LEISA 20 4 Farming With Nature

december 2004 volume 20 no.

Magazine on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture

Farming with nature

LEISA
Magazine on Low External Input and
Sustainable Agriculture
December 2004 Volume 20 No. 4
LEISA Magazine is published quarterly by ILEIA
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Editorial team
This issue has been compiled by: Electra van Campen,
John Hollands, Anita Ingevall, Marilyn Minderhoud-Jones
and Wilma Roem.
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18
Cultivating wetlands
in Bangladesh
A.H. M. Rezaul Haq, Tapan Kumar Ghosal

and Pritam Ghosh
14
Bangladesh has the highest wetland to total land
ratio in the world. Cultivation on floating beds,
called soil-less agriculture or hydroponics, is an
indigenous practice in the south-western part of
Bangladesh. This practice is now receiving
renewed interest as a potential solution for
farmers whose lands have been waterlogged, and
also for landless people. In addition to being
highly productive, this system of cultivation
makes use of local resources, in particular the
masses of rapidly growing water hyacinths that
choke the waterways. It is also an
environmentally sustainable way to make use of
wetland areas.
The Talamanca Initiative
Diego Lynch
The Talamanca region in the south of

Costa Rica is the countrys poorest
region in socio-economic terms, but
the richest in terms of biodiversity
and tropical forest ecosystems. To
preserve this biodiversity, the
Amistad International Peace Park has
been established, covering parts of
Costa-Rica as well as Panama. Cacao
production was a major source of
income in the area and farmers were
hard hit when the devastating cacao
pod rot struck in 1979, forcing them
to abandon cacao production and
revert to tree felling, short-term
cropping and selling their land. To
reverse this situation a local NGO,
Asociacin ANAI, encouraged
farmers to diversify their farming
systems based on perennial crops and
ecological principles. They also
encouraged farmer organization and
developed a marketing cooperative
which introduced and developed the
growing and marketing of certified
organic products. In addition, locallyowned ecotourism initiatives are now
being developed to conserve the
environment and protect livelihoods.
LEISA is about Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture. It is about the technical and social options
open to farmers who seek to improve productivity and income in an ecologically sound way. LEISA is about
the optimal use of local resources and natural processes and, if necessary, the safe and efficient use of
external inputs. It is about the empowerment of male and female farmers and the communities who seek to
build their future on the basis of their own knowledge, skills, values, culture and institutions. LEISA is also
about participatory methodologies to strengthen the capacity of farmers and other actors to improve
agriculture and adapt it to changing needs and conditions. LEISA seeks to combine indigenous and
scientific knowledge, and to influence policy formulation in creating an environment conducive for its
further development. LEISA is a concept, an approach and a political message.
The ILEIA programme is funded by Sida and DGIS.
Cover photo
An elk and her calf on farmland in Northern Sweden.
Photo: Bror Johansson, Windh.
The editors have taken every care to ensure that the
contents of this magazine are as accurate as possible.
The authors have ultimate responsibility, however,
for the content of individual articles.
ISSN: 1569-8424
ILEIA is the Centre for Information on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture. ILEIA seeks to
promote the adoption of LEISA through the LEISA magazines and other publications. It also maintains a
specialized information database and an informative and interactive website on LEISA (www.leisa.info).
The website provides access to many other sources of information on the development of sustainable
agriculture.
Readers are welcome to photocopy and circulate articles.
Please acknowledge the LEISA Magazine, however, and send us a copy of your publication.
4
7
Farming with the wild
Editorial
Daniel Imhoff and Jo Ann Baumgartner
10
In North America, present day agriculture plays a major role
in the rapid reduction of wild animal and bird populations.
Agriculture has converted more and more natural habitats
into land suitable for highly intensive, large-scale crop and
livestock production. With the loss of habitats comes the loss
of species, and with the intensive production comes the
pollution of land, air and water, further reducing the
possibilities for wild life. A movement is now under way to
counter these effects, which can be described as conservation
based agriculture, agroecology, permaculture or farming
with the wild. The different expressions of this movement
have one aim in common: to combine the goals of
agriculture and conservation.
Community management of Afroalpine highlands in Ethiopia

Zelealem Tefera
12
Indigenous honeybees: allies for mountain farmers

Farooq Ahmad, Uma Partap, S.R. Joshi and M.B. Gurung
14

Diego Lynch
17
Harmonizing production and biodiversity

Miguel A. Altieri, Angela Maria Burgos Herrera,
Heiber Yovanny Armero Zambrano and Juan Martinez
18
Cultivating wetlands in Bangladesh

A. H. M. Rezaul Haq, Tapan Kumar Ghosal and Pritam Ghosh
21
A buffer zone for Sinharaja forest?

Ajith Tennekoon
22 Pangalengan farmers: friends of the forest

Samwel Wandera
24 Saving the forest through livestock intensification

Peter Spierenburg, Karma Tshering and D.S. Rai
26 Holistic management of African rangelands

Constance L. Neely and Jody Butterfield
10
Community management
of Afroalpine highlands in Ethiopia
29
29
30
31
32
34
36
Tell us your story!

Themes for 2005
Field notes
New books
Sources
Networking
Organic farming supports biodiversity
Andy Evans and Ian Alexander
Zelealem Tefera
The Guassa area of Menz in the central

highlands of Ethiopia is one the very few
areas in Ethiopia where a communitybased natural resource management
system is operating. Known as the
Qero system, this system has ancient
roots but has managed to adapt to
radically changing conditions. Over the
years, it has enabled the sustainable
utilization of this biodiversity-rich alpine
ecosystem, which is home to many
endemic species. Today the Ethiopian
Wolf Conservation Programme is
assisting the communities to ensure the
future viability of this system.
DEAR READERS
In earlier issues we have focused on the importance of maintaining and enhancing
biodiversity on farm. Attempts to conserve wild biodiversity, on the other hand, have mainly
focused on establishing wildlife reserves. Today, however, agriculture and human settlements
have expanded to impact on every corner of the earth and reserves are far from enough to
manage the biodiversity crisis. The way we manage agriculture will have a major impact on the
conservation of biodiversity, both on and off the farm. In this issue, we have tried to highlight
some of the attempts that are taking place to achieve food production while preserving or
enhancing wild biodiversity. We are grateful for the collaboration of Ecoagriculture Partners
on this issue, in particular Sara Scherr, and also for the information and support provided by the
Equator Initiative (see Networking, p. 34).
In this magazine you will find a poster enclosed. We hope you like it and that you will display it
where it can attract many new subscribers to the LEISA Magazine and thereby increase the
growing network of LEISA readers all over the world. We would like to take the opportunity to
thank those who have let us use their photos for the poster: Will Critchley, James Jayaraj
and Anita Ingevall; and also Teresa Gianella, Jorge Chvez Tafur and Gaby Matsumoto of the
LEISA Revista de Agroecologa team in Peru, for revising their original poster design for our use.
We would also like to thank all the readers that have replied to the Readers Survey. To date, we
have received 1150 replies. Most of those that have replied have been kind enough to write long
comments and it is really encouraging to read about all the initiatives that our readers are
involved in.
The Editors
Farming with nature

Editorial
As human beings, we exist as part of a web of life that includes

plants, animals, and microorganisms, as well as the physical
environment. This web is constantly changing and adapting,
but we need to ensure that it stays more or less in balance. An
important factor in this balance is the diversity of life or
biodiversity (see box).
Biodiversity refers to the variability of all organisms, including
their genetic diversity and the diversity of ecosystems in which
they live. Diversity is important for two main reasons to
maintain healthy, balanced ecosystems in the wide range of
environmental conditions present on earth at many different
scales, and to provide resilience to change.
A range of organisms help to maintain healthy ecosystems
through the processes of which they are a part. Together, these
processes contribute to the ecosystem services which continue
to enable life on earth. For example, the protection and
maintenance of productive soil and water resources through
processes such as maintenance of water quality, reduction of
runoff, improved water infiltration, and maintenance of soil
fertility through organic matter decomposition and erosion
control. Plants and animals also contribute to carbon
sequestration, pollination, dispersal of seeds and the provision of
habitats for all the organisms that help maintain healthy
ecosystems. On a global scale, a diversity of ecosystems is
important to regulate climate and the water cycle, and to provide
resilience to global climatic change.
LEISA MAGAZINE . DECEMBER 2004
Ecosystem services like clean water, fresh air and fertile soils are
usually taken for granted and regarded as free resources: we do
not pay any attention to them as long as they continue to function.
However, when they start breaking down, we are faced with
serious problems. Short-term economic goals, increasing
emphasis on ownership of land and decreasing responsibility for
communal and global resources result in the degradation of those
resources. And yet, ecosystem degradation on a wider scale
means less water for people, crops and livestock; lower crop,
livestock and tree production; and greater risk of natural disasters.
For rural people, managing biodiversity has always been a central

part of their livelihood strategies. Biodiversity contributes in
different ways to agriculture and rural livelihoods either directly,
by providing food, medicines, timber, fuel, fodder, organic
fertilizer, or cash income or indirectly by providing ecosystem
services such as biological pest control, pollination or organic
matter decomposition. However, some organisms such as weeds,
parasites, pests or invasive species can also reduce agricultural
production or negatively affect ecosystem services. Wild relatives
of domesticated crop and animal species are also important
resources for the genetic improvement of domestic species. Wild
species that are not directly important to agriculture can
sometimes cause problems for farmers. However, these species
can be important for the balance of the wider ecosystem.
Biodiversity provides an important safety net, helping farmers
to cope with the risks posed by pests and diseases, as well as
environmental and social changes. It also forms a part of
cultural identity. In a world where more and more geographical
barriers are being broken, not only plants and animals, but also
humans are subject to increasing pressure from outside their
usual ecosystem. It is becoming more and more important to
Biological diversity or Biodiversity refers to the variety, distribution

and abundance of the different plants, animals and microorganisms,
the genetic diversity they contain and the ecological functions and
processes they perform at local, regional or landscape levels.
An Ecosystem is a system of living organisms (e.g. plants, animals,
and microorganisms) together with their physical environment and
the interacting processes between them. Ecosystems do not have
fixed boundaries in time or space, since their components can change
rapidly or slowly, depending on many different environmental factors.
A Habitat refers to the specific environmental conditions required for
a particular species to thrive.
maintain the cultural identities that have developed together with

a particular environment.
For over two decades, ILEIA has considered Farming with
nature to mean farming in a way that builds on natural
processes, maintains a healthy environment and supports
livelihoods at the local level. This issue of LEISA Magazine
takes one step further: it looks at the contribution farming can
make to the sustainability of life on earth on a broader scale
and the importance of wild biodiversity for the maintenance of
the healthy landscapes and watersheds we all need to survive.
Biodiversity or agricultural development?

Agricultural development has in most cases been pursued
without considering its effect on biodiversity. Likewise, efforts
to conserve biodiversity and protect watersheds and other key
ecosystem services have typically relied on the establishment of
protected areas that officially exclude agriculture. This
segregation of farming and environmental conservation is
no longer viable in many parts of the world. At least half the
worlds temperate, sub-tropical and tropical forest ecosystems
are dominated by crop and pasture production, mostly in lowproductivity systems. Most of the over 100 000 areas that have
been set aside to preserve wildlife and ecosystems contain
significant amounts of land used for agriculture, while many
more are islands in a sea of farms, pastures and production
forests that are managed in ways that are incompatible with the
long-term survival of species and ecosystems.
In addition, pressure on agricultural land is increasing. Global
demand for food and fibre is expected to grow by at least
50 percent in the next few decades, and much more in low-income
developing countries. Nearly 40 percent of the earths total land
area is already used for agriculture, and there is very little land left
that is considered potentially suitable for agricultural production.
To make matters worse, productivity is declining substantially on
many agricultural lands and each year, some 5 to 10 million
hectares of cropland is taken out of production because of soil
erosion, nutrient depletion, salinization and waterlogging.
Conserving biodiversity in agricultural landscapes

LEISA farming practices contribute to the maintenance of
ecosystem services on a local scale. In addition, small-scale
farms are in general more biodiverse than larger farms, as they
are often more ecologically and intensively managed (see Altieri
et al., p. 17). However, to effectively conserve wild biodiversity
in agriculture-dominated ecosystems, we need to move beyond
farm level and consider the effects of management practices on

both humans and wildlife, on a landscape scale. A landscape
is a mosaic of land uses with a particular pattern of topography,
vegetation, land use and settlement, usually kilometres-wide.
Ecosystems must be managed as a whole with protected areas as
reservoirs of wild biodiversity within a matrix of land that is
managed to protect its habitat value, while also providing food
and income to people.
Movements (IFOAM) has now begun an initiative to more

systematically identify criteria for organic farmers to achieve
wild biodiversity conservation as well as sustainable production.
Healthy agricultural systems support ecosystem functions and
contribute positively to the health of the surrounding
environment. Tennekoon, for example (p. 21), describes the
efforts of an NGO in Sri Lanka to improve cultivation methods
for tea in the buffer zone of the countrys last viable remnant of
virgin tropical lowland rainforest. By introducing more
sustainable agricultural practices and controlling erosion, they
have effectively created a new buffer zone for the forest, and this
has slowly helped reduce the siltation of the Sinharaja watershed.
At the same time, they have also increased sustainability and
productivity of tea production on already cultivated lands.
Over half of the worlds most species-rich areas contain large

human populations whose livelihoods depend on farming,
forestry, herding or fisheries, many plagued by chronic poverty
and hunger. In these areas, the potential for conflict between
demands for food, ecosystem services and rural livelihoods
reaches a peak. Managing landscapes for both agricultural
production and biodiversity conservation is therefore particularly
important in and around protected areas of high biodiversity
value. It is also of paramount importance in biologically degraded
landscapes, where ecosystem services essential for sustainable
agriculture and local livelihoods need urgent rehabilitation.
Leaving space for wild species

Protecting and restoring wildlife habitats across the landscape can
be achieved through linking protected natural areas by using inbetween spaces to provide corridors and networks. Noncultivated areas on and off farms can be used effectively, for
example by allowing natural vegetation to grow along riverbanks,
irrigation canals and natural waterways; on uncultivated strips
between crop fields; on roadsides; or as windbreaks or live fences.
Other areas such as forests, woodlots and parks can also harbour
significant biodiversity if they are managed appropriately.
Managing entire ecosystems or entire landscapes with the goals

to both feed people and protect wild biodiversity can provide a
long-term approach to securing the livelihoods of local people
and be a cost-effective approach to biodiversity conservation.
There are two interrelated approaches to achieving these goals.
The first is to maintain healthy and diverse agricultural
production systems that produce the goods we need while still
maintaining important ecosystem services for example
through LEISA practices. The second is to leave space and
habitats for wildlife in unused areas of the farm and
surrounding areas. This is important for the wildlife itself and
the balance of wider ecosystems, but it can also benefit farmers
by providing habitats for beneficial organisms such as
pollinators and other beneficial insects.
Reducing the use of chemical inputs can help improve farmland

habitats for wildlife. This can also be very important for
productivity: important pollinators like bees, for example, are
very susceptible to chemical pesticides. In the United Kingdom,
a study on biodiversity in organic and conventional farms
demonstrated clear benefits of organic systems to biodiversity
throughout the whole food chain. This was thought to be mainly
due to the absence of inorganic pesticides or fertilizers, as well
as the mix of livestock and crop production and better boundary
infrastructure, especially hedgerows, resulting from the
livestock element of organic farms (see Evans and Alexander,
p. 36). The International Federation of Organic Agricultural
Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) strolling over a recently sown

potato field in Kanglung, East Bhutan.
Communities are often willing to protect these areas when they

have a say in their development and management, and where
they are designed to provide local benefits as well as broader
conservation goals. Practical examples of farmers and herders or
ranchers deliberately making space for wild biodiversity are not
yet commonplace, but do exist. Imhoff and Baumgartner (p. 7)
present a number of examples from the United States where
farmers are using organic methods, while at the same time
developing habitat networks for wildlife throughout farming
landscapes. In Zimbabwe, holistic resource management
approaches are regenerating grazing areas while also allowing
>>
for the presence of wildlife (Neely and Butterfield, p. 26).
Conventional agricultural development and intensification has

contributed to the decline of biodiversity in agricultural production
systems. These agroecosystems have been dramatically simplified
in order to bring them under full human control by clearing
native vegetation; modifying hydrological systems and water
sources; by radically simplifying the types of vegetative cover; and
by replacing natural processes with chemical inputs. To make
agricultural production systems more friendly to biodiversity
requires a change of management practices in order to work with
nature as far as possible, instead of attempting to simply control it.
This includes a reduction in the use of chemical inputs, changes in
the management of vegetation, soil and water resources; and an
increase in the diversity of domestic species grown on the farm,
particularly perennial crops, grasses and trees whose production
does not require repeated cultivation.
Photo: John Hollands
Maintaining ecologically healthy agricultural

production systems
>>
Nature areas, even if they are unsuitable for regular use,

can provide an important resource bank for surrounding
communities. In the Afroalpine highlands in Ethiopia,
communities have been protecting the Guassa area for centuries in
order to periodically and sustainably use the resources it provides
grass for thatch, grazing and fuelwood (Tefera, p. 10). In the
United States, a similar strategy is used by the Malpai Borderlands
Group on ranchlands although in this case the land is owned not
by the communities but by a benevolent rancher (p. 9).
New management practices and technologies may sometimes be

needed to develop systems that enhance both production and
conservation, particularly in more intensively managed farming
systems. But in many cases, the source of good solutions lies
embedded in traditional knowledge and technologies. Haq et al.
(p. 18) describe a story from Bangladesh that shows how an
adaptation of the traditional practice of cultivating on floating
beds has helped a community to deal with an environmental
change. Traditional practices have also proven an especially rich
source of modern innovation in pastoral systems, as illustrated
in Zimbabwe (Neely and Butterfield), in agroforest systems
(Altieri), and in mountainous regions (Ahmad et al., p. 12).
One strategy for leaving space can be to intensify production

in one area, in order to reduce pressure on another. Spierenburg
et al. (p. 24) provide an example of how park management staff
and the government extension agency in Bhutan are joining
together to relieve grazing pressure on old growth forest by
assisting farmers to intensify livestock production in the area.
Thinking long term

Realistically, landscape management that successfully combines
the goals of biodiversity conservation and agricultural production
will require the support of many different stakeholders.
Integrated approaches to participatory landscape planning and
stakeholder negotiation can provide a good foundation for this
work. Yet, a range of incentives for agricultural development still
work against the small-scale farmer and promote agrochemicalbased intensification and the destruction of biodiversity and
ecosystem functions. Change on a global scale will not be
possible without major changes in policy, trade and economic
systems. Here, organizations like Ecoagriculture Partners may
be able to play a significant role by facilitating dialogue and
collaboration among farmer and community organizations,
conservation organizations, agricultural researchers, the food
industry, municipalities and public agencies to help coordinate
their efforts and to mobilize policy reform.
Farming communities as stewards of biodiversity
Photo: Chris Gomersall/rspb-images.com
It is often necessary to combine many different elements of land

use and management to achieve healthy ecosystems at a
landscape scale. This requires action by farmers, communities
and broader land use initiatives. The Talamanca Initiative in
Costa Rica, for example, is helping farmers to maintain a very
Skylark.
biodiverse farming system based on ecological production

methods and diverse products (Lynch, p. 14). In this way, the
farmers are helping to preserve the Mesoamerican Biological
Corridor which links many smaller reserves with the Amistad
park, thereby linking a wide network of habitats in this
extremely biodiversity-rich area. Ecotourism has now become
an important source of additional income for the farmers.
There are also other examples from around the world where
local communities play a critical role in conserving biodiversity.
A recent review found that forest communities conserve over
400 million hectares more than the total land area of public
protected areas. In Indonesia, displaced farmers have revitalized
a farmers organization and are now working together with the
Department of Forestry to gain their livelihoods from the forest
in an environmentally friendly way and at the same time acting
as guardians of the forest.
Much can be also done at local level to improve the synergy

between peoples livelihoods and maintaining healthy
ecosystems that include wildlife. Where people have lived for
centuries they have usually developed a successful system for
living with the environment in a sustainable way. This is
becoming increasingly rare, as people everywhere are subject to
migration and many different kinds of upheavals. In many cases
there is a need to rebuild livelihood security, social capital, and
an understanding of the importance of maintaining the
environment in the long term.
Farmers and rural communities can become leaders in
environmental stewardship and demonstrate their continuing
central role in national development. It is important to
strengthen the capacity of farming communities to play this role,
by re-orienting conservation, technical assistance, research and
other institutions to support them. Education and training
programmes need to explicitly link production and biodiversity
perspectives, objectives and strategies. Farming communities
need to be actively involved in designing and championing
national conservation policies. They can advocate for a more
enabling policy environment for small-scale, ecologically-based
farming a policy environment that rewards and enables
farming communities to be effective environmental stewards at
the same time as meeting their own needs, in a way that
maintains the health of the wider ecosystem.
Acknowledgements
This editorial has been developed together with Sara Scherr of Ecoagriculture
Partners (see Networking, p. 34).
References
- McNeely, J. and S. Scherr, 2003. Ecoagriculture: strategies to feed the world and
save wild biodiversity. Island Press, London, UK.
- Hodgkin, T.; K. Atta-Krah; J. Thompson; D. Jarvis; C. Hoogendoorn and
S. Padulosi, 2004. Managing genetic diversity in agroecosystems: state of the art
and implications for Ecoagriculture. Invited paper for International Ecoagriculture
Conference and Practitioners Fair, September 27- October 1, 2004, Nairobi, Kenya.
Photo: D. Imhoff
This photo shows the Animas Valley in southwest New Mexico. This is part of the Gray Ranch, owned by one of approximately twenty landowners
who belong to the Malpai Borderlands Group.

In the world of sustainable agriculture, we hear a lot about the

term biodiversity. This might refer positively to the protection
of soil organisms such as earthworms or mycorrhyzal fungi. Or it
could refer negatively to the devastating loss of traditional crop
diversity and the dwindling numbers of plant and animal
varieties and breeds that are maintained and used by humans.
It is less often, however, that we hear people speaking about
wild biodiversity in dialogues about sustainable agriculture,
or about the healthy living spaces or habitats needed to
support native flora and fauna in the areas where agriculture
takes place. In some ways this is understandable. After all,
agriculture at its very root involves the domestication of the
wild. Agricultural operations commonly reduce complex
landscapes into zones of intensive production for just a handful
of crops, or more often, a single monoculture.
Consider agricultures unquenchable thirst for water. More than

two-thirds of the worlds available fresh water supplies are now
Here are some other alarming statistics about industrial

agricultures impacts on the North American aquatic habitats:
On average, twenty-five percent of groundwater that is
used for agriculture in the United States is not recharged or
filtered back into the underground reservoir;
Ninety-eight percent of U.S. rivers have been dammed.
This severely impacts the ecological function of river
systems, the seasonal flows and abundance, and affects the
diversity of species that depend on river habitats;
Sixty percent of U.S. rivers are polluted by agricultural
sedimentation, excessive nutrients and pesticides.
The increasing large-scale production of animals in massive
confined animal feeding operations also creates devastating
ecological impacts. The concentration of thousands of pigs
stacked in cages on top of one another, or dairy cows in
operations as large as small cities, generates toxic gasses and
groundwater pollution, raises ethical questions and threatens
human health. There are other negative impacts as well:
Converting grasslands to millions of hectares of maize and
soybean monocultures to feed confined animals leads to
groundwater contamination, loss of topsoil and the
widespread decline of many grassland songbird species;
Excess nitrogen and nutrients flowing into the Mississippi
River mainly from fertilizer runoff and animal manure from
feed farms in the Upper Midwest of the USA contribute to
an approximately 13 500 square kilometre dead zone of
oxygen depletion in the Gulf of Mexico.
What has become particularly apparent in North America,

however, is modern agricultures role in the biodiversity
crisis. Over the past two centuries, agriculture production has
converted more and more native areas to agricultural lands
from river valleys to grasslands, to wetlands, uplands and
woodlands. In order to compete in global markets, to pay for
expensive machinery and inputs, or simply to create clean
farms without weeds, more and more natural vegetation has
been erased from farmlands. With the clearing of natural
vegetation comes the loss of plant and animal species. The
result is that wild biodiversity has been pushed further and
further into isolated pockets in the landscape. Agriculture has
become the leading cause of species endangerment on the North
American continent and the situation is not that different in
other regions throughout the world.
diverted for irrigated agriculture. Around the world those

irrigation systems remain remarkably inefficient, wasting
precious water resources. Because of many factors including
dams, agricultural pollution, and the draining of wetlands for
agriculture about one-third of the worlds freshwater fish are
now extinct, threatened, or endangered.
Today, roughly two-thirds of public, private, and tribal lands in

the USA are used for agriculture, either in grazing, haying or
row cropping. This spread of agriculture, primarily to support
the grain-fed livestock industry, has had follow-on effects across
the whole landscape. Half of the wetlands in the lower 48 states
of the USA have been lost in the last century. Each year, some
670 million birds are exposed to pesticides in the United States,
and 10 percent die as a result. In order to protect livestock from
predators, an estimated 100 000 coyotes, bobcats, bears, wolves,
and mountain lions are killed each year by U.S. Department of
Agricultures Wildlife Services. It is not surprising, then, that
farming contributes to 42 percent of the endangered species
listed in the United States, and ranching to 26 percent. At best,
only 9 percent of U.S. lands have been protected as natural areas.
The protection of biodiversity therefore depends on the
protection, restoration, and expansion of wildlife habitat in
existing agricultural lands.
Hedgerow Farms back to life. A weed-free farmscape doesnt

have to mean vegetation free, explains Anderson.
Anderson studied Californias original oak savanna ecosystems
to create hedgerows and buffer strips of native grasses, shrubs,
and trees between fields. Vegetation was re-established along the
irrigation canal that runs through the farm. Seasonal wetlands
were restored in low-lying areas. Ponds were built at the bottom
of furrow-irrigated fields to filter water and runoff and provide
year-round wetland habitats. Eventually, over 50 species of native
perennial grasses, forbs, rushes, shrubs, and trees were planted
around field borders, roadsides, riverbanks, and other unused
strips of the farm. Two decades later, beavers, carnivores, dozens
of bird species including three types of owls, and up to ten
threatened or endangered species find haven at Hedgerow Farms.
Research scientists from the University of California found that
the hedgerows provided a year-round supply of nectar and
pollen sources for beneficial insects and pollinators, thereby
contributing positively to the farms output. The Yolo County
Resource Conservation District also took notice of the important
habitat restoration underway and began developing both
expertise and cost-share funds to support regional landowners.
Conservation-based agriculture
The good news is that efforts have been underway for some time
to combine agriculture and biodiversity conservation. This
movement can be described by a number of terms: conservationbased agriculture, agroecology, agroforestry, ecoagriculture,
permaculture, or farming with the wild. In fact, the idea of
integrating farming and conservation has deep roots in the North
American environmental movement. Defining what he called
biotic farming in 1939, ecologist Aldo Leopold wrote:
In the past decade, a growing number of farmers, ranchers, land

trusts, government agencies and consumers are finding that
local agricultural operations can not only provide essential
sources of nutritious food, but also critical habitat for wild
species. Native plant specialists are seeking out remnants of
prairies and woodlands and are using local seeds and plants to
bring farm edges, riparian areas, and marginally productive
fields back to life. In the Sky Islands region of the south-western
United States, community organizers, conservationists, ranchers
and farmers have been working for over a decade to build the
public will and develop strategic plans to connect protected
wilderness through corridors that provide stepping stones for
pollinators, allow lightning-ignited wildfire to travel through
selected grasslands, and offer safe passage for large
carnivores such as jaguars and Mexican wolves. Grass farming
is becoming a preferred method of raising dairy and meat cattle
in areas with year-round rainfall, an alternative to massive
confined animal feeding operations that house tens or even
hundreds of thousands of animals on a single farm. Cropping
systems are being tailored toward specific climate
characteristics or the needs of threatened species. Predator
friendly ranchers are learning to coexist with large carnivores
by emphasizing careful breed selection, improved fencing,
guard animals, and more hands-on management techniques.
Following are three case studies:
Audubon Californias Yolo County Landowner

Stewardship Program
In an industrial agricultural region of Californias Central Valley,
a county-wide movement is underway to reverse decades of
conventional clean farming practices. Yolo Countys farming
with the wild movement began like many initiatives around the
country, with the efforts of a few brave individuals. Twenty years
ago, unsatisfied with a landscape void of any native habitat along
ditch banks, between fields, and along roads, John and Marsha
Anderson began bringing the edges of their 200 hectare property
Photo: D. Imhoff
A good farm must be one where the wild flora and fauna has
lost acreage without losing its existence.
This photo shows intensive grazing in a pasture at Enchanted Meadows

dairy farm in southeastern Minnesota. By carefully rotating the
lightweight, climate-adapted Ayrshire dairy cattle to rested pastures,
farmer Art Thicke runs a profitable operation free of antibiotics or
hormones (for the animals) and free of herbicides, pesticides, or
fertilizers on the pastures. More importantly, Thicke keeps cattle away
from important edge habitat near the woods until after the late spring
nesting season, in an attempt to protect grassland bird species greatly
at risk from habitat loss.
Inspired by the efforts at Hedgerow Farms, more of the countys

farmers and ranchers initiated restoration projects on their
properties. Planting of perennial grasses, prescribed burns for
weed and vegetation control, the installation of corridors along
waterways, tailwater ponds and stock ponds, as well as the
revegetation of irrigation canals and waterways, are becoming
standard practices throughout the region. Partnering with
landowners, local agencies and other groups, the county now has
an ambitious plan to create habitat linkages on both public and
private lands on the boundaries of urban expansion throughout

this largely rural area. These efforts will protect riparian areas and
link critical upper rangeland habitats, an essential strategy to
maximize the protection of native species, such as native
pollinators.
Throughout the county, these programmes also use restoration
projects as opportunities for field visits and hands-on learning
for students with limited access to rural areas. The Student and
Landowner Educational Watershed Stewardship Project, for
example, brings students from regional schools to participate in
habitat plantings and monitoring efforts up to 50 days per year.
The Malpai Borderlands Group

Identified as one of the pioneering organizations in the
conservation ranching movement, the Malpai Borderlands Group
consists of approximately two dozen landowners whose ranches
collectively span nearly 400 000 hectares in South Western New
Mexico, South Eastern Arizona, and Northern Mexico. The
Group was formed in the early 1990s by ranchers concerned
about the long-term effects of fire suppression and overgrazing,
which had caused critical invasions of brush and woody species
into what had formerly been luxuriant grasslands. At a time when
anti-grazing activism became politically contentious, the
founders of the Malpai Borderlands Group forged an alliance
based on the common appreciation for the open space that unfragmented ranch lands provide. Another unifying concern was
that their activism should be guided by sound science.
Fires have always been a significant natural process in
maintaining the natural grassland ecosystem. Among the first
concrete efforts of the Malpai Borderlands Group was the
establishment of the Bootheel Fire Management Plan. Based on
five years of scientific research, as well as consultation with
state and federal agencies and private landowners, the plan
identified landowners within the region who were willing to
allow lightning-ignited and prescribed wildfires to burn on their
properties as a means to reduce shrub encroachment and
rejuvenate grasslands. A simple, colour-coded fire map was
compiled including owner names, boundary lines, and contact
numbers. The colour coding explained whether fires should be
left to burn, put out as soon as possible or if the landowner
would like the opportunity to decide. Today, as a result of this
initiative, tens of thousands of hectares of grasslands now
benefit from the restorative effects of occasional burning.
In the Blufflands region of southeastern Minnesota, a few

kilometres from the Mississippi River, lives a farming family
that cares almost as much about resident prairie birds as they do
about their modest herd of carefully bred Ayrshire dairy cows.
Owners Art and Jean Thicke prefer the Ayrshires because they
are hardier, lighter in weight, and longer-lived than conventional
Holsteins. By frequently rotating the herd between pastures,
they can also maintain critical breeding habitat for many at-risk
songbird species, such as meadowlarks, bobolinks, dickcissels,
and savanna and vesper sparrows.
The Thickes intensive rotational management system is based
on maintaining a balance between activity and rest. The
approximately 40 hectares of hilly pastures on Enchanted
Acres have been divided into 42 grazing units, just under a
hectare in size. The 90-plus dairy herd is usually moved twice
per day. By carefully responding to changing conditions on the
land, as well as to the seasonal behaviour of local wildlife, the
Thickes have created a stable ecosystem within which to make
their living as productive farmers. No chemical fertilizers or
herbicides have been applied to the pastures for 25 years, and
the land hasnt been ploughed in 15 years. And while alfalfa,
corn, and soybean farms throughout the Midwest lose topsoil to
erosion on an annual basis, living pastures such as these keep
soil from washing away and help maintain a healthy water cycle.
In fact, they have much in common with the prairie ecosystems
that previously existed on this regions fragile soils.
The Thickes have been operating their grass-fed dairy long
before management-intensive rotational grazing systems
became fashionable. Their approach is based largely on intuition
rather than prescribed management techniques, and the results
are healthy cattle sharing the land with other species in the
biological community.
Conclusion
It is becoming increasingly obvious to leading practitioners of
sustainable agriculture in the USA that we must view our farms
as natural habitats, not just as production units. Experience also
shows that incorporating natural habitats into agricultural areas
has measurable benefits, including the increase of soil
organisms that create healthy growing environments; the
increase of pollinators and beneficial insects that help increase
yields and control pests; and stable waterways that protect water
quality, prevent erosion and help comply with federal and state
regulations. Beyond these direct agricultural benefits, however,
lie essential contributions to society and the biological
community in general. To the extent we agriculturalists succeed
at protecting wild biodiversity, we also profoundly deepen what
we mean by sustainability.
Daniel Imhoff. Watershed Media, 451 Hudson Street, Healdsburg, California,

95448 USA. Email: [email protected]
Jo Ann Baumgartner. Wild Farm Alliance, P.O. Box 2570, Watsonville, California,
95077 USA. Email: [email protected] ; website: http://wildfarmalliance.org
References
- Stein, Bruce; Lynn. Kutner and Jonathan Adams, 2000. Precious heritage:
the status of biodiversity in the United States. New York, NY. Oxford University
Press.
- Foreman, Dave, 2004. Rewilding North America: a vision for conservation in the
21st century. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2004.
- Imhoff, Daniel, 2003. Farming with the wild: enhancing biodiversity on farms
and ranches. San Francisco. Sierra Club Books/Watershed Media.
- Jackson, Dana and Laura Jackson, 2002. The farm as natural habitat:
reconnecting food systems with ecosystems. Washington D.C. Island Press.
- U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1996. Americas private land: a geography of hope.
USDA, Washington D.C, USA. http://209.234.81.2/product.asp?ID=17
Another important community initiative developed by the Malpai

Borderlands Group is the grassbank. With neighbouring
ranchers experiencing a number of consecutive years of serious
drought conditions, Malpai Borderlands Group co-founder Drum
Hadley offered grazing allotments on his extensive Gray Ranch
as a regional safety valve. These short-term arrangements
permitted neighbouring ranchers to move their cattle to the
abundant grasslands of the Gray Ranch, while restoring their own
pastures from the ill effects of overgrazing. In return for the
grazing privileges, grassbank participants enrolled selected lands
in permanent conservation easements legal agreements to
protect against subdivision. With an emphasis on protecting unfragmented habitats, the Malpai Borderlands Group grassbank
programme has allowed tens of thousands of grasslands to be
reseeded and rejuvenated by fire, and has registered
approximately 18 000 hectares in permanent conservation
easements. This model has been replicated as a regional
conservation tool in various communities, but it needs to be
carefully studied with the objective to optimize grassland
restoration, rather than simply to maximize grazing in arid
regions.
Grass-based pasture systems
Community management of
Afroalpine highlands in Ethiopia
Environmental conservation has often been characterized by a
top-down approach that includes the establishment of protected
areas, enforcement of legislation and the assumption of
ownership of biodiversity by the State. This approach reflects
the suspicion of governments that local communities are
incapable of managing their own resources. Thus, while these
approaches have ensured the survival of a few populations of
certain species and ecosystems and contributed to foreign
exchange earnings, they have been slow to integrate local people
into resource management and decision-making activities. Local
communities who live near protected areas and whose
populations have invariably grown, are instead faced with a
rapidly diminishing natural resource base, often resulting in
conflicts between local communities and environmental
conservation authorities.
There are exceptions, however including ancient examples of
local communities establishing natural resource management
systems that are essential to the peoples livelihoods and also to
the persistence of biodiversity. These examples not only need to
be closely examined to reveal how they work, but they also
deserve our full support in a changing and threatened natural
world. Following is an experience from Ethiopia, a country which
has suffered untold environmental disasters and biodiversity loss.
Community-based natural resource management
10
As with any restricted system, it required regulation and

enforcement. The local people developed an indigenous institution,
known as Qero. This entailed each of the two user communities
in the area democratically electing an elder as a headman, called
the Abba Qera. The Abba Qera was then responsible for protecting
and regulating the use of the Guassa area.
The Qero system could entail the closure of the Guassa area
from any type of use by the community for as long as three to
five consecutive years. The length of closure depended largely
upon the growth of the Guassa grass. When both of the Abba
Qeras felt that the grass was ready for harvest, they would
announce the date of the opening to the community. This usually
took place at public gatherings such as church ceremonies,
market places, or burial ceremonies.
The area was usually only open for use at the height of the dry
season around February or March each year. There was also a
sequence to its use: only once the grass cutting was over were
livestock allowed to graze the Guassa area. When the wet season
started the use of the area was once again prohibited, giving the
resources time to regenerate. The traditional date of closing each
year was the 12th of July, the date for breaking the second most
important fasting season of the Coptic Church.
While the area was closed, the prohibition of its use was strictly
enforced by the users themselves. Under the leadership of the
Abba Qera, household heads regularly patrolled the area. Every
able male household head was obliged to take part. Failure to
participate would result in severe punishment in some
instances, punishment could even result in the burning of the
absentees house.
In the Central Highlands of Ethiopia, there is a small (111 km2)

patch of land which has persisted in its current, relatively pristine
state for the past four hundred years. The area, called Guassa by
the local Menzi people, ranges from 3200 to 3700 metres above
sea level. It is part of the Amhara Regional State of North Shoa,
265 km northeast of the national capital Addis Ababa.
Drastic changes
The natural resource management system of the Guassa area

dates back to the 17th Century. Given that it still persists, this
makes it one of the oldest conservation areas in sub-Saharan
Africa. The area was set aside as a resource for the community,
who use it for harvesting the Guassa grass (Festuca sp.) for
thatch, for grazing livestock, and for harvesting shrubs for
fuelwood. In essence, the use of these resources was restricted to
a limited number of users during a limited period of time. The
right to use the resources of the Guassa area depended on the
prevailing land rights and tenure system, which was based on
ancestry and controlled by the Ethiopian Coptic Church.
In 1974 a popular uprising, a revolution, swept the country.

On March 4th 1975, the new revolutionary government
proclaimed the nationalization of all rural land. Over large parts
of Ethiopia, the relationship between tenant and landlord was
dissolved. The proclamation abolished private and community
ownership of land and gave all farmers the same right to
cultivate land within the framework of state ownership. It also
established peasant associations to distribute and regulate the
use of land. As a result, the Qero system was abolished, together
with its mechanisms of natural resource management. The
changes also gave people who had earlier been excluded from
resource use, uncontrolled access to the Guassa area.
An Ethiopian wolf seeking rats among giant lobelias in the Afroalpine

ecosystem of Guassa-Menz.
Photo: Stuart Williams
Zelealem Tefera
One of the strengths of community-based institutions is their

resilience their capacity to cope with change. When the Qero
system was abolished, the community adapted to the condition
set by the new regime. They brought their case to the new local
administration, and a new Guassa Committee was formed
through the eight peasant associations. To some extent this
replaced the former Abba Qeras, with the aim of overseeing the
activities of the peasant associations for the protection of the
Guassa area. The main function of the Guassa Committee was to
enforce agreed by-laws, particularly to control illegal uses of the
Guassa area during the closed season. The system was enforced
by local militia from the peasant associations. Illegal users were
prosecuted in the local courts, while repeated offenders were
taken to the woreda (district) court.
Despite the apparent adaptability and resilience of the system to
the new regime, it was less efficient than before and the area
started to show signs of overuse and degradation. Indeed, by the
mid-1990s, the system was collapsing under the strain.
However, the Guassa area was not brought under crop
cultivation despite the general craving for land. Its saving
feature was the altitude: the Guassa area is above the tree line,
which makes cultivation very difficult, and there is therefore no
permanent human settlement in the area. The area continues to
play an important role in the livelihoods of the Guassa
communities and it is therefore not surprising that they have a
vested interest in safeguarding the area.
The Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) had been
concerned with the conservation of the area because of the
important population of Ethiopian wolves that lives there. Thus,
in November 2003, the EWCP facilitated a discussion among
community leaders, elders and concerned individuals in all the
eight peasant associations about the future of the area. This
resulted in the formation of a new committee and new by-laws.
Today the Guassa area is managed by a committee comprising
of five elected elders from each of the eight peasant
associations. They form the Guassa committee, which oversees
the use of the area, guards it and prosecutes illegal users.
The first meeting of the Guassa committee, in view of the
decline of the area in recent years, resulted in the closure of the
area for three years starting from June 2003. It will be open
again for a few months (March - June) in 2006. The EWCP
continues to be involved by monitoring the effectiveness of the
community management and assisting in bringing together all
stakeholders for workshops and conferences.
Biodiversity benefits
By regulating the exploitation of the area, the ancient system
has also protected the unique and diverse fauna and flora of the
area. The Guassa area harbours many of the endemic species
of fauna and flora associated with the Afroalpine ecosystem.
For example, there are 22 mammal species found in the area,
27% of which are endemic to Ethiopia.
Rain that falls in the Guassa area starts a long journey to the
Mediterranean through the Nile river. Indeed, 26 rivers, springs
and streams have their origin in the area. The ecological service
provided by the protection of the vegetation by the local
community is invaluable to all the downstream users all the way
to Cairo! Finally, among the local communities, the area is
renowned for medicinal plants for human and livestock uses.
Now, through the partnership with the Ethiopian Wolf
Conservation Programme, the communities are seeking to
broaden the benefits accrued from the protection of the area and
its unique fauna and flora. Tourists are welcome to enjoy the
area, and the people wish to accrue benefits from the visitors.
Conclusion
The contribution made by the Qero system to the conservation
of highland biodiversity in Ethiopia is comparable with areas
protected under the more formal conservation system of the
country. However, unlike other protected areas, the Guassa area
community-based natural resource management system also
provides the community with valuable resources in times of
stress.
In general, indigenous communities have developed ways of life
remarkably tuned to their local environment. Their long
association with their territories has resulted in developing
strong ties to their lands, expressed in customary laws, complex
religious ceremonies, symbolic activities and extremely detailed
knowledge of their resources. Such knowledge may be deeply
coded within traditional lore, handed down and refined from
generation to generation.
The long association with their environment and commitment to
remaining there in the future equips indigenous communities for
prudent management of natural resources even by present day
standards. Indigenous communities have held resource
management systems under complex, often overlapping tenure
rights, which share benefits across their community and exclude
non community members. Traditional systems are in effect a
partnership between individuals and their community, where
rules and regulations enshrined within the traditions of the
society ensure the smooth functioning of the system. Indigenous
systems of communal land use may therefore offer greater
promise for sustainable conservation than Western systems.
However, indigenous resource management systems are
undergoing rapid change and it is not clear to what extent they
can be maintained during changing circumstances.
Zelealem Tefera. EWCP, P.O. Box 101426, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.

On top of this, the people decided there was a need for a

management plan which would be recognized by the regional
government. In effect, this would mean the classification of the
area as a community-based and managed protected area the
first of its kind in Ethiopia. Such a classification would secure
the traditional form of land-use and the livelihoods of the local
community. Recently, a draft management plan was reviewed by
all stakeholders. It is anticipated that the management plan will
be approved by the regional Environmental Protection and Land
Use Authority, thereby giving an ownership certificate of the
Guassa area to the communities.
These include the most endangered canid in the world, the

Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), also known as the Simien fox.
With an estimated 530 individuals in the world, Guassa - Menz
protects one of the major populations. The Afroalpine ecosystem
also harbours astonishing densities of rodents, on which the wolf
preys. The other important species of the area is the endemic
gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada). It is the only surviving
member of a once widespread genus Theropithecus. These
magnificent animals with their lion-like manes are the only
grazing primates in the world. They aggregate into huge herds of
up to 400 animals. They too deserve the protection afforded to
them by the Guassa area. Bird species have also benefited from
the Qero system and 111 species have been recorded in the area.
One striking feature of the birdlife in the Guassa area is the
abundance of birds of prey that feast, with the wolves, on
abundant rats.
11
Indigenous honeybees:
allies for
mountain farmers
Farooq Ahmad, Uma Partap, S.R. Joshi and M.B. Gurung
Indigenous honeybees play an important role in mountain

ecosystems. They are the natural pollinators for a wide variety of
mountain crops as well as indigenous plants. While visiting
flowers to collect nectar, the bees transfer pollen from one
flower to another. Three quarters of the worlds cultivated crops
are pollinated by different species of bees, and honeybees are
the most effective and reliable pollinators. They also play an
often unrecognized role in maintaining the vegetation cover:
more pollination means more seed, more young plants and
eventually more biomass, providing food and habitats for birds,
insects and other animals.
There are very few areas in the world where indigenous species
of honeybees other than Apis mellifera still exist, and even fewer
where the indigenous honeybees can be kept in hives and
managed by farmers.
12
In the Hindu Kush Himalayas, indigenous honeybees include

Apis dorsata, Apis florea, Apis laboriosa (bees whose products
can be collected but which cannot be kept in hives) and Apis
cerana. In addition to their importance for pollination, these
bees contribute directly to the livelihoods of mountain people by
providing honey and other bee products. Apis cerana, the Asian
hive bee, is particularly important to mountain farmers as a
source of cash income. This species is well suited both to the
climatic conditions in the region and to the farming practices
that are typical of these marginal, mountainous areas. It has the
ideal characteristics to ensure the pollination of mountain crops,
having adapted its foraging patterns to suit the changing
flowering and nectar production rhythms that result from the
uncertain and variable climatic conditions in mountain areas. It
can work under cool conditions up to an altitude of 3000 metres
and is ideally suited as a pollinator of early flowering crops like
almonds, peaches and plums. Kept in hives in the backyards,
these bees pollinate kitchen garden crops, usually the main
source of vegetables. The indigenous bee offers a further
advantage in that it keeps going even under adverse conditions;
if the situation becomes really difficult the colonies may migrate
temporarily, but the bees come back to their hives when
conditions allow them to do so.
Decline in native pollinators

Despite an increasing recognition of their important role in
pollination, the population and diversity of native bees is
declining in the region. Factors causing the decline include
habitat loss through land use changes, increasing monoculture
and negative impacts of pesticides and herbicides. In addition,
the well-intended introduction of the European honey bee,
Apis mellifera, to the Himalayas has brought difficulties for
indigenous bee species, partly because of competition for nectar
in some areas, but more importantly through the introduction of
Photo: S.R. Joshi/ICIMOD
In mountain agriculture, field crops, fruits, vegetables, livestock

and honeybees combine to provide self-sufficiency for farmers.
Together, they help provide the resilience necessary to live with
the hardships and extremes of mountain environments.
A mountain village in Nepal.
different types of contagious bee diseases and harmful mites.

Although Apis mellifera potentially produces more honey than
the indigenous honeybees, it is not as well adapted to the local
climatic conditions and the indigenous vegetation, making it a
less effective pollinator. The introduction has therefore
adversely affected the livelihoods of mountain farmers. In spite
of these developments, Apis cerana beekeepers with backyard
bees are still being confronted by development extensionists
trying to encourage introduction of Apis mellifera in the areas
of origin of Apis cerana.
In isolated mountain areas like Jumla and Humla in Nepal and in
many parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and India, subsistence
farmers are totally dependent on their own resources for their
survival. Due to environmental degradation as well as poor
pollination, the quantity and quality of many life-saving
mountain crops is declining significantly, making survival
increasingly difficult and forcing people to migrate to the plains.
The situation is similar in many other areas of Nepal and
Afghanistan.
Decline in fruit and seed production

Agriculture in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region is in a stage of
transition from traditional cereal crop farming to high-value
cash crops such as fruits and vegetables. This ongoing
transformation from subsistence to cash crop farming poses a
number of new challenges, including low production or crop
failures due to inadequate pollination. This emerging problem
has been documented in a series of field studies carried out by
ICIMOD across the region. Findings suggest that the decline in
pollinator intensity presents a serious threat to agricultural
production and maintenance of biodiversity. The negative impact
of declining pollinator intensity is visible in Himachal Pradesh
of India, Azad Jammu and Kashmir of Pakistan as well as in
mountain areas of Afghanistan and China.
In Maoxian County, Sichuan, China, farmers have resorted to

hand pollination of their apples and pears, as there are not
enough natural insect pollinators to ensure a proper fruit setting.
Awareness about the use and function of honeybees is lacking,
and the beekeepers in this area hesitate to let their bees into this
fruit-producing valley because of the serious overuse of
pesticides in apple orchards. In Pakistan, disappointed farmers
are cutting down their apple trees and recently ICIMOD found
evidence of cutting down almond orchards in the Bamiyan
valley of Afghanistan due to low yields caused by insufficient
pollination.
A major reason for this development is the lack of awareness on
the importance of pollinators for crop production, as well as lack
of knowledge about the habits and management of bees. The
promotion of beekeeping has focused only on honey production,
neglecting the more valuable role of bees in pollination. Farmers
The importance of polliniser trees

In Himachal Pradesh in India, farmers used to plant many varieties of
apples. However, due to the better market value farmers have been
planting only Royal Delicious and uprooting other varieties. Royal
Delicious is self-sterile and requires cross-pollination from other
compatible varieties for fruit setting. Some farmers do not have even a
single polliniser tree in their orchards. So, wherever the orchards have
Royal Delicious only, there are serious pollination problems.
Adapted from the article Declining apple production and worried Himalayan
farmers: promotion of honeybees for pollination issues in mountain development
2001/1, by Uma Partap and Tei Partap.
New focus in beekeeping

ICIMOD is working to address the pollination issue in
partnership with local people and grassroots networks and more
than 25 institutions of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan. ICIMOD is engaged from
policy to action level in promoting the importance of pollination
for mountain agriculture. The programme is focusing on the
conservation and sustainable management of wild bees, Apis
dorsata and Apis laboriosa, and on promotion and sustainable
management of the Asian hive bee, Apis cerana, through
selection and breeding in collaboration with local communities.
This programme
intends to improve
livelihoods by
increasing pollinator
intensity without
disturbing local
biodiversity.
A selection and
multiplication
programme on
Hand pollination by human bees in China.
indigenous Apis
cerana in India,
Nepal and Pakistan
is being implemented through action research. Farmers are
involved in recording selection data and identifying better
colonies for multiplication. Mass queen rearing from these
colonies helps in increasing pollinator intensity and honey yield.
Databases on the cliff sites and nesting habitats of wild
honeybees are also being developed to monitor the trends in
their population with the help of local communities. Honey
gathering communities have been sensitized to protect and
conserve the nesting habitats of the wild bees, which provide
them with additional income, thereby contributing to the
conservation of biodiversity.
In addition to playing a crucial role in pollination and thereby
improving crop yields, honeybees contribute in a balanced way
to rural development efforts leading to secure and sustainable
livelihoods.
Farooq Ahmad, Uma Partap, S.R. Joshi, and M.B. Gurung. ICIMOD,
P.O. Box 3226, Jawalakhel, Kathmandu, Nepal. Email: [email protected]
References
- Ahmad F; S.R. Joshi and M.B. Gurung, 2003. The Himalayan cliff bee Apis
laboriosa and the honey hunters of Kaski. Indigenous honeybees of the Himalayas
(Volume I). ICIMOD, Kathmandu. 52p.
- Ahmad F. U. Partap; S.R. Joshi and M.B. Gurung, 2002. Please do not steal our
honey. Bees for Development Journal 64: 9.
- Gurung, M.B.; F. Ahmad; S.R. Joshi and C.R. Bhatta, 2003. The value of Apis
cerana beekeeping for mountain farmers in Nepal. Bees for Development Journal
69: 13.
- Partap, U., 2003. Improving agricultural productivity and livelihoods through
pollination: some issues and challenges. In: F. Waliyar, L. Collette and P.E.
Kenmore (eds). Beyond the Gene Horizon. pp.24-26. ICRISAT, India and FAO,
Rome.
- Partap U. and T. Partap, 2003. Warning signals from the apple valleys of the
Hindu Kush-Himalayas: productivity concerns and pollination problems.
ICIMOD, Kathmandu. 104 p.
Some farmers are now including polliniser trees in their orchards.

These are grafted on to commercially premium varieties for fast results.
Farmers have even devised short-term solutions to bridge the gap until
the grafted branches or newly-planted polliniser trees begin flowering:
Bunches of small flowering branches of the pollinisers called bouquets
are put in plastic bags filled with water. These bouquets are hung in the
branches of commercially premium varieties. This type of pollination
method is locally referred to as bouquet pollination. The large-scale use
of plastic bags has increased the price of plastic bags in the local market
from US$0.75 per kg to US$2.10 per kg.
are therefore usually unaware of the role of bees as well as of the

need for suitable polliniser varieties in the pollination process: In
order to pollinate fruit such as apples, for example, the bees first
need to take pollen from a compatible variety of apple and bring
this pollen to the tree being pollinated (see box).
Photo: U. Pratap/ICIMOD
Despite increasing agronomic inputs, there is a clear decline in

the production and quality of fruit crops such as apples, pears
and almonds, and seed crops such as buckwheat. In fact, the
negative effects of these agronomic inputs on pollinators is one
of the major causes of pollination failure and hence the observed
declines in productivity. For example, apple cultivation in
Himachal Pradesh in India, though it initially gave significant
economic gains, has resulted in a loss of agricultural
biodiversity and a decline in natural insect pollinators. In this
area, farmers are now compelled to rent colonies of honeybees
for pollinating their apple orchards. At present, it is mostly the
Department of Horticulture and a few private beekeepers that
rent out bee colonies to apple farmers. The current rate for
renting an Apis cerana or Apis mellifera colony for apple
pollination is US$20 per colony. Only a few farmers keep their
own colonies for pollination. A heavy demand for honeybees for
pollination has been created, and there are not enough bee
colonies to meet this demand. Hence, in the apple growing areas
of Himachal Pradesh, there is a tremendous scope for
entrepreneurial beekeeping for pollination.
13

late 1930s due to Panama disease, declining soil fertility and a
huge flood that destroyed most of their infrastructure. They tried
to maintain ownership and control over their land by planting
cacao plantations, managed by a small number of ex-banana
workers in exchange for the harvest. The indigenous people who
returned from their high mountain retreats to settle again planted
cacao along with subsistence crops in their traditional way.
Other settlers managed parts of the old plantations more
intensively.
Diego Lynch
Talamanca is the region in the south of Costa Rica that stretches

from the Caribbean to the continental divide in the central
mountains, and borders on the southeast with Panama. It is the
countrys poorest region in socio-economic terms, but the
richest in terms of biodiversity and tropical forest ecosystems.
It harbours almost three percent of the worlds known plant and
animal species, many of which are found only in this area.
Stretching from the highest point in the country to sea level,
Talamancas natural features include cloud forests, steep
mountainsides, rich alluvial plains, mid-altitude and lowland
rainforests, large expanses of wetlands, and offshore, a variety
of marine ecosystems including Costa Ricas only coral reef.
The Talamanca Range-La Amistad Reserves, covering over
500 000 ha and including the seven national parks in the area,
were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Biosphere Reserve in
1982.
In 1978, the area was devastated by the appearance of the fastspreading monilia pod rot (Monilia roreri). As a result, most
cacao plantations were cut down or abandoned and many were
transformed into cattle pastures and short-term cropping
systems.
To help local people address the economic and social crisis
brought on by the appearance of monilia pod rot, a local NGO,
Asociacin ANAI, and later two other organizations, the
Association of Small Producers of Talamanca (APPTA) and the
Talamanca Caribbean Biological Corridor (CBTC) started an
initiative to encourage farmers to put into practice methods that
both conserved the environment and generated income. This
local initiative encouraged diversification based on perennial
crops and ecological principles. It also encouraged farmer
organization and ownership of a marketing cooperative,
introduced and helped develop the marketing of certified
organic products and developed ecotourism. The success of this
initiative has now been internationally recognized.
Photo: APPTA
The Talamanca region stretches from the highest point in Costa Rica
down to the Carribean Sea.
14
Talamanca is home to more than half of Costa Ricas indigenous

population, including peoples of the Bribri and Cabecar tribes,
each with their own language and customs. The
Hispanic/Mestizo population is also unusually diverse, due to
historic and continuing immigration from various parts of Costa
Rica and Central America. Along the coast the dominant group
is English-speaking West Indians of African origin. Smaller
numbers of immigrants from elsewhere have also established
themselves there.
Traditionally, cacao was grown extensively in the region with
very few inputs and little effort. It formed a component of the
very diverse indigenous systems. In the late 19th century, banana
growers invaded Talamanca and drove the indigenous people off
much of their land. Talamanca was one of the first parts of the
world where bananas were grown for international commerce.
Eventually, the banana companies abandoned Talamanca in the
Known as the Talamanca Initiative, these three partner

organizations, each with its own programme and specific
objectives, share the common goal of improving the quality of
life in Talamanca through the preservation and environmentally
ethical use of its outstanding biodiversity and unique
ecosystems. A common core belief is that the key to
conservation and sustainable development is the successful
management of these issues by the local people. It is based on
five core principles:
1. No inherent contradiction exists between economic
development and environmental conservation. If
communities and nations are to thrive, development and
conservation must take place together.
2. The best stewards of the tropical lowlands are the campesinos
(small-scale farmers) and Indian farmers who have dedicated
their lives to these lands.
3. All natural tropical areas that are not protected will be
radically altered during our lifetime. We must work to protect
these areas and preserve their biodiversity for future
generations to enjoy.
4. The natural forest and other unique primary ecosystems are
Talamancas most economically valuable asset in the long
term.
5. A successful strategy to address these issues must
successfully integrate environmental, social, economic and
organizational needs.
Finding suitable farming methods

The first step was to find an alternative to cacao as a source of
income. Talamancan farmers knew that diversification was the
answer to sustaining their livelihoods, as it would protect their
crops from disease and provide year-round food and income.
ANAIs vision was to minimize destructive agricultural practices

by establishing diversified agroforestry systems. These agroecosystems would mimic the natural forest and complement the
conservation of biodiversity in the natural forest areas that exist
in patches throughout the region and as a large block in the
national park area. Because tropical rainforests maintain almost
all their nutrients in the trees and other plants, when a forest is
cleared almost all the nutrients are lost and the original forests
cannot be regenerated. This combination of agroforestry and
natural forest would not only preserve the biodiversity of the
region, it would protect the watersheds and provide
opportunities for tourism and local recreation. It would also
allow the sustainable harvesting of wood and other products,
such as medicinal plants.
ANAI began by planting organic crops on their experimental
farm in 1980, eventually planting more than 150 species of fruit,
nut and spice crops that had been identified from the worlds
lowland rainforest areas as having the potential for integration
into Talamancas small farm systems. This included local
varieties of bananas and many types of less known fruit trees,
such as araza, sapoti and jackfruit. Using the information
gathered during the crop trials, ANAI helped local farmers
establish tree nurseries in every community of Talamanca, an
innovative approach that allowed the distribution of the new
crops and new varieties of cacao to communities far from the
nearest road.
These community nurseries were developed not only as a means
of producing seedlings locally, but also as community training
centres and focal points for community organization.
Galvanizing community movement

ANAI learned early in the process that most people and
communities had little experience of coming together in groups
to make decisions and solve problems. The nurseries became
meeting places where people could learn about crops and come
together to organize community work. Large numbers of people
became engaged because participation resulted in both tangible
and intangible benefits for them and their families.
The Initiative now involves the collaboration and co-operation of

more than 20 grassroots organizations, 1500 families, small
producers and Costa Ricas Ministry of the Environment and
Energy. Participants include men and women from all the social
and ethnic groups of the southern Caribbean region of Costa
Rica, including indigenous, Afro-Caribbean and Mestizo
peoples.
Organically grown cacao pods.
Between 1985 and 1990, more than two million seedlings of

cash crops, food crops and trees for timber were planted on the
regions family farms, creating a larger and much more diverse
resource base. The variety of plants and trees mimicked the
variety in natural forests and so helped to support biological
diversity a key to thriving human and natural communities.
Commercializing crop diversification

To make crop diversification economically viable APPTA
developed a local processing infrastructure and marketing
strategies. ANAI identified the potential for growing and
marketing organically grown crops, and used this information to
find and develop markets, locally and worldwide. Receiving fair
trade and organic certification from internationally recognized
organizations was an instrumental step that made it possible to
pursue these new markets. Together, ANAI and APPTA
established one of the first organic certification programmes for
small farmers in Costa Rica, certifying the first 500 farms, and
subsequently helping to facilitate the creation of ANAO, the
national organic agriculture association. This has now developed
into a national certification agency, Eco-Logica, a key element
in Costa Ricas growing organic agriculture movement. The
price premium farmers are receiving for their certified organic
products ranges from 15 to 50 percent.
Today, over 1500 Talamancan farmers have established organic
agro-ecosystems, combining commercial crops with food
security strategies in a multi-story planting system that mimics
the structure and function of the rainforest.
Talamanca has become the largest volume producer and exporter
of organic products in Central America, generating an annual
income of US$500 000, which is channelled into the local
economy through a large number of family farmers. Current
sales of organic banana generate more than US$12 000 per
week. Demand for organic cacao has outgrown supply, so the
programme is being expanded to neighbouring countries to meet
demand. Smaller volumes of many of the other perennial crops
introduced during the nursery project are now being marketed
by APPTA to Costa Ricas biggest chain of food stores, thereby
distributing the farmers income more evenly over the year. This
distribution of income is perhaps even more important than the
amounts involved, since it improves social stability and allows
farmers to stay on their farm with their family all year, instead of
having to migrate seasonally in search of paid work.
ANAIs leadership helped catalyse the formation of multiple

grassroots organizations. Over four years (1985-1989), ANAI
met weekly with farmers from each community, and monthly
with representatives from all communities, designing a regional
programme to address sustainable development and
conservation issues. This eventually led to the formation of
grassroots organizations including APPTA, an association of
farmers; CBTC; Finca Educativa, a regional training centre; and
a diversity of community-level organizations such as savings
and loan groups. The practical activities created a culture of
collective work, which had far-reaching positive impacts.
Photo: APPTA
The problem was, how? The region is characterized by a humid

tropical climate with frequent torrential rainfall, steep slopes and
limited infrastructure.
>>
15
>>
Training and education

In 1991, a locally-run regional training centre known as the
Educational Farm (Finca Educativa) was established in the
Talamanca Indigenous Reserve. It was constructed by the people
who use it and is managed by a local board of directors and
executive committee. It serves over 2000 people per year,
providing courses and workshops in agriculture, health,
appropriate technology, and conservation for example on the
concept of endangered species, reforestation, and the
relationship of individual animal species with their habitat.
Leadership training programmes have focused on empowering
local people to function as community leaders, and this has
served, among other things, to strengthen community-based
organizations. Environmental education in local primary schools
has been undertaken since the early 1990s. As a result of the
high participation, the Talamancan people have an exceptional
awareness and interest in the environmental issues that challenge
the region.
Farmers that have been trained in managing the new crops and
agricultural systems are creating many new jobs on their
productive, labour-intensive family farms, while at the same
time ensuring significant environmental benefits such as
improved soil and water quality, biodiversity habitat, carbon
dioxide fixation and improved community health.
Developing ecotourism
The growth of tourism in Talamanca has exploded since 1985
and has been recognized as a double-edged sword, representing
both destructive elements and opportunities. Much of the early
tourism development in Costa Rica was carried out by
businesses with little regard for the environment or the local
people. In contrast, the Talamanca Initiative recognized the
potential to draw further income into the region by developing a
sustainable and locally owned ecotourism market. Therefore,
emphasis has been placed on proper planning and the
management of activities by local people.
The early work of two ecotourism lodges informed and guided
ecotourism activities by other groups. The pioneers
demonstrated that locally controlled ecotourism can make their
organizations stronger and more sustainable.
In 1998, 17 associations formed the Talamancan Community

Ecotourism Network, a collaborative effort that facilitates close
organizational relations, product development, sharing of
information and ideas, training, collaborative planning,
production of promotional media, and participation in
ecotourism fairs.
16
Training in ecotourism has been designed to help local people

learn the skills necessary to develop community-based
ecotourism initiatives, including training in financial
management, small business operation, computer technology,
ecology, biology, natural history, and tourism management.
There are now nine ecotourism lodges, all of which are owned
and managed by community organizations whose objectives
include conservation, sustainable economic development,
community development, and protection of cultural traditions.
The revenue earned goes directly to the families in the
community who own and work in these operations, and helps to
further develop their environmental, social and cultural
initiatives.
The tangible benefits from community-owned ecotourism have
been an essential part of the process of developing support for
conservation among the rural poor. Recently the Talamanca

Network decided to create a conservation fund, to which they
will contribute a percentage of all ecotourism income. In the
community of Manzanillo, within the Gandoca Manzanillo
National Wildlife Refuge, the local people were almost
completely opposed to the creation of the Refuge in 1985.
Initially, they struggled to be able to finish the deforestation of
their portion of what would become the Refuge. Today, almost
everyone is an avid defender of the wildlife refuge in particular
and biodiversity conservation in general, because the
communitys greatly improved livelihoods revolve around nature
tourism.
The ecotourism venture, managed by local families in the
Gandoca community, provides homestays and services for
ecotourists and volunteers on the ANAI Sea Turtle Conservation
Programme. The Nature Guides Association for the village of
Manzanillo, managed by an executive committee of member
guides, provides local guide services. Other community-based
ventures are also beginning to provide services of different
kinds, based on the attractions and interesting elements of their
community and culture. All these groups are committed to the
ideal of ecotourism as both a livelihood and a means for
biodiversity and ecosystem conservation. The integration of
scientific research, conservation and ecotourism has become the
main economic activity in the village of Gandoca, generating
more than six times the income previously obtained by poaching
turtle eggs.
Where next?
The Talamanca Initiative has achieved some extraordinary
outcomes over the last twenty years, only some of which are
mentioned in this article. This is a living example of how
conservation can improve the local economy and quality of life.
Many people are actively creating a better present and future.
They have taken responsibility for maintaining a healthy
environment, strong local organizations, local economic
stability, and respect for the different cultures that thrive in
Talamanca. The current generation has grown up knowing how
to respect the environment, meeting their economic needs while
developing in harmony with nature and society.
The impacts of an outside world with an ever-increasing interest
in Talamancas resources continue to grow, and provide new
challenges every day. But many of the regions people and
organizations have made a commitment that is not limited by
time or funding and they will continue to share their success
with others. This process is alive, struggling with the issues of
today and tomorrow. It continues to be a very participatory and
creative process. A true integration of social, economic, cultural,
organizational and environmental needs requires a monumental
and continual effort, whereas quick and easy approaches lead to
short-lived solutions. The people of Talamanca have accepted
this challenge, and are today working hard to establish and
consolidate new approaches to living that produce immediate
tangible results and also promise a better future. They can see
that their efforts are making a difference.
Diego Lynch. Asociacin ANAI, Apdo.170, Sabanilla 2070, Costa Rica.

Email: [email protected]; website: www.anaicr.org
Acknowledgements
This article is based on Banana Public - Costa Rica produced by ITDG
as part of the Hands on: Ideas to go series (www.tve.org/ho/). The original
case study, which has already generated considerable interest, is available
at www.tve.org/ho/doc.cfm?aid=1347&lang=English
Harmonizing production and biodiversity

Miguel A. Altieri, Angela Maria Burgos Herrera,
Heiber Yovanny Armero Zambrano and Juan Martinez
Cacao based agroforests, especially indigenous shade systems,

are among the tropical agroecosystems that support the highest
levels of biodiversity. These systems are part of complex landscape mosaics, managed by farmers through multiple strategies
that have supported the livelihoods of rural communities for
decades, if not for centuries.
In the Talamanca region of Costa Rica, researchers from the
Centro Agronmico Tropical de Investigacin y Enseanza
(CATIE) implemented a project that aimed to improve cacao
production, thereby avoiding that farmers shift to other more
profitable but less biodiversity-conserving crops. The three-year
project involved around 300 small organic cacao farms managed
by indigenous peoples. The interventions introduced to improve
cacao production included: shade management through pruning
and thinning; enrichment planting with timber and fruit trees;
and introduction and grafting of improved cacao clones.
Based on thorough surveys, the project confirmed that the
cacao agroforests harbour significant biodiversity, including
55 families and 185 species of plants, as well as many insect,
bird, bat and mammal species. Biodiversity is highest in the
more rustic tree diverse and multi-layered systems with about
55 - 60% shade cover, and lowest in simple agroforests with
only two shade tree species and 35 - 40% shade cover. The
diversity and abundance of wildlife is enhanced in more diverse
and complex agroforests. A mix of native trees and fruit trees
offers a greater range of food, and a combination of large trees
and low shrubby vegetation offer more microclimates and
therefore a greater variety of living conditions. Closeness to
forest and watercourses also increases biodiversity. Most of
these conditions, however, do not favour high cacao production.
Three years was not enough time to demonstrate whether the
interventions enhanced cacao yields. However, productivity was
found to be higher in the less diverse cacao agroforests and
lower in the more complex systems, presenting a major
challenge to researchers and managers: It appears that with the
introduction of measures to enhance production, biodiversity
levels may be sacrificed.
Looking at the data with an agroecological eye
One third of the 156 farms analysed were located in undulating

landscapes near rivers. Another third were typical of hillsides
and upland conditions, and the rest were in the valleys. The
valley landscape can be considered less diverse than the upland
and river areas. Most farms in the hillsides have an average size
When studying the surveys, the following trends became visible:

Highly biodiverse cacao systems do not necessarily exhibit
low production values. The high biodiversity-low production
relationship seemed more marked in the valley areas and less
so in the hillsides and river margins, where most cacao plots
close to forest patches showed medium production levels.
Pruning does not seem to positively affect productivity, either
because farmers do not prune well (timing, types of branches
to be removed, etc) or because pruning must be done in
conjunction with other practices (i.e. fertilization) that
farmers do not follow.
In the hillsides and river margin areas, a large proportion of
farmers with plots smaller than one hectare showed medium
production values, whereas in the valley this relationship was
not detected. Given labour and cash constraints, this may
indicate an optimal size for efficient production in these areas.
Conclusions
In order to increase cacao production while conserving
biodiversity, the approach must transcend the cacao agroforests
and embrace the total farming system. On the hillsides and river
margins, farm designs should aim to maintain or enrich the
whole farming system together with the surrounding
environment, in a way that supports biodiversity and food
security. This could include for example the reintroduction of
the practice of growing beans, rice, corn, or cassava. It is also
important to promote other income-generating activities such as
honey, fish, wood for crafts, medicinal plants, and locally
managed ecotourism. In the valley areas, there may be more
limited opportunities for conserving biodiversity while
promoting sustainable cacao production.
An eco-zoning approach may be useful to identify areas with
more production than conservation potential, areas that have
more potential for conservation than production, and areas
where both goals can be harmonized, for example in the river
margins. By intensively managing a small, optimal area of each
cacao plot (0.5 - 0.7 ha), and leaving the rest under low input
management favourable to biodiversity, farmers may be able to
obtain higher productivity per unit of labour.
Cacao agroforests of less than one hectare in the hillsides and
river margins already accomplish the goals of productivity as
well as maintaining high biodiversity. The multifunctional
nature of the diverse indigenous farms, through which farmers
generate income from cacao, fruits, timber, crafts, ecotourism
and preservation of biodiversity, offers the best opportunity to
improve the livelihoods of the Talamancan indigenous people,
while at the same time conserving the regions biodiversity.
Miguel A. Altieri. Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management

University of California, Berkeley. Email: [email protected]
Reference
- Somarriba, E. et al., 2003. II Informe Tcnico - Financiero. Project Biodiversity
conservation and sustainable production in small, indigenous organic cacao
farms in the Talamanca - Caribbean Corridor, Costa Rica. CATIE, Turrialba.
One source of information that was untapped by researchers were

the farm surveys conducted by the local farmers organization
APPTA during their certification process. These surveys proved
invaluable to investigate a key relationship in peasant agriculture:
the relationship between farm size, diversity levels and
productivity. We selected indicators that seemed relevant to the
relationship between biodiversity conservation and productivity:
cacao production per plant; shade management; pruning of cacao
trees; tree diversity in cacao plots; canopy stratification; and
presence of forest nearby. In each region we recognized types of
cacao agroforests with varying levels of diversity: 1) Rustic or
abandoned 2) Cacao plus fruit and timber trees 3) Cacao with
1-2 timber species 4) Cacao plus banana 5) Cacao plus banana
and fruit trees and 6) Cacao and fruit trees.
of 42 hectares, where cacao occupies about 1.6 ha and the rest is

devoted to a mosaic of agroecosystems and natural areas,
including forest, fallow, pasture and annual crops, all managed
by the farmer. In the valley areas, farm size is around four
hectares, with cacao agroforests occupying about half of the
total farm area. Most cacao agroforests showed low production
levels, regardless of the production practices.
17
Photo: T.K.Ghosal
Planting a floating bed with seedlings contained in tema (compost balls).
Cultivating wetlands in Bangladesh

A. H. M. Rezaul Haq, Tapan Kumar Ghosal and Pritam Ghosh
The village Chandra is situated in the southwest part of

Bangladesh on the banks of the river Kabodak, which flows
from Jessore to the Bay of Bengal. In the past, the 1500 villagers
depended on the river for agriculture, aquaculture, transport and
other daily activities. At least 300 villagers had land on the bank
of the river and when the river flooded its banks, silt carried by
the water was deposited on the land, making it fertile and
providing the farmers with good crops. Most of the villagers
farmed their land and maintained their livelihoods in happiness.
The village was also famous throughout Bangladesh for its
mango, jackfruit and dates.
18
In course of time, however, the river became a curse instead of a

blessing. In early 1960s, the then East Pakistan Water and Power
Development Authority engaged in the Coastal Embankment
Project (CEP) to convert the seasonally flooded coastal wetlands
into reclaimed land for permanent agricultural production under
the Green Revolution Programme, as well as to protect human
settlements from the floods. This large-scale engineering
intervention ignored the agro-ecological system of the southwest region and disrupted the ecologically complex and highly
productive coastal wetland ecosystem. The reclaimed land is
now isolated from the river and does not receive any silt to
improve its fertility. The silt load is instead deposited in the
river, blocking the drainage of the area and leading to permanent
water logging. This situation makes both agriculture and
aquaculture activities impossible. Social demoralization,
diseases, unemployment and migration have increased in the
village. The Water Development Board of the Government has
not been able to reduce the waterlogging, which takes over an
additional 4000 hectares per year. The view of experts and local
people is that there is no other way out, but to live with water.
monsoon. As the flooding stays for 60 - 90 days, trees like

mango, jackfruit and date palm do not survive and the
waterlogged lands have not produced any yield for the past six
years. Without food or safe drinking water, villagers have been
forced to migrate elsewhere. The people of Chandra had been
seeking an ecologically sound alternative food production
system for their waterlogged areas.
To improve the livelihoods and food security the Wetland
Resource Development Society (WRDS), a voluntary Research
and Development organization, proposed soil-less agriculture as
a possible solution for the villagers of Chandra. Considering the
regular flooding every year, the waterlogging, availability of
aquatic weeds and the situation of the landless farmers, this
farming system was considered suitable for the area and capable
of high agricultural production. Today WRDS is implementing
soil-less agriculture in waterlogged areas of the south west
region of Bangladesh under the project of CARE-RVCC
(Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change), funded by CIDA
(Canadian International Development Agency).
Soil-less agriculture
Problems in Chandra
Soil-less agriculture or hydroponics (a Greek word, hydro means

water and ponos means labour) is an indigenous practice of
sustainable wetland utilization in parts of south-west
Bangladesh. People living within the wetland ecosystem utilize
locally available paddy straw, water hyacinths and various
aquatic plants for making floating islands of organic material on
which crops, seedlings and vegetables are grown. The
productivity of this farming system is more or less 10 times
higher than traditional land-based agricultural production. This
farming system is locally known as baira, geto, bed or dhap.
After cultivation, the remains of the floating organic bed is rich
in nutrients and make good compost. This farming system is
labour intensive and offers opportunities for the participation of
men as well as women.
The river is fully congested with water hyacinths (Eichhornia

crassipes) and other aquatic weeds and has become a breeding
ground for mosquitoes. As the carrying capacity of the river has
been reduced and the drainage system has broken down, the
water level now rises by more than 2.5 metres during the
The villagers of Chandra did not know about this farming

technique. When this type of cultivation was first proposed, it
made them laugh they could not believe that it could be
possible to cultivate on water! After receiving training and
technical support on soil-less agriculture, more than 150 villagers

started to practise this type of non-conventional agriculture on
their waterlogged areas adjacent to the river Kabodak. After
some practice, the villagers realized that cultivation on floating
beds could give higher production as well as a better costbenefit ratio than land-based agriculture. A renaissance
occurred among the villagers of Chandra.
Mature water hyacinths are preferred because they decompose

slower than immature water hyacinths. The first layer of water
hyacinths acts as the base of the floating bed and maintains the
stability, buoyancy and thickness of the bed. A single man then
stands on the bamboo pole lying over the mass of water hyacinths
and starts to pull the water hyacinths together from both sides of
the bamboo. In this process, he proceeds towards the end of the
bamboo and compacts the accumulated hyacinths under his feet.
This process is continued until the desired height and length of
the bed is obtained. When the construction of the bed is
complete, the bamboo is removed. After 7 - 10 days a second
round of water hyacinths are dumped on the bed and then the bed
is left to decompose before being planted.
Construction of floating beds
In Chandra, the villagers construct floating beds using the masses

of water hyacinths and other aquatic weeds that grow naturally
and profusely in the river, surrounding wetlands, canals and
ditches. Construction starts at the beginning of the monsoon
(June-July) with the collection of water hyacinths and other
aquatic weeds and it continues up to late autumn. To start the
construction, farmers put a long bamboo pole (as long as they
want the final bed to be), on a collected mass of fully matured
water hyacinths. To build one bed, water hyacinths growing in an
area roughly five times larger than the bed itself are required.
The benefits of hydroponics

Making waterlogged areas productive
Bangladesh, being an overpopulated country, can ill afford to depend only on its
ever-shrinking areas of arable land to feed the population. Wetlands, including
waterlogged areas, have been seen as crisis regions, as no terrestrial crops would
grow there. A number of projects have been undertaken by the government and
NGOs since the 1960s to increase agricultural production by controlling flooding
and draining the wetlands. However, these projects have adversely affected both
the economy and the environment. Soil-less cultivation can help to mitigate this
crisis and reduce the pressure on arable lands by turning wetlands into a strong
base for the rural economy, without altering the natural environment.
Photo: T.K.Ghosal
The basic construction of the floating bed requires bamboo

poles, a boat and a simple tool to cut the weeds. The bed is then
built up of layers of aquatic weeds, mainly water hyacinths
(Eichhornia crassipes) but also other kinds of water weeds like
water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), duckweed (Najas graminea),
Salvinia spp. and Potamogeton alpinus. Organic materials like
paddy stubs, straw and coconut husk are also added. In perennial
wetlands and permanently waterlogged areas it is possible to
cultivate on these floating beds the whole year round. In
seasonally waterlogged areas, the beds are used during the wet
season and left to decompose on the agricultural land once the
water withdraws. The floating beds are primarily constructed
where water hyacinths are available. The beds can be prepared in
any depth of water and they can be moved by dragging them
behind a boat.
Floating bed with bottle gourd.
The top of the floating bed needs 15 - 20 days to decompose

before sowing seed or planting seedlings. Sometimes farmers
use semi-decomposed aquatic plants such as water lettuce,
duckweed and immature water hyacinths on the top of the bed to
speed up the decomposition, thereby making nutrients available
for seedlings and reducing evaporation from the bed. To improve
conditions for the young seedlings further, the seeds are
sometimes placed inside a ball made of compost, manure and
aquatic creepers (locally called tema), before being planted on
the floating bed. In this way, a smooth germination and
sufficient nutrients are ensured for the initial establishment.
However, the newly constructed floating bed can also be
cultivated from the first day if compost is available and is
spread thickly on the bed before planting.
There are no fixed rules about the size and shape of the
floating beds, but generally the villagers construct beds that are
15 - 50 metres in length, 1.5 - 2.5 metres in width and about
one metre in height above the water level.
Crops and vegetables
A properly designed hydroponic system needs much less water and nutrients
than conventional soil-based agriculture, as the nutrients are recycled. This
advantage is important as it can help in reducing the pollution of water bodies with
the high level of runoff nutrients from agricultural land. In addition, an enormous
amount of compost material is produced, which can be used to increase the
organic content of the soil for land-based agriculture systems. Compost selling
could potentially be a good opportunity for income generation, as soil degradation
due to loss of organic matter is significant in Bangladesh.
Vegetables are the main crops of this farming system. The

villagers have grown 23 different types of vegetables and 5 types
of spices. Vegetables and seedlings raised on floating beds
during the monsoon season include ladies finger (okra),
cucumber, ridged gourd, bitter gourd, snake gourd, amaranth,
red amaranth, egg plant (brinjal), pumpkin, Indian spinach, taro,
wax gourd, and turmeric. During the winter season spinach,
bottle gourd, yard long bean, bean, tomato, potato, cauliflower,
cabbage, kohlrabi, turnip, radish, carrot, ginger, onion, chilli,
and garlic are grown. Some vegetables are grown on the bed all
the year round, in rotation. In seasonally flooded areas, the beds
are spread over the soil as the water withdraws. Winter crops can
then be grown on this soil without further tillage or fertilizer.
>>
Conserving biodiversity
The present waterlogged areas can, over time, be turned into productive
wetlands because of their biodiversity and the abundance of various kinds of
highly productive aquatic vegetation, fish, aquatic organisms and birds. For
example, hydroponics can have a positive impact on open water fisheries by
reducing weed congestion and using nutrients in the water. This biodiversity, if
properly managed, could contribute to revitalizing the rural economy,
particularly for the poorer sections of the community.
Conserving water and nutrients
19
Conclusion
>>
Costs and Benefits

Table 1. Costs to construct 10 floating beds of 15 x 2 x 1 metres
1 Bangladesh Taka (Tk)=approximately US$0.02
Cost head
Quantity
Construction
of floating beds
60 man days
Collection
of raw material (weeds) 20 man days
Seed and/or
seedling purchase
Bamboo, rope, crop
harvesting and maintenance
Unit cost
(Tk)
Total
(Tk)
50
3000
50
1000
60
600
100
1000
5 600
Table 2. Income from 10 floating beds of 15x2x1 metres,

only in the monsoon period
Income head
Quantity
(kg)
Ladies finger (okra)
1 800
Ridged gourd
400
Amaranth (red colored)
600
Others (Taro, Indian spinach etc.)
150
Organic compost manure
30 000
Unit income
(Tk/kg)
5.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
0.20
Total
(Tk)
9000
2400
3000
600
6000
21 000
The total benefit in this example is 21 000 5600 = 15 400 Tk. If the
farmer does not sell the organic manure (decomposed water hyacinths and
aquatic weeds) but instead keeps it to fertilize his own field, he/she will gain
9400 Tk. If the farmer contribute his/her own labour instead of hiring
workers he/she will save 4000 Tk and the net benefit will be 13 400 Tk,
excluding the income from compost.
Bangladesh has the highest wetland to total land ratio in the

world: Almost half of the area of Bangladesh consists of
wetlands. Bangladesh also has an excessive population growth,
leading to increasing pressure on agricultural land as well as an
increasing number of people that are landless. To increase the
agricultural production, high yielding varieties together with
fertilizers and pesticides have been introduced. However, this
production system is cost intensive and has led to negative
environmental consequences. Today, yields are stagnating. In
addition, in some areas of Bangladesh drastic water regulation
projects have reclaimed land to allow continuous cultivation of
high-yielding varieties. These drastic changes have had large
negative environmental effects and in some areas, like Chandra,
have had devastating environmental consequences.
At the same time, soil-less cultivation has existed for more than
250 years in parts of Bangladeshs wetlands. The system has
proven itself to be highly productive and ecologically sound, but
is only practised to a limited extent, in around 2500 hectares. In
the south-west region of Bangladesh there exists about 200 000
hectares of natural and artificial wetlands. Of this, about 20 000
hectares could potentially be used for of soil-less agriculture.
The WRDS has realized the potential of soil-less cultivation and
is promoting it as an alternative in new areas such as Chandra,
where the villagers now see the aquatic weeds as blessing and a
resource. The number of farmers that are cultivating on floating
beds is increasing at a significant rate in and around the village.
As the system is fully organic, the agricultural products from the
floating beds get special attention from the local buyers and
consumers. The local community is therefore very hopeful that
they will be able to improve their condition through rapidly
increasing production from this farming system in their
waterlogged areas. The lost happiness is returning among the
villagers of Chandra.
References
- Haq, A.H.M. Rezaul; M. Asaduzzaman, and T. K. Ghosal, 2002. Soil-less
agriculture in Bangladesh. 111 p. A Grameen Trust, Bangladesh Publication
under the component of Research for Poverty Alleviation. Grameen Bank Bhaban,
Mirpur 2, Dhaka 1216. Email: [email protected]
- Resh, H. M., 1981. Hydroponic food production. Published by Woodbridge Press
Publishing Company, Santa Barbara, California.
Women constructing floating beds using water hyacinths.
20
Photo: T.K.Ghosal
A. H. M. Rezaul Haq, Tapan Kumar Ghosal and Pritam Ghosh.

WRDS, 21, Hazi Mohsin Road, Khulna-9100, Bangladesh.
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
A buffer zone for Sinharaja forest?

The Sinharaja World Heritage Site is Sri Lankas last viable
remnant of virgin tropical rainforest. Located in the south west
of Sri Lanka and covering approximately 11 000 hectares, the
forest has been internationally recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site for its biodiversity and high number of endemic
species. Despite international status and strict legal protection
under national law, the forest reserve continues to be encroached
by surrounding communities and degraded at an alarming rate.
The districts bordering the Sinharaja forest are among the most
densely populated in the country but until recently, very few
families lived in the Sinharaja buffer zone bordering the forest
reserve. There were no roads into the area, and the few
established villages could only be reached after many hours of
hiking on forest paths. With little access to government services
or external markets, these isolated communities depended on
shifting cultivation, home gardens and forest products for their
subsistence. Over the past 15 years, the promotion of lowcountry tea cultivation and the opening of new roads have set in
motion dramatic changes in the Sinharaja buffer zone. Settlers
have flooded into the area and population pressure has
increased. The high profit margin of tea has improved living
standards, but it has also provided tremendous incentive for the
clearing of natural rainforest and mixed tree crop home gardens.
Today there are nearly 40 villages circling Sinharaja forest park.
The boundary of the reserve is a stark line between rich rainforest
and monoculture tea fields a buffer zone exists only on paper.
The absence of a clear official boundary demarcation prompts
further encroachment of the forest, and current tea cultivation
practices by smallholders threaten both the forest and the future
of agricultural production in the area. There are already signs that
the change in vegetation is affecting water flow. The clearing of
steep and fragile slopes for expanding tea lands has led to topsoil
exposure, heavy erosion, and a loss of soil fertility. Erosion on
lower slopes destabilizes the soil in upper regions and prevents
the regeneration of forest cover.
Agroforestry in the buffer zone
From follow-up visits and through project monitoring, it has

become apparent that the impacts of the project are substantial.
Farmers now practise better crop management, for example
plucking tea leaves weekly instead of once every two weeks. In
addition, plot management has become increasingly important,
including pruning, weed control and applying fertilizers only
after testing the soil.
Small business development

Through the strengthening of the community group Deniyaya
Sinharaja Conservation Committee (DSCC), farmers are learning
to share their experiences in formal meetings. They have also
undergone business training
and are now aware of the
importance of keeping
good records. This has
helped the implementation
of other, related projects
such as the development
of small, environmentally
sound enterprises as
alternatives to tea
production for example
the collection, processing
and bottling of Sinharaja
kithul (Caryota urens)
treacle by community
members, which is
marketed as a Sinharaja
Conservation Product
through Sewalanka.
The DSCC hopes to
assume responsibility
for the processing,
marketing, and
monitoring of kithul and
is working to develop a
number of additional
Training session on agroforestry in the tea fields
conservation-based
near Sinharaja forest.
enterprises including
herbal medicine
preparations; home
garden cultivation of flowers, ornamental plants, and
mushrooms; beekeeping; marketing of nature-inspired
handicrafts and fine art; and the production of traditional sweets.
Conclusion
The programme works in 22 villages north and south of the
forest and more than 150 farmers have so far taken part in the
training course offered. Through the training, participants learnt
the theory and practice of good tea cultivation. Field visits
demonstrated management of the tea bushes, fertilizing,
intercropping, soil erosion control, weed control and plucking
techniques. The training course focused on practices used in
other parts of Sri Lanka but unfamiliar to the participants. These
included soil conservation measures like lock-and-spill contour
drains, lead drains, bunds, green manures, mulching, shade trees
and hedgerows. The programme promoted intercropping with
the South Asian native tree Gliricidia sepium for multiple uses
including green manuring, shade, erosion control, and fuel
More sustainable agricultural practices have slowly helped

reduce the siltation of the Sinharaja watershed. More
importantly, they have also increased sustainability and
productivity of tea production on already cultivated lands.
Together with the development of sustainable enterprises based
on forest products, these efforts help to reduce the need for
expansion and further encroachment into the forest, and
contribute to the ecologically sound economic development of
the World Heritage Forest buffer zone.
Ajith Tennekoon. Coordinator. Sinharaja Village Trust,

Sewalanka Foundation, 2nd Floor, No. 432, Colombo Road, Boralesgamuwa,
Sri Lanka. Email: [email protected]
In January 2003, Sewalanka Foundation started an agroforestry

project for tea smallholders near the Sinharaja forest. In
practice, the project aimed to reintroduce a new buffer zone by
reducing the use of agrochemicals, introducing soil conservation
measures and increasing the diversity of the tea fields through
intercropping. In this context it also addressed the capacity of
the buffer zone communities to carry out ecologically sound
economic activities, as well as creating linkages with markets
and helping to coordinate the activities of the many agencies and
organizations working in the area.
wood; and the shade tolerant Savandara and Arachis pintoi to

prevent soil erosion. As the latter species is new to the area,
homestead nurseries were established to cultivate seedlings.
Photo: Author
Ajith Tennekoon
21
Pangalengan farmers:
friends of the forest
Samwel Wandera
The highlands of Pangalengan in the Bandung district of West

Java, Indonesia, have fertile, volcanic soils and enough rainfall
throughout the year to allow two planting seasons. The main
economic activity in the area is vegetable growing and most
people depend on this activity for their livelihoods, either
directly through the production of vegetables, or indirectly as
brokers of agricultural products, suppliers of agricultural
chemicals or as motorbike transport operators. Many people also
work in nearby tea plantations.
The area is dominated by large farms of more than 100 hectares,
but more than eighty percent of the population are small-scale
farmers who depend on plots averaging 0.3 hectares. With the
rapid rise in population, there is a continuously growing
pressure for farmland and over the years it became common
practice to grow vegetables in the neighbouring forest land of
the Mount Tilu nature reserve. This reserve, established in
February 1978, includes primary forests that are important as a
habitat for many endangered animals. In addition, the forest acts
as a water catchment for the surrounding area.
The government carried out logging for timber on this land and
after it had been cleared, farmers were employed to replant the
cleared areas. As they did so, they also started to grow
vegetables in between the tree seedlings. Formally, they were not
allowed to cultivate in the forest, but the Department of Forestry
turned a blind eye as long as the areas were replanted. It became
a regular way of making a living.
Over time, however, the government realized that things were

getting out of hand. Soil erosion was increasing and the water
level in the rivers was going down. As the area is a major source
of drinking water to many places and also has a hydro-electric
facility, this was considered serious and thought to be the result
of farming activities taking place in the forest. The vegetable
growing left the soils bare, increasing erosion and water loss
from the ground and the farmers were thought to be carrying out
illegal logging and destroying the forest to make room for crops.
22
The tropical rain forest at Gunung Tilu is very rich in

biodiversity and has a wide variety of tree species. It is also
home to many wild animals including amongst others a number
of primates, the leopard Panthera pardus and the Javan wild dog
Cuon alpinus javanicus, Javan pig Sus verrucosus, muntjac
Muntiacus muntjak, and many bird species. Many of these
species are threatened by human hunting activities.
The main daily tasks of the committee members involves
moving around the forest to prevent cutting down of trees,
burning of the forest, hunting and any other destructive activities
by people. To support their livelihoods, the members of this
committee collect wild fruits, tubers and other plant parts for
food as well as for sale. An example of the wild fruits collected
in this forest is sawo (Manilkara zapota), while the most widely
collected tuber is ganyong (Canna indica), a delicious food that
is similar to cassava.
Other plants are collected for medicinal use. These herbs are
believed to cure illnesses like cancer, tumours, cholesterol
problems, diabetes, hypertension, rheumatism and colds and are
widely accepted by the surrounding communities. One of the
most important plants collected is cabe or wild chilli (Piper
spp.), believed to cure rheumatism. Other plants collected for
medicinal purposes include jahe or ginger (Zingiber officinale),
kumis kucing (Orthosiphon aristatus), temu lawak (Curcuma
zedoaria), lempuyang (Zingiber zerumbet), kencur (Kaempferia
galanga) and serai or lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus).
Mengkudu (Morinda citrifolia) is collected for making local
dyes. Fearing that these herbal plants might become extinct, the
farmers have established small gardens in the forest to propagate
them.
Friends of the forest
Some food crops are also grown in the forest to provide the
farmers with food as well as income. Not just any kind of crop
can be grown, but only those that do not compromise the
conservation of the forest. In collaboration with the forestry
department, the farmers have carefully selected crops that can be
integrated into the forest ecosystem and do not require the use of
any chemicals. The crops grown in Gunung Tilu include coffee,
papaya, banana, jack fruit, sugar palm, avocado and cassava. The
cultivation of these crops does not involve making the land bare,
which would increase soil erosion. Many of these crops also
have multiple uses. Banana is grown for its fruits as well as for
its leaves. The leaves are used for wrapping foodstuffs and are
sold to local markets. Cassava produces tubers as the main food
and the leaves are also a good vegetable.
Farmers from the villages Lama Jang, Warna Sari, Pulo Sari,
Marga Mulya and Marga Mukti that surround the Gunung Tilu
mountain decided to revitalize an already existing farmers
group and to initiate a project which they called the Friends of
the Forest. Their aim was to find ways to conserve the forest
while continuing to gain their livelihoods from it.
There is also a tree nursery project involving the growing of

both exotic and indigenous tree species. The main aim is to fill
gaps in the forest created by the previous destruction of trees or
gaps due to ageing. The project also aims at conserving and
protecting those indigenous tree species that are near extinction.
The farmers group was reorganized and a committee of twentythree people was formed, led by a local farmer called Pak Ikin.
The first step was to explain their ideas to the Department of
Forestry. The Department supported the idea and the committee
began its activities.
Each farmer maintains a small tree nursery in his area of

operation in the forest and the farmers usually go deeper into the
forest to collect seeds and seedlings (wildings) of indigenous
tree species to be grown in the nurseries until they are large
enough for planting. The farmers have plans to start selling their
In 2003, therefore, the government introduced a ban on

vegetable growing on forest land. More than 5000 people were
denied their livelihoods and the farmers and their families faced
an urgent crisis.
surplus seedlings to other community members in order to

increase their income as well as spread their message.
Another important economic activity is collecting and selling
materials for handicrafts and construction. These materials
mainly come from bamboo and are used for weaving boards for
house walls as well as ceilings. Bamboo sticks are also sold to
other farms where they are used to keep tomatoes upright.
All activities undertaken aim to preserve biodiversity and
maintain the ecological balance in the area; and the farmers
are in constant dialogue with the Department of Forestry.
The farmers have been allowed to grow tree crops and coffee
and the forest department has helped by providing some seed,
information on marketing and even processing machines in
some instances. The farmers committee is negotiating to be
allowed to grow more crops in the forest, including chilli and
herbs. These are already grown in the small gardens, but are not
yet on the list of crops that are permitted in the forest. The
farmers feel that these crops are friendly to the forest and have
asked the government for permission to grow them.
Interestingly, the committee includes staff members from the
Department of Forestry, which helps guide farmers in their
discussions with the government. These persons are quite
important in trying to find a workable solution that is
satisfactory to both parties.
Conclusion
The activities of the Friends of the Forest farmers are very
different from the usual farming practices that are carried out in
the main vegetable growing areas in Pangalengan. Most
vegetable farmers in the area depend on large amounts of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, to the extent that it has
brought about an ecological imbalance in the area. Natural
predators of harmful insects have been eradicated, useful
animals as well as the chemical balance in the soil have been
negatively affected and the water sources are polluted.
Unlike most other farmer groups, the Friends of the Forest
farmers depend only on local resources to carry out their
projects. So far, they have neither requested nor received any
donor support. It is a great example of using local resources and
initiatives to solve local problems and the lack of reliance on
external resources makes it possible to replicate this experience
elsewhere. The farmers in the Gunung Tilu area feel that so far
very little publicity has been given to their activities, which
could bring new ideas and some hope to those interested in
maintaining ecological balance such as the small organic
farming movement in the area.
Samwel Wandera. VSO volunteer. IPPHTI, Pangalengan, Kp.Cibuntu Rt01/Rw06,

Ds.Sukamanah, Kec. Pangalengan, Kab.Bandung, Jawa Barat 40378, Indonesia.
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23
Photo: P. Spierenburg
Homestead with paddy fields in the southern part of Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park.
Saving the forest

through livestock intensification
Peter Spierenburg, Karma Tshering and D.S. Rai
24
In many parts of the Asian Himalayas, the forests of the midmountain zone ranging from 1000 to 3000 metres above sea
level have been cleared extensively for agriculture. Bhutan is in
the unique position of having much of the forest in this zone still
intact. The Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, covering an
area of 1400 km2, is one of the protected areas created to
conserve these temperate old-growth forests and their wildlife.
The Nature Conservation Division under the Department of
Forests of the Bhutanese government is mandated to manage the
park. Around 5000 people living in the park area practise
traditional agriculture and keep livestock. When the park was
established in 1993 the policy was to respect the existing land
and grazing rights of these local communities. These rights
relate not only to the village area, but also to extensive areas
scattered throughout the main forest, which are used for grazing
livestock.
Agriculture needs the forest...

The forests in the park area are part of an agricultural landscape.
Many parts of the park have a long settlement history. Shifting
cultivation is widespread in the southern parts of the park, and
livestock grazing in the forest is common practice. The
extensive forest cover assures a supply of water for irrigation of
the paddy fields around the villages. The soil fertility of
farmers fields is maintained through natural processes that
depend directly or indirectly on the neighbouring forest land:
nutrients carried by irrigation water or surface flow, as well as
manure produced by the cattle that depends on the forests
grazing resources.
Traditionally, farmers cultivate dryland crops such as millet and

maize in a shifting cultivation system, often leading them to
spend the entire cultivation season in temporary settlements
away from the village. However, the system is in transition. Over
the years, the emphasis has shifted to the permanent paddy
fields located around the villages. A driving factor behind this is
the expansion of irrigation facilities in the past 20 years, mostly
through government schemes. Citrus, which has been promoted
in the area for around 10 years, has also become an important
part of the agricultural system and is now a successful cash crop
for villages within a days reach of the nearest road. The use of
external inputs remains at a low level, because transport from
the road to the remote villages is a major bottleneck.
Livestock is important for the farming system: cattle fertilize the
fields and they are used as draught animals. They also supply
milk, cheese and butter. Depending on the size of their herds,
farmers use different strategies. Households with few heads of
cattle usually keep the animals in the village and nearby forest
areas the whole year round. Farmers with larger herds move
their cattle to temporary camps deeper in the forest during the
cropping season, and in winter they are brought in to the fields.
The large number of cattle allows for fertilization of the fields in
a short period of time. The productivity of the local cattle breed
is low and farmers seek to compensate this by keeping large
numbers of cattle if they can afford to.
The forest also contributes to peoples livelihoods in other ways:
it supplies additional income to farmers who collect and sell
forest products like resin from pine trees (Pinus sp.), fruits of
the pipla plant (Piper longum) and cane from the climbing palm
(Calamus sp.). However, the proximity of the forest to the fields

also has disadvantages. Cattle that graze in the forest are
vulnerable to wild predators like tigers and wild dogs. There is
also a risk of crop damage by wild boars and other wildlife, and
to avoid crop losses farmers spend a lot of time guarding their
crops.
but is the forest safe?

The landscape depicted so far is not a stable one, however. The
resident population is growing, and so are their development
aspirations. Pressure on the forest is mounting, with a slow but
steadily growing demand for agricultural land, grazing areas and
forest products. This raises the question whether in this
agricultural landscape, the newly assigned conservation
objectives of the National Park can be assured in the long run.
Grazing can potentially have a negative impact on the
regeneration of old-growth forest. Surveys in various forest
areas in Bhutan show that in heavily grazed forest only few
unpalatable species regenerate. This leads to a situation where at
first sight the old-growth forest is still intact, with a diverse,
mature top canopy, while closer inspection reveals a lower and
middle storey completely dominated by a few species. This
implies that in the longer term, the present diverse forest will be
replaced by species-poor forest. Forest grazing therefore
represents a relatively invisible but potentially very serious
threat to old-growth forest in the park area. An analysis of trends
shows that particularly on the southeast side of the park, forest
grazing is on the increase, partially as a result of investment of
earnings from the citrus cash crop in cattle.
Action needed
In 1999, the park management staff initiated a joint analysis
with the communities and extensionists from the district, in
order to identify win-win solutions that could reduce grazing in
the forest while still meeting the needs of the communities. The
analysis showed that many farmers were at a crossroads. They
could either choose an extensive livestock system depending on
forest grazing or alternatively opt for a more intensive and
market production-oriented system. A combination of extensive
and intensive management would be difficult as the two
strategies imply making different choices in terms of cattle
breed, herd size and animal care, and also regarding the
organization of labour within the household. The labour aspect
was considered particularly important, as the on-going shift to
more permanent cropping systems makes it difficult to keep
herding the cattle in the forest away from the village. The labour
force of the household is needed more and more for activities
close to the homesteads.
Fewer cattle, improved production

For more than 15 years, the government livestock extension
agency has been introducing new animal husbandry practices in
the area. The cornerstone of the programme is the improvement
of local cattle through cross breeding with jersey cattle, which
offer a higher production potential. Crossbreeds are well
adapted to the mountain environment and can be reared at the
homestead. However, they cannot subsist on grazing in rugged
terrain like the local breeds, as they need better quality fodder.
Also, the farmer cannot risk losing these high quality animals to
wild predators. Therefore, the extension programme also
The key to increasing the impact of the extension efforts was to

introduce the various components of a more intensive livestock
system, giving special emphasis to the smart selection of fodder
crops as this was considered to be the main bottleneck in
adopting the improved cattle. Because of the long-established
programme for introduction of jersey cattle for crossbreeding,
farmers were well aware of the potential of these animals. At the
same time they realized that in the growing economy, demand for
butter and cheese would continue to increase and that more
productive crossbreeds would provide additional cash income
opportunities. Fodder crops were a missing part of the puzzle.
The fodder crops would need to take up as little extra space as
possible in the intensively cultivated zone around the village. For
this reason, fodder peanut and sugar cane were selected. Fodder
peanut can be grown as ground cover in the citrus orchards. It is
rich in protein, which is important for milk-producing cows, and
also has other advantages such as nutrient delivery to the trees
through nitrogen fixation and reduction of the labour required for
ground clearing. Sugar cane was selected because it is very
productive and requires only small plots. It provides energy-rich
fodder for the animals and leads to a visible rise in milk
production. Once a good solution for the feed issue was
available, the other parts of the puzzle stall-feeding and manure
production also fell into place for the farmer. The demand for
improved jersey breeds received an immediate boost.
The start of these extension activities in the year 2000 produced
a remarkably quick response of reducing grazing pressure in the
forest, as measured through surveys and in control vegetation
plots. From a socio-economic point of view, the activities gave a
boost to the development of livestock as an income-generating
activity, increasing the adoption rate for improved breeds and
fodder crops.
The key factor for making the process work appeared to be the
fact that the evolution of the agricultural landscape had taken the
farmers to a crossroads where a choice had to be made. They
were receptive to new techniques that would broaden their range
of available options. At the same time the establishment of the
National Park created a sense of urgency to find solutions. The
park management authority stepped in as a new stakeholder and
was able to create the necessary momentum through a joint
planning process and funding of key activities. A direction has
now been chosen by which the agricultural landscape can further
evolve in a way compatible with maintaining the valuable
biodiversity in the area.
Peter Spierenburg. Hoorneslaan 233, 2221 CP Katwijk, The Netherlands.

Karma Tshering and D.S. Rai. Nature Conservation Division, Department of
Forestry Services, Ministry of Agriculture P.O. Box 252, Thimphu, Bhutan.
Email [email protected]
Acknowledgements
Harm de Vries, Animal Husbandry Specialist of the Integrated Sustainable
Development Project Zhemgang/Netherlands Development Organization (SNV)
played an important role in the development of the livestock intensification initiatives
in the programme. He made valuable comments on this article.
References
- Karma Tshering and Sangay Wangchuk, 2003. Vision and strategy for the Nature
Conservation Division. Department of Forestry Services, Thimphu, Bhutan.
- Spierenburg, P.J and Uygen Namgyel, 2002. Socio-economic study Jigme Singye
Wangchuck National Park. JSWNP/Nature Conservation Division, Thimphu, Bhutan.
- Spierenburg, P.J., 2003. Rowing with the stream. Experiences of mainstreaming
conservation and development in Bhutan. SNV Insight series 1, September 2003.
The Hague, The Netherlands.
- Vries, H. de, 1999. Towards dairy and backyard animals. Integrated Sustainable
Development Project Zhemgang/SNV.
The joint analysis by the farmers, government extension staff

and the park wardens led to the conclusion that if the existing
extension programme were intensified and focused, the
emerging trend towards an intensive system could be
strengthened, thereby reducing the pressure on the forest.
includes the introduction of stall-feeding, fodder crops and

composting.
25
Holistic management of
African rangelands
Constance L. Neely and Jody Butterfield
The saying goes that if we keep making the same decisions, we

will continue to get the same results. So what do we need to
change to attain sustainable landscapes and livelihoods? In the
case of the Wange community and the Africa Centre for Holistic
Management in Zimbabwe, a picture of creative partnerships
and holistic decision-making is helping restore the natural
resource base and empower the community members whose
livelihoods depend on it. The term holistic is used because the
land cannot be viewed separately from the social, cultural and
economic aspects of a community.
Degraded lands, diminished lives

The Wange Community typifies rural communities in SubSaharan Africa, most of which are plagued with the problems of
desertification; drying of rivers, impoundments and boreholes;
people living in poverty; increasing spread of AIDS and
infectious diseases; constantly failing crops and dwindling
livestock; and the exodus of young people. The list can go on,
but it need not. Livelihoods are dependent on agriculture,
forestry, livestock, wildlife and tourism. Yet land, water and
biodiversity, once vibrant in the area and critical to these
livelihoods, have been so dramatically impacted by human
influences that they have threatened the Wange peoples lives
and way of life.
26
The Africa Centre for Holistic Management is a local not-forprofit organization, established by Zimbabweans to reverse this
situation meaningfully over time. Located near the Wange
Community and just 22 km from Victoria Falls, the Centre has
been able to demonstrate on its own property that the land, water
and biological resource base can be healed. The Africa Centre is
situated on an 8000 ha property comprised of private and state
land known as Dimbangombe. The property is separated from
the Wange Community by a patch of state forest land and a main
road that runs along the communitys western edge to Victoria
Falls. Dimbangombe is one of many properties that make up a
single contiguous wildlife range stretching from the Hwange
National Park in southwest Zimbabwe to the Zambezi National
Park in the north, and into the surrounding wildlife reserves of
Namibia, Botswana and Zambia. This area is known for its big
game lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant, buffalo, roan and sable
antelope and a rich array of birds.
In 1994, Dimbangombe was donated to the Africa Centre to be
used as a Holistic Management demonstration and learning site
and training centre for the Southern Africa region. The Africa
Centre staff realized that the villagers in the Wange Community
would be important partners in this venture and began to build a
relationship with them through village meetings and workshops.
Community leaders were invited to serve on the Africa Centres
Board of Trustees. Within three years Africa Centre staff had
produced 14 village-based trainers two each from the seven
villages nearest to Dimbangombe. Today, all five chiefs in the
Wange Community serve as Trustees and commit significant
Photos: Allan Savory
Before we didnt know what we could do. Wed seen the land get
worse and worse, the rivers stop flowing, the grass stop
growing. Selinah Ndubiwa.
Of partnerships and promises
The picture on the left shows livestock, accompanied by herders, soon after they were brought to the demonstration site and planned grazing
began. The picture on the right shows the improved condition of livestock after one year of planned grazing.
Through its partnership with the Wange community, the Africa

Centre hopes to become a model of sustainable resource
management that can be replicated in the region and elsewhere
in Africa to restore land productivity, diversity of wildlife, and
local community livelihoods. As all involved in development
know, societal change is difficult and more so in todays
Zimbabwe, so this work is not without considerable challenges.
However in this case the Chiefs as Trustees, together with the
staff of the Africa Centre and the people in the community, are
slowly but steadily making a difference to the lives of the
surrounding communities. Wange villagers are learning how to
manage their natural resources wildlife, livestock, crops, and
watersheds in a sustainable fashion, making sound livelihood
decisions without sacrificing their cultural values.
Timeless evolution humans, livestock, and wildlife

Wange villagers are working to make livelihood decisions based
on their vision of a healthy ecosystem that includes wildlife,
livestock and people living side-by-side. To do that, a new
understanding of some old concepts is required.
For instance, overgrazing has been faulted for degrading lands.
Yet, perhaps what has not been recognized universally is what
overgrazing really is. Overgrazing is a function of time, not
animal numbers and occurs when an animal returns to a grass
plant before it has had time to regenerate. When animals are
allowed to roam at will, they will indeed revisit plants before the
plants can recover. However, when animals are herded so as to
ensure that they do not re-graze plants before they have
recovered, then overgrazing is no longer an issue. Time governs
the effects of trampling too. Animal hooves enhance soil health
when they chip sealed soil surfaces, and knock down dead plants
so they can decay more quickly. But they cause damage if
animals remain in one place too long or return to it too soon.
By taking in starving livestock from the Wange Community, the

Africa Centre not only saved the animals, but by increasing the
herd size from 100 to 600 animals was able to demonstrate how
the herd size can be beneficial, if managed correctly. The land
improved significantly in terms of forage production and ground
cover over the next two years; and so did the condition of the
animals within a single year. The villagers could see the changes
Elephants that share the renewed water sources and fodder

now available in Dimbangombe.
for themselves and also noted that the Dimbangombe River was
flowing once more.
One group of villagers decided to give the idea a try on their
own land. Africa Centre staff and a village-based trainer showed
them how to plan the grazing for their herd and they more or less
kept to their plan through the growing season. By the end of the
season they had significantly more forage than previously, but
neighbouring villagers soon poached the grass because theirs
had run out. However, they are committed to trying again in the
coming growing season. Another group of villagers had
experienced the same results a few years earlier, managing to
grow enough excess forage to provide thatch for their homes for
the first time in years, but they lost much of it to poachers and
gave up. The Africa Centres challenge is to extend education to
many more villagers so there will be no need to poach grass
from each other. In the meantime, the staff are working with the
chiefs to address the problem.
The people really became interested when they realized it was
people who were causing the land to deteriorate, not the
animals. If people were doing it then we could fix it.
Selina Ndubiwa.
The impact of the project at the watershed level is best
illustrated with pictures taken in 2004.
It is amazing how once-dry land can be turned into rich land,
in terms of water and ground cover how it can be revived.
Community member.
Taking time and decisions

Using Holistic Management, people begin to view their
management options in a whole new way, which in turn affects
the way they make management decisions. This approach is
innovative and yet elegantly simple. When one views the system
By combining small groups of animals into larger herds and

planning their daily moves, herdsmen maximize forage
production and the benefits of animal impact the hoof action
of the animals as well as the dung and urine that fertilize the
soil. By mimicking the wild herds that roamed these lands in the
past and keeping livestock moving, they minimize overgrazing
of plants, which over time leads to increased ground cover.
Livestock are, in effect, being used as a tool for improving soil
aeration, water penetration, seed germination, and increasing
species diversity and productivity. Rivers begin to flow again
because water retention in soils is increased, leading also to
more secure and lasting boreholes. These elements, combined
with predator-friendly approaches to protecting livestock such
as lion-proof kraals, enhance the habitat for large populations of
wildlife to grow and flourish.
Photo: Allan Savory
time and energy to governance of the Africa Centre, which the

community views as their Centre.
27
Photos: Allan Savory
The picture on the left shows a typical river in the Wange Community. This picture was taken in late March 2004 at the end of an average rainfall
year and, as can be seen, the area appeared to be suffering another drought. The picture on the right is of the Dimbangombe River and surrounding
land, taken on the same day. Using Holistic Management grazing planning, the rehabilitated river represents new water as it was not previously
flowing into the river but was being lost largely to soil surface evaporation.
through a holistic lens and monitors all of the ecosystem

processes (water cycle, mineral cycle, energy flow, and
biological community dynamics) then management addresses
the whole. One can manage animals to manage land, water, and
biodiversity.
If one practice could renew our communities, land, water and

biological diversity, it would be a different world today. Behind
the good practices there must be a shift in how we view our
ecosystem and our relationship to it. Holistic Management
offers the opportunity to simultaneously address the pillars of
sustainability economic, productive, environmental, social and
cultural for positive change. It involves the use of a practical
decision-making process that effectively deals with complex
systems from a holistic perspective. The process starts with
setting a holistic goal that ties together what people value most
deeply in their lives with their life-supporting environment.
Through a planning process within a holistic framework, and by
testing decisions against these values and the condition of the
environment, people consistently make better decisions for
themselves and also the fauna, flora and environment on which
all life depends.
28
The community has a deep desire to change their course and

sees the Africa Centre as a key partner for making that happen.
Building human and social capital is at the heart of helping
todays communities to regenerate their resource base and
become sustainable communities. The Africa Centre is building
the skills and capacity for solving local problems through a
number of education and training avenues. Through combining
training in Holistic Management with training related to village
bank groups, village permaculture gardens, game guiding and
other ecotourism skills, and by demonstrating that the land can
be restored, the community is gaining confidence that their
lives in turn can change. Africa Centre Trustee Allan Savory
notes:
The 20 000 acres of land impacted thus far is small in

comparison to the over one million acres of the Wange
communal lands, but it is their community example and learning
site. The combined results of the village banks, the gardens, new
herding techniques, and ecotourism education, is creating a
shift toward the communitys vision. This vision will not
materialize overnight we like to refer to this as a 100-year
project but the transformation is underway.
The community-based conservation programme guided by the
Africa Centre serves as a model that now needs to be replicated
throughout the communities within the Wange Communal
Lands to restore degraded land, water quality, quantity of
drinking water, and local community livelihoods.
The Africa Centre has so far trained 13 graduates from South
Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe to be Holistic Management
Certified Educators. They are in turn providing training in their
own communities. In addition, the Centres Certified
Community Facilitator Programme develops trainers who work
in specific communities in the local language or dialect. These
two programmes are beginning to build the capacity needed to
replicate the Africa Centres work with the Wange Community
elsewhere in Africa.
Constance L. Neely and Jody Butterfield. The Savory Center, 1010 Tijeras NW,
Albuquerque, NM 87102, United States of America. Email:[email protected] ;
[email protected] ; website: www.holisticmanagement.org
References
- Heyman, B., 2004. Can communities monitor the health of their
ecosystems? Implementing the Dimbangombe Ecosystem Health Pilot Project.
Tufts University.
- Nduiwa, S. and J. Butterfield, 2004. The Africa Centre revitalizing a community.
In Practice (98), Nov-Dec. 2004. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
- Savory, A. and J. Butterfield, 1999. Holistic Management: a new framework for
decision making. Island Press, Washington DC.
- Smuts, J., 1970. Holism and Evolution. Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut.
Tell us your story!

Guidelines for writing an article for LEISA Magazine
There are many interesting initiatives, projects and experiences
with Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture taking
place around the world. We would like to encourage more
readers to share their experiences with other practitioners
through LEISA Magazine. To assist you, we provide full editorial
support and are happy to discuss ideas and outlines with you
before they are developed into a full article.
Who am I writing for?

LEISA Magazine is read by development workers, field
practitioners and also by farmers themselves. In some countries,
NGOs organize reading groups and read and discuss articles
with groups of farmers in their own language. Educational
institutions, researchers, students, administrators and policymakers throughout the world also subscribe and make use of the
information in the magazine.
LEISA readers come from a wide range of backgrounds and for
most of them, English is their second or even third language. We
therefore ask our contributors to write in an easily readable style
and present their information in a clear and explanatory way.
Many readers will have little prior knowledge of the theme being
explored, so all concepts should be clearly explained and
sufficient background information should be provided so that
readers can understand the setting of the experience.
What should be in an article?

Articles for LEISA Magazine describe the experiences of a
person or group of people who, using LEISA approaches, have
developed ways to improve their rural livelihoods. By describing
the difficulties of their situation, how they were dealt with and
what happened as a result, they can inspire and help others to try
to find their own practical solutions.
Themes for 2005

Issue 21.1 March 2005: Energy on the farm
(see previous issue of LEISA Magazine)
Issue 21.2 June 2005: Economics of LEISA
Issue 21.3 September 2005: Small animals on the farm

Smaller animals like sheep, goats, rabbits, pigs, guinea pigs,
chickens, ducks and fowl as well as sweet water fish are often
overlooked components of small-scale agricultural systems.
For smaller farms and in particular poorer households, they are
To write a clear and accessible article, you will need to describe:

WHAT was the initial context, and what were the difficulties
faced?
WHO took the initiative to improve the situation?
HOW did they go about it, and what were the reasons for their
particular approach?
WHEN did this all happen, and to what extent was the timing
important?
WHAT happened as a result?
WHY did it work out as it did? Please include some
opinions/analysis/conclusions relevant to field level, not just
recommendations for policy makers!
As the articles go through a rigorous editorial process, authors
are usually requested to provide additional information or
clarifications. We would therefore rather have too much
information than too little in the first draft!
ILEIA offers to pay on request Euro 75.00 per article published in
LEISA Magazine. The editors reserve the right to decide whether
or not to publish an article or contribution, after receipt of the first
full draft. Articles that are accepted will be edited to ILEIA style
and shortened if necessary. Contributions edited in this way will
be returned to the author(s) for approval before publication.
Please note that readers are encouraged to copy and circulate
articles from LEISA Magazine.
LEISA Magazine is published on a thematic basis. Your article
has a much better chance of being published if it is relevant to a
particular theme. See the box below for an outline of the themes
for 2005. For a full call for articles, please contact ILEIA.
often a major source of protein and additional income. These

animals are usually easy to handle and require little in terms of
feed and care. They can thrive on waste products such as crop
residues, weeds and household waste and their manure can be
used on the farm. In many cases, improving knowledge and
management of small animals can considerably enhance their
contribution to the livelihoods of small-scale farming families.
Deadline for contributions is 1 June 2005.
Issue 21.4 December 2005: From practice to policies

Agricultural policies have considerable influence on farming
practices as well as on possibilities for change. They influence
not only farmers and the way they farm, but also agricultural
research and training institutions and commercial companies.
At present most agricultural policies are supportive of
conventional, export oriented and large-scale agricultural
production, and provide little support to small-scale family
farming and LEISA practices. This makes it increasingly
difficult for small-scale farmers to benefit from and further
develop their small plots of land. In spite of this negative policy
environment, there are examples where initiatives driven by
farmers or local communities have influenced change at policy
level, sometimes leading to further positive changes at local
level. Showing how local initiatives have led to policy change
can provide important insights into the process involved in
creating a supportive policy environment for LEISA.
Deadline for contributions is 1 September 2005.
Conventionally, the economics of agricultural production is

assessed only in terms of direct financial costs and benefits.
To understand the real value of an agricultural system, however,
many other aspects should be taken into account. For example,
the impact of agricultural practices on social and cultural
relationships; on the long-term sustainability of the
environment; and on the health and well-being of humans and
animals. In LEISA systems, these aspects are considered at least
as important as purely financial performance. In this issue, we
are looking for articles that illustrate how a change to, or
development of LEISA practices has improved the situation of
farm households, the community and/or the environment,
for example through improvements in production, nutrition,
food security or freedom from debt.
Deadline for contributions is 1 March 2005.
LEISA Magazine is not a scientific journal, and we do not publish

the results of pure research, proposals or simply
recommendations. Technologies or interventions described should
have been tried out in practice by farmers or a rural community.
29
Conservation tillage in Kenya

Following are some impressions from a project in Kenya on
conservation agriculture, sent in by Paul Wamai Mwangi. The
project has a practical focus, introducing equipment for
conservation agriculture as well as training local artisans to
make the equipment. For more information about conservation
agriculture see LEISA Magazine issue 18.3, September 2003.
30
Paul Wamai Mwangi, Kenya Network for Draught Animal Technology

(KENDAT), P.O. Box 2859, City Square, 00200, Nairobi. Email:
[email protected]
Photo: Author
When we started conservation tillage in Laikipia, we had a

difficult task to convince the farmers that indeed there are other,
better farming methods besides the popular conventional
ploughing and hoeing. During the initial trials in 1999 - 2000
(the driest period the country has experienced in the last two
decades), it was more than noteworthy that it was only our plots
that had maize growing with a degree of vigour. Although these
early seasons of trials did not lead to grain harvest, it was clearly
evident from the impressive biomass yield that there was
something to learn about what farmers then referred to as
modern farming. In this arid area, the amount of biomass
available for ground cover is a major limiting factor due to
inadequate levels produced over a limited moisture supply
period.
Kenyan farmers continue to use tillage implements that are not

only inappropriate but also out of shape. These implements are
poorly adjusted and worn. They are unable to penetrate partly
because they were never designed for depth but to turn and
pulverize the soil. Indeed, farmers are making up to 8 tillage
passes looking for penetration and percolation. Instead they
leave behind a heavily compacted subsoil, and vulnerable
topsoil of poor structure. Such soils lose their microbial
activity, water and hence fertility. They will not support a crop
and will, for sure, be carried away by the erosive rains. How
much longer will this quiet desertification continue
unaddressed? Our farmers need the help from those who know.
This family depends on their two donkeys for transport, tillage and a little bit of enterprise for their daily bread. The two kids are always with
their parents, watching every step what will come to be their source of livelihood once they grow up. With new, more appropriate farming
methods, this family can increase their food basket and their health, and the malnourished donkeys can be used for lighter work. Poverty ridden
families have little time to think of these malnourished, underfed and overworked animals. These farmers are curious about better harnessing
methods of donkeys, both in tillage and transport.
Creative lesson plan on medicinal plants for teachers,

educators and community workers by Ecology and Natural
Resource Education ENRE. 2003. 92 p. and Creative lesson plan on
rice for teachers, educators and community workers
by ENRE. 2003. 98 pp. India Rupees 30.00. ENRE, 85A Dharmatola road,
Bosep ukur, Kolkata 700042, India. Email: [email protected]
These two booklets on medicinal plants and rice are volumes
four and six in the series Selection from Basbhumi, booklets
for activity-based environmental education. The booklets,
which describe lesson plans for active learning, have been
developed together with the teachers and childrens groups of the
ENRE network. The lesson plans are meant for teachers,
community workers and parents as a starting point in
environmental education and school agriculture programmes.
They are useful to rouse childrens interest in the local
environment and allow them to discover facts by themselves.
Although the booklets are meant for Indian schools, they may
have a wider application with some adaptations.
Developing smallholder agriculture: a global perspective

by Tinsley, R.L. 2004. 438 p. ISBN 981 05 0873 5. US$49.00. AgB
publishing, P.O. box 1, 1050 Brussels, Belgium. Email: [email protected]
This book is a synthesis of the authors work with smallholders
over almost three decades. It presents lessons learned from
farming systems research, paying particular attention to those
factors and issues that constrain smallholder agricultural
development. It questions the hypothesis that smallholders
failure to fully exploit their physical environment is the result of
limited motivation and a desire to limit risks. It replaces this
notion with an appreciation of the limited resources
smallholders have at their disposal. The book looks beyond
technology development and concentrates on service delivery
systems. It emphasizes the importance of village-level, private
micro-enterprises as a means to assist smallholders, and
questions the effectiveness of the public sector. The book can be
used as a textbook for students, or a handbook for consultants,
researchers and (high level) extension workers.
Farmer field research: an analysis of experiences in

Indonesia by Berg H. van den, Ooi P.A.C., Hakim A.L. [et al.]. 2004. 70 p.
Technology integration through agro-eco

system analysis using participatory
approaches by Jamal S., Arya H.P.S. 2004.
144 p. ISBN 81 8069 119 5. India Rupees 300.00 (D5.10).
Concept Publishing Company, A/15-16, Commercial
Block, Mohan Garden, New Delhi 110059, India.
The first part in this book deals with the role of
science and technology in agricultural
development. It looks at different approaches to
inform farmers about agricultural innovations
such as the Transfer of Technology versus
participatory approaches; and the process and methods of
agro-ecosystem analysis. This part is rather short and
superficial. Chapters four and five are the most interesting part
of the book. Chapter four discusses the concept and principles of
PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal), and chapter five explains
different tools in detail and provides examples and illustrations.
Although the subjects of the remaining chapters (on Participatory
Technology Development, participatory research for
empowerment of women, participatory planning and technology
dissemination and technology integration) are of utmost
importance, the topics could have been discussed more
thoroughly.
Participatory Rural Appraisal: methods & applications

in rural planning (essays in honour of Robert Chamber)
by Mukherjee A. 2004. 456 p. ISBN 81 8069 105 5.
Participatory Learning & Action: monitoring & evaluation

and participatory monitoring & evaluation (essays in
honour of Robert Chambers) by Mukherjee A. 2004. 425 p.
ISBN 1 8069 106 3. India Rupees 750.00 (D13.00). Concept Publishing
Company, A/15-16, Commercial Block, Mohan Garden, New Delhi 11005,
India. Email: [email protected]
These books are volumes five and six in a series called Studies
in Rural Participation. These companion volumes address
participatory planning (PRA, Volume 5) and participatory
monitoring & evaluation (PLA, Volume 6). Volume five starts
with a chapter by Robert Chambers on the principles of PRA,
and the following chapters provide a good overview of the
different PRA/PLA tools that can be used for local level
planning. However, the numerous tools are only mentioned, not
described in detail. Volume five also examines data collection
using PRA/PLA tools, and presents case studies from India,
Ethiopia and Indonesia. Volume six, on Participatory
Monitoring and Evaluation, deals with the difference between
traditional Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) using PRA/PLA
tools, and participatory M&E. It also describes some of these
PRA/PLA tools in detail. Four case studies from India are
presented where participatory tools were used for traditional
evaluation of development projects, as well as two case studies
on participatory evaluation from Nepal and Sri Lanka. Together
with a good handbook describing PRA tools in detail, these two
books could be valuable for government organizations and
NGOs that want to make a start with participatory planning and
participatory M&E.
Visit our website: www.leisa.info
FAO-EU IPM programme for cotton in Asia, FAO regional office for Asia and
the Pacific, Maliwan Mansian, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
This report is the outcome of a study on Participatory
Technology Development to control pests in paddy cultivation
through Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Indonesia. The
authors tested three concepts that they feel are necessary for the
success of farmer field research: non-formal education;
ownership of the entire research process by farmers; and that
observation and experimentation generates a self-propelling
mechanism of research. The report
describes five cases of farmer field
research. Based on these cases, an
analysis is made of the process of field
research, the roles in field research, and
the impact of the field research. The
report shows that farmers are not just
clients of technology but are able to
innovate and create technology
themselves. The report includes a
useful guide for facilitators and others
involved in farmer field research, and ends with the important

remark that not only the economic benefits of a technology, but
also social aspects, environmental pollution and human health
should be considered.
31
Ecoagriculture : strategies to feed the world and

save biodiversity by McNeely J.A., Scherr S.J. 2003. 323 p.
Farming with the wild: enhancing biodiversity on farms

and ranches by Imhoff D. 2003. 184 p. ISBN 1 57805 092 8.
ISBN 1 55963 645 9, US$27.50, Future Harvest and IUCN. Island Press,
1718 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 300, Washington DC 20009-1148,
USA. www.islandpress.org
This book provides a rich information source based on the idea
that agricultural landscapes can be designed more creatively to
take into account the needs of human populations while also
protecting, or even enhancing, biodiversity. The authors call
this concept ecoagriculture. The first part of the book
examines the global impact of agriculture on wild biodiversity,
and the importance of wild biodiversity for agriculture. The
second part contains 36 case studies from different parts of the
world including Asia, Africa, America and Europe, which
illustrate efforts to achieve biodiversity conservation in
agricultural regions. In all of these cases, wild biodiversity
increased and farmer incomes and livelihoods improved. In
most cases, especially in developing countries, agricultural
product supply also increased. The third part of the book looks
at the policy changes required and ways to incorporate
ecoagriculture into ecosystem planning and management on a
regional scale.
Sierra Club Books, 85 Second Street, San Francisco, CA 94105, USA.

www.sierraclub.org/books. Distributed by University of California Press,
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. www.ucpress.edu
This book is the result of a multiyear research project to document
on-the-ground efforts to restore
wild habitats within farming and
ranching regions across the USA.
The objective of the book is to
further the establishment of
conservation communities across
the USA by describing positive
examples of organic farmers who
enhance biodiversity on their farms and ranches. The book
consists primarily of case studies that have been organized into
different categories. The final chapter attempts to draw
conclusions, presenting some of the best practices, core
principles and key resources. Rather than providing a detailed
blueprint for creating a wild farm it gives an overview of
important elements an organic farmer should consider.
Although the book gives examples from the USA only, it is
informative and interesting to read, brought to life with many
pictures.
Organic agriculture: a handbook by Rosenberg A., Linders T.

2004. 223 p. ISBN 0 620 30952 0. Lindros Whole Earth Consultants,
P.O. Box 68929, Bryanston 2021, South Africa. Email: [email protected];
www.lindros.co.za
This handbook is the product of thirty years of experience in
organic farming, mainly in South Africa. The authors want to
share their knowledge, findings, and lessons learned from their
successes and mistakes. The book starts
by providing a background and context
for organic agriculture. The main
chapters are on soils (texture, structure,
organic matter, etc.), composting, soil
conservation, vegetable cultivation,
animal husbandry (poultry, cattle,
rabbits, bees), farm planning and organic
certification. The book combines theory
with a lot of practical information, for
instance on how to make a compost pit or
a hen house, feeding requirements for
animals and how to milk by hand.
Although some parts of the book are
applicable only to South Africa, many parts are relevant
worldwide.
32
Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods by Bradbear N. 2004.

62 p. ISBN 92 5 105074 0. FAO Diversification Booklet 1. FAO, Viale delle
Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. www.fao.org
This booklet is the first in a new FAO series on diversification.
The aim of this series is to raise awareness and provide
information about opportunities at the farm and local
community level to increase small-scale farmer income. Each
booklet focuses on a specific enterprise that can be easily
integrated into small farms. This booklet highlights the
appropriateness, viability and potential benefits of beekeeping.
It shows that these hard-working animals have significant
positive effects on yields of flowering plants. In addition, bees
produce all kinds of products, like honey, wax, pollen and
royal jelly the latter two being often used as medicines. This
booklet provides good background information on beekeeping.
Readers who are interested in additional information (for
instance, on how to keep bees) will appreciate the chapter of
resources including websites, books, and videos.
Understanding environmental policy processes: cases

from Africa by Keeley J., Scoones I. 2003. 223 p. ISBN 1 85383 975 2,
UK17.95. Earthscan, 120 Pentonville Road, London N1 9JN, UK.
Email: [email protected] ; www.earthscan.co.uk
This book offers a critical analysis of scientific expertise in
environment and development. It looks at how policies are
made and how knowledge from scientists, farmers and others
is incorporated. The authors unravel the politics of knowledge
surrounding policy-making, looking particularly at Ethiopia,
Mali and Zimbabwe and the management of land and soils in
these countries. Questions asked include: Why do particular
perspectives on environmental change become so entrenched
in policy? Whose interests are served? Whose knowledge is
included and whose is excluded? It also examines the effects of
inappropriate diagnosis and inadequate reflection in
formulating and implementing new policies.
The farm as natural habitat: reconnecting food systems

with ecosystems by Jackson D.L., Jackson L.L. (eds). 2002. 297p.
ISBN 1 55963 847 8. Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.,
Suite 300, Washington. www.islandpress.org
This book seeks to help raise awareness of the common values
shared among farmers and environmentalists and emphasizes
that Conservation is not just about building another terrace,
its sharing the land with 100,000 other species. The many
different authors, from the fields of conservation biology,
sustainable agriculture and ecological restoration, reject the
idea that ecological sacrifice zones are a necessary part of
feeding a hungry world. They share a concern that large-scale,
industrialized agriculture with its problems of habitat loss,
erosion and water pollution, will
completely outgrow traditional
agriculture. This book is intended to
assist farmers to reverse this trend
and to take the path towards
agroecological restoration. It is
divided into four parts. Part one
examines the problems of
industrialized agriculture. Part two
describes exemplary farmers (mostly from the USA) whose

farming practices are more in harmony with the natural world,
conserving soil, water and wildlife. Part three explores options
for sound ecosystem management, and the final sections
outlines steps that are necessary to start a meaningful,
ecological restoration of agriculture. It shows that restoration
has to occur at many different levels, including the farmer, the
consumer and the political level. This book makes interesting
reading.
African savannas: global narratives and local knowledge

of environmental change by Bassett T.J., Crummey D. (eds.) 2003.
270 p. ISBN 0 85255 424 9. UK16.95. James Currey, 73 Botley Road,
Oxford OX2 0BS, UK. www.jamescurrey.co.uk
This collection of papers promotes an image in which African
farmers and herders appear as knowledgeable and responsible
environmental managers, as actors rather than victims. The
research establishes the importance of local knowledge to
African savannas, which cover a
significant proportion of Africa. The
contributors collectively argue that policy
must be more critical of received ideas and
global narratives. Policy must be more
open to local knowledge and to the
political and ecological dynamics of
environmental change. The authors utilize
a wide range of methodologies to measure
landscape change, to demonstrate the
importance of the past, and to illuminate
contemporary political ecological
dynamics.
Social history and African environments by Beinart W.,

McGregor J. (eds.) 2003. 275 p. ISBN 0 85255 950 X. UK18.95. James
Currey, 73 Botley Road, Oxford OX2 0BS, UK www.jamescurrey.co.uk
The volume brings together essays on the relationship between
the environmental ideas and practices of local people, colonial
officials, settlers and scientists in Africa. The collection
explores ideas about nature and the landscape, shedding new
light on constructions of ethnicity and heritage. This relatively
new approach in African social and environmental history
explores the context in which knowledge and ideas about
nature, conservation and landscape were formed. The
contributors draw on a broad range of sources including field
investigations, oral histories and archival records, as well as
literary narratives and other texts, African myths and legends,
colonial and wildlife photography. The book brings fresh
perspectives to well-developed debates about the politics of
colonial conservation and African resistance.
Environment Department Paper No. 98. Available from NORAGRIC,

P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 As, Norway. Email: [email protected] .
Pdf file at http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/envext.nsf/44ByDoc
Name/Publications
Based on an analysis of 54 case studies, this study shows that
forests are a significant source of income for rural households.
Omitting this income often leads to an underestimation of rural
incomes, which may lead to flawed policies. The report
suggests some best practices in the study of forest income that
might be useful for researchers: research protocols, field
methods, and simple analytical models. Unfortunately, the
authors hardly touch upon gender and the (side) effects the
harvesting of forest products may have on the environment.
238 p. ISBN 0 85954 541 5. UK18.00.

Natural Resources Institute (NRI), University
of Greenwich, Kent ME4 4TB, UK. Email:
[email protected]; www.nri.org. Order
from: CABI, Wallingford, Oxon OX10 8DE,
UK. Quote ECN18.
This book is a collection of papers
about biodiversity management in
rural development. It examines how
to better accommodate biodiversity
concerns in situations where poverty reduction and welfare
improvement are the primary aims of development. It takes a
cross-disciplinary approach with contributions from
economists, sociologists, ecologists, biologists and pest
management specialists. The individual papers reflect the
lively debate and the different perspectives of individual
authors with a diverse range of backgrounds. The book will be
of interest to everyone with practical interest in managing
biological resources in developing countries.
Food wars: the global battle for mouths, minds and

markets by Lang T., and Heasman M. 2004. 365 p.
ISBN 1 85383 702 4. Earthscan, 120 Pentonville Road, London N1 9JN, UK.
Email: [email protected] ; www.earthscan.co.uk
Food wars provides a clear analysis of the forces that are
shaping our present and future food systems. In this context, it
describes three competing paradigms. The first is the current
Productionist paradigm that fuelled the Green Revolution
and dominates our present agriculture. This model is now seen
by many as unsustainable in the longer term, and two
paradigms are competing to replace it: the developing Life
Sciences Integrated paradigm that sees new biotechnologies
as the key to future life and health; and the Ecologically
Integrated paradigm, which takes the perspective that
achieving health, food security and food democracy can only
be achieved by working with nature, rather than simply
controlling it. This book effectively dismantles the reductionist
approach of the technology-focused Productionist and Life
Sciences paradigms. More importantly, it examines the
factors that influence decision-making all the way along the
food chain, including at policy level. This is an important book
for those who wish to consider the global politics of food and
health.
Healthy crops: a new agricultural

revolution by Chaboussou F. 2004. 244 p.
ISBN 1 897766 89 0, UK9.99. Jon Carpenter,
Alder House, Market street, Charlbury OX7 3PQ,
UK. Email: [email protected]
Based on his own research and that of
others, Francis Chaboussou argues for
improving the health of our crops instead
of using chemicals to eliminate pests and
diseases. Healthy crops resist attack, but
chemical pesticides and fertilizers weaken plants, making them
vulnerable to disease. Learning how to treat the sick and not
the sickness is an effective tool for plant protection that can
substantially reduce problems with pests and diseases in the
field, especially for those working in agriculture without
chemicals. Fortunately this important book, original published
in French in 1985, is now available in English.
Counting on the environment: forest incomes and the

rural poor by Vedeld P. [et al.]. 2004. 95 p. The World Bank
Biodiversity management in rural

development by Grimble R. (ed.). 2002.
33
Ecoagriculture Partners
www.ecoagriculturepartners.org
1050 Potomac St., NW, 20007 Washington DC, USA
Ecoagriculture refers to sustainable agriculture
and associated natural resource management
systems that embrace and simultaneously enhance
productivity, rural livelihoods, ecosystem services
and biodiversity. Ecoagriculture includes a wide
range of systems and practices that integrate
productivity goals (for crops, livestock, fish, trees
and forests) with provision of ecosystem services
including biodiversity and watershed services at a
landscape scale. Ecoagriculture Partners is an
umbrella organization embracing diverse actors
who work to develop and scale up Ecoagriculture
systems. Partners come from conservation nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), agricultural
NGOs, international research organizations,
farmers organizations, universities, private sector
companies, inter-governmental organizations, and
public agencies. Individuals may also be Partners.
IUCN - World Conservation Union
www.iucn.org
Rue Mauverney 28, Gland 1196, Switzerland
IUCN is global alliance for conservation and wise
use of living resources. Their mission is to
influence, encourage and assist societies
throughout the world to conserve the integrity and
diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of
natural resources is equitable and ecologically
sustainable. For more than 50 years, this green
web of partners has generated environmental
conventions and scientific knowledge and
provided leadership in the field of conservation.
Through its projects, IUCN works to apply sound
ecosystem management to demonstrate how this is
the only way to sustainable livelihoods for those
directly dependent on natural resources. The
IUCN website includes links to information about
the work carried out by IUCN Commissions,
Programmes and Offices around the world.
34
Launched on 30 January 2002, the programme focuses on the region

between 23.5 degrees north and south of the Equator as this zone holds the
worlds greatest concentrations of both human poverty and biological
wealth. The Equator Initiatives biennial Equator Prize is awarded to
recognize communities from developing countries in the tropical belt that
demonstrate in practical terms successful simultaneous efforts to conserve
biodiversity and reduce poverty.
The Savory Center

www.holisticmanagement.org
1010 Tijeras Ave NW, NM 87102 Albuquerque, USA
The Savory Center is an international not-for-profit organization that
promotes Holistic Management worldwide. Holistic Management has
helped people all over the world more effectively manage all their resources
in a truly sustainable way. It involves defining a holistic goal that describes
the quality of life they collectively seek, then defining what they have to
produce to create that quality of life, and describing the resource base they
depend upon as it will have to be, far into the future, to sustain what they
must produce to create the quality of life they envision.
Seed Savers Network

www.seedsavers.net
P.O. Box 975, Byron Bay, NSW 2481, Australia
The Seed Savers Network is an Australian NGO with projects in several
developing countries. It views seed-saving as a vital means of preserving
genetic resources in the face of a global trend towards corporate agriculture
and reduced food species diversity. To this end, it is committed to openpollinated seeds as a better natural alternative to their hybrid and genetically
engineered counterparts. The network provides financial and educational
assistance to community development projects, and open-pollinated seed
stock to individuals, groups and communities.
The Peoples Caravan for Food Sovereignty 2004

www.panap.net/caravan
The Caravan is a grassroots led mass mobilization that took place
simultaneously in 13 Asian countries from Mongolia down to Indonesia,
from India to Japan. It started in Malaysia and arrived in Kathmandu, Nepal
during September 2004. The purpose of this event was to raise awareness
and gather support amongst the broad range of sectors (peasants, women,
indigenous people, consumers, policy makers, media, workers, fisherfolk)
on important issues of Food Sovereignty. Reports and pictures are available
from the website.
Agroforestry Net
Course in Sustainable Environmental Management
www.agroforestry.net/overstory
P.O. Box 428, HI 96725, Holualoa, USA
Agroforestry Net, Inc. is dedicated to providing
educational resources about agroforestry, trees, and
sustainable stewardship of land and water. This
non-profit organization produces the Overstory, a
free e-mail agroforestry journal for practitioners,
researchers, professionals, and enthusiasts.
http://cnr.berkeley.edu/BeahrsELP
The Beahrs Environmental Leadership Program (ELP) at the College of
Natural Resources, University of California, USA is seeking applicants for
the 2005 summer certificate course in Sustainable Environmental
Management. The 2005 course brochure and application can be
downloaded from the above website.
The Equator Initiative

www.undp.org/equatorinitiative
Equator Initiative, 405 Lexington Avenue, 4th Floor, New
York, NY 10174, USA Email: [email protected]
The Equator Initiative is a United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) partnership
programme that aims to reduce poverty through
the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity in the equatorial belt by recognizing
local achievements, fostering South-South
capacity development, and supporting policy
strengthening and knowledge generation.
Fallownet discussion group

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/fallownet
This discussion group will serve as an avenue for information exchange
among upland researchers, extensionists, and farmer leaders in the Southeast
Asian region, focusing on soil fertility and fallow management systems.
National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA)

http://attra.ncat.org
Looking for the latest in sustainable agriculture and organic farming news,
events and funding opportunities? This site features all that, plus in-depth
publications on production practices, alternative crop and livestock enterprises,
innovative marketing, and organic certification. It provides information and
other technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, extension agents, educators,
and others involved in sustainable agriculture in the United States.
Convention on Biological Diversity
Organic Eprints
www.biodiv.org
393 St. Jacques St, Suite 300, Montreal, QC, Canada, H2Y 1N9. Email: [email protected]
Signed by 150 government leaders at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is dedicated to promoting
sustainable development. Conceived as a practical tool for translating the
principles of Agenda 21 into reality, the Convention recognizes that
biological diversity is about more than plants, animals and micro organisms
and their ecosystems it is about people and our need for food security,
medicines, fresh air and water, shelter, and a clean and healthy environment
in which to live. The Convention website includes information organised by
the thematic programmes including agricultural biodiversity, as well as
cross-cutting issues such as traditional knowledge, indicators, sustainable
use and protected areas. Information resources available on the website
include a roster of experts, case studies, a calendar of events and an
information centre and document search facility.
http://orgprints.org
Organic Eprints is an international open access
archive for papers related to research in organic
agriculture. The archive contains full-text papers
in electronic form together with bibliographic
information, abstracts and other data.
World Agroforestry Centre

www.worldagroforestrycentre.org
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). United Nations Avenue, Gigiri,
P.O. Box 30677-00100 GPO, Nairobi, Kenya. Email: [email protected]
The World Agroforestry Centre is one of a network of 16 Future Harvest
centres located throughout the developing world. The Centre, also known as
ICRAF, focuses on four primary themes: agroforestry systems that help to
restore soil fertility and regenerate degraded lands; market-driven tree
cultivation systems that help lift rural poor out of poverty and improve their
health and nutrition; agroforestry systems that enhance environmental
services, such as watershed protection, biodiversity conservation, and
carbon sequestration; and capacity building for agroforestry research and
development. A database of agroforestry publications is available on this
website, a few of which can be accessed online.
Agroecology and small farmers in the developing world

www.agroeco.org
Agroecological research uses ecological theory to study, design, manage
and evaluate agricultural systems that are productive but also resource
conserving. Interesting research papers written by Miguel Altieri are
available from this website.
Wild meat, livelihoods security and

conservation in the tropics
www.odi-bushmeat.org
The practice of wild meat or bushmeat hunting
in the tropics is of increasing international concern.
The United Nations has warned of an impending
bushmeat crisis in many parts of the world,
which threatens both the food security of forest
communities and the survival of the species
hunted.
Hands On-Ideas to Go
www.tve.org/ho
Hands On, P.O. Box 1127, Rugby, CV21 3ZG,
United Kingdom. Email: [email protected]
The Earth Report Hands On-Ideas to Go website
brings together information on what people
around the world are doing to meet the practical
challenges of Agenda 21 the Earth Summits
action plan to save people and planet. Find out
more about past and present programmes by
searching via subject, date, by series or title. Or,
make the most of the latest technology, and
download the audio from the OneWorld site and
insert the items into your very own radio show.
Hands On also runs an enquiry service managed
by their partners, Intermediate Technology
Development Group (ITDG). Viewers and
listeners to companion radio programmes can
access briefs prepared by the unit through this
website, as well as by email, fax and post.
ODI Forest Policy and Environment Programme

www.odifpeg.org.uk
111 Westminster Bridge Rd, SE1 7JD London, UK
The ODI Forest Policy and Environment Programme (FPEP) seeks to
inform the processes of policy change in tropical forestry on ways to
improve the livelihoods and well-being of the forest-dependent poor, whilst
also securing the long-term future of forest resources.
Rainforest Alliance
www.fao.org/participation
Via Terme Di Carcalla, 00100 Rome, Italy
This website promotes participatory methods for
development and includes case studies from FAO
database. It includes a searchable Field Tools
database, the core of which is a collection of
participatory field tools, methods and approaches
developed or applied by FAO.
Films on Water:
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
www.cseindia.org
41 Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi-110062,
India
CSE has produced a compilation of 28 films on
water, to help inspire solutions to the water
crisis. Each one of these films has been carefully
chosen to provide the right combination of
experiences from India and abroad. Visual images
often have greater impact than written words.
These video resources create awareness and
understanding on issues of water like scarcity,
pollution, politics and management.
www.rainforestalliance.org
665 Broadway, Suite 500, NY 10012, New York, USA. Email: [email protected]
The mission of the Rainforest Alliance is to protect ecosystems and the people
and wildlife that depend on them by transforming land-use practices, business
practices and consumer behaviour. The Rainforest Alliance works to meet its
goals in 53 countries by certifying farms as well as forestry and tourism
operations that meet strict standards for balancing environmental, social and
economic considerations. The sustainable agriculture programme provides
farmers with incentives to meet the standards, and encourages companies and
consumers to support the farms making improvements toward sustainability.
The Alliance is also the international secretariat of the Sustainable Agriculture
Network (SAN), a coalition of leading conservation groups that links
responsible farmers with conscientious consumers by means of the Rainforest
Alliance Certified seal of approval. The Rainforest Alliance also publishes
newsletters including the bi-monthly Eco-Exchange (Ambien-Tema in
Spanish), which is circulated to journalists, conservation groups, scientists,
and government agencies (available from the website).
FAO participation website
35
Tree Sparrow.
Photo: Andy Hay/ rspb-images.com
Organic farming
supports
biodiversity
In the United Kingdom and right throughout Europe, biodiversity
associated with farmland has seriously declined during the last 30
years. This is mainly due to the specialization and intensification
of farming practices and the consequent damage to the ecosystem.
In the UK, for example, farmland bird species like the skylark
Alauda avensis, linnet Acanthis cannabina, corn bunting, Miliaria
calandra and tree sparrow Passer montanus have declined by
over 50% and in some cases as much as 90%. Declines in the
availability of winter seed food, invertebrate food for chicks and
nest sites have been driven by intensive farming techniques such
as the widespread use of inorganic pesticides and fertilizers, and
the increasing specialization of formerly mixed farms into either
crop production or livestock production systems.
Photo: Andy Hay/ rspb-images.com
Andy Evans and Ian Alexander
Corn Bunting.
36
Overall, the review demonstrated clear benefits of organic

systems to biodiversity throughout the whole food chain. This is
thought to be mainly due to:
no inorganic pesticides or fertilisers;
a mix of livestock and crop production;
better boundary infrastructure, especially hedgerows,
resulting from the livestock element of organic farms.
Mixed farms, in particular, often provide the mixture of different
habitats that wildlife needs in order to thrive in the farmed
environment.
Although there are clearly benefits to biodiversity inherent in
organic systems, this doesnt mean organic farming is the only
solution to help farmland birds survive in the UK. The RSPB
believes that conventional farming will continue to dominate
production, and to make it possible for wildlife to exist
alongside conventional agriculture, they have worked closely
with the government, conservation agencies and other NGOs to
develop a list of possible management options that can help
make farmland ecosystems more biodiverse. The intention is
that these options can be funded and implemented under agrienvironment schemes. Ways to enhance the benefits to wildlife
already provided on organic farms are also being considered.
Andy Evans. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the Lodge, Sandy,
Bedfordshire, SG19 2DL, United Kingdom. Email: [email protected]; website:
www.rspb.org.uk
Ian Alexander. English Nature, Northminster House, Peterborough, PE1 1UA,
United Kingdom.
Photo: Chris Gomersall/ rspb-images.com
In organic farming, no inorganic pesticides or fertilizers are used.

Most organic farms also integrate livestock and crop production,
resulting in more diverse farms and farming landscapes. Organic
farming has therefore been seen by many as a potential solution to
the continuing loss of biodiversity. In order to assess the evidence
that organic farming can help save biodiversity, the Royal Society
for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and English Nature carried out
a literature review of scientific studies that compared biodiversity
on organic and conventional farms. They reviewed 76 studies
from Europe, Canada, New Zealand and the USA covering in
total 99 comparisons of wildlife including arable flora, soil
microbes, invertebrates, birds and mammals between organic and
conventional farming systems. Two thirds of these studies showed
clear benefits of organic farming for biodiversity, either in terms
of species abundance or species richness, while only eight showed
any measured benefit of conventional farming. The rest showed
mixed results or suggested no difference between the farming
methods. Some of the species for which benefits were shown were
of conservation concern: The skylark, the lapwing Vanellus
vanellus, the greater and lesser horseshoe bat Rhinolophus
ferrumequinum and R. hipposideros, the corn buttercup
Ranunculus arvensis and red-hemp nettle Galeopsis angustifolia
are all UK government Biodiversity Action Plan species.
Reference
- Hole, D.G.; A.J. Perkins; J.D. Wilson; I.H. Alexander; P.V. Grice and A.D. Evans,
2005. Can organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biological Conservation 122: 113.
Grey Partridge.

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december 2004 volume 20 no.

Magazine on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture

Farming with nature

Design & layout

A.H. M. Rezaul Haq, Tapan Kumar Ghosal

The Talamanca Initiative

The Talamanca region in the south of

The ILEIA programme is funded by Sida and DGIS.

Farming with the wild

Daniel Imhoff and Jo Ann Baumgartner

Community management of Afroalpine highlands in Ethiopia

Indigenous honeybees: allies for mountain farmers

The Talamanca Initiative

Harmonizing production and biodiversity

Cultivating wetlands in Bangladesh

A buffer zone for Sinharaja forest?

22 Pangalengan farmers: friends of the forest

24 Saving the forest through livestock intensification

26 Holistic management of African rangelands

Tell us your story!

The Guassa area of Menz in the central

Farming with nature

As human beings, we exist as part of a web of life that includes

LEISA MAGAZINE . DECEMBER 2004

For rural people, managing biodiversity has always been a central

Biological diversity or Biodiversity refers to the variety, distribution

maintain the cultural identities that have developed together with

Biodiversity or agricultural development?

Conserving biodiversity in agricultural landscapes

farm level and consider the effects of management practices on

Movements (IFOAM) has now begun an initiative to more

Over half of the worlds most species-rich areas contain large

Leaving space for wild species

Managing entire ecosystems or entire landscapes with the goals

Reducing the use of chemical inputs can help improve farmland

Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) strolling over a recently sown

Communities are often willing to protect these areas when they

LEISA MAGAZINE . DECEMBER 2004

Conventional agricultural development and intensification has

Photo: John Hollands

Maintaining ecologically healthy agricultural

Nature areas, even if they are unsuitable for regular use,

New management practices and technologies may sometimes be

One strategy for leaving space can be to intensify production

Thinking long term

Farming communities as stewards of biodiversity

Photo: Chris Gomersall/rspb-images.com

It is often necessary to combine many different elements of land

LEISA MAGAZINE . DECEMBER 2004

biodiverse farming system based on ecological production

Much can be also done at local level to improve the synergy

Farming with the wild

In the world of sustainable agriculture, we hear a lot about the

Consider agricultures unquenchable thirst for water. More than

Here are some other alarming statistics about industrial

LEISA MAGAZINE . DECEMBER 2004

What has become particularly apparent in North America,

diverted for irrigated agriculture. Around the world those

Today, roughly two-thirds of public, private, and tribal lands in