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BIO 342
Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy
Lecture Notes 11 - Nervous System
The Vertebrate Nervous System:
1 - receives stimuli from receptors & transmits information to effectors that respond to stimulation
2 - regulates behavior by integrating incoming sensory information with stored information (the results of
past experience) & translating that into action by way of effectors
3 - includes billions of nerve cells (or neurons), each of which establishes thousands of contacts with
other nerve cells
4 - also includes neuroglia cells that support, nourish, & insulate neurons

Subdivisions of the Vertebrate Nervous System:

1 - Central Nervous System - including the brain & spinal cord
2 - Peripheral Nervous System - including cranial nerves, spinal nerves, & all branches of cranial & spinal
nerves

Source: http://www.david.curtis.care4free.net/neurons.htm

Neurons (or nerve cells):

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respond to stimuli & conduct impulses

3 types - all with cell body & processes (axons & dendrites):
multipolar
bipolar
unipolar

Bipolar neuron

Unipolar neuron

Multipolar neuron

Nerves = bundles of nerve cell processes; may be sensory, motor, or mixed

Spinal cord:
located in vertebral canal
anatomical beginning is the foramen magnum of the skull
length varies among vertebrates:
in vertebrates with abundant tail musculature, the spinal cord extends to the caudal end of the
vertebral column
in vertebrates without tails or without much tail musculature, the spinal cord extends to about
the lumbar region of the vertebral column
a cross-section of the spinal cord reveals gray matter & white matter. The gray matter consists of
nerve cell bodies, while the white matter consists of nerve cell processes (axons). These processes
make up ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) fiber tracts.

Used with permission of G. Mandl

Spinal nerves:

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arise from spinal cord by dorsal & ventral roots. The dorsal root exhibits a ganglion & is sensory,
while the ventral root has no ganglion & is motor.
early vertebrates:
dorsal & ventral roots did not unite
dorsal roots were mixed (contained both sensory & motor fibers)
no dorsal root ganglion

Rami - 2 branches of each spinal nerve:

dorsal ramus - supplies epaxial muscles & skin of the dorsal part of the body
ventral ramus - supplies hypaxial muscles & skin of the side & ventral part of the body
Functional types of neurons in spinal nerves (& other nerves):
somatic afferent - sensory from general cutaneous receptors (in the skin) & proprioceptors (in
skeletal muscles, tendons, & joints)
somatic efferent - motor to skeletal muscles
visceral afferent - sensory from receptors in the viscera (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, &
glands)
visceral efferent - motor to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & glands
Brain:
the anterior end of the embryonic central nervous system exhibits 3 primary sections:
prosencephalon (forebrain) - subsequently divides into the telencephalon (cerebrum) &
diencephalon (epithalamus, thalamus, & hypothalamus)
mesencephalon (midbrain) - develops without further subdivision & forms the tectum
rhombencephalon (hindbrain) - subdivides into the metencephalon (pons & cerebellum) and
myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

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Source: http://brainmuseum.org/development/index.html

Phylogenetic trend in vertebrate brains is for enlargement of forebrain:

increasingly complex behaviors & muscle control:
coordination of limb movements more complicated (e.g., bipedal dinosaurs & birds)
increased input of sensory information & increased output of motor responses

Source: http://www.colorado.edu/epob/epob3730rlynch/image/figure5-1.jpg

Myelencephalon - consists of the medulla oblongata & its major functions include:
origin of cranial nerves (VII - X or VII - XII)
pathway for ascending & descending fiber tracts
contains centers important in regulating respiration, heartbeat, & intestinal motility
Metencephalon - consists of the pons & cerebellum:

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Pons - pathway for ascending & descending fiber tracts & origin of cranial nerves V, VI, & VII
Cerebellum - modifies & monitors motor output:
important in maintaining equilibrium
coordinates & refines motor action
Mesencephalon - consists of the tectum which includes the optic lobes & auditory lobes:
optic lobes - receive fibers from retina; vary in size with relative importance of vision
auditory lobes - receive fibers from inner ear
Diencephalon - consists of the epithalamus, hypothalamus, & thalamus:
epithalamus - includes pineal gland (epiphysis) that affects skin pigmentation (by acting on
melanocytes) in lower vertebrates & plays a role in regulating biological rhythms in higher vertebrates
hypothalamus - regulates body temperature, water balance, appetite, blood pressure, sexual behavior,
& some aspects of emotional behavior
thalamus - major coordinating, or relay, center for sensory impulses from all parts of the body

Source: http://www.colorado.edu/epob/epob3730rlynch/image/figure5-4.jpg

Telencephalon - consists of the cerebrum which, in turn, consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres

cerebrum has 2 regions: a dorsal PALLIUM (with medial, dorsal, & lateral divisions) & a ventral
SUBPALLIUM (consisting of a striatum & a septum)
all vertebrates have a cerebrum based on the same basic plan; major phylogenetic changes are due
to loss, fusion, or enlargement of the various regions.
medial pallium receives olfactory information
dorsal & lateral pallia receive other sensory input (including visual & auditory information
relayed from the thalamus)
agnathans, fish, & amphibians - pallia are similar

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Source: http://www.auburn.edu/academic/classes/zy/0301/Topic19/Topic19.html

reptiles - pallium has 3 main divisions (medial, dorsal, & lateral) but also has a large DORSAL
VENTRICULAR RIDGE (DVR), derived from lateral pallium; DVR may be higher association area
birds - DVR expands further; dorsal part increases in size & is called the WULST; as in reptiles, the
DVR appears to serve as a higher association area

Source: http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/husband/avc2amnt.htm

mammals - do not have enlarged DVR but DORSAL PALLIUM is enlarged & is called the
CEREBRAL CORTEX; cortex receives & analyzes sensory information & initiates motor activity
subpallium:
septum - important part of the limbic system (regulates emotions & plays vital role in short-term
memory)
striatum - also called basal ganglia; present in all vertebrates & controls sequence of actions in
complex movements
Cranial nerves - agnathans, most fish, & living amphibians have 10 cranial nerves; crossopterygians &
amniotes have 12:
Olfactory nerve (I) - sensory nerve; sense of smell
Optic nerve (II) - sensory nerve; sense of vision
Oculomotor nerve (III) - motor nerve to extrinsic eye muscles
Trochlear nerve (IV) - motor to extrinsic eye muscles
Trigeminal (V) - mixed nerve; sensory from skin of head & mouth (including teeth) & motor to
muscles of 1st pharyngeal arch (muscles of jaw)
Abducens (VI) - motor to extrinsic eyeball muscles
Facial (VII) - mixed nerve; sensory from lateral line of head, ampullae of Lorenzini, & taste buds;
motor to muscles of hyoid arch
Auditory (VIII) - sensory from inner ear (balance & hearing)

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Glossopharyngeal (IX) - mixed nerve; sensory from taste buds & lateral line; motor to muscles of 3rd
arch
Vagus (X) - mixed nerve; sensory from & motor to heart, anterior digestive system, mouth, gill
pouches 2 - 5, & lateral line
Accessory nerve (XI) - motor to derivatives of cucullaris muscle (cleidomastoid, sternomastoid, &
trapezius)
Hypoglossal nerve (XII) - motor to hyoid & tongue muscles
Possibly useful mnemonics to aid in memorization of cranial nerves: On Old Olympus Towering Top A Finn
And German Viewed A Hop or Oh, Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, A Good Vacation Appears
Heavenly.

Sensory Organs
Sensory receptors:
monitor the external & internal environment by responding to selected stimuli, then translating those
stimuli into nerve impulses
Types of sensory organs:
somatic sensory organs - provide information about the external environment
visceral sensory organs - provide information about the organism's internal environment
general sensory organs - widely distributed over the surface & interior of the body
special sensory organs - confined to the head (amniotes & terrestrial amphibians)
Special Somatic Receptors
Neuromast organs ('groove organ' below in Figure 10-4)
receptors in skin of fishes & aquatic amphibians that detect water currents & hear sounds
occur singly, in groups, or in a linear series (e.g., lateral lines)
may also be modified to detect electricity (ampullae of Lorenzini)

Shark lateral line system

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The ampullae of Lorenzini are small vesicles that

form part of an extensive subcutaneous sensory
network system. These vesicles are found around the
head of the shark. They detect weak magnetic fields
produced by other fish at short ranges. This enables a
shark to locate prey buried in the sand or to orient to
nearby movement. Each ampulla is a bundle of
sensory cells innervated by several nerve fibers.
These fibers are enclosed in a jelly-filled tubule that
has a direct opening to the surface through a pore.
These pores on the head of the shark are visible to the
naked eye, and appear as dark spots.

Neuromast organs have 2 types of cells:

hair cells (receptor cells) - each hair cell has several short cilia & kinocilia that project into fluid
or a cupula (displacement of cupula & cilia generates nervous impulses)
supporting cells

Membranous labyrinth
exhibited by all vertebrates
fluid-filled & embedded in skull lateral to hindbrain
Labyrinth usually consists of 3 semicircular canals, a utriculus, & a sacculus

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Semicircular canals:
Hagfish - have only one (posterior)
Lamprey - have 2 (anterior & posterior)
Other vertebrates - have 3 (anterior, posterior, & horizontal)
Functions of the labyrinth:
1 - Equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium - when head moves, inertia causes a slight relative movement of fluid in at least
one semicircular canal ---> deflects cupula (in ampulla) ---> nervous impulses
Static equilibrium - maculae (in sacculus & utriculus) tilt when head moves ---> nervous impulses
2 - Hearing - function of ORGAN OF CORTI located in lagena (enlargement of sacculus); lagena tends to
be longer in terrestrial vertebrates &, in most mammals, its coiled into the cochlea. The organ of Corti
contains a specialized strip of neuromasts connected to the nervous system via the auditory nerve.

1-Inner hair cell, 2-Outer hair cells, 3-Tunnel of Corti, 4-Basilar membrane, 5-Reticular lamina,
6-Tectorial membrane, 7-Deiters' cells, 8-Space of Nuel, 9-Hensen's cells, & 10-Inner spiral sulcus
[Drawing by Stephan Blatrix, from "Promenade around the cochlea" by R Pujol, S. Blatrix, T. Pujol and V. Reclar-Enjalbert, CRIC,
University Montpellier 1 - INSERM. URL: http://www.iurc.montp.inserm.fr/cric/audition/english/corti/fcorti.htm]

Hearing:
Outer ear of tetrapods:
Amphibians & most reptiles - eardrum (tympanic membrane) is on surface of the head

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Crocodilians, birds, & mammals - eardrum is deeper in the skull at the end of an air-filled
passageway called the outer ear canal (or external auditory meatus)
Mammals - pinna collects & directs sound waves
Middle ear of tetrapods - cavity plus ossicle(s):
Amphibians, reptiles, & birds - single middle ear ossicle (columella or stapes)
Mammals - 3 middle ear ossicles (malleus, incus, & stapes)
Inner ear = labyrinth, including lagena (or cochlea)
How do pressure or sound waves become sound?
(Also: check out http://www.iurc.montp.inserm.fr/cric/audition/english/ear/fear.htm &
http://www.blackwellscience.com/matthews/ear.html)

Pit receptors of reptiles = infrared receptors:

1 - Labial pits
found in pythons (Family Boidae); nerve endings lie at the bottom of several recessed labial pits
permit detection of a mouse about 15 cm away
2 - Loreal pits
also called facial pits; can detect temperature changes of as little as
0.001 degree C & so can detect prey several feet away
present in snakes in the family Crotalidae (North American
rattlesnakes, copperheads, & water moccasins), also called the pit
vipers
Light receptors (or photoreceptors) - vertebrates can perceive only a narrow band of electromagnetic
radiation between about 350 & 760 nm; 2 types include the epiphysis (already described) & the eye
Structure of a vertebrate eye:

Accommodation is the process of focusing light on the retina & this can occur in several different ways:

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Lamprey - contraction of corneal muscle pulls cornea against the lens & moves the lens
Teleosts (bony fish) - retractor muscle attached to lens (rectractor lentis muscle) moves lens
posteriorly
Amphibians & cartilaginous fish - protractor muscle attached to lens pulls the lens forward for near
vision
Snakes - increased pressure in the vitreous humor generated by muscles near the iris pushes the lens
forward
Most reptiles, birds, & mammals - curvature of lens is altered by ciliary (annular) muscles

Special visceral receptors - olfactory (smell) & gustatory (taste):

Olfaction - involves receptors located in nasal passages; olfactory epithelium contains basal cells
(replacement cells), supporting cells (secrete mucus), & olfactory receptor cells
vomeronasal organs - only in tetrapods but absent in most turtles, crocodiles, birds, some bats,
primates, & aquatic mammals:
amphibians - recessed area off the main nasal cavity
reptiles - separate pit to which tongue & oral membranes deliver chemicals
mammals:
isolated area of olfactory membrane within nasal cavity that is connected to mouth via a
nasopalatine duct
well-developed in monotremes, marsupials, insectivores, & many carnivores
function of vomeronasal organs - may be especially important in detecting conspecific odors,
but also useful in prey detection

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Gustation (taste) - taste buds, like olfactory receptors, detect chemical stimuli
Taste buds
consist of supportive cells & taste cells
distribution:
Fish - widely distributed in roof, walls, & floor of pharynx;
bottom feeders & scavengers (catfish & carp) have taste
buds distributed over entire surface of head & body,
especially on the barbels (whiskers)
Tetrapods - taste buds restricted to tongue, posterior palate, & oral pharynx
General Somatic Receptors - come in two categories: cutaneous receptors & proprioceptors
cutaneous receptors (for touch, pressure, pain, & temperature)
naked endings - in skin of all vertebrates; stimulated by contact
encapsulated endings - present in tetrapods; nerve endings wrapped in a connective tissue
capsule
Herbst corpuscles - on beak, tongue, & palate of water birds
end bulbs & Ruffini corpuscles - thermal receptors in mammals
Pacinian corpuscles - touch & pressure receptors
proprioceptors - located in skeletal muscles, joints, and tendons & provide information about body
position
General Visceral Receptors:
mostly naked endings in mucosa of the tubes, vessels, & organs of the body, in cardiac muscle,& in
smooth muscle; chiefly stretch & chemoreceptors
some functions of general visceral receptors:
monitor oxygen & carbon dioxide content of blood
monitor blood pressure (baroreceptors in Figure 1 below)
monitor concentration of solutes in blood
similar among all vertebrates

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Useful links:
Comparative Anatomy of the Chordate Nervous System
Comparative Anatomy Topic 19: The Nervous System
Coordination and Integration
Evolution of the Amniote Brain
Sensory Mechanisms
The Evolution of the Vertebrate Brain

Back to BIO 342 Syllabus

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