A guide to

University grammar of English

1
foreward
To the Vietnamese readers-students!
Grammar is an indispensable and essential part of any
language which any student and user of the language make a
deep insight into. The famous book "A University Grammar of
English" by [Link] and !.Greenbaum is a precise grammar
book" suggested to be used by tertiary#level students of the
English language. $n the programme of study at university in
%ietnam" this book has been proposed to be used as one of
your chief reference books. &owever" the problems presented in
the different chapters 'fourteen chapters in all( of the book
would be rather difficult to graps and memori)e particulary for
%ietnamese students if they were not systematised and
shortened. This is the reason why were have" with the
e*periences of one of the pioneer researchers in the area"
found it necessary to summari)e" and emphasi)e the
fundamental contents of the concepts used in the book.
The precise book we compile here with can be considered as a
guide book which summari)es" highlights and emphasi)es" in a
rather full manner" the basic and essential problems which any
%ietnamese university student of the English language should
firmly grasp and thoroughly understand" so that he+she can
make use of the English language in a precise and e*pert way.
$n the process of finding accounts and e*planations for these
problems" we also use notes and the %ietnamese e,uivalent
terms when necessary and possible. After each chapter we
suggest the e*ercises that should be concentratedly done
'taken from R.A -lose.s workbook(.
Therefore this guide book is aimed to serve %ietnamese
students of English language at different universities
throughout %ienam including open universities" part#time and
distant education learners who wish to get a /.A degree" as well
as anyone who wishes to grasp the English language.
0e sincerely hope that with the help of this guidebook"
%ietnamese reader#students can read" digest" and more
thoroughly interpret what has been written in the aforesaid
book.
Great successes to you all.
2
Hanoi, 2000
Tr1n &2u 34nh" Assoc.5rof.6r
7guy8n %9n -:" !enior ;ecturer
3
Mc lc (contents)
<oreward
An $ntroduction to Grammar
-hapter $ 7ouns" 5ronouns and the /asic noun 5hrase
-hapter $$ The -omple* 7oun 5hrase
-hapter $$$ %erbs and the %erb 5hrase
-hapter $% The complementation of the %erb
-hapter % Ad=ectives and Adverbs
-hapter %$ 5repositions and 5repositional 5hrases
-hapter %$$ The !imple !entence
-hapter %$$$ Ad=uncts" 6is=uncts and -on=uncts
-hapter $> -oordination and Apposition
-hapter > !ubordination -omple* !entences
Terminology
4
An introduction to grammar
$. 0hat is grammar?
!1! "efinition# Elements of grammar#
@ $n traditional concepts" grammar consists of two parts
morphology and synta*.
a. 3orphology deals with these ma=or problems?
'i( -lasses of word 'different parts of speech(
'ii( 6ifferent grammatical categories of different parts of
speech.
7? number" case A gender
%? Tense" aspect" voice A mood
b. !ynta* deals with the combination of words to make larger
units of language? phrase" clause and sentence.
'i( phrases? treating the combination of words into noun
phrases" verb phrases" ad=ectival phrases" prepositional
phrases.
'ii( clauses? different kinds of clausesB independent clauses"
main+superordinate clauses and subordinate clauses
'dependent(
'iii( !entences? # !imple sentencesB sentence with one
clause
# -ompound sentences and comple*
sentences? sentences consisting of two or
more clauses.
$n modern concept" grammar may be defined as a set of
morphological and syntactic rules which may be treated
$
together to make it essier for the learners # the users of the
language to grasp and apply to concrete situations of usage.
!2! %rammar and other &ranches of linguistics#
a. 5honology? treating phonemes # 'smallest linguistic units(
!egmental !upra segmental
%owels -onsonant
s
!tress
rhythm
$ntonatio
n
prosody
b. Grammar? dealing withB 3orphemes 'smallest meaningful
linguistic unit(
3orphemes 'made of phonemes(
0ords 5hrases -lauses !entences
'parts of
speech(
'75" %5" etc( $ndependen
t
3ain+[Link]
!imple"
compound
-omple*
';argest grammatical unit(
c. !emantics 'also called semasiology(
Treatments of
meanings of
0ords
5hrases
-lauses
!entenc
es
Utterances 'unit of
speech(
d. 6iscourse analysis?
A ;argely concerned with larger units than sentence
'
sentences # paragraphs # te*ts
A 3eans of linking sentences? cohesion
coherence
! (arts of sentences and sentence ty)es
1! *raditional conce)ts
5rincipal parts? !ub=ect and predicate
!econdary? Cb=ect" complement 'predicative(" Adverbial
Attribute 'modifier(
E.g? 3y brother walked to the station 'simple 5redicate(
! 5redicate '% A A(
&is sister is a teacher of English 'compound nominal
5redicate(
! 5redicate '% A 75 D complement(
2! +!,uir- et al.s conce)ts#
!entences elements are !ub=ect" %erb" Cb=ect"
-omplement and Adverbial '!.%.C.- and A for short(
E.g? 0e all know these rules
! % C
They went to the station last week
! % A A
0e elected him 5resident twice
! % C - A
!" %" C" - and A can be used to label clauses 'see
subsection E below(
3! /entence ty)es# 'possible arrangements of !" %" C" A(
0
a. ! A % intransitive? E.g? !he.s coming. [Link] gone out.
The planne took off
b. ! A %intransitive A -? E.g? !he.s my sister. They look tired
The milk turned sour
c. ! A %intransitive A A? E.g? They were here. !he got off the
bus
d. ! A %monotrasitive A C? Eg? They built this house. &e
gave up tobacco
This depends on you. 0e cut down on
this
e. ! A % ditransitiveACAC? Eg? 0e gave him a book . !he
informed me of the news &e took great
care of the children
f. ! A %comle*trans ACA-? E.g?0e elected him our 5resident.
!he painted the door green
g. ! A %comle*transACAA? E.g? $ put it here
They hung the picture on the wall.
These are also clause types" parts of compound and
comple* sentences
4! 1om)ound and com)le2 sentences#
These are sentences formed by two or more independent
clause =oined by "and"" "but"" "or" and others.
E.g? $ told him this but he didn.t believe me.
! % C C ! % C
F
st
[Link] G
nd
[Link].
3
!he.s a teacher and she.s out of work
! % - ! % A
F
st
[Link] G
nd
[Link].
Hou can drive my car or you can walk
! % C ! %
F
st
[Link] G
nd
[Link].
b. -omple* sentences?
These are sentences =oined by two or more clause of which one
is the main clause and the other 's( # subordinate clause Is(
being part '!" C"- or A( of the former.
E.g? $ know that [Link] honest
! % - D sub. clause
! % C D main clause
0hat he likes isn.t what $ like
C ! % C ! % D [Link]
! % - D main clause
! /ome &asic conce)ts
F. -losed # system vs. Cpen class?
5arts of ech
Cpen class -losed # system
7oun" %erb" Ad=ective"
Adverb
5ronoun" Article" 5reposition"
-on=unction
4
# numerous
# le*ical meaning
6emonstrative" $nter=ection
# !mall in number
# E*clusively used
# -learly defined in contrast
with one another 'grammatical
meaning(
&owever" the distinction between these two is not clear#
cut?
E.g? %erb? open class? le*ical verbs
-losed#system? au*iliaries
5repositions? closed#system? simple preps
Cpen class? compound? prep A 7 A prep
2! "ynamic vs! /tative#
a. %erbs are?
A 6ynamic when denoting actionB play" learn" speak" 'often
used in progressive tense(.
E.g? [Link] playing the piano
!he.s been learning English for J years.
A !tative when denoting state? be" appear" look" turn" know"
understand" used in the 5rogressive(.
E.g? !he is a teacher. !he knows me.
b. !ubclasses of le*ical verb
!tative 6ynamic
$ntensive E*tensive $ntensive E*tensive
/e" become know" feel
15
Appear" turn understands grow
'!A%A-( '!A%AC( '!A%A-( $ntransitive
Transitive
A A come" go
'!A%( 3onotrans 6itrans
-omp
/uy" ask give"
call
Give up offer
p
'!A%AC( '!A%ACAC(
'!%-(
c. 5arts of eech 6ynamic ? %.Adv
!tative ? [Link]=
K. Cptional vs. Cbligatory?
a. Cbligatory elements of the sentences are those that must be
present sentence strurcture. 0ithout these" the meaning of the
sentences is incomp and the sentence is unacceptable.
E.g? !he is a teacher They got off the bus
! % - ! % A
$n these sentences" !" %" - and A are obligatory.
b. Cptional elements are those that are not necessary in the
sentences structure.
0ith out these" the meaning of the sentence is still complete? $n
most cases A is optional.
E.g? !he went to ;ondon last !unday
11
A A
The plane took off immediately
A
E*ercises? U.G.E 0ork book 'by R.A.-lose(
E" J" L" FM" FG" FK" FJ '-hapter G" pp" J#FF(
12
1ha)ter
6ouns7 )ronouns and the &asic noun )hrases
'UGE" chapter E" pp" JI # FFK(
$. 6efinition and classification
!1! "efinition#
A noun is a word use to name person" thing" animal or
abstract conce.
<or e*ample?
# 7ame of persons? E.g? Tom" Nohn" /ill Nones" 3r.!mith"
people" m.....
boy" woman" girl...
# 7ames of things? E.g? bed" chair" table" house" earth"
sun...
# 7ames of animalsB E.g? cat" dog" tiger" lion" dragon"
cattle...
# names of abstract concepts? E.g? peace" war"
independence...
!2! 1lassification
7ouns
'i( 5roper nouns
'uni,ue reference(
'ii( common nouns
'generic+specific reference(
Tom" Nohn
3r.!mith" etc
'A( -ount 7
man" boy"
7on#count 7
0ater" oil"
13
people
'A( -oncrete
man" boy"
water
independence
Abstract
5eace" war"
independence
b. !ubclassification of proper nouns?
'i( 5ersonal names? E.g? Tom" Nohn" 3r.!mith" /ill -linton" !ir
Nones" ; /. Russel
'ii( Geographical names? E.g? England" ;ondon" %ietnam"
-hina" the Unite !tates of America" the
7ile
'iii( 7ames of institutions or organisations?
E.g? ;ondon University" the United 7ations" <AC" U7$-E<"
etc.
@ 5roper nouns have uni,ue reference 'i.e. they refer to a
uni,ue person" country" organisation or sometimes a group of
these(.
c. <uther classification of common nouns?
'i( The most important classification of common nouns is the
distinciton between count and non#count nouns
@ -ount nouns are those that vary in form
!ingular 5lural
E.g? man" boy" o* man" boys" o*en
@ 7on#count nouns are those that have only one form which is
often used in the singular"
E.g? 0ater" oil" silver" independence
14
'ii( -on nouns and non # count nouns can be concrete or
abstract?
-oncrete Abstract
-ount
3an" boy
7on#count
0ater" gold
-ount
0ar"
activity
7on#count
5eace"
independence
$$. Grammatical categories
!1! *he category of num&er
a. 7umber is grammatical category that distinguishes count
nouns into?
!ingular 5lural
E.g? man" boy" man" boys"
0ar" activity wars" activities
b. General classification of nouns in terms of number
'i( $nvariables 'D 7ouns that do not vary(
$nvariables
!ingular only 5lural only
7oncount 7#
ending
in#s
!ubstantivi
sed
Ad=
7
with
plura
l
5luralia
tantum
s
-ollecti
ve
nouns
!ubstanti
ve
Ad=
mater
ial
abstrac
t
'abstract( meanin
g
'concre
te(
0ater
Cil
5eace
<reedo
m
7ews
5hysic
s
The true
The
beautiful
!cissor
s
Trouser
s
-ustom
s
Arms
5eople
-attle
The
poor
The
blind
1$
'ii( %ariables Regular plural A ! +#s+ books" stops
+#)+ beds" stars
+#i)+ bo*es" brushes
$rregular plural
A voicing '+f+ #O +v)+( ? leaf #O leaves
#en ending ? o* #O o*en
A change of root vowel ? foot #O feet
A foreign plural? phenomenon #O phenomena
Pero plural? sheep" deer" fish" trout
'the same form for both singular Q plural(
!2! 1ase (6.s# %enitive)
'i( Two genitives? .s genitive Q of # genitive
E.g? the boy.s book the wheels of the car
'ii(. -hoice of .s genitive? with nouns of higher gender classes
E.g? The boy.s name" this cat.s eyes" -hina.s e*port.
-hoice of of#genitive? with nouns of lower gender classes
'iii(? Genitive meaning? E,uivalents
A 5ossessive? possession? E.g? 3y father.s
hat
the legs of the
table
3y father has a
hat
&uman relation? E.g? my sister.s
friends
3y sister has
friends
A !ub=ective
'Aoriginal(?
E.g? 3y father.s s
permission
3y father
permits
The arrival of the bus The bus arrived
1'
A Cb=ective? E.g? The criminal.s
arrest
!omeone
arrested
The criminal
A 6escriptive? E.g? Two [Link] A visit that lasts
Two days
A Appositive E.g? The town of %inh
Hen
%inh Hen is a
town
'iv( 6ouble genitive? of Q .s # genitive used together
E.g? A friend of my father.s
! 3! %ender# 'sometimes considered unimportant(
Gender !e* 'semantic concept(
3asculine? man
<eminine? woman
-ommon teacher
7euter? table
'male(
'female(
'both male and female(

$n English" there is not any further morphological feature

that helps distinguish gender 'unlike Russian or <rench(.
$$$. Elements of the basic noun phrase '75(
!1! "iagram
/asic 75
-losed #system
5remodifiers
&ead noun
10
5redetermin
ers
'K
subclasses(
6eterminers
'R
subclasses(
5otsdetermi
ners
'G
subclasses(
!2! "eterminers# R subclasses
a. Article? definite a'n(+indefinite the" e.g? an old man" boys
b. 5ossessive? my" your" his" her" their" e.g? my brother" their
discussion.
c. 6emonstrative? this" that" these" those" e.g? this book" these
boys.
d. $nterrogative? whose" which" what. E.g? which colour" whose
books
e. $ndefinite? some" any" every" each" e.g? some water" any car
's(" every student
g. uantifier? much" e.g? much water.
$n the basic 75s" these words are central elements of pre#
modifiers.
!3! (re8determiners 'Dwords preceding 6eterminers(?
a. $nclusives? all" half" eg? all the books
b. 3ultipliers? double" twice" three times" e.g? double your
salary.
c. <ractions? one#third" two#fifths" e.g? one#third 'of( this
book+the student
! 4! (ost 8 determiners 'Dwords coming after 6eterminers(?
a. uantifiers? -losed#system? many" little" few
E.g? many books" few apples
13
Cpen class? a lot of" good deal of"
A great number of
E.g? a lot of books" a great deal of oil
b. 7umerals? -ardinal? one" two" three"
E.g? one book" two books
Crdinal? first" second" third.
E.g? first" second book
3ore e*amples? this book" your head" a boy" much
water
All these e*amples" all these fifty students
&alf that water" the first two books...
Uses of head noun and close 8 system )re8modifiers
1! 1ommon uses of "eterminers and all classes of head
6oun#
&ead 7oun
'in terms of number(
a. Article? the" ?
-ount 7 7on#count
7
b. 5ossessive? my" your !ing 5lural
c. $nterrogative? whose"
which
7 7#s
2! +estricted uses#
a. Article? a'n( with singular count 7? e.g? a book" an old man
b. 6emonstratives?
@ this+that with singular count 7+non # count 7.
14
E.g? this books" this oil
@ these+those with plural count 7.
E.g? those books
c. $ndefinite? @ some with non#count+ count plural 7 'stressed(
with singular count 7 'stressed(
@ any" every+each with singular count 7
d. uantifier? @ much with non#count 7 only
9!3! (re8determiners and head 6#
a.
$nclusive?
@ all
half
with 7on#count 7
!ing count 7
%olum
e
%olum
e
'A7(
5lural count
7
'A7#s(
E.g? all+half the book 's(
@ both? with plural count nouns 'A7#s(
'optional use of of(
E.g? both 'of( my brothers
b. 3ultiplier? often used singular count 7 'volume( or no#
count 7
E.g? double +twice+three times your salary
c. <ractions? with nouns denoting volume in the main
E.g? one#third 'of( your+the book
9! 4! (ost 8 determiners#
a. 7umerals cardinal? # one with singular count 7
# two+three... with plural count 7
25
ordinal? # with either singular or plural
E.g? two books" the second book
Is(
b. uantifiers? little with non#count
e.g? little water
<ew+many with plural count 7
e.g? many+few friends
Cther ,uantifiers"
e.g? a great deal of books
a large amount of cars
9! $! 6oun reference and article usage
All the nouns in their concrete uses have reference of their
own
a. 5roper 7? uni,ue reference
0ithout article ' (? e.g? Tom" -hina" [Link]
0ith definite article the" e.g? the !miths 'family(" the
-ongo" the 5hilipines
0ith indefinite article." e.g? There.s a Tom !mith here.
$ bought a 3acintosh 'proper 7#O common 7(
b. common 7ouns?
7on # count 7? Generic? e.g? Cil#floats on water
!pecific? the e.g? The oil in this well
The wine of <rance
-ount 7? @ !ingular Generic? a D 'every(" e.g? A tiger lives in
the =ungle
21
The 'D whole class("
e.g? The cat is a small domestic
animal
!pecific? a 'Done(" e.g? There.s a car here
The e.g? The man in the car
Hou met
@ 5lural Generic? " e.g? boys will be boys
!pecific? the" e.g? The boys of this group
c. 3ore uses of definite article" e.g? the first car" the right
answer" the same room" to the
left+right 'side(.
(ronouns and numerals
/u&classes of )ronouns 'used in replacement of 75s(
a. !pecific group includes?
'i( -entral 5ersonal? $+m" we+us" you+you" his+him"
they+them
Refle*ive? myself" ourselves" yourself"
yourselves"
himself" herself" themselves
Reciprocal? one" another" each other 'use with
we" you" they 'plural(
5ossessive? my'mine(" our's(" your's("
their's(
'ii( Relative? who" which" that
'iii( $nterrogative? who" which" what
22
'iv( 6emonstrative? this" that" these" those
b. $ndefinite group includes?
'i( Universal? all" each" everyone" everything" everybody
'ii( 5artitive? assertive? many" some" someone"
somebody
7o#assertive? anyone" anything" anybody
7egative? none" no one" nobody" nothing
'iii( uantifying pronouns?
@ much" many" 'positive(. E.g? 3any didn.t come.
@ little" few 'negative(" e.g? ;ittle can be done now
2! 6umerals#
a. /oth cardinals and ordinals can be used pronominally.
E.g? Two are absent to day. 0e only need the
first
b. Cne can be used as?
'i( 7umerical "one" e.g? $ need one Cne went this way" the
other" than
'ii( Replacive "one"" e.g? $s this the one you meanS
'iii( $ndefinite "one"" e.g? Cne can.t be too careful" can
one+youS
$%. !yntactic functions of noun phrases 'including pronouns(
1! 1ommon syntactic functions# /7 :7 1
a. !ub=ect '!( E.g? 3y brother is a teacher
! -s
b. 6irect Cb=ect 'Cd( E.g? They like football
23
! Cd
c. $ndirect Cb=ect 'Ci( E.g? 0e gave our friend a book
! Ci Cd
d. !ub=ect complement '-s( E.g? 3y brother is a teacher
! -s
e. Cb=ect complement '-o( E.g? They elected him their
chairman
! Cd -o
2! /ome other functions 'also called minor functions(?
f. 5repositional complement '-prep.( E.g? Cn the way we
look at it
-prep -prep
g. Appositive 'App.( E.g? 3y friend" a teacher" will
come soon
App
g. Adverbial 'A( E.g? ;ast week we telephoned
him
A 'time(
i. Ad=ectival -omplement '-ad=( E.g? The game isn.t worth
the candle
-ad=
E*ercises? [Link]. 0ork book 'by R.A. -lose(
EJ" ET" EL" JM" JF" JK" JT" JL" JI" RK" RE" RJ" RR
'chapter E" [Link]#KL(
24
-hapter $$
The comple* noun phrase
$. Elements of comple* noun phrase
!1! "iagram
-omple* 75s
5remodifiers &ead 7 5ostmodifiers
-losed#system Cpen#-lass [Link]
5re.5
7on#
finites
Relative
clause
Ad=ectiv
e
%erb 7oun
!2! E2am)les# 'These( beautiful girls
Ad= head7
The approaching train
6et %#ing head 7
The beautiful girl sitting in the corner
6et Ad= head 7 non#finite
!3! +estrictive vs!non8restrictive modifiers#
Restrictive? Essential information
7o # restrictive? Additional information
Eg? 3y old mother
Restr. 7on#restr.
2$
!1! Ma;or classes of )re8modifiers#
Ad= E.g? A good boy
%erb A &ead 7 The approaching train
This broken vase
7oun 3y brother.s letter
This lecture hall
! 2! Minor classes of )re8modifiers#
# Adv e.g? The then minister" a far#away
cottage
# 5rep.5 e.g? Cn #the # =ob classes cottage
# -lause e.g? 5op#down#for#the#weekend cottage
! 3! (re8modification &y Ad;ectives#
a. 6ifferent classes of ad=ectives?
-entral Ad=
General
Good
/ad
/eautiful
Age
Cld
7ew
Houng
-olour
/lack
0hite
Crange
!hape+si)e
!,uare
Round
Triangular
E.g? These old cars
The beautiful old orange car
@ Attributive Ad=?
# 7ationality? e.g? /ritish+American radio
# 6enominal? e.g? political consciousness" physical
conditions
2'
b. Relative se,uence?
5remodifiers &ead
7
Ad= %erb 6enominal
Gen Age -olor !hape %#ing+%#
ed
Ad= 7
This pretty old black
triangular
The e*travagant
-rumblin
g
social
-hurch Tower
life
!4! (re8modification &y 9er&s#
a. %#ing rticiple? temporary" e.g? the approaching
train
'D the train which is approaching(
permanent" e.g? an interesting book
'D a book that interests readers(
a. %#edG participle? passive" e.g? the broken vase
'D the vase that was broken(
non#passive" e.g? a retired teacher
' D a teacher who has retired(
!$! 6ouns used as )re8modifiers#
a. 7.s 'genitive( e.g? the boy.s cottage
room
b. 7 'common # case( e.g? the country cottage
20
c. A series of 7 e.g? the black market meat price
reduction
head 7
!'! Multi)le )re8modification#
a! :ne head 6 with multi)le )re8modifiers
@ Relative se,uence?
5remodifiers &ead
7
6et Ad= %erb 6enominal
5redet.6et A
5stdet
Gen Age -ol !ha
pe
%#ing+%#
edG
Ad= 7
E*? This /eautiful new white Napanese -ar
The Cld 5entagonal
crumbing
-hurch Towe
r
@ -hange in se,uence #O change in meaning
E.g? This black old man This old black man
&is last interesting novel &is interesting last novel
b. 3ultiple head with one modifier
E.g? Cld men and women
'i( old man and old women
'ii( women and old men
c. 0ith modified modifiers
E.g? The e*tremly beautiful pictures
The meat production increase measures
23
The Uing of England.s crown
$$$. 5ost#modification
$$$.F. 3a=or classes of post#modifiers?
Adv.+5rep.5? E.g? The man there
The book on the left
&ead 7
A
7onfinites?
Relative
clauses?
E.g? The first man to leave
Elg? The boy who went with
you there
!2! Minor classes of )ost 8 modifier#
&ead A Ad=
E.g? The boys
7othing
Easiest to teach
7ew
! (ost 8 modification &y Adver&s<(re)ositional (hrase#
# 5lace? e.g? The man in the car+at the desk
upstairs+down there
# Time? The meeting on Tuesday
# 3anner? A problem of great significance
A man of four children
! 4! (ost 8 modification &y non8finite ver&s#
# To % appositive" e.g? their hope to become teachers
descriptive" e.g? the last bus to arrive
24
# %#ing temporary character" e.g? the man standing
there
# %#ed passive meaning" e.g? The vase broken
during the row
the words underlined
$$$. J. 5ost # modification by relative clauses?
a. Restrictive vs. 7on#restrictive relative clauses
+estrictive 6on8restrictive
A Essential information
A &ead 7? !pecific reference
A 0ider choice of relative
pronouns
who 'm(
which
that

A Additional information
A head 7? Uni,ue reference
A 7arrower choice of relative
pronouns
who 'm(
which
$%. 5remodification Q postmodification in comparison?
# Greater with post # modifier?
E.g? The ;ondon trip
5re#mod
The trip to ;ondon 'A direction(+around ;ondon
5ost#mod
@ E*plicitness varies with different classes of post#
modifiers?
35
E.g? The girl? near the door 'A position(
!itting near the door
'ApostureVactionOAposition(
0ho.s sitting near the door
'AtimeApostureAposition(
9!2! :ther features#
a. 5ermanence Q temporariness
(re8modifiers (ost8modifiers
# Temporary?
E.g? the approaching train
# 5ermanent?
E.g? this surprising news
# Temporary only?
Eg? the approaching train
at platrform J
b. 5assive Q non#passive
(re8modifiers (ost8modifiers
# 5assive?
E.g? the broken vase
- 7on#passive?
E.g? a retired teacher
# 5assive only?
E.g? the vase broken
during the now
#
9!3! (re8modification and )ost8modification in
com&ination#
E*amples?
(re8modification =ead (ost8modification
The pretty blackish Girl 'who( you met on the way here
The interlocking -hina /o* 0hich [Link] see later.
&er interesting love 7ovel About war veterans
The English Grammar /ook There which $ bought two years
ago
The beautiful broken vase Cn the table which $ bought
31
-hina two months ago is still there
These three nice
ancient pentagonal
crumbling church
Tower
s
$n the city centre which you
will come across later are of
great his significance
E*ercise? U.G.E 0ork book 'by R.A.-lose(
GEJ" GET" GJM" GJF" GJE" GJJ" GJT" GJL" GJI" GRG
'chapter FK" p.p FGK # FKF(
32
-hapter $$$
%erbs and the verb phrase
'UGE" chapter K" [Link]#JL(
$. 6efinition and classification
!1! >hat is a ver&?
A verb is a word 'or a part of speech( used to denote action or
state" or" otherwise help to complete to meaning of the verb
phrase.
E.g? !he goes there twice a week 'action(
![Link] become a doctor 'state(
[Link] trying to finish the work
!2! 1lassification#
a. ;e*ical verbs and au*iliary verbs.
# ;e*ical 'or main( verbs are those verbs that denote
action or state.
E.g? 0e speak %ietnamese 'action(
They went there last night
!he looks tired today 'state(
!he.s my teacher of English
# Au*iliary verbs are those that help complete the meaning
of the verbs phrase.
E.g? Hou can go there now
!he did sit there with him
[Link] learning a new lesson
33
b. Au*iliary verbs? primary and modal au*iliaries
Au*iliaries
5rimary 3odal
-an" may" must
5eriphrastic 5erfect 5rogressi
ve
5assive Cught to" dare"
need
6o &ave /e F /e G
Cften used in
negative
interrogative
sentences
Use to add the meaning of
aspect" voice of the verb
phrase
Used to add the
meaning to the
verbs phrase
c! le2ical ver&s# dynamic and stative ver&s#
"ynamic ver&s /tative ver&s
@ 6ynamic verbs are often
verbs that denote action" but
some may denote state?
E.g? [Link] singing
!he.s feeling tired
now
@ -an be used inthe
progressive tense
E.g? !he learns Russian
!he.s learning lesson
FM
@ Are often verbs that denote
state 'even transitive verbs(?
e.g? !he knows me
@ 7ot commonly used in the
progressive tense?
E.g? !he.s weak
&e looks tired
d. ;e*ical verbs? intensive and e*tensive verbs
34
$ntensive verbs often denote intensive relationship" often
between sub=ect and complement.
E.g? !he.s my sister.
!he looks cheerful today 'one entity ins involved
here(
[Link] feeling tired now.
E*tensive verbs are those that e*tend their meaning to a
new entity" of which the presence helps complete the meaning
of the action or state.
E.g? !he knows me.
[Link] learning a new lesson.
0e elected him president twice
!ometimes" e*tensive verbs are intransitive?
E.g? !he has come
[Link] living in a new world
e. ;e*ical verbs # their classification in terms of their
complementation
%erbs
Transitive
$ntensive
'F(
$ntransitive
'G(
3onotran#
sitive'K(
6itransitive
'E(
-omple*#
transitive'J
(
/e" appear"
look"
become"
get" run
-ome" go"
live" come
in" go out"
give in
Ask"
answer"
get" give
up" turn
down
Give" take"
inform of
-all" elect"
make" put
3$
'!%-+!%A( '! %( '! % C( '! % C C( '! % C -+ !
% C A(
f. ;e*ical verbsB -lassification based on word formation?
%erbs
!imple 6erived -ompound
Root only?
Ask" give" take" go"
come" work
@ prefi* A root?
return" redo"
overdo" mistake
@ Root A suffi*?
!ocialise" broaden
@ 5hrasal? come in"
go out" give up" turn
down
@ 5repositional?
depend on" look for
@ Cthers? white #
wash
$. Au*iliaries? !yntactic and !emantic <eatures
$$.F. !yntactic features of primary au*iliaries?
a. Their forms?
5eriphrastic?
6o
5erfect?
&ave
5rogressive?
/e
5assive? /
5rese
nt
6o+does &ave+has 'beA(
am+is+are
Am+is+are
5ast 6id &ad 0as+were
'Abeen(
0as+were
'been Q
being(
b. <orm of the verbs following them?
6o A % le*ical &ave A %#edG
of
le*ical+au*iliar
y
/e A %#ing of
le*ical+au*iliar
y
/e A %#ed
le*ical
&e does like !he.s been [Link] talking This was done
3'
coffee
The don.t go out
often
here $t was being
built
$t has been
finished
c. Used as operator?
They didn.t go
there
0hy did she come
lateS
!he hasn.t
done it
0hat has she
gotS
!he isn.t coming
0here was it
goingS
&e wasn.t
informed
&ow was it
doneS
d. Used as proform 'pro#verb(
!he went there but $
didn.t
&ave you
finishedS
Hes" $ have
Are they
comingS
$.m sure they
are
0as she
chosenS
-ertainly she
was
e. Cnly "6o" can be used as emphatic au*iliary?
E.g? 6o come in and sit down
&e did go there last !unday
!2! Modal au2iliaries# their syntactic features
a. ;ist of items? can" may" must" shall" will" ought to
dare" need.
b. Their own forms?
5resent? can" may" shall" will must" ought to" need"
dare
5ast? could" might" should" would
30
@ <or their present tense form" only one form is use for all
persons and numbers" e.g? &e+we... can go now
c. <orm of the verb following them?
3odal A % 'base( of the le*ical+au*iliary verb following it.
E.g? Hou can go
They must have gone out
!he shouldn.t be prompted
&e can.t be arriving
d. Used as operator?
E.g? !he can.t do it now
&e couldn.t swim
0hat must we do nowS
0hy shouldn.t they have taken photographs thenS
e. Used as pro#form
E.g? Hou must go there but they mustn.t 'needn.t(
7ote?
@ "6are" and "need" are modals when they are used as
operator.
E.g? !he needn.t attend the lecture.
6are you go to with him nowS
@ Ctherwise" they are le*ical verb.
E.g? 0e don.t need to take care of him.
$$.K. !emantic features of modal verbs?
33
!emantically modal verbs form a sacle of modality when
they are use with le*ical verbs?
5rese
nt
E.g? &e can speak K foreign languages
a. Ability They can swim across the river
'mental+physical(
'Wbe able to
%(
5ast E.g? &e could play the guitar when he was K
!he could talk with them in their native
tongue
b. 5ossibility Theoretic
al?
E.g? The roads can be blocked now
'Wbe possible( 5ractical? E.g? &e knew that the road might be
blocked then
c. 5ermission <ormal A
polite
E.g? 3ay $ borrow your car" sir
'Wbe allowed
Ato %(
E.g? 3ight $ come in" sirS
-asual? E.g? -an $ smoke in here
d. Cbligation? !ub=ective? E.g? Hou must keep silent now
'Wbe
obligedAto%(
E.g? !he mustn.t do it 'prohibition(
Cb=ective E.g? They had to attend E lectures
e. 7ecessity? E.g? !he has to be very careful
'Wbe necessary( E.g? 0e needn.t go there now
f. Advisability? E.g? Hou should do as you are told
'Wbe advisable( E.g? !he ought to be very cautious
g. !uggestion? E.g? !hall we go there with him nowS
E.g? 0hy shouldn.t they ask for permission
to goS
h.
&abituality?
5ast
E.g? They would sit there and welcome him
home then
34
5resent+<ut
ure?
E.g? !he will always say good bye to him at
E [Link]
i. %olition 'willingness( E.g? 0ater will boil at IM
M
- at this height
E.g? [Link] be strong wind and cold
weather
=. <uturity? E.g? [Link] go there the other day
0e shall try our best
$$$. The different forms of le*ical verbs?
!1! @ive different forms of le2ical ver&s and their uses#
a. A general look at verb forms?
There are five verb form =udged by their by used in the verb
phrase?
% %#s %#ed %#ing %#ed
G
'base( 'K
rd
person( 'past( 'participles(
E.g? Ask
0ant
-ut
/ring
Take
Go
/e
Asks
0ants
-uts
/rings
Takes
Goes
Am" is" are
Asked
0anted
-ut
/rought
Took
0ent
0as"
were
Asking
0anting
-utting
/ringing
Taking
Going
/eing
Asked
0anted
-ut
/rought
Taken
Gone
/een
b. concrete uses of the verb forms?
'i( /ase form?
$nfinite %5s $n no#finite %5s
@ $ndicative mood
!imple 5resent Tense with
@ To # infinitive
E.g? To help him is my task
45
$+0e+you+they+the boys
E.g? $ go there twice
a week
The boys
@ $mperative mood
E.g? Take a great care of the
children
@ !ub=unctive mood
E.g? God save the ueenX
&e suggested that she be
there
They wanted to keep silent
They wanted there to find
better =obs
@ /are infinitive.
E.g? Run a way was all th@@
could do then
'ii( %#s? used only infinite %5s# $ndicative mood" simple 5resent
Tense with K
rd
person singular '&e+!he+$t+The boy(.
E.g? &e+she+$t+The boy often comes early.
'iii(. %#ed 'past(? $n finite %5s
A $n $ndicative mood !imple 5ast Tense with all persons
numbers? Eg? $+&e...+They asked this ,uestion
A $n sub=unctive mood 'also called 5ast !ub=unctive(
Eg? $f he went there" he.d certain see her
'iv( %#ing 'participle(?
$nfinite %5s $n no#finite %5s
A 0ith verbs in the
progressive tense
E.g? [Link] coming
!he.s been living for G years
E.g? !eeing is believing
They en=oyed watching T.%
&aving finished work they
41
$f he.d been learning for a long
time he.d have known this
home
'v( %#edG 'participle( with verbs in the 5erfect Tenses
$nfinite %5s $n no#finite %5s
A 0ith verbs in the perfect
tenses
E.g? [Link] done all the work
!he.d met him before she went
there
A $n the passive voice
they were asked a lot of
,uestion
[Link] having done all the work
they are free now
!2 +egular ver&s with 4 actual ver& forms#
%" %#s" %#ed F D %#edG" %#ing
+d+ borrowed" drilled
onunciation of # ed +t+ asked" stopped
+id+ wanted" needed
E.g Ask
0ant
Travel
Asks
0ants
Travelled
Asked
0anted
Travelled
Asking
0anting
Travelling
!3! rregular ver&s
%erbs with K actual forms?
% D % # edF D %#edG %#s %#ing
Eg? cut -uts -utting
Ther verbs? bid" bet" burst" cast" cost" forecast" hit" hurt" let" put"
set" spread" put" slit" split" upset.
42
%erbs with E actual forms
'i( % D %#ed %#s %#d %#ing
E.g? become /ecomes /ecame /ecoming
Cther verbs? come" overcome" run" overun
'ii( % %#s %#edF D %#edG %#ing
@ with ending #F 'change of root vowel(
E.g? bend /ends /ent /ending
A bring" build" catch" creep" deal" feel" fight" keep" kneel" lend"
leap" leave" lose" mean" rebuild" seek" send" sleep" spend"
sweep" think" teach" weep.
% %#s %#edFD%#edG %#ing
@ -hange of root vowel only
E.g? /aby#sit /aby#sits /aby#sat /aby#sitting
A bleed" breastfeed" breed" cling" dig" feed find" fling" get"
grind" hang" have hear" hold" lay" lead" make" meet" mislead"
misunderstand" overhear" pay" repay" rewind" say" shine" sit"
slide" speed" spin" stand" stick" sting" strike" swing" tell"
understand" unwind" weave" wind" wring.
c. %erbs with J different forms?
% %#s %#edF %#ing %#edG
Eg? arise Arises Arose Arising Arisen
A uake" bear" beat" begin" bite" blow" break" choose" do" draw"
drink" drive" eat" fall" fly" forbid" foresee" forget" forgive" free)e"
give" go" grow" hide" know" like" mistake" outgrow" overeat"
overtake" overthrow" rewrite" ride" rise" see" shake" shrink" sing"
sink" speak" steal" swear" swim" tear" tread" undergo" undertake
undo" wake" wear" withdraw" write.
!4! Mi2ed ty)e#
43
E.g? learned # learnt" show # shown
9! the grammatical categories of the english ver&
9!1! @our categories# tense7 as)ect7 voice7 mood (a
general loo-)
a. Tense # use of verb form to indicate time of action+state
0e make clear distinction of two tenses?
5resent?
5ast?
%+v#se
%#edF
Ask+asks
Asked
0rite+write
s
0rote
&ave+has
&ad
b. AspectB the aspect denotes the manner in which the
action+state is performed 'i.e. completion+in#completion of
action(
There are E subcategories of aspect?
!imple
5erfect
5rogressive
5erfect
5rogressive
%+%#s+%#edF
&aveA%#edG
/e A %#ing
&aving been A %#
ing
E.g? !he works here
E.g? [Link] lived there for
L years
E.g? 0e were dancing then
E.g? !he.s been learning
English" for a long time
c. %oice? %oice denotes the relationship between the sub=ect
and the verb. 0e distinguish two voice?
Active? ! # actor 'agentive( A %#action '%+%#s...(
E.g? 0e built this house
5assive? !#affected 'recipient( A % # action '/e A %#edG(
E.g? This house was built last year
44
!he was given a booklet
d. 3ood? 3ood indicates the speaker.s attitude to the
predication 'action+state(. $n his mind" the action may be
thought of as?
A <actual? E.g? &e went there last night '$ndicative(
A 7on # factual?
@ 6esirous? E.g? Ueep silent please '$mperative(
@ Unreal? E.g? $f he went there tomorrow he would meet
her 'sub=unctive(
9! *ense and as)ect
a. Tense and aspect are closely related in the formation of the
system a tenses
Tense
s
!imple 5erfect 5rogressive 5erfect
progressive
5resen
t
%+%s
Ask+as
k
'be(
am
is
are
&av
e
&as
A %#
ed
asked
Am
A
$s
Are
%#ing
Asking
&av
e
&as
bee
n
5ast %#edF
Asked
0as
0er
e
&ad
A
0as
0ere
0as
0er
e
A %ing
asking
&ad /ee
n
A%ing
asking
v. $n any finite verb phrases" we can notice the use of tense"
aspect and mood well
E.g? &e went there last !unday
'tense? past? aspect? simple" mood? indicative(
4$
!he.s been living here since she graduated from the
college
# Tense? present
# aspectB perfect
progressive
# mood? indicative
# Tense? past
# aspect? simple
# mood? indicative
$.d him before $ came here
# Tense? past
# aspect? perfect
# mood? indicative
# Tense? past
# aspect? simple
$f you had gone there you.d have met her
# Tense? past
# aspect? perfect
# mood? sub=unctive
# Tense? past
# aspect? perfect
# mood? sub=unctive
c. $n the non#finite verb phrases" time of the action my be
indicate by the perfect or progressive au*iliary.
E.g? &e seems to know her 'simultaneous(
To have met her 'prior(
To be attending the seminar 'temporally
simultaneous(
To have been living here for a longtime
9!3! concrete uses of &asic tenses#
@ The simple present tense
a. <orms b. Uses
Affirm? Ask+he asks
$ am" &e is" Hou
'i( Repeated+habitual action
'timeless(
4'
are
eg? 0e do not ask
6on.t
&e does not ask
6oesn.t
uest? 6oes he ask this
,uestionS
0here do they often
goS
E.g? 0e often go there.
Every morning she does physical
e*ercise
'ii( characteristic action+sate
E.g? &e speaks %ietnamese
They are teachers
'iii( Action in progress
E.g? &e understands this now
'iv( General statement Q universal
truth
E.g? Two and two makes four
The earth rotates around the sun
'v( <uture # time action
E.g? The train leaves tomorrow
0hen she comes [Link] tell us the
news
'vi( 5ast time action
E.g? <amous film star marries e*#
5resident
@ The simple past tense
a! @orms &! Uses
%#edF?
$+we... asked
$+h+she was
0e+you+they were
'i( 5ast time action
E.g? &e went there yesterday
$n FIEJ two million people diet of
'a time( 'starvation(
'ii( habitual past activity?
40
E.g? They drank li,uer very often
'used to drink(
'iii( !uccession of past action
E.g? &e went in" took a chair and sat
down
'iv( <uture action viewed from the
pats
E.g? &e said he would come when
he had time
@ The present perfect tense
a. <orms b. Uses
&ave A %#edG?
$+we+you+they? have done
&e+she+it? has gone
eg? 0e haven.t gone
[Link] not done it
uest? &ave they finishedS
0here have you beenS
'i( 5ast action with
conse,uence to present time?
E.g? &e.s gone out
[Link] =ust come.
A time A already"
recently...(
'ii( Action whose duration
covers a pen of time up to the
present?
E.g? [Link] lived here for ten
years
!he.s cried for half an hour and
sleeping
'iii( Action completed before a
for moment.
43
E.g? Hou won.t be allowed to go
unless have finished the work
@ 5resent progressive tense?
a. <orms b. Uses
/e A %#ing
$ am doing '$.m cooking(
0e are dancing '[Link] =oking(
!he.s working 'he.s speaking(
eg? $.m not =oking
0e are not sleeping
'aren.t(
&e is not dancing
'isn.t(
uestB Are they listeningS
0hat.s she doingS
'i( Action going on at the
present moment 'e*cept
stative verbs(?
E.g? [Link] having a new
lesson.
!he.s talking over the phone
'ii( continual process?
E.g? The earth.s always
rotating around the sun
'iii(. -haracteristic action 'A
emotional colouring(.
E.g? [Link] always =oking
'iv( <uture time action
E.g? The train.s leaving
tomorrow
@ 5resent 5erfect 5rogressive Tense?
a. <orms b. Uses
&ave been A %#ing
$+se have'.ve( been living here.
&e+she has'.s( been working
7eg. 0e have not been
working
&aven.t
'i( Action whose duration
covers a period of time up to
the present moment and is.
A !till going on?
E.g? [Link] been living in this
house for ten years '[Link] still
44
!he has not been listening
&asn.t
uest? 0hat have they been
doing since thenS
living here(
A 7o longer going on?
[Link] !he.s been crying for
hours and is now sleeping
The uses of the 5ast 5erfect" 5ast 5rogressive and 5ast 5erfect
5rogressive tenses are largely dependent on those of the
corresponding present tenses.
9!4! Means of e2)ressing future time action#
$n English there is not a definite future tense with fi*ed
dorms of verb shown in the contrast 5resent and 5ast. $n fact"
futurity" modality a aspect are closely associated in e*pressing
future time action. future action thus can be denoted by?
a. Modal au*iliary? shall+wellA%.
E.g? 0e will go there ne*t !unday
!hall
&[Link] be more patient
b. 3odal structure? be going to D %
E.g? [Link] going to finish our work.
!he.s going to retire ne*t year
c. /e about to+be to A %
E.g? [Link] about to leave the country
&e.s to play against that man this afternoon.
d. 5resent 5rogressive Tense 'be A %#ing( 'planned action(
E.g? The train.s leaving the station tomorrow.
e. 3odal verb A 5rogressive Tense 'will be A %#ing(
'e*pectation(?
$5
E.g? [Link] be building a new stadium in this area
f. 5resent !imple '%+%#s( 'with verbs of motion and a
time+condition(
E.g? The coach starts early this evening from U.3. !tation
$f she has time [Link] come to see us.
g. 5resent 5erfect 'have+hasA%#edG( 'action completed before
a future moment(.
E.g? Hou won.t be allowed to leave until you have done all the
e*ercises.
9!$! More on 9oice and Mood
a. 5assive %oice with different sentence types?
'i( Active? !%C #O 5assive? E.g? This house was
built last year
!%CC#O Ci #O !pass? E.g? &e was given a new
book
Cd #S "!"? E.g? A new book was given to him
!%C- #O ! A -s? E.g? !he.s been elected
5resident twice
!%Ca #O ! A A? E.g? The picture will be hung on
the wall
'ii( 5assive voice is used when the agentive is neglected or
emphasised?
This house was built by my father" not by my brother
'iii( The so#called middle voice?
E.g? The door opened
$1
The dam blew up.
! D affected . %
intransitive
$n this case" according to some grammarians" the verb here is
active in form but passive in meaning.
b. 3ood? the marked forms # $mperative and sub=unctive
'i( $mperative mood 'use of %#base form(
A The imperative mood is often used without ! 'or more
e*actly" with the understood ! # you( to e*press command"
re,uest" or invitation.
E.g? Ueep silent. /e more patientX -ome in" please.
A 0hen !ub=ect "you" is present emotional colouring 'often
anger indignation" etc.( is often attached with change of tone as
well.
E.g? Hou there keep silentX Hou there stop doing thatX
6on.t you there say any more words or $.ll put you out
A $ndefinite pronouns "someone" anyone" can be used as ! of
imperative sentences in a rather common way.
E.g? !omeone go out and tell him to go awayX
6on.t anyone saw anything about thisX
'ii( !ub=unctive mood" now considered less important" is used to
e*pressive
A A desired action+wish+ often with base form of verb(?
E.g? God save the ueen X <ar be it from me to contradict youX
'formulaic sub=unctive(
E.g? &e suggested 'that( everyone be resent at [Link] a.m
$2
Crder 'mandative sub=unctive(
A Unreal condition or comparison 'with %#edF or had A %#edG(
E.g? $f were in your shoes" $.d help her.
&e looks as if he didn.t understand me
!he says this as thought she were my motherX
$f she had gone there she.d have met him
'condition( ' conse,uence(
%. The structure of the verb phrase
9!1! @inite and non8finite ver& )hrases
<inite %5s 7on#finite %5s
a. finite %5s '%" %#s Q %#edF"
etc(
E.g? They go there very often.
&e goes there twice a week
'TenseB past" mood? indicative(
0e
'Tense? past" mood? indicative(
7on#finite %5s 'to %" %#ing Q %#
edG(
6o not have tense and mood.
E.g? They want to go there
then
!he en=oyed watching T%
'-an be used either with
5resent or 5ast tense(
0ith four au*iliaries D le*ical verb?
A/-6 A %#edG? The students might have been being asked a lot
,uestions.
7ote? $n these comple* finite %5s" attention should be paid to
the use of the initial au*iliary as operator" the re,uired form of
the au*iliary in combination of G+K+E au*iliaries and that of the
le*ical verb.
$3
9!4! 1om)le2 non8finite 9(s#
These comple* %5s often have one au*iliary 'e*cept modal
au*iliary( or sometimes two au*iliaries?
E.g? &e seemed? to have met her 'perfect(
to be following her e*emple
'progressive(
They appear to have been met by a stranger
'perfectApassive(
to be being met 'prgr A
passive(
!he happened to have been running after a cat 'perf A progr(
E*ercisesB U.G.E. workbook 'by R.A.-lose(
FT" GE" GRR" GI" KM" KF" KK" KE" KR" KT" KL" KI" EM" EF" EG" EK(
'-hapter K" pp" FK#FL(
$4
chapter $%
the complementation of the verb
(1h!127 ))!340 8 304)
$. -lassification of verbs in terms of their complementation types?
There are five main groups of verbs in terms of their
complementation types and each of these may be further sub#
classified
!1! ntranstive ver&s# with complementation )ero 'sentence
type !%(
There are two subclasses of intransitive verbs?
a. common %intransitive? !imple? E.g? come" go" live" work"
walk" die" fall
6erived? E.g? return" retire"
disintegrate
b. 5hrasal %intransitive?
E.g? com in" go out" blow up" take off" come to" give in.
!2! ntensive ver&s#
0ith intensive complementation 'sentence types" !%- and
!%A(. Two subgroups?
a. -urrent intensive?
E.g? be" appear" feel" look" smell" remain" keep.
b. Resulting intensive?
[Link] become" come" get" go" grow" turn" make.
!3! Monotransitive ver&s#
$$
0ith monotransitive complementation 'sentence types !%C(.
<our subgroups 'the largest ones(
a. !imple %transitive?
E.g? ask" answer" buy" build" speak" write.
b. 5hrasal?
E.g? give up" make up" turn down" switch on" set off
c. 5repositional?
E.g? depend on" look for" look after" think of
d. 5hrasal prepositional?
E.g? cut down on" look down upon" get on with" catch up with"
live up to.
!4! "itransitive ver&s#
0ith ditransitive complementation 'sentences type !%CC(.
Three subgroups?
a. !imple %ditrans?
E.g? give" get" bring" take" buy" do" lend" find" make" offer" owe"
pay.
b. 5repositional %distrans?
E.g? inform of" accuse of" provide with" remind of" compare to.
c. $diomatic %ditrans?
E.g? make use of" pay attention to" catch sight" give way to"
make fun of" make room for" put an end to" set fire to" take
advantage of.
!$! 1om)le2 transitive ver&s
0ith comple* transitive complementation 'sentence types
!%C- and !%CA(
$'
a. 0ith !%C- type?
'i( <actual verbs? E.g? feel" find" imagine" knows" suppose" think"
like.
'ii( -ausative verbs? E.g? have" let" make
'iii( %erbs of perceptionB E.g? feel" hear" notice" observe" see"
watch
'iv( other verbs? E.g? elect" appoint" name" consider 'with
optional(
accept" class" intend" interpret... 'always with
as(
$$. Pero complementation
! 1! ntransitive ver&s are often used with com)lete
Aero
E.g? !he.s come. They are dancing
They danced and danced. !he came to
The plane took off =ust before lunch time
!3! *here may also &e )lace Ad;unct which seems to &e
closely associate with the ver&s#
E.g? !he comes from ;eeds
[Link] living in ;ondon
$$$. intensive complementation '-! and A(
a. sub=ect complement '-s( 'in intensive relation with !(
$$$.F. -s D a noun phrase 'basic or comple*(?
$0
This often comes after such verbs as be" become" turn" make
E.g? !he is a teacher of Russian
[Link] soon become engineers in construction.
&e turned traitor.
![Link] make a good wife
!2! 1s B ad;ective or ad;ectival )hrase#
E.g? They are good !he.s good at grammar.
[Link] afraid of fierce dogs 'Ad= A 5repositional(
The game isn.t worth the candle 'Ad= D 75(
!3! Ad;ectival clauses as 1s#
a. -s D Ad=ective D to infinitive. There are five subtypes here.
Ad=ectival clause -orresponding structure
E.g? he.s wise to stay at home
&e.s slow to react
&e.s glad to see you again
&e was reluctant to leave
&e.s hard to deal with
$t.s wise of him to stay at home
&e reacts slowly
To see you again makes him
glad

$t.s hart to deal with him

b. -s D Ad=ective A %#ing participle
E.g? !he was busy doing her home work
This book is worth reading many times
c. -s D Ad=ective A <inite clause
E.g? $.m sure that he will win the match 'that clause(
$3
0e weren.t certain whether he would come or not
!he wasn.t aware who he was 'wh#interrogative
clause(
$ wasn.t clear about whatever he said 'nominal relative
clause(
/. Adverbial 'as intensive complementation(
!4! Adver&ial e2)ression#
a. an adverb? E.g? &e was here+upstairs.
b. a prepositional phrase? E.g? !he was in the car
c. a clause? E.g? &e.s nowhere to be seen
They are e*actly where they went the other day
!$! Meaning of these adver&ials#
a. 5lace 'most common(
E.g? &e was here+in the car
They kept off the grass
b. Time?
E.g? The meeting will be on ne*t 3onday
c. 3anner+6escription?
E.g? The matter is of great importance
&e.s 'a man( of great fame
$%. 3onotransitive complementation 'C
d
(
9!1! : B a noun )hrase
E.g? 0e bought this book
This depended on you
Cn the way here we met a man with a very large ear
$4
The man who went with you
0e put off the meeting
9!2! : B a non8finite clause
E.g? !he wanted to set the house on fire 'to %(
They en=oyed watching the program '%#ing participle
clause(
his singing the song
9!3! : B a finite clause#
E.g? $ know that she didn.t go there with him 'that clause(
0e can.t make out what he says 'wh#interrogative
clause(
&e didn.t remember whoever had met him first at the station
'nominal relative clause(
&e didn.t say whether he would come or not 'yes+no
interrogative(
They cut down on what they had to spend everyday
'wh # relative clause(
v. 6itransitive complementation 'Ci A Cd(
%.F. Ci D 75F D Cd D 75G?
E.g? 0e didn.t give him any book
!he informed the boy of the terrifying news
9!2! :i B 6( C :d B non8finite clause#
E.g? !he told the criminal to lay down his gun 'to %(
They accused him of having stolen the sum of money 'v#ing(
'5
9!3! :i B 6( 8 :d 8 finite clause#
E.g? They told us that they had won the match 'that clause(
!he asked him why he hadn.t come on her birthday
'wh#interrogative clause(
&e didn.t tell her whether he would be able to go there with her
'yes+no interrogative(
Hou can accuse me of whatever $ have done against you
'nominal relative clause(
%$. comple* transitive complementation 'Cd A -o(
9!1! :d B 6)1 C co 8 6(2
E.g? 0e consider him our younger brother
They looked upon us as their brother and sisters
!he regarded us as her enemies
9!2! :d B 6( C co B Ad;! (hrase<clause
E.g? 0e painted the door red
This made her afraid of these animals
whoever came near
9!3! :d B 6) C 1o B non8finite clause
E.g? 0e wanted him to finish his work in time 'to %(
&er story made them laugh all the time '% # bare infinitive(
0e saws them entering the supermarket '%#ing(
They watched the house broken into without doing anything '%#
edG(
9!4! :d B 6( C 1o B finite clause (nominal relative
clause)
'1
E.g? Hou can cal me whatever name you like
They painted the doors and windows whichever colour they
wanted
%$$. -omple* transitive complementation 'Cd A A(
9!1! :d B 6( C A B Adver&
E.g? $ put my bag here
0e led them upstairs
9!2! :d B 6( C A B )re)ositional )hrase
E.g? !he hung the pictures on the wall
They rowed their boat up the stream
The officer marched the soldiers through the yard
%$$.K. Cd D 75 A A D as finite clause
E.g? Hou can put it wherever you like
!he hung it where she had hung the day before
9!4! :d B finite clause C A B )re)ositional )hrase
E.g? 6onYt put off till tomorrow what you can do to day
%$$$. some remarkable comparisons
9!1!1! (hrasal and (re)ositional ver&s
(hrasal ver&s (re)ositional ver&s
a. <ormation and
subclassification
% A article '#O adverb(
% A 5reposition
'2
$ntransitive
-om in" go out
-ome to" take
off
3onotrasitive
Turn on" switch
off"
3onotrasitive
Rely on" depend
on"
;ook for" look
after
6itransitive
$nform of"
charge
0ith" take
care of
b. !imilarity in case of montrasitive verbs?
E.g 0e turned on the lights
They gave up tobacco smoking
C D 75
0e depended on your help
They looked after the children
C D 75
c. 6ifferencesB in position of C
E.g? 0e turned the lights on
0e turned them on
5ronoun

they looked after them

pronoun
9!2! "itranitive com)lementation and com)le2
*ransitive com)lementation#
a. -onfusion is easily made especially when with
'i( Ci D 7p A Cd D 75
E.g? 0e gave him a book
!he told us the news
'ii( C A 75 A C D to %
E.g? 0e told him to close the
door
'iii( C D 75 A prep A C D 75
E.g? 0e informed her of the
news
Cd D 75 A -o D 75
0e consider him our brother
They called it a spade
C D 75 A -o D to %
0e want him to close the door
C D 75 A A D prep.5hrase
!he took him off the roar
'3
&! "ifferentiation#
'ii(. E.g? 0e gave a book to him
!he told us the news
0e consider him our brother
$t was a spade
&im Q a book
Us Q the news
D two entities &im Q our
brother
$t Q a spade
D one ent@@@@
'ii( by asking ,uestions?
E.g? 0hat did you tell himS
0e told him that he should close
the door
%
ditrans
A Ci A Cd
'iii(. E.g? 0e informed her of it
pronou
n
0hat did you wantS
0e wanted that he should
close the
% monotrans A Cd
!he took him there
adverb
$>. 3ultiple class verbs
D!1! 9er&s can )artici)ate in different clause ty)es!
Most ty)ically7 the ver& %E* can &e
# intransitive? E.g? !he got up rather late '!%(
# intensive? E.g? 0e got tired+pale '!%-(
!he got out of the car '!%A(
# monotransitive? E.g? 0e got a letter this morning '!%C(
# ditransitive? E.g? $ got her a chair '!%CC(
# comple* transitive? E.g? They get everything ready '!%C-(
HouYve got your self into serious trouble
D! 1om)lementation ty)e transformation
'4
C A C VDO C A A? 0e gave him a book V##O 0e gave a book
to him
E*ercise? GFF" GFE" GFJ" GFI" GGM" GGF" GGG" GGJ" GGR.
GKM" GKF" GKR" GEK 'chapter FG" pp" FMI#FGF(
'$
chapter %
ad=ectives and adverbs
'UGE" chapter J" pp" FFE Z FEG(
$. Ad=ectives
!1! "efinition E 1haracteristic features#
a. 6efinition?
An ad=ective is a word belonging to an open class which
generally denotes ,uality" e.g? good" hot" little" young" fat" etc?
colour? black" white" etc. or shape? e.g? s,uare" round.
b. <our features characteristic of ad=ectives?
'i( They can freely occur in an attributive position" i.e. They can
pre#modify a noun
E.g. ? the happy childrenB this good old man
'ii(. They can freely occur in predicative position" i.e. They can
function as
/u&;ect com)lement :&;ect 1om)lement
E.g.? the man seemed old
3ilk turns sourB
E.g? They painted the door
blueB
&e thought the painting ugly
'iii(. They can be pre#modified b intensifiers? every" ,uite"
rather.
E.g? The children are very happyB
This is rather difficult
'iv(. They can take comparative and superlative forms whether
inflectional
''
E.g? the children are happier now
They are the happiest people
'cf. /eautiful Z more beautiful Z the most beautiful(
!2! /yntactic functions of ad;ectives#
a. 5re#modifier and post#modifier
# Ad=ectives are attributive when they pre#modify nouns
E.g? this beautiful painting...
The only child..
&is main argument...
# !ometimes" ad=ectives can be post#modifier 'or postpositive
attribute(?
E.g? Anyone intelligent can do it
ThereYs nothing new...
$ have a house larger than yours
b. -omplement Z both -s and -o?
5redicative ad=ectives can be?
'i( -s 'in intensive relationship with !(?
E.g? Hour daughter is intelligent. &eYs rather careless
'ii(. -o. 'in intensive relationship with C(?
E.g? $ consider him foolish
c. &ead of a noun phrase?
!ubstantivised ad=ectives 'the A ad=( can function as heads of
75s as !" -" C and -prep(?
E.g? !? The poor are causing the nationYs leaders great
concern
'0
C? They will help only the humble poor.
-prep? There is lack of communication between the young and
the old
The wise look to the wiser for advice.
-? 0e are the humble poor who suffer greatly now
d. !upplementive ad=ective clause?
E.g? 7ervous" the man opened the letter
The man" ,uietly assertive" spoke to the assembled
workers
0hen ripe" the apples are sweet.
0hether right or wrong" he always comes off worst in an
argument
e. E*clamatory ad=ective sentences?
E.g? &ow good of you X &ow wonderfulX
E*cellentX
!3! /u&8classification of ad;ectives#
a. According to syntactic function? central" attributive"
predicative.
'i(. -entral ad=ectives can function both attributively and
predicatively.
E.g? A hungry man The man in hungry
'ii(. Attributive can be attributive 'modifier( only" e.g
E.g? An utter fool...
The political situation...
'3
3y former friend...
'iii(. 5redicative ad=ectives can be predicative 'Dcomplement(
only.
E.g? &eYs afraid to do it
ThatYs tantamount to an ultimatum
b. !emantic sub#classification.?
'i( !tative+dynamic ad=ectives
A Ad=ectives are characteristically stative" e.g? good" old"
beautiful" tall" round" s,uare" etc.
A 3any ad=ectives" however" can be seen as dynamic"
especially when they are susceptible to sub=ective
measurement" e.g? abusive" ambitious awkward" careful"
careless" foolish" friendly" generous" impatient" =ealous
reasonable" etc. 6ynamic ad=ectives can be used either.
# 0ith verb in the progressive tense
E.g? &e.s being careful
[Link] feeling tired '=ealous(
# 0ith verb in the imperative mood?
E.g? /e careful
6on.t be afraid
=ealous
'ii( Gradable+non#gradable ad=ectives?
A 3ost ad=ectives are gradable" i.e. they can be modified by
intensifiers and include comparison.
E.g? very young" so plain" e*tremely useful" rather old
Houng # younger # youngest
'4
Useful # more useful # most useful
These include all dynamic ad=ectives and most stative
ad=ectives.
A !ome ad=ective" principally technical ad=ectives and
ad=ectives denoting provenance" are non#gradable.
E.g? atomic" hydrocholoric" /ritish
!4! /emantic sets and ad;ectival order#
!emantic sets have been proposed to account for the usual
order of ad=ectives for their # occurrence 'often in 75s(.
'i( $ntensifying ad=ectivesB E.g? a real hero" a perfect idiot...
'ii( 5ostdeterminer A limited ad=ectives? E.g? The fourth student.
The only occasion
'iii(. General ad=ectives?
[Link] careful" naughty" lovely 'sub=ective measure(
0ealthy" poor" bat 'ob=ective measure(
;arge" s,uare 'si)e Q shape(
'iv( Ad=ectives denoting age" e.g? young" old" new
'v( Ad=ectives denoting colour" e.g? black" red" white...
'vi( Ad=ectives denoting material" e.g? woolen" wooden"
metallic...
'vii( Ad=ectives denoting provenance" e.g? /ritish" 5arisian...
$$. Adverbs?
!1! "efinition 8 1haracteristics of adver&s#
a. An adverb" also belonging to an open class" is often used as
adverbial
05
E.g? [Link] waiting outside
$ can now understand it
&e spoke to me about it briefly
Cr" otherwise" as modifier?
E.g? That was a very funny film.
!he has a really beautiful face
b. -haracteristics of the adverb?
'i( A great number of adverbs have the derivational suffi* # ly?
E.g? briefly" really" beautifully" awkwardly" historically" etc.
'ii( Two syntactic functions that characterise adverbs are
adverbial and modifier of an ad=ective+adverb. An adverb need
have only one of these.
E.g? he spoke briefly about it.
[Link] smoking very heavily
!2! More on syntactic functions of adver&s#
a. As adverbial?
Either 'i( Ad=unct? E.g? [Link] waiting outside. Hou can now
go out
Cr 'ii( 6is=unct? E.g? <rankly" $." tired" fortunately" no one
complained
Cr 'iii( con=unct? E.g? 0e have complained about the
noise" and yet he
does nothing about it.
They tried to listen. &owever" they heard
nothing
01
b. As modifier?
'i( 3odifier of ad=ective?
E.g? $t is e*tremely good of you to say this
They are very+,uite tired now
'ii( 3odifier of adverb?
E.g? They smoked very heavily
They left him well behind.
They knocked the man right out
'iii( 3odifier of prepositional phrase?
E.g? The nail went right through the wall
This deals e*actly with the right answer
'iv( 3odifier of determiner?
Eg? About a week is enough for this practice.
$ paid more than ten pounds for it
!he gave me almost the largest piece of cake
'v( 3odifier of noun phrase?
E.g? &e told such a funny story $t was rather a mess
&e was ,uite some player &ow tall a man he is
c. As complement of preposition '-prep(?
'i( 5reposition A Adverbs 'time(
since A ;ately" recently" then" today" yesterday
Till+until A 7ow" tomorrow" tonight" after"
afterwards
02
After+by+
/efore+from
A Then" today" tomorrow
<or A Always" ever" once" afterwards" later
'ii( 5reposition A Adverbs 'place(
;ong" around"
6own" from"
in"
7ever" on
over"
Through"
under"
Up
A here+there <rom A
Above"
abroad"
/elow"
downstairs"
$ndoors"
inside"
Cutside"
upstairs..
$$$. comparison and intensification
!1! *hree degrees of com)arison
Applied to gradable ad=ectives and adverbs?
Absolute -omparative !uperlative
Ad=s? Houng
/eautiful
Hounger
3ore beautiful
Houngest
3ost beautiful
Advs &ard
Easily
&arder
3ore easily
&ardest
3ost easily
!2! Fasis of com)arison#
a. /etween two entities?
E.g Ad=s? Nohn is Hounger Than /ob 'is(
3ore
;ess
!tupid
$ntelligent
Nohn is Houng
03
as
stupid As /ob
'is(
Nohn is
the
Hounger Cf the two boys
more !tupid
intelligent
Advs? Nohn 0orks harder than bob 'does
/ehaves more politely than his wife
Nohn 0orks as hard
/ehave as politely
As /ob 'does(
Cf the two boy Nohn behaves the more politely
b. Among three or more entities?
E.g
?
Ad=s? Nohn is
the
Hounges
t
Cf these 'three(
boys
3ost !tupid
intelligent
Advs? Nohn /ehaves the most
stupidly
0orks the hardest
Cf the boys of this
group
As we see above" the most common ways of doing this include.
# -orrelative construction introduced by than 'with more+est+er(
or by as 'correlative to as(
# And prepositional phrases with of
04
!3! nflection of adver&s and adver&s of com)arison
a. Ad=ectives? (ositiv
e
1om)arati
ve
/u)erlativ
e
'i( Ad=ectives with
inflectional
suffi*es # ER A E!T
Hou
Cld
Hounger
Clder
Houngest
Cldest
A 0ith changes in spelling /ig
Early
/rave
/igger
Earlier
/raver
/iggest
Earliest
/ravest
A 0ith changes in
pronunciation
!imple
5oor
!impler
5oorer
!implest
5oorest
A <ormed from different
stems
Good
bad
/etter
0orse
/est
0orst
'ii( 6isyllabic ad=ectives?
A with inflected forms? funny <unnier <unniest
A 0ith periphrastic forms 3ore funny 3ost funny
'noisy" friendly" hollow"
shallow" gentle" feeble"
clever" mature" common"
handsome" ,uiet" etc(
<eeble <eebler
3ore feeble
<eeblest
3ost feeble
'iii( Ad=ectives 'polysyllabic
ones( with periphrastic forms
Relucta
nt
Tiring
3ore
reluctant
3ore tiring
3ost
reluctant
3ost tiring
b. Ad=ectives? (ositiv
e
1om)arati
ve
/u)erlativ
e
'i( 0ith inflected forms 'D#
er+#est(
0ell /etter /est
A <rom different stems /adly
;ittle
0orse
;ess
0orst
;east
0$
3uch
<ar
3ore
<urther
<arther
3ost
<urthest
<arthest
A Those identical in form
with
ad=s? early" late" hard" slow"
fast" ,uick" long Q soon
Early
;ong
!oon
Earlier
;onger
!oonner
Earliest
;ongest
!oonest
'ii( 0ith periphrastic forms
/eautiful
ly
3ore
beautifully
3ost
beautifully
!4! formulas of cases of com)arison# degree of
com)arison#
6egree of comparison E*amples
a. E,ual comparison As A Ad= 'positive( A
as
As D Adv 'positive( A
as
As long as
As hard as
b. !uperior+inferior
comparison?
Ad= 'comparative( A
than
Adv 'comparative( A
than
/igger than
3ore politely
than
c. !uperlative
comparison
The A Ad= 'superlative(
The A of Ad=
'superlative(
The youngest of
all
The most
beautifully of
them all
!$! Unmar-ed term in G=owG Huestions and measure
)hrases#
a. common ,uestions?
0'
E.g? &ow efficient is heS &ow efficiently does he workS
&ow beautiful is sheS &ow old is that manS
&ow long did they danceS
And e*clamations?
e.g? &ow beautiful she isX &ow beautifully she dancedX
b. Ad=ectives 'and adverbs( with the unmarked+marked terms?
'Unmarked term in "how" ,uestion(
U 3 U 3
'i( 3easure ad=ectives? 6eep
&igh
;ong
!hallow
;ow
!hort
Cld
Tall
Thick
0ide
Houng
!hort
Thin
7arrow
'ii(. Cther ad=ectives? /ig
bright
<at
!mall
6im
Thin
&eavy
;arge
!trong
;ight
;ittle
0eak
Unmarked
'iii( Adverbs? &ow much did they complainS
'often(
',uickly(
!'! Modification of com)aratives and su)erlatives 'of
ad=s Q advs(?
a. -omparatives pre#modified?
/y intensifiers or /y downtoners
'that(
much
'so( 'very(
Rather
!omewhat
/etter
!ooner
00
'all( the
far
a good bit+a
lot
a good
deal+a
great
deal+lots
/etter
!ooner
3ore careful
;ess
carefully
A little
A 'little( bit
3ore
careful
;ess
careful
b. $nflectional superlativeB modified by very or by far
E.g? The very best
!he put on her very best dress
&e is funniest by far
$%. correspondence between ad=ectives and adverbs
9!1! EHuivalent constructions#
E.g
?
&e liked 3ary
considerably
W&e liked 3ary to a
considerable e*tant
&e spoke to Nohn
sharply
W&e spoke to Nohn in a sharp
manner
5olitically" it is a bad
decision
W<rom the political point of via it
is a bad decision
9!2! :ther regular corres)ondences#
E.g a &e loved her
deeply
W &is deep love for her
&e writes legibly W &is legible writing
b A beautiful dancer W A dance who is beautiful
03
W A person who dances
beautifully
c A real idiot
The main reason
W
W
&e.s really an idiot
$t.s mainly the reason
%. Ad=ectives" adverbs and other word classes?
9!1! Ad;ective and adver&s with )refi2 a8#
a# ad=ectives a# adverbs
Abla)e" afloat" alert" alike"
alive" alone" aloof" ashamed"
asleep" averse" awake" aware
-ommon uses?
Abroad" around" away
E.g? The patient was asleep
The =ournalist seemed asleep
E.g? The patient was abroad
The =ournalist went abroad
9!2! /ome other uses of ad;ectives and adver&s#
E.g
?
&is loud and clear voice
They made very long
speeches
W
[
&e spoke loud and clear
!uch animals have long had
to defend themselves
!till water runs deep [ They still can.t make up
their minds
9!3! Ad;ectives and nouns#
A Ad=.#s 7#s
E.g
?
The attack seemed
criminal to us
E.g The criminals pleaded guilty
to all charges
Those black boys are
very active
There was only one black in
my class
04
0e admired his noble
ideas
The king greeted his nobles
b. 7ouns used as pre#modifiers?
E.g? August weatherB the city councilB a love poem
9!4! Ad;ectives and )artici)les#
a. %#
ing
&is views were very
surprising
W &is surprising views
b. %#
edG
The man seemed very
offended
The offended man
E*ercisesB RT" RL" TM" TG" TE" TT" TL
'-hapter J" pp" EM#EJ(
35
chapter %i
preposition and prepositional phrase
'UGE" chapter R" pp" FEK # FRJ(
$. 6efinition # classification
$.F. 0hat is a prepositionS
5repositions are words belonging to closed#system parts of
speech which are used to e*press relationships between two
entities" one being prepositional complement.
E.g? &e went to ;ondon in 7ovember
5repA-prep prepA-prep 'place Q time relationships(
'place( 'time(
$n accordance with these rules you should be present before FM
a.m
5rep A -prep prep A -prep
'manner(
!2! 1lassification of )re)ositions#
a. According to their composition" prepositions fall under two
groups?
'i( !imple prepositions? those that consist of one word. They are
very small in number 'as compared to open class parts of
speech(B as" by" at" on" in" to" of" of" for" since" with" between"
like" against" under" up" down. 0e may also include here some
derived prepositions? during" concerning...
'ii(. -ompound prepositions? These include two subgroups?
31
A prepositions with two components linked closely? into" onto"
behind" below" beneath" underneath" until" within" without"
upon.
A 5repositions with separate components?
# Adv A prep? out of" away from" according to" thanks to" up to.
# 5rep? A 7 A 5rep? in font of" on top of" at the back of" in spite
of" account of" in accordance with" with the e*ception of" etc..
b. According to the meanings of the prepositional phrases 'or
meaning preposition for short(" we have?
5repositions of place? at" on" in" up" down" off" ect
Time? at" on" in" for" since" during" pending...
Reason? out of" because of" due to" on account of
3anner? like" as" in accordance with..
-oncession? in spite of" despite" in defiance of
$$. prepositional meanings
$$.F. 5lace? 5repositions of place may be further classified into?
a. 5repositions denoting position?
5oint? E.g? at the post office" at the grocer.s
At the doctor.s" off the road
!urface+line? E.g? on the wall" on a straight line
Cn the way 'to(...
%olume? E.g? in the car" in that house
b. 5repositions denoting destination and direction?
E.g? to the post office" to ;ondon" to the market
Cnto the floor" off the road
32
$nto the room" out of the car
c. 5repositions denoting passage?
Eg? Across the street" down the road" up the stream.
!ee the figure '%$.FM below?
5ositive 7egative
5oint 6irection
To
*
5osition
At
*
6irection
<rom
*
5osition
away
<rom
*
;ine+surfac
e
Cn 'to(

Cn

Cff

Cff

Area+volum
e
$n to $n Cut of Cut of

<ig. %$.F? 5lace prepositions '6irection and position(

d. Relative position?
'i(. %ertically relative? above" over" on top of" under"
underneath" ...
'ii(. &ori)ontally relative? before" in front of" behind" after...
33

A?
above
/?
below
6?
behind
-?
$n front of
*
<ig. %$.G. Relative position
!2! *ime#
a. 5oint At -hristmas " at noon" at night" at dawn" at dusk
At [Link] sharp" at [Link] a.m
'when( Cn Tuesday's(" on holidays" on !unday morning
$n simmer" in FIGM" in Nune" i the >$> century
b. duration <or GM years" since FITI" for another si* weeks
Up to that time" during the last war
c.
Relationship
After the war" before FILR
/etween five and si* [Link]" from three to five
/y the end of Cctober" until last year
!3! Manner7 cause7 )ur)ose and others#
a. 3anner
'means(
;ie a brother to me" as a child+boy...
/y doing so" without saying anything
0ith a knife in his hand
b. -ause? /ecause of ill health" on account of your
absence
6ue to your carelessness...
c. $nstrument? 0ith that knife
d. 5urpose? <or freedom" for a better life
e. Cpposition? Against their rule
$$$. 5repositional phrases?
!1! /tructure of )re)ositional )hrases#
5reposition
A
5repositional complement
E.g? <or <reedom
34
Against
6uring
According to
E*ploitation and in=ustice
The resistance war
These rules
!2! (re)ositional com)lement may &e realised &y#
a.7oun
phrase?
/asic?
-omple
*?
$n accordance with the regulations
0ith his greatest efforts
$n his deepest gratitude of his teacher.s
help
b. %#ing participle clause?
by doing so
without being accepted
at his coming late
c. 0h#interrogative clause?
on what the Government will decide
in why you want to do that
d. Hes#no interrogative clause?
'aware( of whether our salaries have been increased
'dependent( on whether he would win the match or
not
e. 7ominal relative clause?
'interested( in whatever he was saying at the time.
$%. syntactic functions of prepositional phrases?
9!1! Adver&ials#
a. Ad=unct?
'i( Cbligatory Ad=unct?
3$
E.g? # 5lace? They were in the car then
# Time? The meeting will be on 3onday
# 3anner? The problem is of great importance.
'ii( Cptional Ad=unct?
E.g? # 5lace? $n the car they fought fiercely
# Time? $n FIEJ" two million people died of hunger
# 3anner? They went into the room without saying any
word
# 5urpose?0e fought heroically for our own liberation
# -ause? &e couldn.t come on account of getting suddenly
ill
b. 6is=unct?
E.g? # To my surprise" the doctor phoned
# $n general" this is difficult matter
c. -on=unct?
E.g? Cn the other hand" they made no attempt to help the
victors
$n addition" he failed to keep his promise
9!2! :ther functions#
d. 5ost modifier in a noun phrase?
E.g? The people on the bus were singing
This is a problem of great significance
e. -omlementation of a verb 'also call(
E.g? 0e depend on you 'c.f. we depend on you(
[Link] looking for the little boy
3'
f. complementation of an ad=ective
E.g? $ am sorry for his parents
&e wasn.t conscious of his own strength
They weren.t interested in what he was saving
E2ercise# TI" LM" LJ" LR" LI" IF" IE" IJ" IR
'-hapter R" pp ER#JE(
30
-hapter %$$
The simple sentence
'UGE" chapter T" p" FRR#GMR(
$. !entence # it.s elements and types
$.F. 0orking definition of sentence?
A sentence is the combination of words or phrases 'often
noun phrase and other type and possibly other phrase's( on the
basis of?
# -oncords between !ub=ect 'often a 75( and verb 'often a
verb phrase( and other type( nouns or pronouns use as !" C" -"
etc(
# Crder of words in the phrase and sentence structureB and
this serves to e*press a complete idea for the purpose of
communication.
E.g? &e.s my brother
&e knows your intention
&e wants to help 'to( complete your thesis 'K
sentences(
!2! @ive sentence elements# /7 97 :7 1 and A
!entence may be" compound or comple*
F. All the three kinds of sentence can be analysed in terms of !"
%" C" - and A
a. !imple sentenceB E.g? &e. s a teacher of English
! % -
0e bought this car two years ago
33
! % C A 'optional(
They hung the picture on the wall
! % C A
b. -ompound sentence? E.g? They said this and went away
! % C % A
F
st
indep cl G
nd
[Link]
!he.s a teacher but she.s very rich
! % - ! % -
F
st
indep cl G
nd
[Link]
c. -omple* sentences? E.g? 0hen we came they were
watching T%
A ! %
A D clause ! %
C
3ain+superordinate clause
0e know that [Link] honest
! % -
! % C D clause
!uperordinate clause
$.K. /asic sentence 'or clause( types?
# These are the possible arrangements of sentence elements in
the language
$n English there are seven sentence types
a. ! A % intransitive?
E.g? The bird sang. !he.s come
34
! % ! %
They were dancing. They talked and talked
! % ! % %
b. ! A %intensive A -?
E.g? &e.s my student. They look tired
! % - ! % -
[Link] become teachers of English
! % -
c. ! A % intensive A A
E.g? They were here" too. !he got off the bus
! % A 'A( ! % A
c. ! A % monotrans A C?
E.g? 3y sister bought this car last year
! % C 'A(
They gave up drug addiction
! % C
0e depended much on your help
! % 'A( C
e. ! A %ditrans A C A C
E.g? They gave him this book
! % C C
0e informed them of the news
! % C C
They took great care of the children
! % C C
45
f. ! A %comple*trans A C A -
E.g? 0e elected him president of the company
! % C -
They left the house empty
! % C -
g. ! A %comple*trans A C A A
E.g? !he led them upstairs
! % C A
0e hung these pictures on the wall
! % C A
!4! "ecisive factor on sentence ty)es determination# the
9er&
<ive different groups of verbs and seven sentences types
'for more" see chapter $%(
41
%erb
Transitive'
F(
Transitive
$ntensive'
FG(
!impl
e
3onotransiti
ve
6itransitive'
E(
-omple*
transitive
'J(
5hras
al
Go
out
-urre
nt
be
Resuiti
ng
becom
e
!impl
e
buy
5hras
al
Give
up
5rep
6epend
on
!impl
e
give
5rep
$nfrom of
5ercept
!ee" hear
-ausat
3ake" put
$$. !yntactic features and semantic roles 'of !" C" - and A(
!1! /yntactic features of /7 :7 1 and A#
Elem
ents
E*pression 5osition
$dentificatio
n
! 75 /asic
-omple*
A initial
completely before
A 3edial # 'after
Cperator(
# in ,uestions
# in case of sub=ect
operator in version
# in emphatic
sentence 'with
stressed C" - or A(
A <inal? with
introductory "it"
A !
determin
!#%cone
!
singular
A%
'%#@@@@(
# !plur A %
'%
'simple sentence(
7-l 7on#finite
'to %#
%ing(
finite
That
clause
0h#clause
$f+what cl
'comple*
sentence(
E*ample for illustration?
3y brother is a teacher of English. They are
teachers
! D basic 75 '%sing( !plur %plur
0here does your poor old mother liveS
Cperator ! D comple* 75 '%#ing(
$t is may task to help him. $t is said that he.s still single
! D to infinitive clause ! D that clause
Cnly by so doing can we help him successfully
42
Cperator !
&ere comes the winner
%#ing ! D basic 75
C
'bot
h Cd
and
Ci(
75 /asic
-omple*
A after % transitive
'monotrasitive"
ditrans and comple*
transitive(
A After another C 'in
case of Ci A Cd(
A $nitial with wh#
,uestion on C
# $ emphatic
sentences
C easily
assumes
The status of
! in the
passive
sentence
'simple sentence(
7-l 7on#finite
'to %#
%ing(
finite
That w#"
$f+whether
cl
'comple*
sentence(
E.g? 0e know this man ####O This man we know
%
monotran
C D basic 75 C
!he asked her brother some interesting
,uestions
Ci D basic 75 Cd D comple* 75
43
0e want to ask him a lot of ,uestions
Cd \D to infinitive clause
0e all know that he.s telling the truth
Cd # that clause
0e can.t make out what he.s dealing with
Cd D wh#interrogative clause
-
'bot
h -s
and
-o(
75
Ad=.5
/asic
-omple*
Ad=
Ad= A 5rep.5
A after
intensitive
verb 'sentence
type ! % -s(
A after Cd
'sentence type !
% C -o(
A initial position
Ain wh#,uestion
on -
#in emphatic
sentence
#- is in co#
referential
relation with !
'denoting the
entity(
# 7ot involve
passive
transformatio
n
'simple sentence(
7-l 7on#finite
<inite 'that"
wh#cl(
Ad= A non#
finite
Ad= A finite.
'comple* sentence(
[Link] &e is my brother Cur task was to help him
44
-s D basic 75 -s D to %
They were e*pert at grammar
-s D ad=ectival phrase
Cur plan was becoming a teacher
-s D %#ing clause
0e found him innocent of all charges
-o D ad=ectival phrase
$.m sure that they will succeed
Ad=ectival phrase 'Ad= A that c.(
A
Adv.
5rep.5
'simple sentences(
# mobile in
sentence
structure
# initial
# medial
# final
# A is @@@@
optional in @@@
structure
# A is
obligatory
sentence @@@@@
and ! % C
-lause
<inite
7on#
finite
%erbless
'comple* sentences(
E.g? &e went there yesterday !he.s now
upstairs
Aplace A time D adv A A
They were in the car then 0here did
you goS
4$
A D 5rep.5 A
&e.s nowhere to be seen Hou can hang it
where you like
A D adv. -lause 'non#finite( A D
finite clause
0hen in Rome do as Rome does
A D verbless clause A D finite clause
!2! /emantic roles of /7 : and 1#
!" C and - often play the following semantic roles in the
sentences 'of which the one's( listed first being the most
common?
a.!
E.g? # agentive
# instrumental
# affected
# recipient
# locative
# temporal
# eventive
# empty $T
!he opened the door
This key can open the door
The door opened
'with %intrans(
!he has a new skirt
This room accommodates GM people
Tomorrow will be fine
The meeting ended success fully
$t.s 'very( wonderful to meet you
b. Cb=ect
E.g? Cd # affected?
# effected?
# locative?
0e opened the door
&e did the e*ercises
They entered the room
Ci # recipient? 0e bought him a new house
4'
# affected? 0e paid him a visit
c. -omplement? attribute
E.g? -s # current atr?
# resulting attr?
!he looks cheerful today
They became teachers
# current attr?
# resulting attr?
0e found the room empty
!he left the house empty
@ A? locative+temporal+conditional+concessive" etc 'types(
$$$. concord between sentence elements
-oncord is the agreement between sentence elements
!1! "ifferent ty)es#
A ! # % concord? &e+she agrees $+we agree
$t doesn.t agree They don.t agree
A 5ronominal concord? !he looked at herself in the mirror.
[Link] teachers of English
!2! / 8 9 concord# The most important type
a. Grammatical concord 'formal(? most obviously distinctive
with third person
! singular D % singular '%#s+was(
E.g? The boy 'he( likes football
! plural A % plural '%+were(
E.g? The boys 'they(? like football
0ere there yesterday
b. 7otional concord '#meaning(
'i( ! D nominal relative clause A%singular
% plur
E.g? 0hat he says isn.t true
40
'D The thing he says...(
0hat they like best are tea and coffee
'D The things they like best...(
'ii( ! D collective
A %plural 'W members of collectively(
E.g? The government are having a rest
A % singular 'W whole collectively(
E.g? The government has approved of his plan
'iii(. ! D co#ordinated 75s A %plur 'non#positional(
A %#ing 'appositional(
E.g? &is brother and his secretary were there with him
'two different entities(
&is brother and 'at the same time( his secretary was there with
him.
'same entity(
'iv( ! D none A ing 'non#count 7(
A %plur 'plural count 7(
c. concord by pro*imity? '! # word that stands immediately ne*t
to % determines ! # % concord
'i( $n set phrases
E.g? Cne in ten take drugs
7one of them agree to go
'ii( $n e*istential sentence with there?
E.g? there are two chairs and a desk there
There is a desk and two chairs there
43
'iii( 0ith either...or...
E.g? Either your brakes or your eyesight was at fault
Either your eyesight or your brakes were at fault
!3! (ronominal concord#
a. ! # C 'with refle*ive Q emphasising pronoun(
E.g? !he saw herself in the mirror
0e can do it ourselves
b. ! # -?
E.g? &e is a teacher of English
[Link] teachers
c. C # -?
E.g? 0e elected him our chairman 'sing(
Them our representatives 'plur(
$%. !entence process? negation
E.g? 0e all like football
0e all don.t like football
6o you like footballS
6on.t you like itS 0hy don.t you like itS
!omeone go there with him
6on.t anyone go there with himS
9! 2! Assertives and non8assertives#
a. ;ist of items?
44
Assertives 7on#assertives
A $ndefinite
'6eterminers(
!ome A 7
!ome A 7#s
Any A 7
Any A 7#s
Anybody
Anything
Anywhere
Either
Het
$n any way
At all
A 5ronouns !ome one
!omething
A Adverbs? !omewhere
Too
Already
A 5rep.5? $n some way
To some
e*tent
b. Uses?
A in affirmative sentence
E.g? $ met someone on they
way here
A in negative sentence
E.g? $ didn.t give the book to
some students.
'scope of negation? narrowed(
A in ,uestions
Eg? 6id someone call last
nightS
'positive orientation(
A in negative A interrogative
sentences
E.g? 0e didn.t see anything
A two 'more( non#assertives
used in the same sentence?
E.g? $ haven.t seen anyone yet
A for negative intensification
E.g? $ didn.t go out at all
$ met no one at all
$%.K. !cope and focus of negation?
a. !cope of negation D stretch of language within which the
negative meaning operates normally e*tending from negative
word to the clause and.
155
E.g? $ don.t know him

!cope of negation
!he didn.t definitely know the answer
A
!cope of negation
@ An Adverbial may be inside or out side the scope of negation
E.g? !he definitely didn.t know him
A
!cope of negation
b. <ocus of negation?
# Emphatic stress on certain on word of the sentence" covering
different shades of meaning
E.g? 3y sister didn.t like the show
Emphatic stress may be on .show" .like" .sister" .my
!cope includes the focus
0e didn.t give the book to some of the student
@ E*tended scope to include subordinate clause 'rise A fall(
$ didn.t leave home because $ s afraid of my father
%. E. 7egation of modal verbs 'scope Q focus of negation(?
AU>$;$ARH 7EGAT$C7 3A$7 %ER/ 7EGAT$C7
Ability @ mustn.t A % \ D negation
151
-an.t A % permission
5ossibility
E.g? The road can.t be blocked
now
'D $t.s not possible that...(
@ 3ay not D %? permission
e.g? Hou may not+can.t use my
car
@ needn.t A %B necessity
E.g? !he needn.t attend the
lecture
@ 'don.t+doesn.t have to A %(
E.g? Hou don.t have to go there
now
E.g? Hou mustn.t smoke in
here
'D [Link] obliged not to smoke
in here(
@ 0on.t A % D futurity"
prediction" etc
E.g? Cil won.t floats on petrol
@ 3ay not A % D possibility
E.g? The road may not be
blocked now
' $t.s possible that the road isn.t
blocked(
@ !houldn.t A % D advisability
E.g? Hou shouldn.t do that
again
'[Link] advised not to do that
again(
@ Cughtn.t to A %
!he oughtn.t to go there again
%. 6ifferent kinds of sentences 'a communicative classification(?
$n accordance with the purpose of the utterances" sentences in
general 'either simple or comple*( can be classified in to?
!tatement 'or declarative sentences(? E.g? $.m ill
uestion 'or interrogative sentences(? 0ho are
youS
152
-ommands 'or imperative sentences(? Ueep silentX
E*clamations 'or e*clamatory sentences(? 0hat a
messX
9!1! /tatements#
These are sentences in which the sub=ect is always present and
generally precedes the verb.
5ositive? E.g? Nohn will speak to the boss today
&e thinks that he can win the match
7egative? E.g? 0e won.t be able to go out on that day
They didn.t think they were winning the battle
9!2! ,uestions#
# These often involve sub=ect#operator inversion together with
rising intonation" or placement of wh#element in the initial
position 'cf. -oncrete ,uestions later(
# uestions fall under three ma=or classes? yes+no" wh#and
alternative.
a. Hes#no ,uestions 'interrogation on the whole sentence(?
These are the ,uestions which re,uire the answer of "yes" or
"no" and can be subdivided into.
'i(. General yes#no ,uestions? <ormed by pacing operator before
sub=ect 'plus a rising intonation more often(.
Eg? &as the boat leftS -an we stop it nowS Are you signallingS
@ Hes#no ,uestions with positive orientation?
E.g? 6id someone call last nightS &as the boat left alreadyS
@ Hes#no ,uestions with negative orientation?
153
E.g? -an.t you give us any hope of successS 6oes no one
believe meS
'ii(. Tag ,uestions? These consist of two components # the first
being a statement and the second # a tag" often of an opposite
verb from to the statement 'positive OV negative or vice
versa(. !emantically" they are composed of assumption and
e*pectation which are largely dependent on the tone used by
the speaker.
Rising tone Assumption? positive+negative A e*pectation?
neutral
E.g? &e can do these" cant heS Hes" he can. 7o" he can.t
The boat hasn.t arrived" has itS Hes" it ha+ 7o" it hasn.t
<alling tone? 5ositive assumption A 5ositive e*pectation
E.g? Hou know him" don.t youS
Hes" $ do
7egative assumption A 7egative e*pectation
E.g? They haven.t finished it" have theyS
7o" they haven.t
'iii(. 6eclarative ,uestions?
This e*ceptional type of yes no ,uestion is identical in form to a
statement" e*cept of the final rising tone?
E.g? [Link] got the losiveS &e didn.t finish the raceS
Hou realise what the risks areS 'comple* sent(
'iv(. E*clamatory ,uestions?
154
The e*clammatory ,uestion is a ,uestion in form" but is
functionally ke an e*clamation. These are marked by falling
instead of rising tone. E.g?
# 7egative yes#no ,uestions? &asn.t grownX
'most typical( 0asn.t a marvelous concertX
# 5ositive yes # no ,uestions? Am $ hungryX
6id he look annoyedX
b. 0h #,uestions 'interrogation on part of the sentence(?
These are ,uestions on elements of the sentence which fall
under two subgroups" with wh#word or # word placed initially?
'i( 0h#,uestions with wh#word pronouns? who" whom" which"
what" and whose. These are ,uestions on !" Cd" Ci" -s" and on
modifier of 75.
E.g? 0ho went there with herS 'wh#word D !(
0ho'm( did he talk with+ 'wh#word D -prep(
0hich books have you lent him 'wh#wordD5remodifier(
0hose beautiful anti,ues are theseS 'wh#whoseD6eterminer Q
#elementD-s(
0ho did you lend the book toS 'wh#wordD Ci(
'ii(. 0h#,uestions with wh#word adverbs? when" where" how"
why and how#ad=+adv. These are ,uestions of Adverbial" or
sometimes on -s -C 'with how A ad=(.
E.g? 0hen will you come backS '#word D Atime(
0here shall $ put these glassesS '#word D A
place(
15$
0hy are they always complainingS '#word D A
reason(
&ow did you mend itS '#word D A manner(
&ow long has she been waitingS '#words D A
time dur(
&ow often did he visit ;ondonS '#words D A
fre,uency(
&ow much does he careS '#words D -s(
&ow wide did they make the book#caseS '#words D -o(
@ These ,uestions are often uttered with falling tone. /ut when
the speaker shows interest of great care in what he+she is
asking" the rising tone can be used.
c! Alternative Huestions#
These are ,uestions that make use of co#ordinator "or" and can
be divide into three subclasses.
'i( -ommon alternative ,uestions" often with rising tone before
"or. and falling tone at the end" which re,uire selection of one
of the two given alternative on the ,uestioned
E.g? A? 6id you come by train or by busS
/? 0e came by busS
A? -an we go there by bicycle or 'can we( walk thereS
/? Ch" you can walk there. $t isn.t ,uite far away
'ii(. Alternative plus yes#no ,uestions" often with the final rising
tone" which re,uire either choice of the given options 'often
with initial yes( or supplement of proper element 'when saying
initially 7o(.
15'
E.g? did you come by train or by busS
Hes" $ came by trainS 7o" $ came by motorbike
'iii(. Alternative plus wh#,uestion" often with wh#word at the
beginning and or for the suggested options" and falling tune"
e.g.
E.g? A? &ow did you come+ /y bus or by trainS
/? Ch $ came by bus 'but it really took a long time(
A? 0here did you goB to ;eeds or to /irminghamS
/? $ went to /irmingham
9!3! 1ommands#
-ommands are sentences that make use of the imperative
mood in the main" or sometimes of ,uestions with the initial
modal # particularly with invitations or re,uests.
There are three kinds of commands.
a. -ommands without a sub=ect
These have imperative finite verbs as the main element.
'A( 5ositive? E.g? Nump.'%( be reasonable '%-(
6o come in and sit down 'emphatic command(
5ut it on the table '% C A(
5lease eat up your dinner '% C(
'please D marker of politeness(
'A( 7egative? E.g? 6on.t make such a noiseX
6on.t be impatientX
b. -ommands with a sub=ect 'which can be subdivide into two
subgroups(
150
'i( "you" as !
A 0ith adomonitouriness in tone 'A strong irritation(
E.g? Hou there be ,uietX
Hou mind your own business" and leave this to meX
A To single out two or more distinct addresseesB
E.g? Hou come here" Nack" and you go over there" 3ary.
A As re,uests or invitations? 'verb phrase is not an imperative(
E.g? 0ill you come in and sit downS
'ii(. 0ith indefinite pronoun !?
A 5ositive? E.g? !omebody open this doorX
Everybody shut their eyesX
A 7egative? E.g? 6on.t anyone say anythingX
c. -ommands with ;ET?
<irst person imperatives can be formed by proposing the verb
followed by a sub=ect in the ob=ective case.
'i( 5ositive? E.g? ;et us all work harderX
;et.s go outX
;et me have a look
;et each man decide for himself
$f anyone disagrees let him speak louder
'ii(. 7egative? E.g? ;et.s not open the door
6on.t let.s open the door 'informal /rE(
6on.t let him lose heart.
9!4! E2clamations#
153
Attention here is restricted to e*clamatory utterances
introduced by what or how.
a. <ull e*clamations?
0hat A 75 A ... E.g? 0hat an enormous crowd cameX '!%(
0hat a time [Link] had todayX 'Cd ! % A(
&ow A Ad=+Adv? Eg? &ow delightful her manners are 'cs ! %(
&ow fast he drove his car 'A ! %C(
b. !hort e*clamations 'e*clamations with ellipted ! A %(
0hat A 75? E.g? 0hat a bookX 0hat a messX
&ow A Ad=. E.g? &ow beautiful &ow difficultX
Ad=.only E.g? 0onderfulX <antasticX
9!$! Minor ty)es# @ormulae
a. -ertain ,uestion can be used in special cases?
'i( As a greeting? E.g? &ow do you doS
Cr a consolation E.g? 0hy get so upsetS 0hy not en=oy
yours elfS
'W Take it easy( 'W /e more
cheerful(
b. A number of e*clamatory types?
E.g? if only $.d listened to my parentsX
To think $ was once a millionaireX 7ow for some funX
c. !entences with formulaic. !ub=unctives?
E.g? <ar be it from me to contradict youX
God save the ueenX
;ong live our friendship
154
%$. /lock language
This special use of language appears in such functions as
labels" titles" headings" notices and advertisement.
F. !imple block language messages?
a. 7oun or noun phrases?
E.g? Entrance E*it English department
5urlemon =uice A grammar of contemporary English
b. Ad=ective phrasesB or e,uivalent?
E.g? 0here to go in ;ondon
&ow to win friends and influence peopleX
G. $n newspaper headlines" abbreviated clause structures can
be used.
E.g? film # star 3arries E*#5riest '! % Cd(
Election? A. ;andslide of socialists '! -s(
-linton to 3eet Asian 5remiers than Ever '! % Cd(
!hare 5rices 7ow &igher than Ever '! A -s(
E*erciesB IL" FMM" FMF" FMG" FMK" FMJ" FMR" FMT
FMI" FFM" FFG" FFK" FFR" FFT" FGM
'chapter T" pp" JR#RR(
115
chapter %$$$
ad=uncts" dis=uncts and con=uncts
'UGE" chapter L" pp" GMT#GJM(
$. Generalities
Adverbials # either Ad=uncts" 6is=uncts or -on=uncts # share the
following characteristic feature?
a. E*pression 'or realisation(?
'i( /y an adverbB E.g? &e went there yesterday 'ad=uncts(
<rankly" $ don.t like his manner 'dis=unct(
'ii( /y a prepositional phrase?
E.g? 5eter was playing with great skill 'ad=unct(
;ike his brother" he.s an author 'dis=unct(
'iii(. /y a noun phrase 'less common(?
E.g? &e went to ;ondon last week 'ad=unct(
They praised Tom many times 'ad=unct(
/y a noun phrase 'less common(?
E.g.? &e went to ;ondon last week . 'ad=unct(
They praised Tom many times 'ad=unct(
'iv(. by a non#finite verb clause?
E.g? to tell the truth" he failed the driving test 'dis=unct(
3aking a lot of noise they praised tom 'ad=unct(
-aught red handed they couldn.t deny their mistake 'ad=unct(
'v( /y a finite verb clause?
e.g? 5eter was playing although he was very tired 'ad=unct(
0hat.s more important he won the decisive match 'con=uncts(
111
'vi(. by a verbless clause?
E.g? 0hen in ;ondon he sent me a lot of letters 'ad=unct(
Grateful for his help they praised Tom 'ad=unct(
b. 5osition? 3ost adverbials are mobile? they can be placed
initially" medially or or initially?
E.g? ;ike his brother he.s an author.
'#O &e is like his brother" an author #O &e.s an author" like his
brother(
c. $dentity? They are in most cases" optional in clause structure"
e*cept the cases where A stands after an intensive verb 'clause
type !%A( or after C 'clause type !%CA(.
$.G. 6istinctive features of the three subgroups?
Ad=unctis" dis=unctis or con=uncts?
Adverbials
Ad=uncts 'most common( 6is=uncts con=uncts
non#connective
connective
!tatus? $ntegrated in clause
structure
5eripheral in clause structure
-riteria?
'i( cannot appear initially in a
negative declarative clause
'ii( can be contrasted with
another
adverbial in an alternative
interrogation 'as focus of
clause interrogation(
'i( They can appear initially
before a negative clause in
most cases.
E.g? 5robably" [Link] be there
tomorrow
'dis=unct( won.t
There fore" he couldn.t come
112
e.g? does he write to them
because he wants to or
because he needs moneyS
'iii( -an be contrasted with
another adverbial in
alternative negation 'as focus
of clause negation(?
E.g? 0e didn.t go there on
3onday. /ut on Tuesday.
on time 'con=unct(
'ii( They cannot be contrasted
with another adverbial in
alternative interrogation.
'iii(. they can not be focus of
clause negation.
@ 6istinctive criterion of 6is=uncts A -on=uncts
'iv( dis=uncts can serve as
response to a yes # no
,uestion.
E.g? A? 0ill he be thereS
/? Hes" probably
or 7o" obviously
-on=uncts cannot serve as
response to a yes # no
,uestion
E.g? &[Link] therefore be there
tomorrow
$$. Ad=uncts?
!1! /yntactic features of Ad;uncts#
a. Ad=uncts can come within the scope the of clause
interrogation and can be the focus of the ,uestion 'of $.G.b 'ii(
above(
b. They can come within the scope of clause negation and can
be the focus of the negation 'of $.G 'iii( above(
c. They can come within the scope of predication pro#forms or
predication ellipsis.
E.g? Nohn greatly admires /ob" and so does 3ary
113
5eter will pay back the loan when he has money but George
won.t.
d. They can be the focus additive adverbials 'also( or" of a cleft
sentence.
E.g? They will also meet if they have time
$t was when we were in 5aris that we first saw Nohn.
f. /esides" Adverbs as Ad=uncts can have these additional
features?
'i(. -an be focus of clause comparison?
E.g? Nohn writes as fre,uently as his brother does
Nohn writes more fre,uently than his brother does
'ii( -an be premodified by "forever" or "how"
E.g? &owever strongly you feel about it" you should be careful
what you say
&ow cautiously he drivesX
'iii( -an be premodified by "so"
E.g? so monotonously did he speak that every left.
$.G. !ub classification of Ad=uncts?
a. 5lace Ad=uncts?
# 3ost place ad=uncts are prepositional phrases or clauses?
E.g? &e =umped over the fence and ran across the road
!tay where you are. &e.s nowhere to be seen
# Adverbs that are place ad=uncts make up a rather long list
aboard" about" abroad" across" ahead" alongside" anywhere"
ashore" away" back" behind" below" down" downhill" downstairs"
east" eastwards" elsewhere" far" here" hereabouts" home" in"
114
indoors" inside" locally" near" north 'ward(" nowhere" off" on"
opposite" out" outdoors" outside" overhead" overseas"
somewhere" thorough 'out(" under" underfoot" underneath" up"
upstream" west" within.
They may be used for both position and direction 'like other
place ad=uncts(B
E.g? &e was upstairs&e went up stairs
# A few 7p can be used as place ad=uncts 'position or direction(
E.g? &e lives along way from here. &e threw it 'about( ten yards
# 5osition and direction ad=uncts can be used together in the
same clause?
E.g? The children are running around upstairs
&e was thrown overboard near the shore.
b. time Ad=uncts?
# Time ad=uncts are often clause 'finite and non#finite( or
prepositional phrases? E.g? [Link] go there when we have time.
having finished work they went home.
![Link] go there in 6ecember.
# Adverbs as time ad=uncts are a relatively closed" though" fairly
large class. They can be divided into E semantic classes?
'i( 0henB today" tomorrow" afterwards" again" eventually"
formerly
'ii( 6uration? 'not( very long" permanently" briefly" 'ever( since"
lately
'iii(. <re,uentlyB fre,uently" rarely" monthly" annually" usually"
ever" once
11$
'iv(. Relationship? already" afterwards" before" subse,uently"
then" yet...
E.g? They went to see him again yesterday at L [Link] 'time
when(
&is studies haven.t been improving lately 'duration(
&is studies haven.t been improving since 'duration(
They often watch T.%. at night but seldom do so during the day
They often watch T.%. at night but fre,uently( do so during the
day
# A few already left by the time they arrived 'relationship(
E.g? ne*t !unday" $.ll go there 'time when(
$ shall be in my office every other day 'time fre,uency(
c. 5rocess Ad=uncts?
5rocess ad=uncts can be divided into K semantic sub classes?
'i( 3anner ad=uncts?
E.g? They sprayed tear gas indiscriminately on the protesters
!he replied to ,uestions with great courtesy
&e spoke in a way that reminded me of his father
Hou should write as $ tell you
'ii( 3ean ad=uncts?
[Link] &e decided to treat the patient surgically
0e often go to school by bus
'iii( $nstrument ad=uncts?
E.g? &e e*amined the specimen microscopically
&e can cut the bread with that knife
11'
d. <ocusing Ad=unctsB Two sub classes
'i( ;imited ad=uncts 'what is being communicated is limited to
the part that is focused(. These include? lone" =ust" merely" only"
simply" chiefly" especially" in particular.
E.g? Nohn only phoned 3ary today
Hou can get a / grade =ust+simply for that answer
'ii( Additive ad=uncts 'the focused part is an addition(? also"
either" even" neither" nor" too" as well" in addition.
e.g? 0e too+as well will do what we can for you
they won.t help him" but they won.t harm him either
e. $ntensifiers? There are three subclasses?
'i( Emphasi)ersB actually" certainly" definitely" indeed" really"
literally" frankly" honestly" for sure" of course.
E.g? $ honestly don.t know what he wants
They literally tore his arguments to pieces
They didn.t know what to do" of course.
'ii(. Amplifiers? absolutely" completely" entirely" ,uite"
thoroughly" in all respects" by far" to some e*tent.
E.g? 0e absolutely refuse to listen to your grumbling.
$ entirely agree with you
'iii(. downtoners? kind of" sort of" ,uite" rather" partly"
somewhat.
E.g? The incident somewhat influenced his actions in later life
0e didn.t it in the least+at all
110
A Cher ad=uncts? purpose" cause+reason" etc
'i(. 5urposeB E.g? 0e fought heroically for our own liberation
'ii(. Reason+cause? E.g? &e was absent because he was ill
The figure below shows different classes of ad=uncts
Ad=uncts
5lace 'F( Time 'G( 5rocess'K
(
<ocusing'
E(
$ntensifier
'J(
Cthers 'R(
5osition
6estinatio
n
5oint
6uration
<re,uenc
y
Relations
hip
3anner
3eans
$nstrumen
t
;imited
Additive
Emphasise
amplifier
6owntoner
5urpose
Reason
etc.
$$$. 6is=uncts?
There are two main classes? style and attitudinal dis=uncts
$$$.F. !tyle dis=uncts?
0hen using style dis=uncts" the speaker+writer implies his own
comment on the speaking+writing style? seriously" personally.
E.g? !eriously" do you intend to resignS
!trictly speaking" nobody is allowed in here
$f $ may say so" the dress doesn.t suit you
$$$.G. Attitudinal dis=uncts?
These convey the speaker+writer.s comment on the content of
what he is saying
E.g? Cbviously" nobody e*pected us to be here today.
They arrived" to our surprise" before we did.
To be sure" we have heard many such promises before
113
Even more important" he has control over the party.s finances
$%. con=uncts?
3ost con=uncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases.
The most commonly used con=uncts are?
F. Enumerative? first 'ly(" second'ly( for one thing" for a start" to
begin with" to start with" in the second place
G. Reinforcing? also" furthermore" moreover" in addition" what is
more
K. E,uate? e,ually" like wise" in the same way
E. Transitional? incidentally" by the way
J. Apposition 'al(B namely" in other words" for e*ample
R. Result 'active(B conse,uently" hence" therefore" as a result
E.g? $.d like you to do two things form. <irst" phone the office
and tell him from me that $.m going to tell him that myself.
!econdly" post this letter.
0hat.s your nameS Are you married" by the wayS
E*ercises? FGF" FGG" FGE" FGR" FGL" FKT" FKI" FEK" FEE" FER.
114
-hapter $>
co#ordination and apposition
'UGE" chapter I" pp" GJF#GLK(
$. -C#CR6$7AT$C7
$.F. 0hat is co#ordinationS
-o#ordination is the combination of two or more e,ual units"
namely" phrases or clauses.
E.g? 3y friend and $ went there together.
0e went there and returned immediately
$ told him this" but he didn.t believe me.
$.G. !yndetic and asyndetic co#ordination?
a. !yndetic co#ordination # with presence of co#ordinators?
E.g? !lowly and stealthily" he crept towards his victim.
$.K. co#ordinators and correlatives.
a. -o#ordinators and their meanings?
'i( !yntactic features of co#ordinators
# Restricted to initial position in the clause or phrase.
E.g? Nohn plays the guitar" and his sister plays the piano
# <i*ed position of clauses beginning with co#ordinator.
E.g? They are living in England or they are spending a vacation
there.
# $mpossibly preceded by other con=unction.
# Allowing ellipsis of ! of the clause it introduces 'to avoid
repetition(?
125
E.g? $ may see you tomorrow or '$( may phone later in the day
"And" and "or" can link subordinate clauses.
E.g? $ asked him who he was and why he had come.
$ wonder whether you should speak to him personally or
whether it is better to write to him.
'ii(. !emantic implication of "A76"
# Addition of conse,uence or result?
E.g? &e heard an e*plosion and 'he therefore( phoned the
police.
# Addition of choronological se,uence?
E.g? !he washed the dished and 'then she( dried them.
# -ontrast?
[Link] Robert is secretive and 'in contrast( 6avid is candid
# !econd clause being a comment on the first?
E.g? They disliked Nohn # and that.s not surprising.
# <irst clause being a condition of the second?
E.g? Give me some money and 'then( $.ll help escape.
# !econd clause making a point similar to the first?
E.g? A trade agreement should be no problem" and 'similarly( a
cultural e*change could be arranged.
'iii(. !emantic implication of "CR"
# E*clusive choice?
E.g? Hou can go there by car or you can walk there
# $nclusive choice?
121
E.g? Hou can boil an egg" or you can make some cheese
sandwiches" or you can do both.
# Restatement or correction of previously # mentioned idea.
E.g? he began his educational career" or" in other words" he
started to attend the local kindergarten.
# 7egative condition.
E.g? Give me some money or $.ll shoot.
;et go of me or $.ll scream.
'iv(. !emantic implication of "/UT
# Une*pected contrast?
e.g? Nohn is poor" but he.s happy.
&e didn.t want their help" but he had to accept it.
# -ontrast being restatement 'negative OV affirmative(
E.g? Nohn didn.t waste his time in the week before the e*am" but
studied hard every evening.
b. correlatives?
'i( -ommon correlatives with anticipated addition 'both ... and("
alternation 'either...or( and additional negation 'neither...nor(?
E.g &e both has long hair and wears =eans
either or
neither nor
$
can
both knit and sew
eith
er
or
122
!he
smoked
both cigars and cigarettes
neither nor
Unlike "both"" "either" and "neither" can be placed before the
le*ical verb even when the scope does not include the whole of
the predication. E.g?
&e either smoked
cigars
and cigarettes
neithe
r
nor
Hou
can
either write
elegantly
or
neithe
r
nor clearly
Cther correlatives
# nor+neither # correlated with actual or implied negative in the
previous clause.
E.g ? &e did not want to ask them for helpB 'but( nor could he do
without their help.
0e owe no money" 'and( neither do they.
# not only ... but 'also(
E.g? They not only broke into his office and stole his book" but
they 'also( tore up his manuscripts.
'7ot only did they break into... but they also tore up...(
$.E. 5hrasal and clausal co#ordination?
a. 5hrasal co#ordination 'co#ordination of phrases of e,ual
status(
123
A -o#ordinated noun phrases 'in different syntactic functions(
E.g? 5eter and Nohn were there.
$ write articles on current affairs for newspapers and maga)ines
0e were K afraid of poisonous snakes and fierce animals
A Cther phrases 'as modifier(?
e.g? $ like teaching a studious or hard # working undergraduate
'apposition co#ordination(
&e has workers from $reland and from <rance '5rep.5(
The attacks in Nune failed '5rep.5(
A -o#ordinated adverbials 'adv" and other units 'non#finite+finite
clause(
E.g? They sang beautifully and passionately 'adv A Adv(
!he waited patiently but in vain 'adv A [Link](
Hou can wash it manually or by using a machine 'adv A %#ing(
They can call this week or whenever they wish
'75 D Adverbial A <inite clause(
b. -lausal co#ordination 'co#ordination of clause of e,ual status(
#-o#ordinated independent clauses
E.g? he has long hair and he wears =eans.
They disliked Nohn" and that.s not surprising
&e began his educational career" or" in other words" he started
to attend this local kindergarten.
!he didn.t want their help" but he had to accept it
6avie neither loves Noan nor wants to marry her
Hou can either knit or sew
124
# -o#ordinated subordinate clauses?
E.g? $f you can find the letter and 'if( you are interested in it $.ll
let you have it.
$.m prepared to meet them when 'they like( and where they
like.
$ want to know for whom it was ordered and by whom 'it was
ordered(
!he desired to know where he had gone but not why he had
gone.
Tell me both why he went away and how 'he went away(
$$. Ellipsis
$$.F. Ellipsis in co#ordinated clauses?
a. Ellipsis of sub=ect? $dentical sub=ects of co#ordinated clauses
are ellipted?
E.g? 5eter ate a cheese sandwich and '5eter+he( drank a glass
of beer. !ometimes" ellipsis of both ! and au*iliary occurs?
E.g? 3ary has washed the dishes" 'she has( fried them" and 'she
has( put them in the cupboard.
b. Ellipsis of au*iliary only? when sub=ects are different
E.g? Nohn should clean the shed and 5eter 'should( move the
lawn.
Nohn must have been playing football and 3ary 'must have
been( doing her homework.
c. Ellipsis of 5redicate or 5redication?
'i(. Ellipsis of % or le*ical verb only?
12$
E.g? Hesterday Nohn was given a railway set" and !ue 'was
given( a doll.
$ work in a factory and my wife 'works( on a farm.
7am will work today and 'he( may 'work( the day after
tomorrow.
'ii(. Ellipsis of % A -s 'and possibly of ! as well(
E.g? Nohn was the winner in FITF and /ob 'was the winner( FM
years later.
The milk turned sour not only today but yesterday too
'iii( Ellipsis of % A Cd 'possibly only le*ical verb A Cd(
E.g? 5eter plays football for his school and 5aul 'plays football(
for his club.
Noan will cook the meals today and /arbara may 'cook the
meals( tomorrow.
'iv( Ellipsis of re,uired form of le*ical verb or predication?
E.g? 0e met last year" but we haven.t 'met( since.
$ saw your parents last week" but $ haven.t 'seen your parents(
since
Nohn could have been 'watching television(" but 'he( wasn.t
watching television.
They can 'pay the full fee( and 'they( should pay the full fee"
but 'they( won.t 'pay the full fee(.
d. Ellipsis of Cd or -s only?
'i( CdB E.g? Nohn likes '3ary(" and 5eter hates" 3ary.
George opened 'the door(" but 3ary closed" the door
12'
'ii( -s? E.g? /ob seemed angry" and George certainly was
'angry(
Nohn has recently become 'a very hard # working student(
and his brother always was" a very hard # working student(
e. Ellipsis of A?
E.g? to my surprise" they didn.t appoint him" and they 'to my
surprise( didn.t even interview him.
Theoretically" $ have no ob=ections to his proposal and
'theoretically( neither have any of my colleagues.
$n our school" students and teachers get on well together" but
'in our school( this harmony is comparatively temporary.
f. Ellipsis of head noun or of - prep?
E.g? 0e wanted fried fish" but they gave us boiled 'fish(
!he wore the black dress" but the blue 'dress( suits her better.
bob is bored with 'music(" but 5eter en=oys music
$$.G. !emantic effect of ellipsis?
!ometimes" the effect of ellipsis is to indicate that there is a
combined process rather than two separate processes?
[Link] 6id 5eter tell lies" and did he hurt his friendsS
0here 5eter.s telling lies and his hurting his friends are
regarded as two separate processes" hence two separate
,uestions.
$$$. A55C!$T$C7
$$$.F. 0hat is appositionS
Apposition resembles co#ordination in linking units having
grammatical affinity 'referring to the same entity(.
120
E.g? A neighbour" <reed !mith" is on the telephone.
3r.-ampbell" the lawyer" was here last night.
$$$.G. $ndicators of apposition?
A number of e*pressions" which commonly mark the same or
similar relationship being grouped together" e*plicitly indicate
apposition. They can be inserted between appositives. These
include? that is today" that is" i.e" namely" vi)." in other words"
or" or rather" and" as follows" for e*ample" for instance" e.g" say"
including" such" as" particularly" chiefly" mainly" mostly?
[Link] the passenger plane of the FILMs" namely the supersonic
=et" have some what transformed relations between people of
the world.
The 5resident of the U!A" in other words /ill -linton" was on
television last night.
$ didn.t meet any people" including my sister.
$$$.K. Restrictive and non#restrictive apposition?
a. Restrictive apposition?
!trict restrictive apposition of noun phrases can take three
forms" of which the first one is the most common.
'i( The first apposition is the more general e*pression preceded
by a definite determiner 'and possibly pre#modifier(
[Link] That famous critic 5aul Nones came here last night.
The novel Great E*pectation was the best seller last week.
$ haven.t seen my good friend bob for a forthright.
'ii( The second appositive is preceded by a determiner and is
more general than the first.
123
E.g? 5aul Nones the critic didn.t attend the last seminar.
/ill -linton the president of the U.!.A ended his working visit to
Napan.
'iii(. This type is like 'i( but with omission of the determiner.
E.g? -ritic 5aul ones was completely against the plan.
They talked with 6emocratic leader Robison for half an hour.
Restrictive apposition is common with such 75s as the fact" the
idea" the view" the ,uestion" etc...
E.g? $ don.t agree with the view that there is no advantage in
being patient
the ,uestions whether to confess or not troubled him.
b. 7on#restrictive apposition?
Apposition is typically e*emplified by noun phrases in non#
restrictive apposition. !emantically" the appositives may be of.
'i( E,uivalence? These may be appellation 'namely" who+which
A /E(" designation 'who+which A /E(" identification 'namely( or
reformulation 'or(
# Appellation?
E.g? the company commander" 'who was( captain 3adison"
assembled his men and announced their mission.
&e told them the good news? ta*es are to be reduced
A 6esignation?
E.g? -aptain 3adison" 'that is to say( the company commander"
took the lead 'G
nd
appositive being less specific than the first(.
A $dentification? E.g? A literary critic" 3r. 5aul Nones wrote this
article"
124
'G
nd
appositive being more specific(
0e # 'that is to say( Nohn and $ # intend to resign.
A Reformulation? E.g? &e drew a pentagonal" or five#sided"
figure.
'G
nd
appositive being reworded(
0e are studying sound units of the language" technically
phonemes.
'ii( Attribution? This involves predication rather than
e,uivalence.
The second appositive is commonly an indefinite 75
[Link] The house" an imposing building" dominated the street.
/ut it can be definite or non#articled
E.g? 3any soldiers" the cream of the battalion" died in the
attack.
Robinson" leader of the 6emocratic group on the committee"
refused to answer ,uestions.
'iii(. $nclusion? $n this type" the first appositive includes the
second 'but not identical with it(.
E.g? &is e*cuses" say the break down of his car" never seemed
plausible.
The children liked the animals" particularly the monkeys.
The two men" one a 6ane" were awarded medals.
$$$. E. Realisation of apposition?
The first appositive is often a noun phrase while the second can
be a noun phrase" a non#finite or a finite clause.
E.g? &is novel Great E*pectations is truly thrilling '75s(
135
The soldiers" some of them being natives" are friendly '%#ing -l(
&is hope" to become a doctor" was realised at last 'to % -l(
This strongly supports his argument that things are getting
worse than before 'that clause(
&e didn.t answer my ,uestion" why he hadn.t come to the
meeting 'wh#interrogative clause(.
&is account of what he had done that year did not satisfy his
colleague.
E*ercises? FEL" FJG" FJK" FJJ" FJR". FJL
'chapter I" pp" LM#LJ(
131
-&A5TER >
!U/CR6$7AT$C7? -C35;E> !E7TE7-E!
'UGE" chapter FF" pp. KMI # KEJ(
$. -C#CR6$7AT$C7 A76 !U/CR6$7AT$C7
$.F. General distinction?
-o#ordination and subordination are the two techni,ues of
combining simple sentences into compound and comple*
sentences
@
respectively.
Given two 'or more( simple sentences
Tom saw 3ary 'F(. &e ran away 'G(
0e may form compound sentences such as?
Tom saw 3ary and he ran away 'different in meanings(
Tom ran away and he saw 3ary
'0e use here the techni,ue called co#ordination(
otherwise" we may form comple* sentences
0hen Tom saw 3ary he ran away
0hile running away Tom saw 3ary.
'0e use here the techni,ue called subordination(
!2! /)ecific features#
-ompound -omple*
a. -omponents?
@ -lauses? finite clauses 'which
use finite verb phrases(
These clauses are structurally
@ -lauses?
A 3ain clause A subordinate
clause finite '%main( # finite
'%sub(
@
$n [Link] et al.s book" the term "comple*. sentences is used for both. &owever" in
manyother garmmar books" the term compound sentences is also used. 3any
grammarians use the term "composite sentences"
132
and semantically independent clause? # non#finite
# verbless
clause
A subordinate clauses are
structurally and semantically
dependent on main clause"
functioning as !" C" - or A of
the main clause
b. Noining words?
-o#ordinators !ubordinators
!imple
and" but" or
correlatives
both... and
not only... but
either...or
!imple
if" as"
that"
when"
while
-ompou
nd
as if" as
though"
so that
-orrelativ
es
so... that
more..tha
n
hardly..
when
c. -oncrete analysis of these sentences in terms of s" v" C" -
and A
133
Tom saw 3ary and he ran
away
! % C ! % A
F
st
[Link] G
rd
[Link]
&e saw it but 'he( didn.t
interfere
! % C ! %
F
st
[Link] G
rd
[Link]
6id you come by car or by
busS
! % A A
F
st
[Link] G
rd
[Link]'ellipsis(
7ot only did he failed the e*am
A ! % C
F
st
[Link]
but he lost the game as well
! % C A
G
nd
[Link]
0hen Tom saw 3ary he ran
away
A ! % C ! % A
'dep(
'%phrasal(
main clause
$ know that [Link] honest
! % -
! v C # [Link] 'sub(
0hy he didn.t go is still a
secret
A ! %
! D [Link]
'dep( % A -
0hen in Rome do as Rome
does
A a A ! %
A D [Link] % A # [Link]
'verbless( 'finite(
$.K. -o#ordination and subordination in combination?
$n many case these two procedures are combined to make very
comple* sentences 'also called compound comple* sentences"
etc..(
E.g? &e said 'that( he would come but he didn.t
'F
st
clause D comple* sentence(
134
$ contemplated the stones a few feet away and saw that several
of them were flat up against our wall.
'G
nd
indep. clause D comple* sentence(
Cne bright morning when $ was nineteen'F(" $ packed 'G( all $
had 'KM on my back" left 'EM my native village and walked up'J(
to ;ondon looking 'RM for gold and glory.
'R clauses? G
nd
" E
th
" J
th
clB independent clausesB(
F
st
cl D A timeB
K
rd
clause D relative clause modifying pronoun "all. functioning
as CB
R
th
clause? %#ing participle cl D A purpose(
$$. !U/CR6$7AT$C7B GE7ERA;$T$E!
$$.F. $ndicators of subordination?
a. <ormal indicators? $n the sentence" we can notice
subordinator's( which may be subclassified in the following
diagram?
/u&ordinators
!imple
as" because" if"
since"
that" when" while"
etc..
-ompound
as if" as though" so
as"
so that" in order
that
-orrelatives
so...that"
more...than"
such...that"
no sooner..than"
hardly...when
E.g? 0e have lived here since we graduated from the college
They went there so that they could earn their living
13$
&ardly had they started the race when they heard a loud
e*plosion
b. Use of wh#words?
wh#words
5ronouns '!" C" - in [Link]"(
who" which" what
E.g? 0hat he says isn.t true
[Link] go there hasn.t been
decided...
Adverbs 'DA in [Link].(
0here" when" how" why...
$.ll go where you go
0hy he hadn.t come was still
troubling her then
c. Cptional use of subordinator?
A $n finite clause? E.g? $ knew 'that( he did he didn.t like
=oking
A $n non#finite clauseB E.g? '0hile( running away" Tom saw
3ary.
'After( having finished the work" they went
home.
d. Absence of subordinator?
A $n non#finite clauses acting as !" C or -
E.g? 0e went him to stop talking
0atching these films was not to my liking
A $n contingent ad=ectival clauses?
E.g? They went home tired+happy.
A $n case of sub=ect # operator inversion?
&ad you gone there you would have met her.
!2! /u&classes of su&ordinate clauses#
13'
!tructural classification?
'i( <inite clauses?
# That clauses? E.g? $t.s obvious that he.s honest
# 0h#interrogative clausesB E.g? $ don.t know who he is
# Adverbial clauses? [Link] The man who went there didn.t know
this
'ii( 7on#finite clauses?
# $nfinitive? to % ? E.g? To elp him is my task
% ? E.g? Run away was all we could do
#5articiples? #ing ? E.g? $t.s no use crying over the spilt
milk
%#edG? E.g? /adly in=ured he couldn.t escape
'iii(. %erbless clauses?
# 0ith ad=ective? E.g? Tired of the lecture he fell fast asleep.
# 0ith when" while" if. E.g? 0hen in Rome do as Rome does
b. <unctional classification 'depending on syntactic functions of
subordinate clauses(
'i( 7ominal clauses? These clauses often function as !" C" - in
the main cl..
'cf. !ection $$$ below(
'ii(. Adverbial clauses? These clauses often function as Ad=uncts
'of different kinds(" 6is=unct and -on=unct 'cf. !ection $% below(
'iv(. comment clausesB These often function as main clause"
Ad=unct" 6is=unct" or -on=unct 'cf. !ection %$ below(
&ere below is the diagram showing a and b in combination.
130
!ubordinate clauses
7ominal clauses
'F(
'functioning as
'!"C"-(
Adverbial clauses 'GM
'functioning as
Ad=uncts and
6is=uncts(
Relative
clauses 'K(
as
5ostmodifi
er
-omment
clauses'E(
'functioning as
Ad=unct
6is=unct Q
-on=unct(
<inite
'#that cl.
#wh#cl.
#
if+wheth
er
clauses(
non#
finite
'to %
%
%#ing(
finite
'as" if"
while"
etc(
nonfinit
e
'to %"
%#ing"
%#edGM
verble
ss
'ad=.
if+whe
n
A A(
'only
finite cl.(
finit
e
non#finite
'to %"
%#ing(
<ig. !ubordinate clausesB general classification
$n the following sections we are going to deal with these four
groups of subordinate clauses respectively.
$$$. 7C3$7A; -;AU!E!
!1! /u&classification of nominal clauses#
There are two subgroups" each of which comprises a set of
minor types?
a. <inite nominal clauses including?
A That clauses E.g? That he knows me is obvious
A 0h#interrogative clauses? E.g? 0here he has gone is still
not known
A Hes+no#interrogative clauses? E.g? &e asked whether you
knew it
133
A 7ominal relative clauses? E.g? 0hat causes the fire was only
a cigarette end.
b. 7on#finite clauses including?
A to#infinitive clause 'to %( E.g? $t.s my task to help him
A /are infinitive clause '%( E.g? All we had to do was repeat
what he said
A %#ing participle clauses '%#ing( E.g? 0e all en=oyed
watching T%
!2! (ossi&le functions of nominal clauses#
;ike noun phrases" nominal clauses can be used in eight
different syntactic functions" namely sub=ect" direct ob=ect"
sub=ect -omplement" appositive" prepositional -omplement"
ob=ect -omplement" ad=ectival complement and indirect Cb=ect.
&owever" not all the above # mentioned types can perform all
these =unctions. There are in fact? ma=or 'or common( functions
that all of them can perform and minor functions that are
restricted to a certain type only.
A 3a=or functions? !" -s" Cd" App
A 3inor functions? -prep" -o" -ad= A Ci
%. A6%ER/$A; -;AU!E!
$n this section we are largely concerned with the main type of
Adverbial clauses # Ad=uncts" either finite or non#finite" or
verbless clauses. There e*ists another way of classifying.
Adverbial clauses? in terms of meaning 'or semantic
classification of these. <or more" see chapter %$$$" section $$(. To
make it more convenient let us deal here with the finite
134
Adverbial clauses" the most commonly used" at first and then
with other types.
9!1! @inite Adver&ial clauses#
Table? <inite Adverbial clauses # semantic sub#classfication?
!ubclassifi
#cation
!ubordinators A
=oining words
E*amples
a. -lauses
of time
after" before"
since"
until" when"
while" as
soon+long" as"
when ever
A 0hen $ last saw you" you lived in 7ew
Hork
A /uy your tickets as soon as your
reach the station
A Cur hostess" once everyone had
arrived" was full of good humour
b. -lause
of place
where+wherever A They went wherever they could find
work
A 0here the fire had been we saw
nothing but blackened ruins
c. -lauses
of
condition
if" unless" on
condition that"
provided
'providing(" that"
as long as" so" so
long as
@ Real conditions?
A &e must be lying if he told you that
A Unless the strike has been called off"
there will be no trains tomorrow
A 5rovided that no ob=ection is raised"
we shall hold the meeting here
@ Unreal condition
A if he came now" $.d see him
A $f she had gone there" she.d have met
him
145
d. -lauses
of
concession
-onditiona
l
concessive
clauses
although" though"
even if" even
though" while"
whereas
whether ... or"
wherever
whatever"
whoever" no
matter
how
A 7o goal were scored" thought it was
an e*citing game.
A 0hereas Nohn seems rather stupid"
his brother is clever.
A 0hether they beat us or we beat
them" [Link] celebrate tonight.
A !he looks pretty whatever she wears
A 7om matter how hard $ try can never
catch up with him
e. -lauses
of reason
'or cause(
as" because"
since
A $ lent him the money because he
badly needed it.
A As Nane was the eldest she looked
after the others
f. -lauses
of
circumstan
ce
because" since"
now" that" seeing
that
A !eeing that the weather has
improved" we shall en=oy our game
A [Link] try to enrich ourselves now that
the state has permitted us to do so
g. -lauses
of manner
e*actly as" =ust
as
A 5lease do it 'e*actly( as $ instructed
A Nust as a moth is attracted by a light "
'so( he was fascinated by her
h. -lauses
of
compariso
n
'more(.. than
as if" as though
A he.s younger than $ am
A !he drove more carefully than her
father did
A he treated me as if he had never met
me.
i. -lause of
result
so 'that(
in order that
'purpose(
A 0e planted many shrubs" so 'that(
the garden soon looked beautiful
141
f. -lauses
proportion
and
preference
as ... 'so(
the
more+less...the
more+less
A As he grew disheartened" 'so( his
work deteriorated
A The harder he worked" the happiest
he felt
$%. G. 7on#finite Adverbial clauses
a. To#infinitive clauses 'to %(? often introduced by 'in order(+
'forA7( to" so as to" $nfinitives thus used often function as A
purpose?
E.g? $ left early 'so as( to catch the train
They left the door open in order for me to her the baby
!ometimes" to infinitive can act as A result
[Link] The ceiling is too high for me to reach
!he woke up to find the whole house on fire
b. %#ing participle clauses # ing participle clauses are very
common with subordinator? while" without" when" etc" in the
following.
# A timeB
[Link] &e wrote his greatest novel while working on a freighter
7earing the entrance $ shook hands with my ac,uaintances
#A circumstance?
[Link] The weather having improved" we en=oyed the rest of the
game
# A manner?
e.g? !he entered the room without greeting anyone inside
# A reason?
E.g? /eing very suspicious she hesitated to open the door.
142
/eing a man of ingenuity" he soon repaired the car
# A preference?
E.g? Rather than sitting ,uietly a home he preferred to visit his
friends
# A condition A concession?
E.g? 0hether living in ;ondon or not" Nohn en=oyed himself
c. %#ed G participle clauses?
# A time?
E.g? Cnce published the book caused a remarkable stir
# A place
E.g? where 'ver( known" such facts have been reported
# A condition?
[Link] These books will caused great harms to young students
unless forbidden.
d. /are infinitive clause?
# A preference
E.g? Rather than go their by air. $.d take the slowest train
9!3! 9er&less adver&ial clauses#
%erbless adverbial clauses include
a. Ad=ectival contingent clauses 'without our with subordinator(
E.g? They went home dead tired 'A circumstance(
Nohn" sad at the news" went to 3e*ico 'A reason(
Though very poor they are e*tremely generous 'A
concession(
$f necessary $.ll do that again 'A condition(
143
0hen ripe the oranges are picked and sorted
b. Cther clauses 'often with subordinator(
E.g? 0hen in Rome do as Rome does
0hile in ;ondon he en=oyed himself greatly
&[Link] do his best to help her if re,uested by the boss
These verbless clauses are often considered as reduced finite
clauses with ellipted !ub=ect A %erb
%. RE;AT$%E -;AU!E!
$n some [Link] of view" relative clauses are not
considered as part of comple* sentences. $n r. ,uirk et al.s
books 'both.A Grammar of -ontemporary English( and .A
University Grammar of English( relative clauses are treated in
the chapter dealing with the comple* noun phrases 'of chapter
$$ above(
&owever" to most grammarians. frame of mind" they may be
classified among the comple* sentences. There are in fact
different kind of relative clauses that do not merely function as
post#modifier in noun phrases as follows?
%.F. Relative clauses functioning as post#modifier in 75s?
There are two subtypes?
a. Restrictive relative clauses 'also called defining relative
clauses(
[Link] The man who went there with him is my brother in law
$ tried to discuss this problem with the professor who wrote this
book.
b 7on#restrictive relative 'or non#defining( clauses?
144
[Link] 0e met 3r Nones" who was e*pert at nuclear physics
This book" which was written fifteen years ago was again
revises and published
'for more see chapter $$" section(
9!2! /entential +elative clauses#
This has been mentioned in subsection dealing with non#
restrictive relative clauses. &owever this group differ from them
in that they have antecedents as the whole previous main
clause.
E.g? &e came to see her too often" which annoyed her mother
They failed the final e*am" which surprised us all
%.K. 7ominal relative clauses?
These are clauses that are very close to the noun phrase status
in that they can perform seven 'out of eight( different functions
of noun phrases. They can act 'as !. -[Link]" -o" App. -prep and
Ci 'cf" !ubsections $$$.K and $$$.E(. They differ from the other two
subgroups in that they can be paraphrased by nominal element
plus relative clauses.
E.g? 0hat caused the fire was only a cigarette end.
'DThe thing that caused the fire...(
0e remember when we first came here
'D the time when we first came here(
0e gave whoever went there a brochure
'D anyone who went there(
%$. -C33E7T -;AU!E!
14$
-omment clauses are some what loosely related to a super #
ordinate clause and may be classed as dis=uncts or con=uncts"
which may occur initially" finally or medially.
-omment clauses very in form and syntactic functions as
follow?
F. ;ike a main clauses?
E.g? At that time" $ believe" labour was cheap
Hou know" $ think [Link] wrong
G. ;ike and adverbial clause 'functioning as Ad=unct(?
E.g? $.m a pacifist" as you know
As far as grammar is concerned the sentence is the largest unit
K. ;ike a nominal relative clause as con=unctB
E.g? 0hat.s more" we lost all our belongings
E. 7on#finite clauses as style dis=unct
a. to %? E.g $.m mot sure what to do" to be honest
b. %#ing? E.g? $ doubt" speaking" as a layman" whether television
is the right medium.
c. %? E.g? !tated bluntly" he has no chance of winning the game.
%$$$." 6$RE-T A76 $76$RE-T !5EE-&
F. 6irect things" there are two ways?
a. Using 6irect !peech
E.g? &e said "$.m very hungry" 'Fa(
"&ow are you todayS" asked her friend
&ere" the reporting clause may be classed as comment clause
b. Using $ndirect !peech
14'
E.g? &e said that he was very hungry 'Fb(
&er friend asked 'her( how she was that day 'Gb(
Cbviously" the reporting clause is" in this case" the super#
ordinate clause and the reported" a subordinate clause.
/eside the change in the clause status there are other changes
that are noteworthy. 0e are going to deal with them in the
following subsections.
G. -hanges in clauses status?
6$RE-T !5EE-& ############### $76$RE-T !5EE-&
that clause
Generally" independent clauses are changed into subordinate
clauses.
a. !tatement That clause
E.g? "$.m very hungry" he said #O &e said that he was very
hungry
"0e didn.t go there because
we "were ill" said my friend
#O 3y friend said that they
hadn.t gone there because they
had been ill.
b. uestion 'wh#,uestion( 0h#interrogative clause
E.g? "0ho are you" asked her
mother
#O &er mother asked him who he
was
"0hy didn.t you attend the
meetingS" they asked him
#O They asked him why he hadn.t
attended the meeting
c. uestions? Hes+no A
alternative ,s.
Hes+no interrogative cls
'if+whether(
E.g? "&ave you finished the
workS" he asked
#O &e asked her if+whether( she
had finished the work
"6id you come by train or by
busS" she asked me
#O !he asked whether $ had
come by train or by bus
140
d. -ommands To#infinitive clause
E.g? "-ome in and sit down
pleaseX" the monitor said to
them
#O The monitor told them to
come in and sit down
"0ill you participate in this
meetingS" said my colleague.
"$t will be of great interest".
#O 3y colleague invited me to
participate in the meeting saying
that it would be of great interest
e. E*clamations That clause+wh#clause
[Link] "0hat a hero you areX"
3argaret told him.
#O 3argaret told him what a hero
he was
that he was
a real hero
K. -hange of the verb forms?
0hen the reporting verbs is in the present tense" there is not
any change in the subordinate clause in $ndirect !peech as
compared to the independent clause in 6irect !peech in terms
of tense and aspect forms # 0hen the reporting verb is in the
past tense 'said+thought+wonder(" there is the so called
backshift change in the tense form of the subordinate verbs as
follows.
6irect !peech ################## $ndirect !peech
!imple 5resent '%+%#s(
5resent 5erfect 'have+has A
%edG(
5resent 5rogressive 'am+is+are A
%ing(
!imple 5ast '%#edF(
5ast perfect 'had A %#edG(
5ast progressive 'was+were A
%ing(
5ast perfect 'had A %#edG(
143
5resent 5erf. 5rog. 'have+has
beenA %ing(
!imple 5ast '%#ed(
5ast perfect 'had A %edG(
5ast 5erf. 5rogr. 'had beenA
%ing(
will A %
may be A %ing
Unchanged
5ast 5ref. 5rogr. 'had been
A%ing(
Unchanged
would A %
might be A %ing
E. -hange of pronouns and pointer word?
5ronouns and pointer word?
5ronouns in indirect speech should be changed in accordance
with the relationship between them and those of the reporting
clause sub=ect.
# !ub=ect?
E.g? he said? "$.m very tired"
#O &e said that he was very tired
"0e didn.t agree with him"" she said to him.
#O !he told him that they hadn.t agreed with that man
# Adverbials of time and place and determiners should also be
changed as follows.
6r.!p ########
O
$n.!p 6r.!p ########
O
$n.!p
today
now
here
that
day
then
there
this
my
our
that
his+her
their
144
yesterd
ay
the day before your his+her
tomorr
ow
the day after
following day
ne*t day
the day after tomorrow
two days
after
later
E.g? "0hy didn.t you go there yesterdayS" she asked
#O !he asked me why $ hadn.t gone there the previous day.
"The day after tomorrow $.ll come here again"" said the man
#O The man told them that he would go there two days later
E*ercises? FTG" FTE" FTR" FTT" FTI" FLM" FLF" FLG" FLJ" FLT"
FLL" FIM" FIF" GMF" GMK" GMR" GML" GMI
'chapter FF" pp" IE#FML(
1$5
*erminology
Adverbial
Absolute+positive
Additional
additive
Ad=ectival phrase
Ad=ective clause
Ad=unct
Ad=unct of duration
Ad=unct of fre,uency
Ad=unct of relationship
Ad=unct # 0hen
Adverbial
Affected
Agentive
Amplifier
Appositive
Article
Article usage
Aspect
Assertive
Attribute
Attributive
/asic 7oun phrase
-ardinal
-ase
-ategory
-ausative
-ause
-entral
-haracteristic
-lassification
-lause
-lause coordination
-losed system
tr4ng ng2
nguy]n+^:n
ph_ th]m
c`ng th]m
c_m tanh tb
mcnh ^d tanh ng2
ph_ ng2
ph_ ng2 che thfi ^o4n+di8n
bign
ph_ ng2 che t1n *uht
ph_ ng2 che ,uan hc
thfi ^iim
tr4ng ng2
bj+chju tkc ^`ng
tkc nhln
t9ng cfng
^mng vj ng2+nghna ^onog vj
,ukn ng2
vicc sp d_ng ,ukn tb
thi
*kc nhqn
^jnh tr
^jnh ng2
c_m danh tb c: bsn
sr ^gm
ckch
ph4m trt
khi]n ^`ng
nguy]n nhln
trung tlm
^uc trng
phln lo4i
mcnh ^d 'cv(
li]n kgt mcnh ^d
1$1
-oherence
-ohesion
-ommon
-omparative
-omplement
-omplement of preposition
'-prep(
-omplementation
-omplementation type
-omplete
-omple*
-omple* finite %5
-omple* 75
-ompound
-oncept
-on=unction
-on=unct
-oordinator
-orrespondence
-riterion
-urrent
6ecisive factor
6efinite article
6egree of comparison
6emonstrative
6enominal
6ependent clause
6erivational suffi*
6eterminers
6iscourse analysis
6escriptive
6is=unct
6itransitive
6ouble genitive
6owntoner
hc thrng ^wng
sx m4ch l4c
li]n kgt
chung
so sknh t:ng ^ri
by ng2
by ng2 gizi tb
by tr
kiiu by tr
ho{n chenh
ph|c
c_m ^`ng tb bign vj ph|c
c_m danh tb
gh}p
khki nicm
li]n tb
li]n ng2
li]n tb ^~ng lqp
sx t:ng ^:ng
ti]u cha
hicn tr4ng" hicn cw
nhln tr ,uygt ^jnh
,ukn tb *kc ^jnh
m|c ^` so sknh
che ^jnh" tb che ^jnh
k danh
mcnh ^d ph_ thu`c
hqu tr phkt sinh
ckc tb *kc ^jnh
phln tach di8n ngn
m ts
bict ng2
ngo4i hzng k}p
thu`c ckch s h2u k}p
tb gism nghna" uyin thanh
1$2
6uration
6ynamic
Effected
Emphasi)er
Empty
E,ual comparison
Essential
Eventive
E*clamatory
E*plicitness
E*pression
E*tensive
<eminine
<inite clause
<inite %5
<ocus
<ocusing
<raction
Gender
General
Genitive
Gradable
Grammatical meaning
$nclusive
$ncomplete
$ndefinite
$ndefinite article
$ndependent clause
$ndicator
$nferior
$nstrument
$nstrumental
$ntegrated
$ntensifier
$ntensive
thfi ^o4n
^`ng" n9ng ^`ng
^c th{nh t4o
tb nhhn m4nh
khngm ang nghna g
so sknh ngang bng
trng ygu
che sx kicn
csm thkn
^` hiiu ngn" sx r r{ng
ckch di8n ^4t
m r`ng
girng cki
mcnh ^d bign vj
c_m ^`ng tb bign vj
ti]u ^iim trng tlm
^jnh hzng
phln sr
girng
chung
thu`c ckch s h2u
phln chia m|c ^`
nghna ng2 phkp
tb g`p
khng ho{n chenh
tb phigm che
,ukn tb khng *kc ^jnh
mcnh ^d ^`c lqp
dhu hicu
k}m h:n
cng c_
cw tanh cng c_
ho{ kgt
tb t9ng cfng 'vd tanh chht"
m|c ^`(
1$3
$nter=ection
$nterrogation
$nterrogative
$ntransitive
;e*ical meaning
;imiter ad=ective
;ocative
3ain
3ain clause
3a=or
3anner
3arked
3asculine
3eans
3inor
3odified modifiers
3odifier
3ood
3ultiple
3ultiple heads
3ultiplier
7egative
7euter
7ominal relative
7on#assertive
7on#finite verb phrase
7on#gradable
7on#restrictive
7oun
7umeral
7umerical
Cb=ect 'C(
Cb=ective
Cbligatory
Cpen class
,uan hc slu
thkn tb
sx nghi vhn
nghi vhn
n`i" hzng n`i
nghna tb vxng
tanh tb h4n chg
^jnh vj
chanh
mcnh ^d chanh
chanh" thfng thhy
ph:ng th|c
cw dhu hicu
girng ^xc
ph:ng ticn
at thhy
^jnh ng2 ^c by nghna
tb by nghna
th|c
^a th{nh tr
nhidu tb chanh
tb che b`i sr
ph ^jnh
girng trung
mcnh ^d ,uan hc danh tanh
phi *kc nhqn
mcnh ^d khng bign vj
khng phln m|c ^`
khng h4n ^jnh
danh tb
sr tb
thu`c sr hc
tln ng2
thu`c tln ng2
bt bu`c
1$4
Cperator
Cptional
Crdinal
5article
5artitive
5assivity
5erceptive
5eripheral" periphrastic
5ermanent
5ersonal
5hrasal coordination
5hrasal verb
5ossessive
5ostdeterminer
5ostmodifier
5ostpositive
5osture
5redeterminer
5redicate
5redicative
5remodification
5repositional verb
5rincipal
5rocess ad=unct
5roform
5rogressive tense
5ronominally
5ronoun
5rovenance
uantifier
Recipient
Reciprocal
Refle*ive
Relative
Replacive
lzp m
tb ^idu phri
tu " khng bt bu`c
sr th| tx
tiiu tb
che b` phqn
nghna bj ^`ng
che csm gikc" csm ,ukn
ngo4i bi]n" ngo4i di]n
thfng trxc
nhln *ng
li]n kgt c_m tb ^~ng lqp
^`ng tb cw tiiu tb
s h2u" s thu`c
tb ^|ng sau tb *kc ^jnh
^jnh ng2 ^|ng sau
^|ng sau
t thg
tb ^|ng trzc tb *kc ^jnh
vj ng2
biiu ng2
ph}p sp d_ng ^jnh ng2 ^|ng
trzc
^`ng tb cw gizi tb
chanh
ph_ ng2 che tign trnh
tb thay thg
thfi tigp di8n
nh ^4i tb
^4i danh tb
*uht *|
tb che ^jnh 'sr( lng
^ri tng" ngfi nhqn.
,ua l4i
phsn thln
1$$
Restrictive
Resulting
!ub=ect '!(
!cope
!econdary
!egmental phoneme
!emantic role
!entence structure
!entence
!e,uence
!tative
!ubclassification
!ub=ective
!ub=unctive mood
!ubordinate clause
!ubordinator
!ubstantivised ad=ective
!ubtype
!uperior
!uperlative
!uperordinate clause
!upplementive
!uprasegmental
!yntactic functions
Temporal
Temporary
Tense
Unacceptable
Uni,ue reference
Universal
Unmarked
% intensive
% comple* transitive
% ditransitive
% intransitive
,uan hc
thay thg
h4n ^jnh
kgt ,us
ch ng2
ph4m vi
th| ygu
lm vj ^o4n tanh
vai tro ng2 nghna" nghna
chu trvc clu
clu
th| tx" trnh tx
tnnh t4i
phln lo4i slu h:n
thu`c ch ng2
gis ^jnh th|c
mcnh ^d ph_ 'thu`c(
li]n tb chanh ph_
tanh tb ^c danh tb hok
tiiu nhwm
cao h:n
so sknh cao nhht
mcnh ^d chanh chi phri
by sung" th]m nghna
si]u ^o4n tanh
ch|c n9ng cv phkp
thfi gian
nhht thfi
thfi" th
khng thi chhp nhqn ^c
,uy chigu" nghna ^:n nhht
phy ,ukt
trung tanh" khng mang dhu
hicu
^`ng tb ,uan hc
1$'
% monotransitive
%erbless
%olume
ngo4i ^`ng tb ph|c
ngo4i ^`ng tb k}p
n`i ^`ng tb
ngo4i ^`ng tb ^:n
khng cw ^`ng tb
khri lng
1$0