Educational technology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Seite 1 von 8

Educational technology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Educational technology (also called learning technology) is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning
and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources."[1]
The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory.
While instructional technology covers the processes and systems of learning and instruction, educational technology
includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational Technology includes, but is
not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications and activities.

Contents
1 Explanation and meaning
2 History
3 Theories and practices
3.1 Behaviorism
3.1.1 Skinner's Contributions
3.2 Cognitivism
3.3 Constructivism
3.4 Connectivism
4 Instructional technique and technologies
5 Theorists
6 Benefits
7 Criticism
8 Educational technology and the humanities
9 Technology in the Classroom
10 Societies
11 See also
12 References
13 Other
14 Further reading

Explanation and meaning

Educational technology is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in
advancing student learning. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word "technology".
Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass
broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not
limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as "smartphones" and games
(both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential.

Those who employ educational technologies to explore ideas and communicate meaning are learners or teachers.

Consider the Handbook of Human Performance Technology.[2] The word technology for the sister fields of
Educational and Human Performance Technology means "applied science." In other words, any valid and reliable
process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology."
Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but
neither necessarily implies physical technology. The word technology, comes from the Greek "Techne" which means
craft or art. Another word "technique", with the same origin, also may be used when considering the field Educational
technology. So Educational technology may be extended to include the techniques of the educator.[citation needed]

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A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956 book, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.[3]
Bloom's taxonomy is helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected of—and what are
the learning goals for—learners. However, Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technology per se
and is more concerned with pedagogical strategies.

According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational and psychological
research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. Educational
Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to
educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the
fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional (Systems) Design. But few of
those listed below as theorists would ever use the term "educational technologist" as a term to describe themselves,
preferring terms like "educator".[citation needed] The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to
a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and Whitaker.[4]

History
One comprehensive history of the field is Saettler's The evolution of American educational technology.[5] Another
worthy title is Larry Cuban'sOversold and Underused - Computers in the Classroom.[6]

For several decades, vendors of equipment such as laptop computers and interactive white boards have been claiming
that their technologies would transform classrooms and learning in many positive ways, but there has been little
evidence provided to substantiate these claims.[citation needed]

To some extent, the history of educational technology has been marked by a succession of innovations that arrive
with much fanfare but often fade into the background once fully tested, as Cuban argues in the above title.[citation needed]

Theories and practices

Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the educational technology
literature. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Each of these schools of thought are still present
in today's literature but have evolved as the Psychology literature has evolved.

Behaviorism
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiments of Ivan
Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many others. Many psychologists
used these theories to describe and experiment with human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of
learning has lost favor with many educators.

Skinner's Contributions

B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of Verbal Behavior,[7]
and wrote "The Technology of Teaching",[8] an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education, as
well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the Celeration learning
system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from Keller's and Skinner's models.

Cognitivism
Cognitive science has changed how educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive
Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical
framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond
behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.

After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were
established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to
emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology

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have had a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly
known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field
of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today
researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the 1990s.
One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as
they interact with reality or others with different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environments require students to utilize their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate
new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a
facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must
make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen
(1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured"
environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a
constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving
environment.

Connectivism
Connectivism is "a learning theory for the digital age," and has been developed by George Siemens and Stephen
Downes based on their analysis of the limitations of behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism to explain the
effect technology has had on how we live, how we communicate, and how we learn. Donald G. Perrin, Executive
Editor of the International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning says the theory "combines
relevant elements of many learning theories, social structures, and technology to create a powerful theoretical
construct for learning in the digital age."

Instructional technique and technologies

Problem Based Learning and Inquiry-based learning are active learning educational technologies used to facilitate
learning. Technology which includes physical and process applied science can be incorporated into project, problem,
inquiry-based learning as they all have a similar educational philosophy. All three are student centered, ideally
involving real-world scenarios in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. The process that
students are encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical research) is considered to be a technology.
Classic examples of technologies used by teachers and Educational Technologists include Bloom's Taxonomy and
Instructional Design.

Theorists
This is an area where new thinkers are coming to the forefront everyday. Many of the ideas spread from theorists,
researchers, and experts through their blogs. Extensive lists of educational bloggers by area of interest are available at
Steve Hargadon's "SupportBloggers" site or at the "movingforward" wiki started by Scott McLeod.[9] Many of these
blogs are recognized by their peers each year through the edublogger awards.[10] Web 2.0 technologies have led to a
huge increase in the amount of information available on this topic and the number of educators formally and
informally discussing it. Most listed below have been around for more than a decade, however, and few new thinkers
mentioned above are listed here.

Hall Davidson[11] Will Richardson

Lawrence Tomei[12] Gary Stager[17]
Karl Fisch[13] John Sweller
Alex Jones
Ian Jukes[14]
Joyce Kazman Valenza[18]
Jamie McKenzie, Ed.D.[15]
Alan November David Warlick[19]
Seymour Papert[16] Geetha Narayanan[20]

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David Marcovitz[21]
George Siemens
David Wiley
David Wilson

Benefits
Educational technology is intended to improve education over what it would be without technology. Some of the
claimed benefits are listed below:

Easy-to-access course materials. Instructors can post the course material or important information on a course
website, which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and can obtain the study material
very quickly[22]
Student motivation. Computer-based instruction can give instant feedback to students and explain correct
answers. Moreover, a computer is patient and non-judgmental, which can give the student motivation to
continue learning. According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction,
students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more
and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes[23]
Wide participation. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible to a wider
audience[24]
Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors, which
can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing
and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know[22]
Subjects made easier to learn. Many different types of educational software are designed and developed to
help children or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples include pre-school software, computer
simulators, and graphics software[23]
A structure that is more amenable to measurement and improvement of outcomes. With proper structuring it
can become easier to monitor and maintain student work while also quickly gauging modifications to the
instruction necessary to enhance student learning.

Criticism
Although technology in the classroom does have many benefits, there are clear drawbacks as well. Lack of proper
training, limited access to sufficient quantities of a technology, and the extra time required for many implementations
of technology are just a few of the reasons that technology is often not used extensively in the classroom.

Similar to learning a new task or trade, special training is vital to ensuring the effective integration of classroom
technology. Since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished,
educators must have a good grasp of the technology being used and its adavantages over more traditional methods. If
there is a lack in either of these areas, technology will be seen as a hinderance and not a benefit to the goals of
teaching.

Another difficulty is introduced when access to a sufficient quantity of a resource is limited. This is often seen when
the quantity of computers or digital cameras for classroom use is not enough to meet the needs of an entire classroom.
It also occurs in less noticed forms such as limited access for technology exploration because of the high cost of
technology and the fear of damages. In other cases, the inconvenience of resource placement is a hinderance, such as
having to transport a classroom to a computer lab instead of having in-classroom computer access by means of
technology such as laptop carts.

Technology implementation can also be time consuming. There may be an initial setup or training time cost inherent
in the use of certain technologies. Even with these tasks accomplished, technology failure may occur during the
activity and as a result teachers must have an alternative lesson ready. Another major issue arises because of the
evolving nature of technology. New resources have to be designed and distributed whenever the technological

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platform has been changed. Finding quality materials to support classroom objectives after such changes is often
difficult even after they exist is sufficient quanitity and teachers must design these resources on their own.

see also: [25]

Educational technology and the humanities

Research from the Alberta Initiative for School Improvement (AISI) [26] indicates that inquiry and project-based
approaches, combined with a focus on curriculum, effectively supports the infusion of educational technologies into
the learning and teaching process.

Technology in the Classroom

There are many kinds of computer and non-computer technologies currently in use in traditional classrooms. Among
these are:

Computer in the Classroom: Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer
in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new
programs, and show new websites.[27]

Class Website: What better way to display your student's work, than to create a web page designed just for
your class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous
quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In current day society, children know how to use the computer and
navigate their way through a website, so why not give them one where they can be a published author. Just be
careful as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a school or classroom.

Class Blogs and Wikis: These are some of a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in
the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue, like a journal, of thoughts, ideas, and
assignments that also provide for student comment and reiterative reflection. Wikis are more group focused to
allow multiple members of the group to edit a single document and create a truly collaborative and carefully
edited finished product.

Wireless Classroom Microphones: Noisy classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of
microphones, students are able to hear their teachers clearer. Children learn better when they hear the teacher
clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day.

Mobile devices: Mobile devices such as clickers or smartphone can be used to enhance the experience in the
classroom by providing the possibility for professors to get feedback. (read more in the article MLearning).

SmartBoards: An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of computer applications.

There are many other tools being utilized depending on the local school board and fund availability. These may
include: digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, or LCD projectors.

Societies
Learned societies concerned with educational technology include:

Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE)

Association for Educational Communications and Technology
Association for Learning Technology
International Society for Technology in Education - (ISTE)
Northwest Council for Computer Education
Computer-Using Educators

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See also
technologies

ADDIE Model Assistive technology

Distance education Mind map
Information and communication technologies in Information mapping
education Matching Person & Technology Model
Instructional Systems Design Computer-adaptive test
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Programmed instruction
Blended learning SCORM
E-learning Usability testing
M-learning
Human Performance Technology

education

Learning theory (education) Language exchange

Educational psychology Mnemonic
Educational research Project-based learning
Flexible Learning Educational animation
Confidence-Based Learning Educational evaluation
Habituation Rubrics (education)
Sleep-learning Verbal behavior
Metacognition Applied behavior analysis
Overlearning Zone of proximal development
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
Bloom's taxonomy
Cooperative learning

References
1. ^ Richey, R.C. (2008). Reflections on the 2008 AECT Definitions of the Field. TechTrends. 52(1) 24-25
2. ^ Handbook of Human Performance Technology (Eds. Harold Stolovich, Erica Keeps, James Pershing)(3rd ed, 2006)
3. ^ Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David
McKay Co Inc.
4. ^ Shurville, S.; Browne, T., & Whitaker, M. (2008). "Employing the new educational technologists: A call for evidenced
change" (http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/shurville.pdf) (PDF). Proceedings ascilite Melbourne
2008. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/shurville.pdf.
5. ^ Saettler, P. (1990), The evolution of American educational technology. Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Englewood California.
6. ^ Larry Cuban, Oversold and Underused - Computers in the Classroom. Harvard University Press, 2001.
7. ^ Skinner, B.F. The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 1954, 24, 86-97., Teaching
machines. Science, 1958, 128, 969-77. and others see http://www.bfskinner.org/f/EpsteinBibliography.pdf
8. ^ Skinner BF (1965). "The technology of teaching". Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 162 (989): 427–43.
doi:10.1098/rspb.1965.0048 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.1965.0048) . PMID 4378497
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4378497) .
9. ^ See http://supportblogging.com/Links+to+School+Bloggers and http://movingforward.wikispaces.com/Blogs
10. ^ » Welcome to the Eddies! The Edublog Awards (http://edublogawards.com/)
11. ^ HallDavidson.net (http://www.halldavidson.net/)
12. ^ Dr. Tomei's Educator Index of Web-Based Resources (http://academics.rmu.edu/~tomei/)
13. ^ The Fischbowl (http://thefischbowl.blogspot.com/)
14. ^ http://www.ianjukes.com
15. ^ http://fno.org
16. ^ Professor Seymour Papert (http://www.papert.org/)
17. ^ Welcome to Stager.org! (http://www.stager.org/)
18. ^ NeverEndingSearch - Blog on School Library Journal (http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/blog/1340000334.html/)
19. ^ http://davidwarlick.com/
20. ^ http://heyjude.wordpress.com/2006/10/21/global-summit-06-geetha-narayanan/

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21. ^ David Marcovitz (http://www.loyola.edu/education/facstaff/DavidMarcovitz.html/)
22. ^ a b Technology Impact on Learning (http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/tiol.html)
23. ^ a b Technology's Impact (http://www.electronic-school.com/0997f3.html)
24. ^ Technology Uses in Education (http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/tuie.html)
25. ^ Cordes, Colleen & Miller, Edward. (1999),"Fool's Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in
Childhood" (http://http://drupal6.allianceforchildhood.org/fools_gold)
26. ^ AISI Technology Projects Research Review (http://education.alberta.ca/media/616853/techprojectsreview.pdf)
27. ^ Using Technology to Enhance the Classroom Environment (http://www.thejournal.com/articles/15769) . THE Journal, 01
January 2002

Other
"Encyclopedia of Educational Technology" (http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/) . http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/. Retrieved
November 10, 2005.
"AISI Technology Projects Research
Review" (http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/special/aisi/pdfs/techprojectsreview.pdf) (PDF).
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/special/aisi/pdfs/techprojectsreview.pdf. Retrieved July 17, 2006.
"World Almanac of Educational Technology" (http://www.waet.uga.edu) . http://www.waet.uga.edu. Retrieved
August 10, 2006.
"Insight Knowledge base for new technology and education" (http://insight.eun.org/) . http://insight.eun.org/.
Retrieved March 20, 2008.
"Technology and Education" (http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue4_3/hamza/index.html) .
http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue4_3/hamza/index.html. Retrieved 1999.

Further reading
Bednar, M. R., & Sweeder, J. J. (2005). Defining and applying idea technologies: A systematic, conceptual
framework for teachers. Computers in the Schools, 22(3/4).
Januszewski, Alan (2001). Educational Technology: The Development of a Concept. Libraries Unlimited.
ISBN 1-56308-749-9.
Jonassen, D. (1997). Instructional design models for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning
outcomes. Educational Technology Research & Development, 45, 65–94.
Jonassen, D H (2006). Modeling with Technology: Mindtools for Conceptual Change. OH: Merrill/Prentice-
Hall.
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R. E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work:
an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching.
Educational Psychologist 41 (2) 75-86 (http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/kirschner_Sweller_Clark.pdf)
Kumar, K L (1997). Educational Technology: A Practical Textbook for Students, Teachers, Professionals and
Trainers. New Delhi: New Age International. ISBN 81-224-0833-8.
Encyclopedia of Educational Technology (http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/) , a comprehensive resource of articles about
Educational Technology, published by the Department of Educational Technology, San Diego State University
Looking Back to Look Ahead - Learning Through and From the Human Spirit
(http://www.open.ac.uk/pbpl/resources/details/detail.php?itemId=49d62232adc62)
Geetha Narayanan's Keynote address at Symposium on Education and Technology in Schools in 2008,
Bangalore (http://quest.eeaonline.org/india/test/images/india/Image/File/output/Geetha%20Keynote.pdf)
L Low & M O'Connell, Learner-Centric Design of Digital Mobile Learning
(https://olt.qut.edu.au/udf/OLT2006/gen/static/papers/Low_OLT2006_paper.pdf) , Queensland University of
Technology, 2006.
Liu, G. Z. (2008). Innovating research topics in learning technology: Where are the new blue oceans?
(http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00851.x) .British Journal of
Educational Technology, 39(4), 738-747.
Liu, G. Z. & Hwang, G. J. (2009). A key step to understanding paradigm shifts in e-learning: towards context-
aware ubiquitous learning (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122440751/abstract) . British Journal
of Educational Technology.
Professor Brian J. Ford, Absolute Zeno (http://www.brianjford.com/a-05-ZENO.HTM) , Laboratory News p 16,
January 2006.
McKenzie, Jamie (2006). "Inspired Writing and Thinking" (http://fno.org/dec05/writing.html)
McKenzie, Jamie (2007). "Digital Nativism, Digital Delusions, and Digital
Deprivation" (http://fno.org/nov07/nativism.html)

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McKenzie, Jamie (2008). "What Digital Age?" (http://fno.org/may08/digital.html)
Mishra, P. & Koehler, M.J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for
integrating technology in teacher knowledge (http://www.tcrecord.org/content.asp?contentid=12516) .
Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.
Monahan, Torin (2005). Globalization, Technological Change, and Public Education. New York: Routledge:
ISBN 0-415-95103-8.
Randolph, J. J. (2007). Multidisciplinary Methods in Educational Technology Research and Development
(http://justus.randolph.name/methods) . Hameenlinna, Finland: HAMK. ISBN 978-951-784-453-6.
http://justus.randolph.name/methods. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
Soni, S K (2004). An Information Resource on Educational Technology for: Technical & Vocational Education
and Training (TVET). Sarup & Sons Publishers,Location- New Delhi, e-mail <[email protected].
ISBN 81-7625-506-8.
Scherer, M.J. (2004). Connecting to Learn: Educational and Assistive Technology for People with Disabilities.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA) Books: ISBN 1-557-98982-6.
Shurville, S., Browne, H. and Whitaker, M. (2008). "Employing Educatonal Technologists: A Call for
Evidenced Change" (http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/shurville.pdf) . In Hello!
Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008.
Skinner, B.F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Library of Congress
Card Number 68-12340 E 81290.
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