems from occurring. For exam
ple, in 29 articles authors suggested teaching
social skills and instilling values, advising that
teachers teach students "the procedures neces
sary to manage conflicts constructively . . . and

skills they need to develop socially, cognitive

ly, and morally" (Johnson et al., 1995, p. 842).

Teachers should "devise creative classroom

management schemes that effectively teach

appropriate behaviors and the values that

underlie them" (Wolfgang & Kelsay, 1991, p.
155). Some authors offered role playing as an

effective method of social skills instruction

(e.g., Atlas & Pepler, 1998), and in 6 articles

authors admonished teachers to teach appro
priate behavior by being models of appropriate

behavior themselves (e.g., Bernat, 1993;

Doescher & Sugawara, 1989).

In 25 articles authors advised teachers to

be authoritarian (22 articles) and/or democrat

ic (5 articles) in their teaching styles. Those

espousing authoritarian classrooms directed
teachers to be "firm" (Fachin, 1996, p. 438)

and provide "consistent standards" and

"enforce these standards" (Dutt, 1995, p. 215).
Others stressed the importance of a democrat
ically managed classroom, suggesting that a
teacher's top priority should be "to help stu

dents develop into principled and caring

members of a community or advocates for

social justice" (Kohn, 1997, p. 432). In a few
cases, we found a mix of both approaches (cf.
Linehan, 1 992).
In 16 articles authors urged teachers to
prevent student behavior problems by engag
ing students in effective and relevant instruc

1994) as ways to identify and describe prob

tion. For example, Harris (1991) advised

lem behaviors.

teachers to set "up a physical environment

conducive to teacher instruction and student

on-task behavior" (p. 158) and Kohn (1997)

Teacher's Role

suggested ways to use literature to teach val

We found 52 discipline-related articles that
defined the teacher's role, often introduced

ues.

using the words "the teacher should" and "the

teachers to use positive reinforcement to set

the tone for prevention. For example, Chance
(1992) suggested that teachers "must supple

teacher must." Authors defined the teacher's

role as preventer, mediator, and/or interpreter

of behavior problems. Most focused attention
on the teacher's role as the preventer of disci

180 / February 2003

The authors of 9 articles encouraged

ment intrinsic rewards with extrinsic rewards"

(p. 206). Several authors directed teachers to

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

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use token economies, positive reinforcement,

praise, and rewards to prevent discipline prob
lems (e.g., Canter, 1989; Fachin, 1996).
In 10 articles authors urged teachers to
nurture children so they feel confident and
safe. For example, Flogan (1997) recommend
ed that teachers "recognize children's unique
qualities and make it clear that you think they

are special" (p. 158), and Bernat (1993) sug

gested that teachers "steady the children in
whatever way you can. Remind them that this
is a safe place for everyone only if everyone is

careful" (p. 37).

lern behaviors. In these articles they made sug

gestions such as, "prompt and cue unengaged,
inattentive learners ... do not embarrass

them" (Wasson et al., 1990, p. 165) and

"design instruction carefully, so as to avoid

those situations in which failure to use the

skills has serious negative consequences"

(Kauffman et al., 1995, p. 544).
Interpreter

In 4 articles authors focused on problem iden

tification as part of the teacher's role. They

advised teachers to collaborate with others to

define behavior problems (Hogan, 1997) and

Mediator

to make sure children have access to all the

We found 36 articles that addressed teachers'

roles as mediators of student behavior prob

lems. These authors suggested modifying

instruction (e.g., Kauffman et al., 1995;
Wasson et al., 1990), accommodating inap

educational services to which they are entitled

(Linehan, 1992). Storey and colleagues (1994)

advised against interventions that are "arbitrar

ily selected and implemented" and directed

teachers to use a functional assessment that

propriate behavior (Smelter et al., 1996), dis

cussing and reflecting when problems occur

"links assessment to intervention" (p. 367),

(e.g., Barone, 1997; Kohn, 1997), ignoring

mended that teachers examine how prosocial

behavior is enhanced or hindered by the class

inappropriate behavior (McLaughlin, 1994),

involving parents in behavior problems

(Barone; Fachin, 1996), involving problem stu
dents in school and classroom activities (e.g.,
Kohn), punishing inappropriate behavior (e.g.,
Canter, 1989), referring problem students (e.g.,
Fachin; Linehan, 1992), and modifying behav
ior (e.g., Fachin).
In 28 articles authors advised teachers to

mediate children's behavior problems by dis

cussing the problem and asking children to
reflect on their own behavior. For example,
Schickedanz (1994) recommended that teach
ers "describe a child's desirable behavior and

leave it at that. . . allow children to make their

own moral judgments" (p. 275). Carlsson

Paige and Levin (1992) suggested that "teach
ers can help children see that their problems
have two sides" and can guide them "toward
seeing the whole problem . . . and how their
behavior contributed to it" (p. 8).
In 11 articles authors urged teachers to

and Doescher and Sugawara (1989) recom

room environment.

Discussion
In our sample of 13 journals, we found that
only 77 of 6,785 articles (.011%) addressed
classroom discipline from 1989 to 1999. These
results suggest that classroom discipline was at
best underaddressed and might be described
as ignored during the targeted 10-year period.
Moreover, our results reveal what seems to be

a significant incongruity between teachers'

level of concern about discipline and the level
of concern expressed by those who guide the
development of teacher education programs.
As a result, our analysis seem to indicate that
scholars in elementary education do not con
sider classroom discipline an important cur
riculum issue, perhaps because they envision

behavior management as someone else's

involve parents (e.g., Brendtro, 1995) and

peers (Lowenthal, 1996) in mediating prob

responsibility and not a legitimate domain of

the elementary curriculum.

lematic behavior and to involve misbehaving

children in school activities (2 articles). For

Is Discipline Important?

example, Watson (1998) suggested that teach

ers should "seek ways for students to personal
ly take responsibility for contributing to the
welfare of their classroom, school, communi
ty, and the wider world" (p. 64).
In 8 articles authors suggested ways teach
ers could modify instruction to mediate prob

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 1 73-186

We found that when scholars discussed class

room discipline, they most likely wrote about

common behavior problems such as disrup
tion, defiance, and inattention and only occa

sionally discussed more serious behavior

problems such as aggression, conflict, and
February 2003 / 181

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antisocial behavior. We contend that commit

year period that fit our research criteria. In the

ting a share of 1% of total articles over a 10

remaining 64 articles, the discourse seemed

polarized around authoritarian and democrat
ic classroom management styles as ideals, but
few offered demonstrations of specific proce
dures proven effective in elementary class

year period is not enough to address these

complex and sometimes chronic discipline
problems and does not seem to match the

level of concern that teachers voice about

these same problems. For example, aggression

in the classroom is one of the most troubling

problems teachers face (Moeller, 2001;

Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995), yet we

found only 31 articles that addressed aggres

sion and only 4 that addressed conflict.

Moreover, antisocial behavior in early child

hood is known to be a powerful predictor of

more serious behavior problems in adoles

cence (Kamps & Tankersley, 1996; Webster

rooms.

Who Is Responsible?
In addition to concerns about the number of

articles and lack of research, our findings also

pose concerns about the advice scholars in

education may be giving teachers about disci
pline. Although authors most frequently dis

cussed intervention as the solution to disci

Stratton, 1997), but authors addressed this

important topic only indirectly, primarily in

pline problems, only 36 of 77 articles defined

the teacher's role in implementing interven

articles that lacked focus on any specific

tions, and authors' descriptions of the teacher's

behavior problem. In fact, only one author

used the term antisocial, and none defined the
term, described antisocial behavior, or dis
cussed its consequences if left unchecked.

enough to be practical. For example, the most

frequently occurring suggestion (28 articles)
was for teachers to discuss problems with chil

The inclusion of students with disabilities

who also exhibit serious behavior problems

has become a guiding educational philosophy
and represents a significant concern for gener

al education teachers; yet, we found that

authors devoted little attention to this topic.
For example, an inclusive general education
classroom will have at least one and possibly
two students with E/BD (Kauffman et al.,

1995), but we found only 1 article that

addressed E/BD and the additional responsi
bilities that will accompany the inclusion of
these students. Furthermore, estimates indi
cate that an inclusive general education class
room of 20 to 30 students may contain sever
al students with attention deficit hyperactivity

disorder (ADF1D) (Bender & Mathes, 1995).

According to Barkley (1998), these students
are more likely to experience poor peer rela
tionships, to be involved in criminal activity,

role were usually vague and not specific

dren and ask them to reflect on their behavior.

Perhaps this advice is helpful for some stu

dents, but without other, more substantive
treatment options, it seems shortsighted and
inadequate to meet the needs of today's class
rooms. Moreover, several authors suggested
the use of positive reinforcement by imple
menting a token economy. None, however,
offered details about planning, implementing,
or evaluating a token economy or reported

findings about the effectiveness of token

economies implemented in general education

classrooms. In fact, only 1 of the 36 articles
offered recommendations for practice as a
result of research conducted in an elementary
classroom. When communicating the results
of experimental research, authors should pro

vide clear definitions, well-defined proce

dures, and measures of effectiveness to facili

tate replication by others, including teachers.

and to engage in substance abuse. Yet, we

We believe that the lack of specificity

found only 7 articles that addressed ADHD,

perhaps the most common of all childhood
disabilities (e.g., Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank,
Smith, & Leal, 2002).
While scholars in education typically extol
the virtue of implementing methods that are
backed by rigorous research when discussing

when defining the teacher's role may be send

ing an implicit message that others are respon

reading, math, science, and social studies

(e.g., Farkas, Johnson, & Duffett, 1997), our

results indicate that they rarely conduct

research on methods of classroom discipline.
We found only 13 studies published over a 10

182 / February 2003

sible for managing discipline problems.

According to Lambert (1976), teachers find it
difficult to generate solutions to behavior prob
lems because they lack skill in gathering infor
mation about the nature of a child's problems.
Furthermore, teachers believe interventions

designed by professionals outside the class

room are as appropriate as teacher-initiated

interventions. Our results indicate that schol

ars provide little information about the impor

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

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tance of interpreting a behavior problem

before intervening (4 articles), perhaps sug
gesting that it is not the teacher's responsibili
ty to define the problem or generate solutions.

Furthermore, when authors do not conduct

experimental research in general education

classrooms with teacher involvement and do

nais, using them to generate and apply new

knowledge about teachers and teaching in all
its facets. The omission or lack of a significant

focus on a critical and undeniable aspect of

day-to-day teaching such as classroom disci
pline is troubling. Indeed, the teacher's respon

not engage teachers in defining behavior prob

sibility to provide a harmonious, efficient

learning environment for all learners is an

lems, they may be sending an implicit mes

essential quality of good teaching.

resolved in places other than the classroom.

Using journals to access information is a

conspicuous activity for preservice and inser

sage that discipline problems should be

More important, teachers may rely exclusively

vice teachers and those who matriculate for

on reprimands, penalties, detention, suspen

sion, and expulsions to address maladaptive
behavior (Kauffman & Wong, 1991) because

master's and doctoral degrees. Therefore, jour

nals are an important resource for profession

als who are interested in the most current

they feel these are their only option.

information about the advancement of knowl

Limitations

edge and those who are seeking to solve prob

lems as they pursue teaching excellence. Our
investigation suggests that there may be a

Our findings cannot be generalized to sources

of discipline-related information beyond those
included in the study. Results simply show that
across 13 journals that included articles about
elementary education, little information exists

pertaining to classroom discipline. Moreover,

these results do not support the idea that ele
mentary teachers are lacking in information
related to discipline in the classroom. On the

contrary, teachers have a wide variety of

sources from which to access relevant infor

mation about classroom discipline, including

special education and psychology journals,

teacher-oriented magazines (e.g., Teacher,
Teaching K-8, Instructor), and texts (e.g.,
Brophy, 1996; Charles, 1996; Curwin &
Mendier, 1999; Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham,

2000; Levin & Nolan, 2000; Nelson, Lott, &

Glenn, 2000). Nevertheless, our results do
indicate that classroom discipline received lit
tle scholarly treatment between the years 1989

and 1999 in a purposively selected sample of

professional journals. Although our list of dis
cipline-related articles may not be exhaustive,
reliability estimates indicate that the addition
of any oversights would be few and would not
significantly affect our results.

Implications
Although they are not the exclusive domain of

academe, professional journals are typically

housed in and accessed by those engaged in
higher education and are purveyors of the

paucity of volume and depth in the peer

reviewed articles in journals available to the
elementary education community about class
room discipline. This omission represents a
subtle yet deleterious attitude about the impor
tance of classroom discipline as a curricular
issue and the role of the teacher in addressing
classroom discipline problems. Therefore, we
conclude that the lack of prominence of disci
pline-related articles across many elementary
education-related journals may demonstrate a
lack of ownership of discipline as a curriculum
issue when in fact it is an indispensable part of

good teaching.

Conclusion
The advent of the inclusion of students with

significant behavior problems and teachers'

mounting concerns about discipline demand
increased attention to the management of
challenging behaviors in the elementary class
room. Social and emotional learning are con
comitants of academic learning inasmuch as
teachers and other education professionals are
obliged to create affirmative and long-lasting
change for students academically, socially,
and emotionally. Vet without critical commen

tary on the current practices as viewed

through the existing literature, scholars cannot

identify gaps and progress is thwarted. By

devoting only a 1% share to this important
topic, scholars may be sending the education

community the wrong message about the

Most often, professors of education are the

importance of classroom discipline and may

be responding inadequately to teachers' exist

major journal contributors to professional jour

ing and future needs.

field's state of the art and current best practice.

Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

February 2003 / 183

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capped students. The Elementary School

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AUTHOR:

ELIZABETH L. HARDMAN is a Doctoral Can

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Department of Special Education, University

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MANUSCRIPT:

Initial acceptance: 9/23/02

Final acceptance: 12/3/02

186 / February 2003 Behavioral Disorders, 28(2), 173-186

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