Professional Psychology: Research and Practice

2014, Vol. 45, No. 3, 180 187

In the public domain

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036836

Prolonged Grief Disorder: Diagnostic, Assessment, and Treatment

Considerations
Alexander H. Jordan and Brett T. Litz
VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, and Boston University School of Medicine
Normative bereavement reactions are contrasted with prolonged grief disorder (PGD). Diagnostic
criteria for PGD are reviewed. PGD is distinguished from other problems occurring after loss,
namely depression and PTSD. Assessment approaches are described. Recent clinical trials are
reviewed, and recommendations for the psychotherapeutic treatment of PGD are developed. Consideration of medication referral is also recommended, especially in the case of co-occurring
depression.
Keywords: prolonged grief, complicated grief, pathological grief, traumatic grief, psychotherapy

Nearly every life includes the loss of a loved one, and nearly
every psychologists professional life includes encounters with
patients for whom such a loss causes unusually prolonged and
disabling grief. In this paper, we review the growing literature on
prolonged grief disorder (PGD), alternatively called complicated
grief, pathological grief, or traumatic grief. We begin with an
overview of normative bereavement reactions. We then describe
diagnostic criteria for PGD, the distinction between PGD and other
disorders, and assessment instruments that can help clinicians
identify PGD. Next, we describe treatments that have shown
efficacy in reducing PGD symptoms. We conclude by identifying
common components of effective treatments and offering recommendations to the practicing clinician.

adults reactions to the loss of another person through death.

Bereaved individuals often find themselves yearning intensely for
the lost loved one. In the weeks and months after a loss, this grief
typically begins to abate. The bereaved gradually reengages in
pleasurable activities and reattaches to significant others. In a
prospective study of individuals followed from before the death of
a loved one to 18 months afterward, the most common trajectory,
endorsed by 45% of the sample, was one in which depressive
symptoms remained low and grief symptoms had largely resolved
by 18 months postloss (Bonanno et al., 2002). Less than a quarter
of the sample followed trajectories in which they continued to
show elevated grief symptoms at the end of the study. Thus, most
people eventually arrive at a new emotional equilibrium after loss,
without developing any prolonged impairment. Indeed, some
healthy individuals do not show significant distress or impairment
even shortly after a major loss (Wortman & Silver, 1989).
Although the normal grieving process is not fully understood,
one prominent theory holds that healthy grieving typically
involves completion of loss-focused tasks and restorationfocused tasks (Stroebe & Schut, 1999). The griever confronts
loss stressors when doing things that involve engagement with
stimuli that serve as reminders of the reality of the loss, such as
looking through old photos of or sharing stories about the
deceased. This emotionally taxing work is balanced by periods
of withdrawal from loss stressors; the grievers attention oscillates between evocative echoes of the past and present-focused
activities (see also Horowitz & Reidbord, 1992). At the same
time that the griever learns to cope with doses of loss stressors,
he or she also focuses on the restoration of everyday life
functions that depended critically on the lost loved one. For
example, the bereaved may need to learn how to manage his or
her own finances or cooking, and he or she may need to seek out
new sources of social and emotional support and companionship. Through the completion of loss- and restoration-focused
tasks, the griever is able to come to an acceptance of irrevocably changed circumstances and reengage in life.
Notwithstanding the natural resilience or recovery that most
grievers demonstrate, many psychotherapy trials have been
aimed at alleviating grief reactions irrespective of severity or

Normative Bereavement Reactions

Many types of loss can have a profound effect on peoples
psychological functioning; in this paper, we focus exclusively on

ALEXANDER H. JORDAN earned his PhD in psychology from Stanford

University. He is currently a clinical research fellow in the Massachusetts
Veterans Epidemiological Research and Information Center at the VA
Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, a teaching fellow in the
Department of Psychiatry at Boston University, and an adjunct assistant
professor in the Tuck School of Business and the Center for Health Care
Delivery Science at Dartmouth College. His research spans clinical, social,
and organizational psychology.
BRETT T. LITZ earned his PhD in clinical psychology from the State
University of New York at Binghamton. He is a professor in the Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology at Boston University and the director
of the Mental Health Core of the Massachusetts Veterans Epidemiological
Research and Information Center at the VA Boston Healthcare System,
Boston, Massachusetts. His research is focused on evaluating the mental
health outcomes associated with military deployments across the lifespan,
with an emphasis on early intervention for combat and operational trauma
and loss.
CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS ARTICLE should be addressed to
Alexander H. Jordan, VA Boston Healthcare System (116B-4), 150 South
Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02130-4893. E-mail: jordan.alexander.h@
gmail.com
180

PROLONGED GRIEF DISORDER

chronicity. An exhaustive meta-analysis of 61 grief treatment

trials found that active psychotherapies produced small to moderate reductions in grief symptoms (e.g., yearning for the deceased) compared with control conditions; however, at longterm follow-up, there was no difference, on average, between
outcomes for the treatment and control conditions, with control
participants grief improving with time rather than worsening
(Currier, Neimeyer, & Berman, 2008). Regardless of the demographics of the targeted population (e.g., women vs. men), grief
therapies generally failed to show any long-lasting benefit for
normative grief reactions. Consequently, there is a growing
consensus in the field that interventions aimed at redressing
normative grief reactions are contraindicated (e.g., Bonanno &
Lilienfeld, 2008; Neimeyer, 2000). Defenders of normative
grief counseling have argued that there exists little to no peerreviewed evidence of harm from such treatments (Larson &
Hoyt, 2007) and that if such therapy can merely accelerate the
natural healing process for most patients, then reducing the
duration of grievers distress and impairment may still be a
worthy clinical goal (Hoyt & Larson, 2010). However, even
advocates of treatment for normative grief have cautioned that
meta-analyses (e.g., Allumbaugh & Hoyt, 1999; Currier et al.,
2008) have indicated that universally applied grief treatments
(e.g., as found in treatment studies that have used aggressive
recruitment procedures) are likely ineffective, and that instead
treatment of normal grief should be aimed at self-referred or
clinically referred patients (Hoyt & Larson, 2010).
Although there is some debate about the appropriateness of
offering treatment to individuals exhibiting normative grief reactions, Currier et al.s (2008) meta-analysis of grief therapy trials
showed clear, substantial, and long-lasting benefits for a subset of
individuals, namely those suffering severe and prolonged grief
symptomatology. Consequently, there is agreement even among
many critics of normative grief treatment (e.g., Bonanno & Lilienfeld, 2008) that intervention is indicated in cases of prolonged
grief. We now turn our attention to understanding and identifying
PGD before describing treatments that have shown efficacy in
treating this problem.

Prolonged Grief Disorder

In PGD, bereavement difficulties persist or grow rather than
diminishing with time. The prevalence of PGD varies; studies have
found fewer than 10% (e.g., Kersting, Brahler, Glaesmer, & Wagner, 2011) to as many as 20% (e.g., Shear, McLaughlin, et al.,
2011) of bereaved individuals developing PGD. Several risk factors have been identified. A history of prior trauma or loss, a
history of mood and anxiety disorders, insecure attachment style,
being a caregiver for the deceased, a violent cause of death (e.g.,
suicide), and a lack of social support after the loss predict greater
likelihood of developing PGD (e.g., Lobb et al., 2010). These
factors appear to predispose individuals toward intense longing for
the deceased, thwarting the loss-processing and functional restoration tasks that ordinarily lead to resolution of grief. Failure to
fully face the reality of the loss may prolong emotional reactivity
to loss reminders, while avoidance of loss reminders, unwillingness to adopt new roles, and an aversion to seeking support from
new individuals may constrict a persons behavioral repertoire and
prevent him or her from discovering new sources of meaning and

181

pleasure. Disengaged from the social sphere, the bereaved may

thus keep his or her attention narrowly fixed on the past and the
meaning, pleasure, and intimacy it contained before the loss of the
loved one.

Diagnostic Criteria
Although clinicians have long noted the distinctive phenomenology of prolonged grief reactions, rigorous research on the
clinical features of PGD has accumulated only over the last 2
decades, and previous editions of the International Classification
of Diseases (ICD) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM) have not included diagnoses corresponding to prolonged grief problems. Instead, they have included Z
or V codes acknowledging bereavement as a possible focus of
clinical attention or as a reason that individuals may seek mental
health care.
A working group for the next edition of the ICD recently
recommended adding a diagnosis of PGD to ICD-11 (Maercker et
al., 2013). The group recommended diagnostic criteria (see Table
1) based on an interview study of nearly 300 bereaved individuals
that used state-of-the-art psychometric validation methods to identify the central distinguishing clinical features of PGD (Prigerson
et al., 2009). The recently released DSM-5 (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013) also includes a diagnostic code corresponding
to prolonged grief problemsOther Specified Trauma- and
Stressor-Related Disorder, Persistent Complex Bereavement Disorder (PCBD)with criteria for this diagnosis contained in the
section of the manual devoted to conditions needing further study.
The working criteria (see Table 1) draw in part on the validation
study informing the proposed ICD-11 criteria (Prigerson et al.,
2009) as well as a further study of nearly 800 bereaved individuals symptoms (Simon et al., 2011). Although there is overlap
between the DSM-5 diagnosis of PCBD and the proposed ICD-11
diagnosis of PGD, critics have voiced concern that some of the
symptoms unique to the DSM-5 diagnosis (e.g., difficulty positively reminiscing about the deceased) do not have empirical
support as markers of dysfunctional grief, there is less evidence
supporting the 12-month compared with the 6-month criterion, and
the DSM-5 diagnosis is enormously heterogeneous (e.g., Boelen &
Prigerson, 2012). A future revision of the DSM-5 that finalizes the
criteria for PCBD and moves the diagnosis to the main section of
the manual may address these and other issues. In the meantime,
should clinicians prefer to use the proposed ICD-11 criteria for
diagnosing PGD, one option for those working in settings that
require DSM-5 diagnoses is to use the Unspecified Trauma- and
Stressor-Related Disorder diagnosis for cases that do not meet the
PCBD working criteria but do meet the proposed ICD-11 PGD
criteria.

PGD Versus Other Disorders

The disruption associated with bereavement can trigger various
disorders, including not only PGD but also major depression and
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Empirically, PGD has been
shown to be a distinctive syndrome apart from ordinary grief,
major depression and other mood disorders, and PTSD and other
anxiety or stress-related disorders (Barnes, Dickstein, Maguen,
Neria, & Litz, 2012; Boelen & van den Bout, 2008; Bonanno et al.,

JORDAN AND LITZ

182

Table 1
Diagnostic Criteria for ICD-11 Prolonged Grief Disorder (Proposed) and DSM-5 Persistent Complex Bereavement-Related Disorder
ICD-11 Prolonged Grief Disorder

DSM-5 Persistent Complex Bereavement-Related Disorder

A. Death of a close other

B. Yearning for the deceased daily or to a disabling degree
C. Five or more of the following daily or to a disabling degree:
1. Confusion about ones role in life or diminished sense of self
2. Difficulty accepting the loss
3. Avoidance of reminders of the reality of the loss
4. Inability to trust others since the loss
5. Bitterness or anger related to the loss
6. Difficulty moving on with life (e.g., making new friends,
pursuing interests)
7. Emotional numbness since the loss
8. Feeling that life is unfulfilling, empty, or meaningless since
the loss
9. Feeling stunned, dazed, or shocked by the loss
D. At least 6 months have passed since the death
E. The disturbance causes clinically significant impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
F. The disturbance is not better accounted for by major depressive
disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, or posttraumatic stress
disorder.

A. Death of a close other

B. Since the death, at least one of the following on most days to a clinically
significant degree for at least 12 months after the death:
1. Persistent yearning for the deceased
2. Intense sorrow and emotional pain in response to the death
3. Preoccupation with the deceased
4. Preoccupation with the circumstances of the death
C. Since the death, at least six of the following on most days to a clinically
significant degree for at least 12 months after the death:
1. Marked difficulty accepting the death
2. Disbelief or emotional numbness over the loss
3. Difficulty with positive reminiscing about the deceased
4. Bitterness or anger related to the loss
5. Maladaptive appraisals about oneself in relation to the deceased or the
death (e.g., self-blame)
6. Excessive avoidance of reminders of the loss
7. A desire to die to be with the deceased
8. Difficulty trusting other people since the death
9. Feeling alone or detached from other people since the death
10. Feeling that life is meaningless or empty without the deceased or the
belief that one cannot function without the deceased
11. Confusion about ones role in life or a diminished sense of ones identity
12. Difficulty or reluctance to pursue interests or to plan for the future (e.g.,
friendships, activities) since the loss
D. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning
E. The bereavement reaction must be out of proportion or inconsistent with
cultural or religious norms

Note. Proposed criteria for ICD-11 PGD are from Prigerson et al. (2009), referenced in Maercker et al. (2013). Criteria for DSM-5 PCBD are from the
American Psychiatric Association (2013).

2007; Prigerson et al., 1996; Shear, Simon, et al., 2011). For

example, a factor analysis of symptoms in 150 widowed individuals, 6 months after their partners deaths, found that PGD symptoms loaded poorly on depression and anxiety factors (Prigerson et
al., 1996), a result that has been repeatedly replicated in studies of
the bereaved (e.g., Boelen & van den Bout, 2005). Moreover, at
least one risk factor, separation anxiety in childhood, uniquely
predicts PGD but not major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, or PTSD (Vanderwerker, Jacobs, Parkes, & Prigerson, 2006). Furthermore, even after adjusting for co-occurring
depression and PTSD, PGD is associated with reduced quality of
life, social and occupational impairment, sleep disturbance, substance use problems, increased risk of cardiac events and cancer,
and suicidal thoughts and behaviors (Bonanno et al., 2007; Latham
& Prigerson, 2004). Finally, although comorbidity is common,
PGD can occur in isolation. In one sample of individuals diagnosed with PGD, approximately half also had current depression,
and about half had current PTSD, but in 80% of these cases, the
depression or PTSD predated the PGD, and in one quarter of
patients with PGD there were no co-occurring DSMIV Axis I
disorders (Simon et al., 2007).
In conceptually distinguishing PGD from major depression, a
key consideration is the extent to which certain symptoms are
specifically about the loss of the loved one (PGD) versus freefloating and generalized (depression). Compared with the pervasive misery and pessimistic rumination of depression, the dysphoria of PGD is focused on separation from the deceased, and the

primary alteration in cognition is intense preoccupation with the

lost loved one. Likewise, global guilt or a sense of personal
worthlessness, common in depression, is not part of PGD, although
there may be inappropriate self-blame specifically concerning the
death. Whereas depression often entails a broad loss of interest and
inability to imagine any source of pleasure, in PGD there is a
sustained interest in the deceased and belief that reunion with the
deceased would bring satisfaction. In addition, PGD involves
particular avoidance of stimuli that serve as reminders of the
reality of the loss compared with the more general avoidance and
withdrawal of depression. Thus, even apart from the several features of depression that are entirely distinctive from PGD criteria
(e.g., weight or appetite change, sleep disruption, psychomotor
retardation or agitation, fatigue, diminished concentration) and the
features of PGD that are distinctive from depression (e.g., confusion about ones role in life, difficulty accepting the loss, inability
to trust others since the loss), it is possible to distinguish the
disorders in terms of the nature of the negative emotions and
thoughts that characterize each problem.
A central conceptual distinction between PGD and PTSD is the
dominant emotions associated with each disorder. Whereas PTSD
is characterized typically by fear, horror, anger, guilt, or shame,
combined with an anxious hyperarousal and exaggerated reactivity, the experience of PGD is marked primarily by yearning, loss,
or emptiness. Moreover, with PTSD after a loss, intrusive thoughts
are fixated on the death event itself and involve a sense of threat,
leading individuals to avoid internal and external reminders of the

PROLONGED GRIEF DISORDER

death event; on the other hand, in PGD, individuals may experience intrusive and voluntary thoughts about diverse aspects of the
relationship with the deceased, including positive content that the
bereaved longs for, and avoidance is mostly limited to those
stimuli that serve as reminders of the reality or permanence of
the loss. As with major depression, several other features of PTSD
are quite distinctive from those of PGD (e.g., nightmares, flashbacks, aggression), but there is some overlap between the disorders
(e.g., emotional numbing since the time of the loss, shared by PGD
and PTSD), and clinicians must be careful not to assume that the
presence of one loss-related disorder implies the absence of another.

Assessment Instruments
One large study of general psychiatric outpatients found that
over one third of individual seeking mental health care exhibited at
least moderate levels of PGD symptoms (Piper, Ogrodniczuk,
Azim, & Weideman, 2001). Therefore, assessing for unresolved
grief in patients presenting with other complaints may be a wise
clinical practice even when time does not permit a full interview
probing formal diagnostic criteria. Reliable self-report inventories
are available. The Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICG; Prigerson
et al., 1995) is the instrument that has been most commonly used
to identify clinical levels of PGD symptoms in research. It consists
of 19 statements about grief-related thoughts and behaviors (e.g.,
I feel I cannot accept the death of the person who died; I feel
myself longing for the person who died) with five response
options indicating different levels of symptom severity. In accordance with diagnostic guidelines for PGD, the ICG should be
administered at least 6 12 months after the death of a loved one.
Across samples, the ICG has shown good internal consistency,
testretest reliability, and prediction of impairment beyond what
can be accounted for by general mood and anxiety problems. A
total score of above 25 or 30 has been considered suggestive of
PGD. More recently, the ICG has been distilled into the Prolonged
Grief 13 (PG-13), a collection of the ICGs most informative and
unbiased items (Prigerson et al., 2009).
In primary care and other settings in which time is scarce, an
even briefer instrument, the Brief Grief Questionnaire (BGQ; Ito et
al., 2012), may be useful. The BGQ asks patients to report symptom severity on a 3-point scale for each of five grief symptoms
(e.g., How much does grief still interfere with your life?; How
much are you having trouble accepting the death of _____?). The
instrument showed good psychometric properties in a large Japanese sample (Ito et al., 2012) and a U.S. sample (Shear, Jackson,
Essock, Donahue, & Felton, 2006), suggesting that PGD symptoms can be assessed using minimal resources and that the measurement of PGD is not strongly culturally bound. A score of 5 to
7 on the BGQ is considered suggestive of subthreshold prolonged
grief, whereas at a score of 8 or higher, PGD is considered likely
(Shear et al., 2006).
When PGD is present, careful assessment of risk is essential.
PGD has been associated with a 6 to 11 times greater risk of
suicidality even after controlling for other risk factors such as
depression and PTSD (Latham & Prigerson, 2004). Standardized
instruments such as Becks Scale for Suicidal Ideation (Beck,
Kovacs, & Weissman, 1979) and the Yale Evaluation of Suicid-

183

ality Scale (Latham & Prigerson, 2004) are available to aid clinicians in assessing suicide risk.

Treatments for PGD

Pharmacotherapy
Some case series and open-label trials have suggested that
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants may help in
PGD (Bui, Nadal-Vicens, & Simon, 2012; Simon, 2013). On the
other hand, a randomized controlled trial found a tricyclic antidepressant to be ineffective for grief reduction, even while it exerted
a powerful effect on major depressive symptoms in the bereaved
(Reynolds et al., 1999). Until further evidence from controlled
trials is adduced, the role of pharmacotherapy in treating PGD will
remain unclear. Some experts have suggested that pharmacotherapy may be a useful adjunct to psychotherapy in the treatment of
PGD (e.g., Simon, 2013); studies testing this combined approach
are ongoing.

Psychotherapy
In a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of psychotherapy for adults with PGD, cognitive behavioral grief-targeted
interventions were found to be more effective than control conditions (i.e., supportive or other nonspecific therapy, or waitlist) for
reducing PGD symptoms (Wittouck, Van Autreve, De Jaegere,
Portzky, & van Heeringen, 2011). Moreover, treatment effects for
these therapies grew larger at follow-up. In our review of PGD
psychotherapies, we emphasize those that have received strong
support in randomized controlled trials, but we also describe other
therapies that have a more limited base of empirical support at
present. In the absence of a consensus set of PGD diagnostic
criteria, studies have varied somewhat in their inclusion criteria;
therefore, variations in outcomes may be due in part to variations
in the severity of PGD that characterized each study sample.
Individual psychotherapy. In a pioneering study, almost 100
women and men received 16 sessions of either interpersonal therapya treatment that is effective for depression or a multifaceted treatment explicitly tailored to target PGD (Shear, Frank,
Houck, & Reynolds, 2005). A larger proportion of participants
receiving the grief-specific therapy responded favorably to treatment compared with those receiving the interpersonal therapy, and
grief symptoms showed faster reduction in the grief therapy condition; differences in symptom reduction between conditions were
medium in effect size. Pilot studies have suggested that the therapy
used in this study may be efficacious in diverse populations
diagnosed with PGD, including individuals with comorbid substance use disorders (Zuckoff et al., 2006) and bereaved individuals in non-Western cultural contexts (Asukai, Tsuruta, & Sait,
2011).
The therapy designed by Shear and colleagues (2005) included
several components that encouraged patients to address the lossand the restoration-focused tasks of grieving (Stroebe & Schut,
1999). Key therapeutic work occurred during the 1-hr weekly
sessions and in homework assignments completed between sessions. The introductory phase of treatment focused on psychoeducation about grief, emphasizing the importance of processing the
loss and restoring life functioning and purposeful engagement that

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JORDAN AND LITZ

may have ceased in the wake of the loss. Patients shared history,
including history of the relationship with the deceased, and brainstormed current life goals or aspirations. With this preparatory
work completed, patients then engaged in the loss-focused exercise
of vividly narrating, with eyes closed, the death of the loved one
(revisiting). Modeled after imaginal exposure in prolonged exposure treatment for PTSD, this in-session revisiting exercise was
audio-recorded, and patients listened to the recording at home.
Loss-focused exercises also included an imaginal conversation
with the deceased and writing about and discussing positive and
negative memories featuring the loved one. Restoration-focused
exercises centered on creating and executing concrete plans for
moving toward valued life goals and restoring pleasant activities.
Patients were also encouraged to approach situations that had been
avoided because they served as loss reminders, similar to in vivo
exposures in PTSD treatment. Throughout the treatment, cognitive
restructuring was used when unhelpful grief-related thoughts
emerged (e.g., inappropriate self-blame for the death, or a belief
that moving forward from grief would dishonor the deceased).
Another individual psychotherapy that has shown comparable
efficacy for PGD combines exposure and cognitive restructuring
components (Boelen, de Keijser, van den Hout, & van den Bout,
2007). In a study of bereaved individuals in the Netherlands,
patients with PGD were assigned to receive 6 weeks of exposure
therapy followed by 6 weeks of cognitive restructuring, 6 weeks of
cognitive restructuring followed by 6 weeks of exposure therapy,
or 12 weekly sessions of supportive counseling. Participants in
both of the cognitive behavioral treatment conditions showed
greater clinical improvement on all measures compared with those
who received supportive counseling. Comparisons between the
cognitive behavioral conditions suggested that the exposure component of treatment produced greater symptom improvement than
the cognitive component. In this study, exposure consisted of
repeated retelling of the story of losing the loved one with an
emphasis on the most emotionally distressing parts (a loss focus)
and building a hierarchy of avoided stimuli and contexts that serve
as reminders of the loss, followed by graduated confrontation with
these stimuli and experiences (a restoration focus). The cognitive
restructuring component involved learning to identify and challenge negative thoughts that occurred naturally during everyday
life.
Recent research has examined the efficacy of PGD treatment
with an exclusive restoration focus. In a randomized open-label
trial, participants who received 1214 weekly behavioral activation therapy sessions showed large reductions in grief symptoms
compared with those in a waitlist control condition (Papa, Sewall,
Garrison-Diehn, & Rummel, 2013). The therapy was based on
manualized behavioral activation for depression, with minor modifications to tailor the treatment to PGD. In particular, participants
were educated about how PGD can involve and be maintained by
the strategic avoidance of cues related to the loss; next they
engaged in the phases of self-monitoring, functional analysis, and
engagement in reinforcing activities that constitute the core of
standard behavioral activation. The therapy included no lossprocessing or cognitive restructuring components. In an uncontrolled trial, Acierno et al. (2012) found that an even further
pared-down treatmentfive weekly sessions of behavioral activation, two of them conducted by telephonealso produced large
reductions in grief symptoms. To test whether PGD treatment

could be effective given the constraints of many community settings, therapists in this trial ranged widely in experience level, and
the therapy manual they followed was limited to a single page. The
principal intervention in this trial was the assignment for participants to complete 3 hr daily of positively and negatively reinforcing activities with at least 30 min devoted to activities that may
serve as loss reminders. Wherever possible, participants were
encouraged to complete their activities in a social setting to facilitate the natural restoration of social relationships.
In all of these individual trials for PGD, attrition was substantial
but similar to other psychotherapy trials. In the Shear et al. (2005)
trial, 27% of participants dropped out of the PGD therapy; in the
Boelen et al. (2007) trial, dropout rates were 20% and 30% for the
two active treatments; and dropout was 20% in Papa et al.s (2013)
behavioral activation treatment. Further analyses of the Shear et al.
(2005) trial suggested that medication may help some patients to
tolerate treatment. Dropout from PGD therapy was only 9% for
patients who were taking antidepressants during the treatment
course, whereas 42% of unmedicated patients dropped out (Simon
et al., 2008).
Group psychotherapy. Can PGD symptoms be addressed
through group psychotherapy? In a trial involving German psychiatric inpatients with comorbid PGD, a twice-weekly group therapy
(added on to treatment as usual), delivered over a total of nine
sessions, led to a large reduction in PGD symptoms compared with
treatment as usual (Rosner, Lumbeck, & Geissner, 2011). The
group therapy drew on common elements of individual PGD
therapies that had shown efficacy in other trials (e.g., Shear et al.,
2005). Key components included psychoeducation about the grieving process, confronting the loss (including a written exercise),
building motivation for change, understanding and reducing avoidance, and challenging unhelpful thoughts. One major strength of
this study was the complex study group examined; patients were
drawn from three different inpatient wards targeting primary anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders, and eating disorders, respectively, and each participant had an average of 2.5 diagnoses in
addition to PGD. Moreover, treatment as usual in this inpatient
setting was highly intensive, including individual and group psychotherapy sessions, social skills training, physical therapy, medical consultations, and other indicated treatments such as biofeedback. Thus, the efficacy of the brief experimental group therapy,
compared with treatment as usual, in this naturally treatmentseeking population bodes well for the real-world effectiveness of
psychotherapy designed specifically for PGD.
Two additional trials have provided evidence for the efficacy of
group psychotherapy for PGD modeled after Shear et al.s (2005)
individual therapy. In a treatment study of bereaved adults over the
age of 60, participants were assigned to receive 16 weekly sessions
of treatment as usual (a general grief support group) or a specialized PGD group therapy (Supiano & Luptak, in press). Participants
receiving the experimental and the control group therapies both
showed improvement, but the specialized PGD therapy led to a
significantly greater reduction in grief symptoms. Furthermore, in
an uncontrolled 10-week group treatment trial that also included
psychoeducation, cognitive restructuring, emotional processing of
loss, and restoration of positive activities, participants showed
significant reductions in grief symptoms (Maccullum & Bryant,
2011).

PROLONGED GRIEF DISORDER

Breaking from the cognitive behavioral approaches that most

therapy trials for PGD have taken, Piper and colleagues (2001,
2007) compared interpretive psychodynamic group therapy to supportive group therapy. In a randomized controlled trial of 12-week
group therapies for PGD, 139 participants were assigned to either
a manualized interpretive intervention or a present-centered supportive therapy (Piper, McCallum, Joyce, Rosie, & Ogrodniczuk,
2001). The interpretive therapy focused on increasing patients
insight into patterns of conflict and loss in their lives, and increasing their tolerance for their emotionally complex and sometimes
ambivalent reactions to their losses. The supportive condition
centered on praising patients current coping efforts and helping
them to adapt to their new circumstances after losing a loved one.
Participants in the interpretive and supportive conditions showed
equivalent improvements in their grief symptoms. In a second trial
involving 110 participants, similar results were again obtained for
the interpretive and supportive group therapies, with patients in
each condition improving equally (Piper, Ogrodniczuk, Joyce,
Weideman, & Rosie, 2007).
Internet-based intervention. Another treatment modality
that holds promise for alleviating PGD is based on the Internet. In
a sample composed mostly (61%) of parents grieving the loss of a
child, participation in a 5-week e-mail-based intervention led to a
large reduction in PGD symptoms compared with a waitlist control
group (Wagner, Knaevelsrud, & Maercker, 2006). Gains were
maintained at 18-month follow-up (Wagner & Maercker, 2007),
and similar results were achieved when this treatment was given to
parents grieving the loss of a pregnancy (Kersting et al., 2013). In
this treatment, participants completed twice-weekly writing assignments and communicated by e-mail with a therapist who
provided tailored guidance and feedback in response to each
assignment. Writing assignments proceeded in three phases. First,
in an exposure exercise, participants wrote vivid accounts of the
circumstances of the death, and they elaborated on distressing
thoughts and emotions surrounding the event. Second, to bolster
self-compassion, they wrote supportive letters to a hypothetical
friend in the same situation, and to begin thinking about the
possibility of moving forward in life, they wrote to the hypothetical friend about how the deceased could be remembered in positive ways while also engaging in new, meaningful activities.
Third, participants synthesized what they had learned from the first
two phases by writing about memories of the loved one, the
meaning of the loss, and how they intended to cope as they
continued on with their lives.

Implications for Clinical Practice

Although most people with PGD unfortunately do not seek
clinical help (Lichtenthal et al., 2011), the addition of diagnoses
related to the disorder in the ICD-11 and DSM-5 may bring more
public attention to PGD and may increase the number of individuals seeking mental health services specifically for PGD. Regardless of the degree to which public awareness of PGD rises, it is
important for psychologists who provide mental health care to
familiarize themselves with the disorder and for training programs
to ensure that trainees learn to recognize and treat PGD. Many
millions of people are bereaved every year, and a significant
minority of these individuals go on to develop PGD, a disorder
associated with functional impairment, reduced quality of life, and

185

increased morbidity and mortality (Bonanno et al., 2007; Latham

& Prigerson, 2004).
Many mental health outpatients exhibit symptoms of PGD
(Piper et al., 2001) regardless of presenting complaint, and clinicians may wish to add a brief measure of PGD symptoms to any
self-report instruments they typically administer to patients at
intake. For these purposes, the ICG (Prigerson et al., 1995) or the
BGQ (Ito et al., 2012) would be appropriate. Should patients
endorse elevated symptoms of depression or PTSD in addition to
PGD, key questions can help the clinician to distinguish the
primary problem. First, does the patients emotional distress (e.g.,
sadness, guilt) specifically have the loss of a loved one as its object
(PGD), or is it more pervasive across all domains of life (depression)? Second, does the patient think obsessively, voluntarily and
involuntarily, about many aspects of the lost relationship with the
loved one, and does this thinking mainly produce yearning for the
deceased (PGD), or are the patients recurring thoughts exclusively
intrusive and focused on the death event itself, mainly leading to
fear or anxiety (PTSD)?
When PGD symptoms are pronounced and appear to be the most
appropriate focus of clinical attention for a patient, and at least
6 12 months have passed since the death of the loved one,
individual or group psychotherapy targeting PGD should be considered. Research suggests that some treatments that are helpful for
depressive symptoms, such as interpersonal psychotherapy and
antidepressant medication, are not as effective as specialized treatments for ameliorating PGD (e.g., Reynolds et al., 1999; Shear et
al., 2005). Although trials of specialized treatments for PGD are
still limited in number, have varied somewhat in inclusion criteria
for this new diagnosis, and have shown substantial attrition (similar to other therapy trials), the existing evidence base is sufficient
to offer psychotherapy recommendations. Treatment manuals for
PGD are not yet widely available, but clinicians with competence
in cognitive behavioral principles and therapeutic techniques of
exposure, behavioral activation, and cognitive restructuring should
be able to implement the core components shared by efficacious
PGD treatments (e.g., Boelen et al., 2007; Papa et al., 2013; Rosner
et al., 2011; Shear et al., 2005.; Wagner et al., 2006). These core
components include psychoeducation about grief; encouraging repeated, emotionally evocative processing of the reality of the loss
in written or oral form; promoting social reengagement, including
activities avoided because they serve as loss reminders; helping the
patient to identify new aspirations that imbue life with meaning;
and teaching the patient to challenge unhelpful thoughts that
inhibit completion of the aforementioned tasks.
However, in the absence of dismantling studies, it is not clear
which components of psychotherapy are necessary for the clinical
improvements seen in PGD treatment trials using complex psychotherapy packages, and it is possible that some treatment components are inert. For example, in the Shear et al. (2005) intervention, which has influenced other treatments for PGD, there is no
evidence to support the assumption that the moment of death is the
most distressing and haunting experience for all bereaved individuals or that repeated exposure to memories of the moment of death
results in extinction of negative affect, especially sadness (see
Steenkamp et al., 2011). The imaginal exposure procedures in this
and other treatments may stem from an untested assumption that
the etiology of PGD is similar to traumatic conditioning. Imaginal
exposure therapies target discrete fear-based episodic memories;

JORDAN AND LITZ

186

because PGD is not characterized by fearful memories, the therapeutic rationale for repeated and sustained reliving of the moment
of death is unclear. Moreover, there is no evidence that working
through a loss by sustained focus on it is necessary for healing for
all individuals (Wortman & Silver, 1989), even if it may be a
common part of the normal grieving process (Stroebe & Schut,
1999).
Therefore, we recommend that rather than emphasize repeated
exposure to the death, clinicians should look first to the
restoration-focused aspects of PGD treatment. These are the parts
of PGD treatments that resemble behavioral activation and involve
increasing engagement with the outside worldincluding stimuli
that have been avoided because they serve as reminders of the
lossand encouraging social reintegration. Indeed, although no
high-quality randomized controlled trials of behavioral activation
for PGD have been published, two small trials have suggested that
this intervention, with minimal modifications from behavioral
activation for depression, may be sufficient to significantly alleviate PGD symptoms (Acierno et al., 2012; Papa et al., 2013).
Clinicians without training in this type of intervention should
consider referral to another therapist with appropriate competence
(American Psychological Association, 2002). In addition, clinicians should consider a referral for medication management because antidepressant medication may help to treat co-occurring
depressive symptoms and may make psychotherapeutic treatment
of PGD more tolerable for patients, although the efficacy of
medication for grief symptoms themselves is currently unproven
(Simon et al., 2008).
Recent research indicates that PGD can be identified as a
distinctive disorder and that psychotherapy can reduce PGD symptoms. Our aim in this review has been to encourage clinicians to
translate this research into practice. As PGD treatment gains mainstream acceptance within professional psychology, we hope that
practitioners will track outcomes and identify implementation barriers to inform further research to improve the effectiveness of
therapies for this challenging disorder.

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Received October 31, 2013

Revision received April 1, 2014
Accepted April 4, 2014