Classification

of Tissues
Objectives

>
Epithelial'Tissue (pp.

424)

Connective Tissue (pp.

Nervous Tissue

1p. a6)

Muscle Tissue 1p. a6)

llffiS)

>
F

To name the four major types of tissues in the human body and
the major subcategories of each.
To identify the tissue subcategories through microscopic inspection or inspection of an appropriate diagram or projected slide.
To state the location of the various tissue types in the body,
To list the general functions and structural characteristics of each
of the four major tissue types.

From Exercise 5 of Human Anatomy Laboratory Manual with Cat Dissections,

Sifih Edition. Elaine N. Marieb and Susan I. Mitchell. Copyright o ZOtt
by Pearson Education, Inc. Pubiished by Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
All rights reserved.

41

42

chapter

4 classification of Tissues

Materials

) Compound microscope
L lmmersion oil
}' Prepared slides of simple squamous, simple cuboidal,
simple columnar, stratified squamous (nonkeratinized),

stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, pseudostratified

ciliated columnar, and transitional epithelium

Prepared slides of mesenchyme; of adipose, areolar,

reticular. and dense (regular, irregular, and elastic)

connective tissues; of hyaline and elastic cartilage; of
fibrocartilage; of bone (x.s.); and of blood

Prepared slide of nervous tissue (spinal cord smear)

Prepared slides of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
(t.s.)

PRE-LAB QUIZ

1.

Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function are

called:

a.
b.

c. organs
d. tissues

organ systems
organisms

2. How many primary tissue types are found in the human

body?

3.

4.

5.

Circle True or False. Endocrine and exocrine glands are

classified as epithelium because they usually develop from
epithelial membranes.
Epithelial tissues can be classified according to cell
shape.
epithelial cells are scalelike and flattened.

a.

Columnar

b.

Cuboidal

c. Squamous
d. Transitional

This type

of epithelium lines the digestive tract from stomach

to anus.

a.
b,

6.

c, stratified squamous
d. transitional

simple cuboidal
simple columnar

All connective tissue is derived from an embryonic tissue

known as:

a.
b.

c.
d.

cartilage

ground substance

mesenchyme

reticular

All the following are examples of connective tissue except:

a.

bones

b.

ligaments

c. neurons
d. tendons

8. Circle True or False. Blood is a type of connective tissue.

9. Circle the correct term. Of the two major cell populations in
neryous tissue, neurons

/ neuroglial

cells are highly specialized

to receive stimuli and conduct waves of excitation to all parts

of the body.

10. How many basic types of muscle tissue are thereT

1 1. This type of muscle tissue is found in the walls of hollow
organs. lt has no striations, and its cells are spindle shaped.
It is:

a.
b.
c.

cardiac muscle
skeletal muscle

smooth muscle

ells as the building blocks of life and the all-inclusive

functional units of unicellular organisms. However, in
higher organisms, cells do not usually operate as iso-

lated, independent entities. In humans and other multicellular organisms, cells depend on one another and cooperate to
maintain homeostasis in the body.
With a few exceptions, even the most complex animal
starts out as a single cell, the fertilized egg, which divides almost endlessly. The trillions of cells that result become specialized for a particular function; some become supportive bone,
others the transparent lens of the eye, still others skin cells,
and so on. Thus a division of labor exists, with certain groups
of cells highiy specialized to perform functions that benefit
the organism as a whole. Cell specialization carries with it
certain hazards, because when a small specific group of cells is
indispensable, any inability to fu nction on its part ca n p aruly ze
or destroy the entire body.
Groups of cells that are simiiar in structure and function
are called tissues. The four primary tissue types-epithelium,
connective tissue, nervous tissue, and muscl+have distinctive
structures, patterns, and functions. The four primary tissues are
further divided into subcategories, as described shortly,
To perform specific body functions, the tissues are organized into organs such as the heart, kidneys, and lungs. Most
organs contain several representatives of the primary tissues,
and the arrangement of these tissues determines the organ's

structure and function. Thus histology, the study of tissues,

a study of gross anatomy and provides the structural basis for a study oforgan physiology.
The main objective of this exercise is to familiarize you
with the major similarities and dissimilarities of the primary
tissues, so that when the tissue composition of an organ is
described, you will be able to more easily understand (and
perhaps even predict) the organ's major function. Because
epithelium and some types of connective tissue will not be
considered again, they are emphasized more than muscle,
nervous tissue, and bone (a connective tissue).
complements

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue, or epithelium, covers surfaces. For example,
epithelium covers the external body surface (as the epidermis),
lines its cavities and tubules, and generally marks off our
"insides" from our outsides. Because the various endocrine
(hormone-producing) and exocrine glands of the body almost
invariably develop from epithelial membranes, glands, too, are
logically classed as epithelium
Epithelial functions include protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception. For example,
the epithelium covering the body surface protects against bacterial invasion and chemical damage; that lining the respiratory tract is ciliated to sweep dust and other foreign particles
away from the lungs. Epithelium specialized to absorb substances lines the stomach and small intestine-. In the kidney
tubules, the epithelium absorbs, secretes, and filters. Secretion
is a specialty of the glands.

-i

Chapter

The following characteristics distinguish epithelial tissues

from other types:

43

Classification of Tissues

,'-

APical surface

,**#

p6lafify. The membranes always have one free

surface,
is
surface
significalled the apical surface, and typically that

cantly different from thebasal surface.

i1 Cellularity and specialized contacts. Cells fit closely
together to form membranes, or sheets of cells, and are

bound together by specialized junctions.

. Supported by connective tissue. The cells are attached to
and supported by an adhesive basementmembrane, which
is an amorphous material secreted partly by the epithelia}
cells (basal lamina) and connective tissue cells (reticular
lamina) that lie adjacent to each other.
,,, Anurcd*ity. Epithelial tissues have no blood supply of
their own (are avascular), but instead depend on diffusion
of nutrients from the underlying connective tissue. (Glandular epithelia, however, are very vascular.)
r Regeneration. If well nourished, epithelial cells can easily regenerate themselves. This is an important characteristic because many epithelia are subjected to a good deal

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ol cell layers

Squamour

of friction.
The covering and lining epithelia are classified according

to two criteria-arrangement or relative number of

layers

and cell shape i"r'[ru;"* ,s"ti. On the basis of arrangement, there

are simple epithelia, consisting of one layer of cells attached
to the basement membrane, and stratified epithelia, consisting of two or more layers of cells. The general types based on
shape are squamous (scalelike), cuboidal (cubelike), and columnar (column-shaped) epithelial cells. The terms denoting
shape and arrangement of the epithelial cells are combined
to describe the epithelium firlly. Straffied epithelia are named
according to the cells at the apical surface of the epithelial membrane, notthose resting on the basement membrane.
There are, in addition, two less easily categorized types
of epithelia. Pseudostratified epithelium is actually a simple
columnar epithelium (one layer of cells), but because its cells
vary in height and their nuclei lie at different levels above
the basement membrane, it gives the false appearance of be-

ing stratified. This epithelium is often ciliated. Transitional

epithelium is a rather peculiar stratified squamous epithelium
formed of rounded, or "plump," cells with the ability to slide
over one another to allow the organ to be stretched. Transitional epithelium is found only in urinary system organs
subjected to periodic distension, such as the bladder. The
superficial cells are flattened (like true squamous cells) when

Cuboldal

Columnar
(b) Classification based on cell shape

irlqure ,ii..'t Classification of epithelia, (b) R whote cell is shown

on the left and a longitudinal section on the right. lmagineering STA
Media Services

the organ is distended and rounded when the organ is empty.

Epithelial cells forming glands are highly specialized to

remove materials from the blood and to manufacture them

into new materials, which they then secrete. There are tlvo
types of glands, as shown in {Figur'+r 4.i'.i. Endocrineglandslose
their surface connection (duct) as they develop; thus they are
referred to as ductless glands. Their secretions (all hormones)
are secreted into the extracellular fluid, from which they enter

the blood or the lymphatic vessels that weave through the

glands. Exocrine glands retain their ducts, and their secretions

empty through these ducts to an epithelial surface. The exocrine glands-including the sweat and oil glands, liver, and
pancreas-are both external and internal; they will be discussed
in conjunction with the organ systems to which their products
are functionally related.

44

Chapter

4 Classification of Tissues
ACTIVITY

EXAMINING EPITHELIATTISSUE UNDER THE

MICROSCOPE

(a)

Cord of
invaginating
epithelial cells

(b)

Obtain slides of simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar,

pseudostratified ciliated columnar. stratified squamous (nonkeratinized), stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, and transitional epithelia. Examine each carefully, and notice how the epithelial cells fit
closely together to form intact sheets of cells, a necessity for a tissue
that forms linings or covering membranes. Scan each epithelial type
for modifications for specific functions, such as cilia (motile cell projections that help to move substances along the cell surface), and microvilli, which increase the surface area for absorption. Also be alert for
goblet cells, which secrete lubricating mucus.
While you are working, check the questions in review sheet at
the end of this exercise. A number of the questions there refer to
some of the observations you are asked to make during your microscopic study.

Lumen ol gland

Connective Tissue
Secretory cells

(c) Exocrlne gland

Connective tissue is found in all parts of the body as discrete

structures or as part of various body organs. It is the most
abundant and widely distributed of the tissue types.
Connective tissues perform a variety of functions, but they
primarily protect, support, and bind together other tissues of
the body. For example, bones are composed of connective tissue (bone, or osseous tissue), and they protect and support
other body tissues and organs. The ligaments and tendons
(dense connective tissue) bind the bones together or bind
skeletal muscles to bones.

Area of
atrophied duct

Capillarles

Secretory cells

Areolar connective tissue {Figure 4.3) is a soft packaging

material that cushions and protects body organs. Adipose
(fat) tissue provides insulation for the body tissues and a
source of stored food, Blood-forming (hematopoietic) tissue
replenishes the body's supply of red blood cells. Connective
tissue also serves a vital function in the repair of all body tissues since many wounds are repaired by connective tissue in
the form ofscar tissue.
The characteristics of connective tissue include the
following:

x
(d) Endocrlne gland
Figure 4.2 Formation of endocrine and exocrine glands
from epithelial sheets. (a) Epithelial cells grow and push into
the underlying tissue, (b) A cord of epithelial cells forms. (c) ln
an exocrine gland, a lumen (cavity) forms. The inner cells form
the duct, and the outer cells produce the secretion. (d) ln a
forming endocrine gland, the connecting duct cells atrophy,
leaving the secretory cells with no connection to the epithelial
surface, However, they do become heavily invested with blood
and lymphatic vessels that receive the secretions.

With a few exceptions (cartilages, tendons, and ligaments,

which are poorly vascularized), connective tissues have a
rich supply ofblood vessels.
Connective tissues are composed of many types of cells.

There is a great deal of noncellular, nonliving material

(matrix) between the cells of connective tissue.

The nonliving material between the cells-the extracellua bit more explanation because it distinguishes connective tissue from all other tissues. It is produced
by the cells and then extruded. The matrix is primarily responsible for the strengh associated with connective tissue, but
there is variation. At one extreme, adipose tissue is composed
mostly of cells, At the opposite extreme, bone and cartilage
have few cells and large amounts of matrix.

lar matrix-deserves

Chapter

Classification of Tissues

45

Extracellular
matrix

Cell types

Ground substance
Macrophage

Flbere
Collagen fiber
Elastic fiber
Reticular fiber

Fibroblasl

Lymphocyte

Fat cell

Capillary

Mast cell

Neutrophil

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Figure 4.3 Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue. This tissue underlies epithelia
and surrounds capillaries. Note the various cell types and the three classes of fibers (collagen, reticular, elastic)
embedded in the ground substance.

The matrix has two components-ground substance

and fibers. The ground substance is composed chiefly of
interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans,
Depending on its specific composition, the ground substance
may be liquid, semisolid, gel-like, or very hard. When the
matrix is firm, as in cartilage and bone, the connective tissue
cells reside in cavities in the matrix calledlacunae. The fibers,
which provide support, include collagen (white) fibers, elastic (yellow) fibers, and reticular (fine collagen) fibers. Of
these, the collagen fibers are most abundant.
Generally speaking, the ground substance functions as
a molecular sieve, or medium, through which nutrients and
other dissolved substances can diffuse between the blood
capillaries and the cells. The fibers in the matrix hinder diffusion somewhat and make the ground substance less pliable. The properties of the connective tissue cells and the
makeup and arrangement of their matrix elements vary tremendously, accounting for the amazing diversity of this tissue type. Nonetheless, the connective tissues have a common
structural plan seen best in areolar connective tissue (Figtxe

4.3), a soft packing tissue that occurs throughout the body.

Because all other connective tissues are variations of areolar, it is considered the model or prototfpe of the connective
tissues. Notice in Figure 4.3 that areolar tissue has all three
varieties offibers, but they are sparsely arranged in its transparent gel-like ground substance. The cell type that secretes
its matrix is the fibroblast, bat a wide variety of other cells,
including phagocytic cells such as macrophages and certain
white blood cells and mast cells that act in the inflammatory
response, are present as well. The more durable connective
tissues, such as bone, cartilage, and the dense fibrous varieties, characteristically have a firm ground substance and
many more fibers.
There are four main types of adult connective tissue, all
of which typically have large amounts of matrix. These are
connective tissue proper (which includes areolar, adipose,
reticular, and dense [fibrous] connective tissues), cartilage,
bone, and blood. All of these derive from an embryonic tissue
caTled mesenchyme.

45
ACTIVITY

chapter

4 classification of Tissues

EXAMINING CONNECTIVE TIssUE UNDER THE

ACTIVITY

Obtain prepared slides of mesenchyme; of areolar, adipose, reticular,

and dense irregular, regular and elastic connective tissue; of hyaline
and elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage; of osseous connective tissue
(bone); and of blood.
Distinguish the living cells from the matrix, and pay particular
attention to the denseness and arrangement of the matrix. For
example, notice how the matrix of the dense fibrous connective tissues, which make up tendons and the dermis of the skin, is packed
with collagen fibers. Note also that in the regular variety (tendon),
the fibers are all running in the same direction, whereas in the irregular variety (dermis), they appear to be running in many directions.

While examining the areolar connective tissue, notice how

much empty space there appears to be (areol = small empty space),
and distinguish the collagen fibers from the coiled elastic fibers.
ldentify the starlike fibroblasts. Also, try to locate a mast cell, which
has large, darkly staining granules in its cytoplasm (mast = stuffed
full of granules). This cell type releases histamine which makes capillaries more permeable during inflammatory reactions and allergies
and thus is partially responsible for that "runny nose" of some
allergies.
ln adipose tissue, Iocate a "signet ring" cell, a fat cell in which
the nucleus can be seen pushed to one side by the large, fat-filled

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r,i'i

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vacuole that appears to be a large empty space. Also notice how

little matrix there is in adipose (fat) tissue. Distinguish the living cells
from the matrix in the dense fibrous, bone. and hyaline cartilage
preparations.
Scan the blood slide at low and then high power to examine the
general shape of the red blood cells. How does blood differ from all
other connective tissues?

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Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of two major cell populations.
The neuroglia are special supporting cells that protect, support, and insulate the more delicate neurons. The neurons
are highly specialized to receive stimuli (irritability) and to
conduct waves of excitation, or impulses, to all parts of the
body (conductivity). They are the cells that are most often associated with nervous system functioning.
The structure of neurons is markedly different from that
of all other body cells. They all have a nucleus-containing cell
body, and their cytoplasm is drawn out into long extensions
as long as I m (about 3 feet), which
conduct an impulse over relatively

(cell processes)-sometimes

allows a single neuron to

long distances.

EXAMINING NERVOUS TISSUE UNDER THE

MICROSCOPE

MICROSCOPE

Obtain a prepared slide of a spinal cord smear. Locate a neuron,

and compare it. Keep the light dim-this will help you see the cellu[ar.extensions of the neurons.

Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue is highly specialized to contract and produces
most types of body movement. As you might expect, muscle
cells tend to be elongated, providing a long axis for contraction.
The three basic types of muscle tissue are described briefly here.
Cardiac and skeletal muscles are treated more completely.
Skeletal muscle, the "meat," or flesh, of the body, is attached to the skeleton. It is under voluntary control (consciously controlled), and its contraction moves the limbs and
other external body parts. The cells of skeletal muscles are
long, cylindrical, and multinucleate (several nuclei per cell),
with the nuclei pushed to the periphery of the cells; they have
obvious striations (stripes).
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. As it contracts,
the heart acts as a pump, propelling the blood into the blood
vessels. Cardiac muscle, like skeletal muscle, has -striations,
but cardiac cells are branching uninucleate cells that interdigitate (fit together) at junctions called intercalated discs.
These structural modifications allow the cardiac muscle to act
as a unit. Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control, which
means that we cannot voluntarily or consciously control the
operation ofthe heart.
Smooth muscle, or yisceral muscle, is found mainly in
the walls of hollow organs (digestive and urinary tract organs,
uterus, blood vessels). Typically it has two layers that run at
right angles to each other; consequently its contraction can
constrict or dilate the lumen (cavity) of an organ and propel
substances along predetermined pathways. Smooth muscle
cells are quite different in appearance from those ofskeletal or
cardiac muscle. No striations are visible, and the uninucleate
smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped.

ACTIVITY

EXAMINING MUSCLE TISSUE UNDER THE

MlCROSCOPE

Obtain and examine prepared slides of skeletal, cardiac, and

smooth muscle. Notice their similarities and dissimilarities in your
observations.

chapter

classification of Tissues

Lab Time/Date

Name

Classification of Tissues
Tissue Structurre and

l,

Function-General Review

Deflne tissue,

Use the key choices to identify the major tissue types described below.

KE:
a. connective tissue

1.

b.

epithelium

c. muscle

lines body cavities and covers the body's external surface

2. pumps blood, flushes urine out of the body, allows one to swing a bat
3. transmits electrochemical impulses
4. anchors, packages, andsupportsbodyorgans
5. cells may absorb, secrete, and filter
6. most involved in regulating and controlling body functions
7. major function is to contract
8. synthesizeshormones
9. the most durable tissue type
10. abundant nonliving efiracellular matrix
11. most widespread tissue in the body
12. forms

nerves and the brain

Epithelial Tissue

3. Describe five general characteristics ofepithelial tissue.

4. On what basis are epithelial tissues classified?

5. List five major functions of epithelium in the body, and give examples of each,

l:

Example:

Function 2:

Example:

Function 3:

Example:

Function 4:

Example:

Function 5:

Example:

Function

6.

How does the function of stratified epithelium differ from the function of simple epithelium?

d. nervous tissue

47

.a

48

Chapteri4' Classlfication

tni: Wli{'ipld'dilHi,6d,iiithdium foe$dt,

,...'

:of :Tissues
...:, 1,

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)
What role does it play?

8. Transitional

epithelium is actually stratified squamous epithelium, but there is something special about it.

How does it differ structurally from other stratified squamous epithelia?

How does the structural difference support its function in the body?
How do the endocrine and exocrine glands differ in structure and function?

10.

Respond to the following with the key choices.

Kelt
a. simple

b. simple
c. simple

squamous

cubodial

columnar

d. pseudostratified ciliated columnar

e. stratified squamous
f. transitional

1. lining of the esophagus

2.
3,
4,
5.
6.
7.

lining of the stomach

alveolar sacs oflungs
tubules ofthe kidney

epidermis of the skin

lining of bladder peculiar cells that have the ability to slide over each other
forms the thin serous membranes; a single layer of flattened cells

Connective Tissue
11. What are three general characteristics of connective tissues?

12. What functions

are

perforned by connective tissue?

\
13. How are the functions of connective tissue reflected in its structure?

tr
II
!

chapter

i.
I

:
I

Classification of Tissues

49

14. Using the key, choose the best response to identifr the connective tissues described below.

i
I

Keln

1.

attaches bones to bones and muscles to bones

2.

acts as a storage depot

d. elastic cartilage

3.

alveolar sacs oflungs

e. elastic connective tissue

4. makes up the intervertebral discs

a. adipose connective tissue

b. areolar connective tissue
c. dense fibrous connective tissue

f. fibrocartilage

I
i-

g. hematopoietic tissue

h. hyaline cartilage
i. osseous tissue

5.

forms tle hip bone

6.

composes baserient membranes; a soft packaging tissue with

a

7.

i'

i
I

for fat

jellylike matrix

forms the larynx, the costal cartilages of the ribs, and the embryonic skeleton

8. provides a flexible framework for the extemal ear

9.

!
l

firm, structurally amorphous matrix heavily invaded with fibers; appears glassy and smooth

I
t

I
i
t

10.

matrix hard owing to calcium salts; provides levers for muscles to act on

11.

insulates against heat loss

t
I
t
t

12. walls of large arteries

i
I

i
i
i

15. Why do adipose cells remind people of a ring with a single jewel?

i
,
i
\

Nervous

Tissue

16. What two physiological characteristics are highly developed in neurons (nerve cells)?

17. In what ways

are neurons similar

to other

cells?

How are they different?

18. Describe how the unique structure of a neuron relates to its function in the body.

50

chapter

4 classification of Tissues

Muscle Tissue
19. The three types of muscle tissue exhibit similarities as well as differences. Check the appropriate space in the chart to indicate which muscle types exhibit each characteristic.

CHARACTEiIST!C

sMooTl{

Voluntarily controlled
lnvoluntarily controlled
Striated
Has a single nucleus in each cell
Has several nuclei per cell
Found attached to bones

Allows you to direct your eyeballs

Found in the walls of the stomach, uterus, and arteries

Contains spindle-shaped cells

Contains branching cylindrical cells
Contains long, nonbranching cylindrical cells
Has intercalated discs

Concerned with locomotion of the body as a whole

Changes the internal volume of an organ as it contracts
Tissue of

the heart

L
Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for ldentification:

Chapter
Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identification:

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Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

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Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identification:

Contribute by San Bernardino Valley College.

Classification of Tissues

51

Chapter

4 Classification of Tissues

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for ldentification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):

Special Characteristics for Identification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for ldentification:

Chapter
Tissue Name:
I

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identifi cation:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for ldentification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for ldentification:

Classification of

Tissues

53

54

Chapter

4 classification of Tlssues

Tissue Name:

,,Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for ldentification:

Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Ji

Function(s):

Special Characteristics for ldentification:

\"
Tissue Name:

Location in Body:

Function(s):
Special Characteristics for Identification:

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