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The Philosophy Knowledge

of

by

KENNETH

T.

GALLAGHER

Associate Professor of Philosophy, Fordham University

SHEED AND WARD

NEW YORK

Sheed and Ward, Inc., 1964

Library of Congress Catalog Card

Number 64-19903

Manufactured

in the

United States of America

TO KATHLEEN AND TERENCE

Lucida spei sidera

FOREWORD

In preparing

this

volume,

the

following intentions

principally in mind: to provide a text

have been which covers the standard

topics treated in a course in epistemology

and

at the

present these as living questions; to provide a generous

of historical information

same time to amount

on what representative thinkers have held

on these questions;

to provide extensive reference to those aspects

of the problem of knowledge which have emerged in contemporary

philosophy; to provide a book which actually deals in a directly

reflective

philosophical

manner with both

classical

and contem-

porary problems.

The aim,
is

then,

is

central philosophical point,

both informational and philosophical, and a conveyed both directly and obhquely,

that reflection in the philosophy of

knowledge
to give a

is still

going on.

Therefore, an attempt has been

made

more open and

unfinished air to the discussions than

is customary with a textbook. Footnotes are deliberately more frequent than is usual, with the aim of convincing the student of the current and continuingly

dialectical character of the issues,

tional intention of acquainting

and also with the sheer informahim with the literature; they are
definite philosophiit

meant

as

an integral pedagogical part of the course.

Although the book has been written from a

cal standpoint, every effort has
lizable

been made to render

this standpoint.

easily uti-

by those who do not share

As

indicated,

aU standard topics in the customary epistemological course are treated in a relatively straightforward manner, and it is hoped that an instructor who prefers to confine himself to these topics, with-

via

Foreword

out bothering about less familiar matters, wiU be able to do so simply by selecting the proper sections. Conversely, one
to

who wants

roam

farther afield should find

It is

ample material from which to

choose.

unlikely that every topic in the

book could be covered

this

in a course of

normal length.

My

primary debt of gratitude in connection with

editor,

book

is

to

Mr. Philip Scharper, an outstanding

inally inspired
it

whose suggestion origand whose encouragement and generously coopits

erative attitude

made

writing a pleasant task.

My

thanks also

go to Dr. Bernard B. Gilligan of Fordham University, for many

illuminating

and extremely helpful conversations on the philosophy

I

of von Hildebrand. Finally, I should like to seize what seems to

be a good opportunity to signalize the ancient debt which

to Rev. David C. Cronin,
classes
S. J.,

owe

of

Fordham

University, in

whose

my

preoccupation with epistemological problems was long

will join

ago awakened; generations of Fordham students

their

me

in

esteem for

this

philosopher, an irrepressible

mind and a

class-

room

teacher sui generis.

is

Grateful acknowledgment

made

to

Fordham

University Press

for their permission to reprint material in Chapter

which

first

appeared in

my The

Philosophy of Gabriel Marcel, 1962; and to

International Philosophical Quarterly, for permission to use the

paragraph on Proust, in Chapter V, which

article,

first

appeared in an

"Recent Anglo-American Views on Perception," IV, 122-

141.

KENNETH

T.

GALLAGHER

CONTENTS
FOREWORD
1.

vii

THE STATUS OF KNOWING

Wonder The Situation of Common Sense
Scepticism

The

Existential Aspect

Analogy of Knowledge

Method
2.

in

Epistemology

THE CRITICAL DOUBT

The Paradox of Error The Discovery of the Cogito
Subjectivism

24

The Escape Route

Dream and Reality

3.

THE POINT OF DEPARTURE

"Inside"

44

and "Outside"

The

Bi-polarity of Consciousness

Being-in-a- World

The Epistemological Circle The Question as Irreducible Beginning

4.

THE PROBLEM OF PERCEPTION:

"Naive Realism"

68

Locke and Representationalism

Contents
Berkeley

Contemporary Views
a)

Scientism

b)

Sense-Datum Approach:
1)

A Way

Out?

Moore,

Russell,

Broad

2)
c)

Ayer and Phenomenalism

Stebbing's Paradigm

Linguistic Analysis
1)

Argument

2) 3)
5.

Ostensive Signification
Wittgenstein, Ryle,

and "Ordinary Language"

II

THE PROBLEM OF PERCEPTION:

Scholastic Solutions: Preliminary
Virtual Realism

103

Evaluation of Virtual Realism

Summing Up
Puzzles About "Objectivity"
6.

THE SEARCH FOR THE UNCONDITIONAL

The Primitive Assertion
First Principles

128

The

Priority of the First Principles

Causality and Determinism

The Critique

of

Hume and Kant

Evidence, Certitude and Doubt

7.

CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE
Universals

153

Nominalism
Conceptualism

Meanings and Instances

Judgment
Concepts as Creative Apprehensions
8.

THOUGHT AND EXPERIENCE:

On "Knowing
Social

179

Essences"

Dewey, Pragmatism and Truth and Historical Dimensions

Contents
9.

xi
II

THOUGHT AND EXPERIENCE:

Induction

207

Hume's Objection
Ayer's Tautology View

Von Hildebrand and

10.

Philosophical Insight

EXISTENTIAL TRUTH On the Nature of Evidence

Kierkegaard and Subjectivity
Marcel: Problem and Mystery

226

Transcendence and "Proof"

Free Certitude
11.

INTERSUBJECTIVE
"Other Minds"

KNOWLEDGE

251

Direct Knowledge of the Other

I

and Thou
276

12.

REMAINDERS
The Philosophy of Science Moral arui Aesthetic Experience

13.

REPRISE

290
297
301

RELATED READING
INDEX

THE PHILOSOPHY OF KNOWLEDGE

THE STATUS OF KNOWING

WONDER
"All men by nature desire to know." Aristotle begins his metaphysics with this thought and he seems to believe that this urge
to know not only can be realized but actually is own work. Not without reason has he been called those who know."

realized in his

the "master of

earlier Socrates had built his own philoon a somewhat different foundation, the conviction that no man had knowledge. His interpretation of the Delphic oracle's pronouncement that "No man alive is wiser than Socrates," came down to just this: no man had knowledge, but other men

But two generations

sophical career

thought they

knew

while Socrates alone

knew

that he did not

it

know.^ This was his sole claim to pre-eminence, and

us as a rather meager one.

may

strike

At first sight we would seem to have here two rather sharply opposed views of the human condition: on the one hand an affirmation of a universal and realizable deske to know, on the other a seeming affirmation of universal ignorance as the natural preis still another aphorism which will help to reconcile these two approaches.

dicament of man. But there

Philosophy, says Plato, begins in wonder.^

(to thaumazein),

It is

primarily wonder

and no

man who

lacks this capacity can ever

attain to philosophical insight. Since this sentiment is derived

1 2

from

Plato, Apology, 21-23.

Plato, Theaetetus, 155.

4
Socrates and shared by Aristotle,
ination.
it

The Philosophy of Knowledge

may

well repay a closer

exam-

The "wonder" which

information; nor

is

spoken of here should not be thought

the bewilderment one might feel in the

of as equivalent to any sort of "curiosity" or need to collect

is it like

face of an elaborate mechanism, whether the

mechanism of an

IBM

705 or the clockwork of a carbon molecule. Philosophical

is

wonder
which
is

not primarily before the compHcated and abstruse, but

It is

before the simple, the obvious, the close at hand.

the obvious

most unfathomable, and

it is

in the region of the near at

hand

that the great philosophical questions

have emerged and in

which they continue to dwell.

What
them
all,

is

change, being, motion, time, space, mind, matter?

Of

such questions has the career of philosophy been made.

Among

perhaps the paramount one

is

that

which Socrates singled

out for primacy at the beginning through his adoption of the

maxim "Know
self,

thyself":

Who am
which

I?
I

and

to

be

just this self

What does it mean to be a uniquely am? Here we have

the

a perfect coincidence of the obvious and the mysterious:

maxim "Know

thyself" turns us to that

which

is

at the

same time

nearest at hand, and yet most distant.

And

with this

we meet

at

once the ambiguous compenetration

of the near and the far which characterizes every genuine experi-

ence of philosophical wonder.

but
it

Wonder

begins with the obvious,

is

as

if

it

begins with a "distancing" of the obvious, an

endeavor to retain the immediacy of the questioned datum while

bathing
it

in

an aura of absolute strangeness. In one sense, nothing

is

could seem odder than to question a thing which

to us: for
if it is

already present

ven seem that ask what it is. This

we know it as present, and it would we have already to know what it is in order to

present, then
is

the peculiarity of which Plato speaks in the

Meno.^ To

find something

we

are looking for,

we must

already

know what we

are looking for; therefore, to find the answer to our

question about "what" things are,

we must be

able to recognize

it

Meno,

80; Theaetetus, 196-200; cf. Phaedo, 73.

The Status of Knowing

as the right answer,

5
it.

and so must already know

it

paradox, no

doubt, and probably a crucial one, for

different
St.

directs

our attention to

meanings for "knowing."

Augustine provides a famous example in Confessions XI,

says,
it

when he

"What
to

is

time?

If

no one asks me,

know;
what
I

if I

wish

to explain

someone who
I

asks, I

do not know." Philosophy

already
"I," "self," "being,"

consists largely in asking these questions about

"know." Of course
"real,"

know what
I

mean by
I

"mind," "matter," "change," "time," "thing," and so on.

That

is, if

no one asks me,

know;

simply inhabit their obvious-

ness, their
is

commonplace-ness. This kind of obviousness, however,

it is

really a very derivative realm;

a realm in which assump-

tions,

conceptual and hnguistic schemes, objectified systems of

thought, social and cultural custom, have interposed themselves

between

reflection

and original experience. What

know

is

what

"everybody knows," and hence what nobody really knows.

When,
of the

therefore, the philosopher withdraws

from the "obvious"

commonplace, he does so
it

in order to restore himself to the

freshness of existence as

renewed
wonder.

origin.

It

is

this

up in its perpetually obvious towards which he moves in

actually wells
is

He

is

trying to think existence primordially. It

always
there,

there to be thought, always powerfully

and overwhelmingly

always giving

itself to

thought, but always not yet thought.

And

thus, the philosopher feels

man

to be, as Heidegger has said, the

secret of

"strangest"
things.*

of beings,

nearest and farthest from the

Now

this condition of the

it is

philosopher should not be taken as a

is

misfortune. Rather

a privilege. Socrates' position

it

not really
all

as contrary to Aristode's as

might seem. Granted that

first
is

men

by nature desire to know, perhaps the

of knowledge that Aristotle had in
that

step towards the kind

we do

not yet

know

mind

the Socratic realization

is

^that

the world of the everyday

realm of seeming knowledge.

Perhaps every advance into philosophical knowledge remains

4

Martin Heidegger,

An

Introduction to Metaphysics, trans, by Ralph

Press, 1959), pp. 146-151.

Manheim (New Haven: Yale Univ.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

tributary to man's experience of himself as the strangest of beings.

This experience

may even

be, as

knowledge, perhaps the highest

that the

we shall see, itself a kind of kind. What is clear, at any rate, is

knowledge of which Aristotle

desire for philosophical

spoke cannot be pursued in the attitude of the commonplace

within which everyday thought operates.

The element
is

of

wonder

before the mystery of existence

is

a constituent of the philosophical

possible except in

question and no philosophical knowledge

function of that wonder.

Philosophy does not consist so

answers as
it

much

in a set of formulated

does in the entering into a certain kind of question.

the awakening out of acceptance, just as Plato

Philosophy

is

emphasized for
the turning
as
it is

his own purposes in the myth of the cave.^ It is away from what "everybody knows" towards the real dehvered to my lived consciousness. Wonder, then, has this

strange double-aspect of placing

me

before

my

experience, yet

placing

me

before

it

as

something altogether strange.

it

From
of

this

point of view,
is

might be said that the philosophy

with philosophy.
is

knowledge

co-extensive

The search
Philosophy

to

explore and express the richness of reality

always concomitandy
area.
is

an

effort to decide

what

know

in

any given
is

essentially reflection.

And

reflection

essentially critical. I cannot,

is

therefore,

have a metaphysics which

not at the same time an

is

epistemology of metaphysics; nor a psychology which

not an

epistemology of psychology; nor even, for that matter, a science

which

is

not an epistemology of science. That

is,

every philosophi-

cal science

(and indeed, every science of any kind) when fuUy

constituted

and ideaUy achieved would contain a

built-in episte-

mology

in the sense of a critical reflection

upon the

status of its

own

assumptions, procedures, and conclusions.

is

In another sense, however, there

a real point in treating

epistemology as

itself

a special manifestation of the philosophical

quest. In this sense, the enterprise of Descartes, of

which we

shall

speak in the next chapter, introduces a radically new epoch in the

Republic, Bk. VII.

The Status of Knowing

history of thought.
cal

7
it

For

represents the stage at which philosophi-

wonder makes
at

itself its

own

object.

Now

instead of simply
self,

wondering

at the reahty of

change or time or

philosophy
itself.

wonders

knowing

itself.

Man's question turns back upon

makes his own search to know the object of a further search: how do I know that I can know? By what right do I question? Perhaps my wonder has no right to exist ^perhaps it is useless, and I am forever shut off from the reahty I seek to know. With this question, philosophy may be considered to come into possession of its own essence, for it would seem that there is nowhere further to go. With the Greeks and the Medievals, thought stretches beyond the taken-for-granted in the object towards the really real. With Descartes and the moderns, thought seeks to surpass the taken-

new

era begins in which he

for-granted which might be part and parcel of thought

itself,

to

allow

its

own

pellucid light to appear to

itself.

At

this stage the

general problem of knowledge emerges as a separate pre-occupation:

knowledge becomes problematic

to itself.

THE SITUATION OF COMMON SENSE

The
in the historical

movement

of reflective thought which culminates

emergence of the separate problem of knowledge can be

analytically retraced.

At

the initial phase of both historical and

analytical processes
itself.

is

the situation in which

common

sense finds

The posture
it

of

common

sense

is

a confident one mainly

street"

because
is

is

an uncritical one. The "man in the

for a special plebeian
is

(which

not the

name

brand of human, but simply

means everyone when he

about which he
is

not dehberately philosophizing) finds

himself in possession of a large stockpile of items of knowledge,

securely certain and which he

would think

it

frivolous to question. Maritain

out^ that this store

prising

no doubt of common-sense beliefs

is

right
is

when he

points

a mixed one, com-

on one

level such

primary insights as the principle of non-

* Jacques Maritain, The Degrees of Knowledge, trans, by Gerald B. Phelan (New York: Scribner), 1959, pp. 82-84.

8
contradiction,

The Philosophy
but reaching

of

Knowledge

social convictions to a

down through many more dubious grab bag of intellectual remnants. What all

the various levels have in

common

is

that they contain items of

as a terminus

knowledge which the possessor regards

his

and in which
have a

thought comes

to rest.
it

Common
body;
I

sense thinks

knows
which

lots of things: I exist; I

I

have a

past, with

am

in contact through

my
can

memory; my
which
is

five senses

put

me

in touch with

an external world
I

outside

me and

independent of me, but which

understand as

it is

in itself; other
is

men

exist

there

is

experience
I

beyond

my

experience; there

a past of humanity, history;

am

certain of various moral

and conduct myself

forth.

in

and pohtical principles by which I live respect to the rest of humanity; and so
is

The

last item,

however, suggests what

too easUy over-

looked, that
cient:

"common
of what
is

sense" has an historical and cultural coefiiperfectly plain to the

much
this is

was

Greek mind

in the

age of Hesiod

Once
tal

much nonsense to the modern democratic man. reaUzed, we walk more warily in describing the menso

condition of

common
is

sense as "certitude."
it is

Common
color,

sense

well aware that

often deceived, that mis-

takes are possible. Optical illusions, errors in judging distance or

and such

total

vagaries

as

hallucinations

are

common

enough. Yet

common

sense does not use the existence of these

its

erroneous beliefs to question the status of

true beliefs.
utilizes his

A man

may be
tion,

very frequently deceived, but until he

deceptive

experience to call the nature of his veridical experience into ques-

he

is

still

comfortable within the confines of

common

sense.

modern man is not completely at home in the posture of common sense. For the discoveries of science do not aUow him to let them merely coexist with his beliefs about the reahty of his famihar world. Once he has "learned" from science
For
that reason, the

that the world as

it

is

out there by

itself is

a swirl of atoms, he
fits

cannot help being puzzled as to

perceptual picture.
cold.

how

this

world

with his

own

He

sees colors, hears sounds, feels

warmth and

But apparently

in the universe that science investigates these

don't "really exist."

Then he

inevitably

is

driven to wonder about

The Status of Knowing

the status of the things he does perceive.

Are they inside his head, private universe, mere quite different from nature as it really is? a Once this distinction between appearance and reality has
its

wedged
ficulties.
itself as
is

way

into consciousness,

it

need not stop

at factual dif-

For

in

grasping this distinction, consciousness grasps

its

a subject distinct from the objects of

knowing, and then

it

tumbled into the whole radical

it

diflBculty of

how

can ever be

sure that
object. If

has reached the real object and not simply an apparent

as they really are,

knowledge aspires to see things

how

do we know we have reached things as they

really are? In fact,

how do

know
is is

that I

am

not totally confined to appearances, and

that there

anything at

all

beyond appearances?
is

Just here
sary.

where epistemology

not only possible but neces-

thought which has reached

this stage of reflection

cannot

be

satisfied

sense,

by a return to the unreflecting assurances of common but must press forward to a new plane. The certainty which

epistemology
for a doubt;

now

seeks
is

is

made
it is

possible

by a doubt

it is

a cure

which

to say,

essentially reflective.

Every one of

common sense can be summoned before the reflective question. When epistemology settles or allays these doubts, we may get a reflexive certitude which is more entitled to
the
assertions of

the

name than

the incurious acceptance of the pre-philosophical

man.

SCEPTICISM
The
objection
is is

naturally raised at this point that in acting thus

itself.

epistemology

proposing a chimerical goal for

For,

if

we

are to demonstrate the validity of our knowledge,

we

will already

be making use of our knowledge and therefore already presuming

its validity.

Some,

like

Etienne Gilson, have therefore argued that

critical
is

there

is

no problem of knowledge, since the

question can-

not be consistently raised:^ realism, for them,

an absolute pre-

sumption of thought, and any attempt to

^

justify realism already

Etienne

Gilson,

Realisme

thomiste

et

critique

de

la

connaissance,

(Paris: J. Vrin), 1947.

1
represents

The Philosophy
a concession,
if

of

Knowledge

not a surrender. For this position,

knowing puts us in touch with the real, and that is the end of it. There is more than one way of responding to this objection. To
begin with,

contained in

we may it. What

start
it

by acknowledging the
is

positive insight

stresses

the unconditional attachment of

thought to

reality,

and

this surely requires stressing.

The

existence
itself

of knowledge, and the partial transparence of knowledge to

is

an ultimate and irreducible given. Thought

testifies

exists,

and the

exist-

ence of thought

to

its

own

openness to being.

No

denial

or doubt of this openness can be successfully carried through.

That

is

why

the position of the absolute sceptic

is

the

most vul-

nerable in the whole domain of philosophy.

sceptic

What

the absolute

contends
that

is

that man's

mind

is

incapable of attaining

truth

confined to

we can know nothing for an objective certainty but are the free play of our own subjective opinions. Unfortuin a denial of
it.

nately for him, however, the very attempt to express his position

involves

him

For he holds

at least
it

one judgment

to be objectively true

^his

own.

He

holds

as objectively true

(and not a mere subjective opinion) that

tive truth;

man

cannot

know
and

objec-

he

is

certain that

he cannot be
is

certain.

The

traditional
literally

accusation that the sceptical position

self-nullifying

absurd seems fully

justified.

No

matter

how he

twists

and
is

turns, the sceptic cannot help

affirming.

implicitly

denying what he

exphcitly

Suppose he

contents himself with merely doubting whether our thought puts us

in touch with reality.

Even
is

so,

he does not escape inconsistency, he maintains, the correct position,

for this doubt of his

not a frame of mind in which he merely

it is,

happens to find himself;

and he argues with

me

that I ought to give

up

my

dogmatism and
one

espouse his conscientious refraining from judgment. Yet to hold

his position as "correct" or "right"
is

to believe that in this

case he has reached the objective state of affairs and seen what
the proper response to
it is.

Even

if

he goes to the heroic length of

all,
still

remaining

silent,

of taking no position at

he does not

escape inconsistency. For he has not lost the power of speech

The

Status of
is

Knowing

7j

his silence
is

not a misfortune but a decision, and a response. This

the

way

things are,
is

he says

in effect,
is

and the proper response

is

silence.

But what he
and so

contending
is

things are,

his silence

we cannot know the way a testimony against his own view.

that

Although the refutation of scepticism tends to sound negative (to tell us what we cannot do) it really has a positive consequence.

For what
a

it

actually reveals
is

is

what Gilson

insists

on: at some

level thought

unconditionally attached to being, attached in such

way
is

that

it

cannot successfully deny

its

attachment.

We

thus

reach the unconditional value of affirmation,

it

when we

realize that
is

impossible to aflarm our inability to affirm. That

is

why an

inspection of scepticism

very useful, even though there does not

in the history of philosophy

seem
could

to

have been anybody

who

be called an absolute sceptic as that role is cast by epistemology. Not even Pyrrho or Sextus Empiricus quite measure
literally

up.

The

relativism of Protagoras probably

comes
all

closest.

His
is

homo mensura
it;

doctrine

("man
to

is

the measure of

things")

an

attempt to limit the value of

just as

all

aflBrmation to the one

is

who makes

what
he

tastes

good
is

one

not necessarily tasty to anis

other, so,

says,

what

true for one

not necessarily true for

it

another.

Regardless of the dearth of historical examples,

is

instructive to state the

extreme form of scepticism as one of the antecedently possible answers to the epistemological question as

to the truth-value of
8

my

knowledge. Once we have seen the im-

270 B.C.) gave the name Pyrrhonism to scepticism. (c. 250 A.D.), the foremost of the ancient sceptics, whose Outlines of Pyrrhonism is the fullest presentation of the views of this school, see esp. Venant Cauchy, "The Nature and Genesis of the Sceptical Attitude," The Modern Schoolman, XXVII, pp. 203-221 pp.
(c.

Pyrrho

360-c.

On

Sextus Empiricus

297-310.
9 For the relativism of Protagoras (c. 481-c. 411 B.C.), see Plato's Theaetetus, 160-162; and for his ethical doctrine, see Plato's presentation and rebuttal in Protagoras. Another sophist, Gorgias (c. 483-c. 375 B.C.)

is also the subject of a dialog by Plato, one of the most powerful statements of the ethical position of Socrates and Plato. Gorgias' threefold sceptical formula was: a) Nothing is b) If it is, it cannot be known c) If it is known, it cannot be communicated to others.

12
possibility of adopting this answer,
is

The Philosophy of Knowledge

we have

also seen that thought

irrevocably open

to being.

THE EXISTENTIAL ASPECT

Allowing proper weight to Gilson's position does not entail
accepting
rebuttal.
it

wholly, however, for there

is

much

to

be said in

We may
is

hold with Maritain, for instance, that the aim of

epistemology

not so

much

to

answer the question of whether

can know, but to discover the conditions under which I can know,
the extent

and

limits of

my

knowing. ^ This seems a proper definiit

tion of the aims

and scope of the philosophy of knowledge, and

does not involve us in any inconsistency.

On

this

program, episteit

mology does not vindicate

Nevertheless

my

right to affirm, but

maps out and

While there
is

circumscribes the range of that right.

it

wiU not

entirely

do

to stop here.
is

much

justice in the insistence that

it

reahsm

a presupposition of
is

thought and that

cannot consistently be questioned, there

also

something highly significant in the fact that

possible to question this "un-questionable."

men have thought it Maybe they have not

been

justified,

maybe

the question has not been a real question

but only a psychological morass in which a confused mind found

itself.

But

it is

nevertheless a fact significant for epistemology that

the kind of knowledge available to

this psychological

man

will allow

him

to get into

morass. Perhaps not every sort of knower would

be subject to the extremes of sceptical doubt: the possibility of

scepticism
is

therefore the revelation of something important about

man's mode of knowing.

Man

can get himself into the plight which some epistemologists

is

assure us

epistemologically anomalous, the plight of worrying

is

whether he

not totally estranged from the truth, whether his

is

mind's acts of "knowing" are not empty. This

not merely an

academic
10

issue, for

man's desire to know

is

not just a matter of

Maritain, op.

cit.,

p. 73.

The

Status of

Knowing

13
is

disinterested curiosity, or a drive for formal correctness. It

matter of existential concern.

side of the

"What can I know?" is just another metaphysical question, "What is?" or "What is real?"

Here we ask
I assure

myself of

"How far can I be attached to what is real? How can my contact with being?" Man's knowledge is an
The
fact
is,

attempt to express to himself his attachment to being.

that
it

is

the prey to doubt

then, an ontological revelation of

the nature of

man and

inevitably relevant to epistemology.

is

Ontologically, the ground of doubt

in

man's

finitude.

Unless

man were

the kind of being he

is,

he would have no epistemologilimited in the

being,

cal problem.

But because he
to
his

is

way he

is,

this

limitation extends

entire
really

even,

apparently to the

knowledge which he can

being with hmitations; he
factors in

be said to possess.

Man

is

not a

is

limited being.

That

is,

there are not two

limiting

man, one

entirely being

and the other a kind of

is,

boundary

but
is

even in the respect that he

he

is

not.

Man's

whole being

shot through with nothingness; his knowledge arises

is,

out of that being, so that even where that knowledge

say, quite "indisputable," the httle

one might
but

worm

of nothingness can begin

exists:

to

gnaw on

it.

Let us say that we know that the world

wait,

and before long there flowers within that affirmation the

I

blossom of nothingness and doubts: perhaps

I

am

wrong, perhaps

am

deceived, perhaps I

am

only dreaming.
it

Without elaborating too

of nothingness in

far,
is

may

be pointed out that the role

knowledge

only one manifestation of a spectre

which threatens man's being

death, time, separation
to

in various guises.

Think of the

role of

from

others, loneliness, failure, opposition

my

will, sin,
is

despair

all

experiences in which the presence of

nothingness

searingly

felt.

In keeping with more than one consingle out the

temporary philosopher, we
especially crucial.

may

modahty of time

as

For time,

as the

mode

of

human

existence, can-

not be regarded as negUgible to the understanding of

human

knowing.

Man's knowing

is

a function of his

mode

of existing, and his

is

mode

of existing

is

essentially temporal.

Man's existence

always

1
not-yet-accomplished: he
is

The Philosophy of Knowledge

the unfinished being,
is

process of making himself,

Man

not

man

in the

who way a

is

in the
is

stone

stone or a table a table. These things are simply identical with themselves, complete, reahzed, solid, without a fissure in their
existence.

They are what they

is.^^

are.

But as both Kierkegaard and

is:

Sartre agree in emphasizing,

become what he
existence
is

man is not what he To be a man is not to be a

it is

he must
self-

simple

identity, in the manner of a stone, a table, an atom. Man's

open to the future because

open

in the present;

man

is

not at any single

moment
That

identical with himself, in posexists temporally is not only a

session of his

own

being.

man

statement about an extent of time, but a statement about

existence at any
at
is

human
Time

moment

of time.

Man

is

a becoming which never

is

any moment coincides with

possible because

itself:

man

not what he

is.

man

is

not a simple self-identity but a being

forever non-coincident with himself.

If this is so, if

man

never simply "coincides" with himself, but

is

always other than himself, beyond himself, then man's knowledge,

too,

can never be a matter of simple "possession." Just as

man

does not inertly coincide with his being, so he does not coincide
with his knowledge. Just as man's being
is

a perpetual becoming,

an achievement, so
that time

his

knowledge

is

a perpetual achievement, a
in
all

prize ceaselessly rewon.

is

a real

Once we grasp component of human

naivety the truth

existence,

we

will

never

be inclined to approach epistemology without reference to

it.

And

once we cease to think of knowledge as something we either

"have" or "do not have," as a
will
static acquisition,
is

many

difficulties

appear in a new
it is

fight.

knowledge

a modality of

human

existence, then

subject to the

same

limitations as that exist-

ence; just as

man

is

not what he

is,

so he does not

know what he

knows.
11
is a continuing theme with Kierkegaard. It is the central subject The Sickness unto Death; see esp. the opening Hnes of this essay. See also Jean Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans, by Hazel Barnes (New York: Philosophical Library), 1956, p. Ixvii.

This

of his

The

Status of

Knowing
of

1
existence consists in man's struggle to

The pathos

human

surpass the nothingness in himself and to found himself in steadfast being. So, too, the

pathos of

human knowledge

is

in

its

strug-

gle to
I

found

itself

um-eservedly in the steadfastness of certitude.

I

want unreservedly to be, and

be certain
is

want unreservedly to know.

My

effort to

one side of

my

effort to be. I

want

to

anchor

myself beyond the nothingness of doubt. But every struggle to be

and every struggle to know takes place under conditions which

plunge
process
it

again into becoming. This does not

mean

that the

whole

is futile,

that the cynic's view of life or the sceptic's view

of knowledge

is justified.

What

it

means

is

that epistemology

must

begin with a double recognition:

exists subject to the conditions

human knowledge exists, but it of human existence. One who begins

as a set of objectified

by erecting a
las

false ideal of

knowledge

formu-

atemporally straddling the minds which think them, will tend

inevitably either to a sterile

and abstract dogmatism or to the That human knowledge

its

abject frustration of the sceptic.

to the conditions of

is

subject

human

existence cannot destroy

cognitional

value. It

is

only because of our integral

human
it.

existence that

we

know

at all,

and our mode of existence, which makes knowledge

be regarded
as a threat to

possible, cannot

ANALOGY OF KNOWLEDGE
For what,
which many
after
all,

does

it

mean

to

"know?" This
until

is

a question

will feel

should have been asked at the beginning, but

it

there are certain advantages in postponing

now. What

is

immediately clear

is

that there can be

no question of a
is

"definition"
in terms of

of knowledge, since to define something

to render

it

something else which

in the case of

is

more simply
it

intelligible; that is

impossible
is

what

is itself

simple and ultimate. Since knowing

an ultimate and irreducible event,

cannot be conveyed in terms

like

more fundamental than

"consciousness of" serve
us very
far.

itself.

Synonyms
is

"awareness" or

some

explicative purpose but cannot take

What

is,

however, desirable,

to indicate the possible

The Philosophy of Knowledge

this

range of applicability which

word

has, for this will prevent us

from
edge.

identifying

knowledge with some particular brand of knowlcar, type);

We

speak of "knowing how" to do things (drive a

facts

"knowing that" certain

America, two and two are

friend).

(Columbus discovered four); and also of simple "knowing"

are
true
identity of a

by acquaintance (the location of our house, or the

These

common

uses only begin to indicate the diversity of

possible significations in the word, since each contains a further

diversity in itself

and reveals various ambiguities

to

our inspection.

We may
his

be undecided, for example, whether the word knowledge

deserves to be applied

more

to the

one who "knows how" to find

to read

way
of

in a certain
it

neighborhood because of a lifelong acquaint-

ance with

or to one

who knows how

knows

and follow a

street-

map

it;

who

"really"

the route?

Or we wonder whether
if

the child's knowledge of the fact that his mother loves

knowledge of

fact or

knowledge by acquaintance, and

him is we have

difiiculty in classifying this

we may

eventually

and myriad other sorts of "knowing," wonder whether they should even be called

"knowing."

Many
of

man
is

will decide in the

end that only a

certain variety
is

knowing

"really" deserving of the term knowledge. This

what Bertrand RusseU does when he reserves the term

brand of knowledge available to the
scientist

for the

and

allots

it

to others

only to the degree that they approximate scientific status. ^^

milder form of this restriction might be the precept of Vere Childe

that to deserve the designation, in a symbolic manner. Thus,

knowledge must be communicable

definition, I
it

by

could not be said to

know something

except insofar as

was capable of being embodin

ied in an objectified form.^^ This

is

some ways
is

close to the

familiar contention that the only real knowledge

available to all
12

that

which

is

and "publicly

verifiable"

so that the face which

York: Simon and Schus-

Bertrand Russell,

Human Knowledge (New

ter), 1948, pp. XI, 52.

13

Vere Childe, Society and Knowledge (New York: Harper and Bros.),

1956, pp. 4, 19.

The Status of Knowing

the world presents to the artist or the poet has
value, since
it is

no cognitional

not there for a neutral observer.

it is

In spite of the superficial plausibility of these contentions,

against just such an unwarranted initial restriction of knowledge

that the epistemologist
it

must

resolutely set himself. Paradoxical as

may

sound,

we cannot
is

begin the philosophy of knowledge by

deciding what knowing

this

and then discover what measures up

is

to

definition.

On

the contrary, what

required

is

an

initial
is

openness to the multifaceted meaning of "knowledge" as that

discerned by critical review.
possibility that the

We

must hold open the door

entitled to

to the

ways of knowing may be multiple and

that each

of these

ways may be thoroughly

be denominated by

the term "knowledge."

This point can be put more strongly. Not only

may

the ways of

knowing

be multiple,

it

seems that we ought to expect that they

be multiple.

To

expect that knowing would have one "univocal"

is

or identical meaning

actually

what

is

incongruous.

The Thomistic
this. It is his

philosopher especially ought to be prepared to see

doctrine of the analogy of being which prepares the ontological

ground for

this

expectation.
is
it

It

is

a fundamental premise

of

Thomism

that

"being"
is,

not a univocal term, but rather an

means somewhat the same thing and somewhat a different thing in its various uses. The similarity which binds beings together and allows them all to be designated by the same term ("being") is not the possession of some univocaUy or identically shared "property," but rather a community
analogous one, that
of resemblance. All things are

ahke

in that they are being, but

they differ also in virtue of their being. Therefore, their

mode

of

being makes them like every other thing, but also makes them
different

from every other

if

thing.

Now

there
is

is

an analogy of being, we also ought to expect

is,

that there

an analogy of knowledge.^* Whatever knowledge

1^ L. M. Regis, O.P., Epistemology, trans, by Imelda Byrne (New York: Macmillan), 1959, p. 67. For a notable attempt on the part of a thinker in the Thomistic tradition to explore the analogical range of knowledge, see Barry Miller, The Range of Intellect (London: Geoffrey Chapman),

8
1

The Philosophy of Knowledge

it

and however impossible

that
it is

may be

to define
is

it,

what
If

is

clear is

oriented to being. // knowledge

it

to

mold

itself

on the
only

contours of being,
person,
stone,

too must be analogous.

thought, color,
is

the being of
is

beauty, justice,

number
justice,

analogously similar, then the knowledge which

consciousness towards
color,

the orienting of

person,

stone,

beauty,

thought,
it

number, must be analogously knowledge. To regard

it

as a

shortcoming of our knowledge of another person that

expressed in terms satisfying to the scientist
is

cannot be

equivalent to treat-

ing a person and a scientific object as univocally being; to ask

that beauty provide credentials acceptable to the neutral observer
is

to ask

it

to be

what

it is

not.
is

Man's knowing,

as Heidegger rightly says,

a-letheia:^^ It is

the unveiling of being. In as

being, there are that

many ways

as there

is

the unveiling of

many ways

of knowing. Traditionally, episte-

mology has tended

But
this

to confine itself to sense perception

and

intel-

lectual cognition, the latter being

does not appear

sufl&cient.

somewhat narrowly conceived. Knowledge is the event by

which human consciousness emerges into the hght of being.

cannot prescribe in advance
proper
initial attitude

We

how

being

is

to

be revealed. The
is

for the philosopher of

is

knowledge

a kind

of humility before experience, which

simply equivalent to a total

openness.

It is

an attitude not unhke that which William James

called "radical empiricism,"

himself;^* or that

and which he so nobly cultivated

which Jose Ortega y Gasset has referred to as "absolute positivism," which is not to be confused with the shallow

positivism of those

who

arrogate to themselves this

titie.^^

1961; the growing interest of

tive

modern Thomists
first

in the questions of affec-

and poetic knowledge, and

is

in the cognitional

import of value expe-

rience,

indicated in the interesting

chapter of this book.

16 Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans, by John Macqarrie and Edward Robinson (New York: Harper), 1962, p. 256. 1^ William James, Essays in Radical Empiricism (New York: Longmans, Green & Co.), 1912. 1" Jose Ortega y Gasset, What is Philosophy?, trans, by Mildred Adams

(New York: W. W. Norton &

Co.), 1960, p. 125.

9
The Status of Knowing
Philosophy, the effort of reflective thought to
recognize
itself,

1
let

experience

must not commit the mistake of

trying to stuff

experience into cubby-holes prepared in advanced.

task of the philosopher
to
is

The proper

not to begin by denying cognitive value

any dimension of experience, but to seek to discern what moduterm knowledge as

it

lation occurs in the

is

applied in various

realms.
in

Knowledge may mean one thing in science, and another history, metaphysics, moral experience, art, interpersonal
Epistemology must reckon with
this

knowledge.
signification,

spectrum of

and not approach

its

subject too narrowly.

METHOD

IN EPISTEMOLOGY

Accordingly, even the tendency,

common among

Scholastic

philosophers, to see the critique of knowledge exclusively in terms

of an assessment of judgments
plausibility
lies

may be

misdirected. Its obvious

is

in

the fact that the

claim of "knowledge"

closely tied to the fact of assertion (or denial). I

may

feel that I

only really

know what

can

assert,

and that the question of truth

I assert that

only arises in respect to the judgment in which

such
is

and such a

state of affairs holds

good

in reahty. Such, in fact,

the basis for the famihar conception of truth as "the adequation of

thought with reality."

good, then

If

what
is

my
is

judgment

asserts actually holds

my

judgment

said to be

conformed to the

real
is

and
not

ergo true. Until

some judgment
it

made,

the question of truth

clearly raised. Experience,

is felt, is

neither true nor false, but

simply

is;

concepts (green, grass) as separate apprehensions are

neither true nor false but simply grasps of realizable meanings.

But judgments

assert something

("The grass

is

green.") and are

either true or false in their assertion.

Now, while there is not the slightest doubt that judgment plays an extremely crucial role in human cognition, it stUl remains true
that the

problem of knowledge should not be equated with the problem of the truth-value of judgments. Knowledge is no doubt
intimately linked to expression,

and expression normally

finds its

20

The Philosophy of Knowledge

is

utterance in judgment, but epistemology

the question of the ground of judgment.

really

concerned with

The

truth-value of judg-

ments

is

really decided in terms of evidence,

is

and the

real pre-

occupation of epistemology
question
is

with the question of evidence. This

It is

wider than the question of judgment.

even possible
I
'

that there

may be

a real sense to saying that I

know more than

this

can express in judgment.

Thomistic philosophers are, in
effect,

conceding

in their
is

discussion of "connatural knowledge."^ Connatural knowledge

knowledge which

arises

because of an

the realm about which he judges.

knower for For example, the artist knows

affinity of the

what

is

right in a picture

even though he has not studied aesthetics;

virtue in a

manner distinct from that of means that there is an evidence available to the artist and the good man which is lacking to the theoretical knower, and therefore the epistemological question of
the ethical theorist. But this
the value of judgment
is

or the good

man knows

really a question of the admissibility of

evidence.

We
is

can go further: the wife's knowledge of her husexpressed in her whole

life
it

band's love

and not merely

crystallize.

in the

occasional explicit judgments in which

there even be kinds of knowledge which
in

might

Could

we could not even

express

judgments

at all?

Such might be the poet's knowledge of nature,

the poHtical hero's knowledge of his

own

calling,

or the lived

knowledge of the body in perception.

As soon

as attention
it

is

turned from the judgment to the evi-

dence upon which

is

reared, any overly

is left

narrow preoccupation
of evidence

with the form of thought

is

behind.

The question

not simply a question of predicating concepts of sense-particuIt

is

lars.

a question of the emergence-to-view of dimensions of

this

the real.

And

emergence

may

easily overflow the

is

bounds we

have habitually

set for cognition.

There

a constant tendency to

treat ideas, judgments,

and reasoning

as cognitive

and other facets

of experience as cognitionally irrelevant. But as Gabriel Marcel,

IS

On

connaturality, see Miller, op.

cit.,

chapt. 7;

and Jacques Maritain,

The Range of Reason (New York:

Scribner), 1961, pp. 22-29.

The

Status of

Knowing

among

others, has brought

home

to us,

we need

only think of the

revelatory role of love or of

divisions. ^^

hope

to see the artificiality of these

Love can be a

principle of knowledge,

an instrument

of vision.

Far from being irrelevant

to the question of knowledge,

love can be the

occur.

means by which a

certain kind of

knowing can
one

One who

loves another person,

knows him

better than

who does not. Perhaps the reahty of another is for one who loves him. And conversely, my love
would otherwise be inaccessible
another
to

only fully there

for another per-

son can open the possibility of a kind of self-knowledge which

me. One who does not love

may

not

know
is

himself.

None
tentative
truths,

of what

said here can be taken as anything

clearly these truths,

more than
if

and propaedeutic, for

they are

need considerable buttressing. They are only advanced by

undertake the critique of our

way
the

of anticipation at this point, and in order to set the tone for

most appropriate mood

is

to

knowing. There

every reason to think that the judgment occu-

pies a special place in

is

human knowledge, and

must pay

to a large extent
it.

it it

true that epistemology

special attention to

But

must be seen
further, the

as included within the question of evidence.

itself

And

judgment

must not be conceived

after the fashion

is

of a pure logician or grammarian.

The judgment

the expression

of the self's assimilation of reality. It cannot really be appreciated

apart from the total

dynamism

of the subject by which reality

is

revealed to me.

conviction of this will prevent any premature

impoverishment of experience on the part of the epistemologist,

and

it

will also prescribe the

method he
is

will follow in his critical

review.

This question of method

should not need laboring.

the last introductory point and

The philosophy

of knowledge, as the

attempt to assess the cognitive worth of experience, ought not to

be overburdened with the paraphernalia of technical terminology,

nor
19

with

the

elaborate

presuppositions
Viator, trans,

of

any

philosophical

Gabriel Marcel,

Homo

by

Emma

Crauford (Chicago:

Henry Regnery Co.), 1951.

22

The Philosophy of Knowledges

it

system. It should look as directly as possible to experience and

should use ordinary language. This

is

not to say that

it

can ever

succeed in being without presuppositions, since even ordinary lan-

guage embodies theoretical categories. But

ing
to
its

it

will avoid

approach-

task with a thought-schema already consciously prepared;

this

do

would be
it is

to insert that

schema between

reflection

and

the reahty

seeking to reach.
scientific

Russell's

acceptance of the normative character of

this fallacy, for critical

knowledge commits
this

not only does

it

it

tend to exempt

knowledge from

review but

casts the

shadow of the
levelled

"taken-for-granted" across the whole of

hides
at the
it

human

experience and

from our

reflective gaze.

The same charge may be

on his epistemological review within a fuUy constituted framework of Thomistic categories. ^ In order to survey knowledge, we must comprehend
admirable work of Louis Regis,
carries
it,

who

Regis holds, against the prior comprehension of the meaning of

action, the distinction of act

immanent

and potency, matter and

It

form, substance and accident, and so forth. This will not do.

immediately turns us away from experience towards interpretation.

Likewise, Frederick Wilhelmsen's propensity for approaching the
subject in a strenuously psychological

manner and mingling

the
in

explanation of the what of knowledge with the

how (couched

the Thomistic language of species, intentions, immaterial forms,

and so forth) blunts

to lie

his epistemological point. ^^ Right, here,

seems

on

the side of those like

Femand van

Steenberghen

who
If

stress the

need of epistemology

to build all analyses

on a descriptive

method and
St.

to confine itself to non-technical terminology.^is

Georges van Riet

correct,

it is

useless to search the pages of

Thomas

for a solution to the epistemological problem, for this

exist for St.

problem did not

Thomas. ^^
Man's Knowledge of Reality (Englewood
trans,

20 Regis, op. cit., pp. 151ss. 21 Frederick D. Wilhelmspn,

Cliffs, N.J.:
22

Prentice-Hall), 1956.

Femand van Steenberghen, Epistemology, (New York: Jos. Wagner), 1949, pp. 22-25.
23

by Rev. Martin Flynn

Editions

Georges van

Riet,

L'epistemologie

thomiste

(Louvain:

de

rinstitut Superieur de Philosophic), 1946, p. 636.

The Status of Knowing

23

same general terms, it is not too fruitful to answer the epistemological problem in language and categories borrowed exclusively from St. Thomas, for these categories were discovered
the
in

On

answer to quite different purposes, either metaphysical or psyIt

is

chological.

unlikely

that

St.

Thomas would

continue to

address himself to the question with an excessive reliance on these

terms

if

he were

alive today. If

we

are to justify the existence of

epistemology as a separate and independent inquiry,

cultivate a deliberate

we ought

to

independence of a terminology which

is

may

be

illuminating in other directions, but

the time

apt to be blinding here.

we

get through mastering typical technical notions,

By we

have

left

the freshness of experience far behind; at length, instead

it

of dealing with existence as

gushes pristinely forth,

it

we

find our-

selves closeted with brochures describing

at third

hand. What-

ever price

may be
airless

paid in foregoing the precision which technical

it

language can provide,

seems to be compensated by our avoidit

ance of the

atmosphere to which

confines us.

THE CRITICAL DOUBT

THE PARADOX OF ERROR

stands at the threshold of
that

With the refutation of absolute scepticism, epistemology only its philosophical undertaking. For to say

we cannot doubt

the capacity of the

is

human mind
"sure"
of.

to attain

truth (its openness to reality)

not the same as saying that

sense
is
is

we

cannot doubt anything that

scepticism, far

common

A mitigated
counsel for

from being absurd,

Error
exists.
is

rather the

first

fruitful reflection.

This means that one datum with

that
it

respect to

human knowledge
all

is

capable of co-existing
footing.

with error. Not

of our knowledge

is

on equally firm

Therefore, the critical enterprise in which epistemology undertakes

to review the value of our habitual

knowledge can be construed as

is

an attempt to discriminate between what

fragile in

solid

and what
is,

is

our common-sense convictions. The

difficulty

howcan

ever, to find a criterion in terms of

which

this discrimination

be made. What

is

the hallmark of well-grounded knowledge which

it

will serve to distinguish

from spurious "knowledge?"

Descartes.^ Descartes conceived

One

of the most radical and ingenious attempts to answer this

question was that

made by Rene

the plan of using doubt to overcome doubt.

One way
is

of deciding

what

is

unconditionally certain and indubitable

If

to see

how much

can be doubted.

we

systematically attempt to call into doubt as

much
1

of our knowledge as

we

possibly can,

we

will eventually

1596-1650.

The

Critical

Doubt
is

25
impervious to doubt, and then our knowledge

reach a point that

can be built on the bedrock of absolute certitude. Doubt pushed

far

enough

will eventually

uncover what

is

indubitable,

if

such

exists.

His suggested procedure, which has the attraction of an

rigor,
It is
it

uncompromising
methodic doubt."
out limit, or until
it

has been referred to as the "universal

universal because
it

will
it is

be extended withmethodic, because

utilizes as a

becomes

self-hmiting;

is

means which

reflective philosophical
it is

thought

method of

attaining truth;

a doubt, not in the sense of a lived

quandary, but as a calling-into-question performed by thought.

Sometimes Descartes' starting-point

opposite pole to scepticism.

is

mistakenly regarded as a
is

version of absolute scepticism but actually he

at the precisely
is is

What

the sceptic wonders about

whether we can attain any truth; what Descartes wonders about

why we should
should ever
fall

ever

fail

to attain truth.
is

For him the problem of

but

the philosophy of knowledge

not
is

how we can know

mind
is

why we
is

into error. Error

a scandal for thought. There

no question for Descartes

truth;

that the

capable of attaining

he had probably as much confidence in the capacity of

thought as any

man who

ever Uved, and his procedure could with

as that of a rationahst than that of a

more accuracy be regarded

sceptic.

He

is

so convinced that the

mind ought

to be reaching

truth that error

becomes a complete anomaly

is

for him.

And

it

would not be too hard

which

to see error as Descartes

saw

it.

For we

must remember that error

is

quite a different thing

It
is

from ignorance,

merely not-knowing.

easy to see that a hmited

it

thought might be ignorant of

many

things;

might not see them.

in

That presents no pressing problem. But error does not consist

failing to see

something;

not know, or in thinking I do not

Once

this incongruity

paradoxical character of

know what know what I know. dawns on us, we will be arrested by the error. As a comparison: If I were asked,
it

consists in thinking I

do

"Do you
I

see the

book on
first

the table

from where you are

"No,

sitting?'*
it

would answer

either "Yes, quite easily," or

I can't see

from here." In the

case I would be seeing, in the second not

26
seeing; the
first

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

case would be analogous to knowledge, the second

neither

would entail error. But surely a man knows that he is seeing it, and one who is not seeing something knows that he is not seeing it. Therefore, how is error even possible? The same situation is repeated whatever
to ignorance

but

who

is

seeing something

kind of "seeing"

is

involved. If I really "see" the answer to an

I

algebraic problem,
can't figure
I
it

have solved

it

and know the answer;

first

if

out, I

do not know the answer. In the

case

have knowledge, in the second ignorance

in neither case

do

have

error. If I really see the correctness of philosophical reasonif I

ing, I assent to its conclusions;

do not see

it,

do not

assent.

In the
ing)

first

case, knowledge, in the second, ignorance

(not-knowmistakes

but again no error. But obviously people do

make

in mathematical

problems and obviously philosophers do disagree

(which should not be, since disagreement implies error and not
only ignorance).

There

is

a spontaneous tendency to dismiss this

it is

dilemma with
simply that

the expostulation that

a pseudo-quandary;

it is

we

become
full

inattentive or careless,

and that we are not

alert to the

conditions of the problem. Thus, a

man who

looks quickly

may

mistake a shadow on the table for a dark-covered book or

8.

one working out a problem may mistake a 3 for an

suggestion
is

Error, the

made, intrudes because we go about our thinking

rather carelessly.

Now

although from one standpoint

this

just

pushes the whole problem back one step further (how can inattentiveness infect knowledge?),
it is

rather close to
is

what Descartes

himself was disposed to believe. Error

essentially inattention.

But then knowledge

to avoid error

is

essentially attention.

And

one who wishes

and to

attain unconditional

knowledge, has only to

is

rouse himself to an unflagging effort of attention. This

really

what Descartes himself attempted

every one of the assents which

to do.

If

ask in respect to

I give to the

purported "truths"

which

"know," whether
see

this assent is really justified, I

am

asking
I

"Do

I really

what

this assent

imphes that

see?" If

have

the hardihood to withhold assent in every case in which I cannot

affirm

upon

attentive inspection that the evidence to warrant this

The

Critical
is

Doubt
me, then
I will

27
avoid
all

assent
is

really present to

the error which

caused by inattentiveness.
All the other sources to which error
is

frequently ascribed are

only effective insofar as they generate inattentiveness. Thus, prejudice, pride, self-will, fatigue, combativeness, haste, emotion, etc.,

are only influential in giving rise to error

inasmuch
thought

as they are
is

the several ways in which the gaze of

inattentive. Therefore,
if I

my

rendered

demand

attentiveness of myself, I have

ehminated the

real source of error. This

by turning myself
assent
is

resolutely to the

supposedly based. Just

demand is implemented evidence upon which any given so, the man who mistook the

shadow
self

for the

book could

correct his error simply by asking him-

"Now am I really sure that I see what I have asserted that I see? Let me look carefully and make sure." He would then turn
reflectively to the visual evidence

and banish

his

doubts. So

it

ought to be with
inflexible in

all

errors, in Descartes' estimation. If

we

are

our demand that our assent be withheld except in

those cases in which

we can be

sure that the evidence

is

present,

we

will

never go wrong.
of this presence of the evidence, Descartes suggests

that

To be sure we need

only to ask, "Is there any possible basis for doubt

that things might

active effort to

be otherwise than

I assert?"
is

Let

me make
and
deserves

the

doubt that the evidence

really there,
if it

I will
it.

be able to underwrite
Thus,

my
I

assent unconditionally,

"How much
It is in

can

I really

know?"

is

a question which can

only be answered after

determine

"How much

can

succeed in

doubting?"

the rigor with which Descartes prosecuted this

second question that his fulcral contribution to philosophy consists.

For he carried

his

doubt farther than most

men would have

been prepared to carry

stages of this doubt.

it.

Let us follow him through the successive

THE DISCOVERY OF THE COGITO

We

can begin with the dehverances of the philosophers of the

past, for they are quite easy to doubt.

They

are, in fact,

what

28
started Descartes
Jesuit college of

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
at the

on the path of dubiety. As a student

La

Fleche, he had received the usual training in

Scholastic philosophy

common

to the curriculum of the

day (a day

now
it

widely stigmatized as the decadence of scholasticism).

To

put

mildly, he

the philosophers of the past caused

was not impressed. The widespread conflict among him the same dismay that it
a

has caused

many

mind before and

since.

That there should be

such a cacophony of voices on issues that mattered so

much

to

man was
As
to
to

distressing indeed.

whether the conclusions of the philosophers could be

it is

doubted, the answer was clear:

the easiest thing in the world

doubt what has been endlessly doubted by philosophers themdisagreement

is

selves. Philosophical

a kind of mutual disparage-

ment of philosophical evidence on the part of philosophers themselves. The reason for the possibihty of such doubt was not far to seek. The philosophy of the past had been too ready to admit
probable or merely plausible reasoning into a domain that should

have been reserved purely for necessary

seeks
is

insight.

What philosophy

certitude

and certitude

is

only possible on the basis of

coercive evidence; only necessary reasoning should have a part in

the philosophical venture.
pate,

Once anything

else is allowed to partici-

we

get the hodge-podge of plausibilities

and

implausibilities

which philosophy had become.

Nor was

it

one whit more

difficult for

Descartes to treat as less

it

than certain the "knowledge" of the science of his day, since

largely built

was

on

the shifting sands of philosophy

easier in a

itself.

This,

we

must remember, would have been

Let anyone ask himself
less

day when science was

for

so largely dependent on inherited Aristotelian notions of physics.

how hard
and
fire,

it

would be

him

to treat as

than indubitable the fact that there are four fundamental eleair,

ments, water, earth,

place" (that of
fire

that each of these has

its

"natural

being "up," and that of earth being "down")

and he
But

will at

once perceive that the conclusions of science could

resistance to the critical doubt.

not offer

much

surely,

one

may

feel,

there remains a whole set of ordinary

beliefs that

still

stands after these speculative constructions have

The

Critical

Doubt
treat the

29
rough laws which
for itself about the predictable

been swept away. Perhaps we might

common
later),

sense

makes

and

reliable

behavior of bodies as only highly probable (as

Hume

was

to

do

and perhaps we might

but

fairly easily

succeed in impugning

the reliability of our senses which so frequently subject us to

illusions,
still,

that the bodies about

which the senses and the

roughly approximate laws speak exist and have their being inde-

pendent of
life

us, is

not

this evident?

That other persons

is

exist,

whose
that

and consciousness are not mine,

not

this

undeniable?

Or

my own past exists, my past which my memory retains and assures me of, how can this be disputed? But let us listen to Descartes
himself

on

this score.

He

will

admit that

it

seems unreasonable to doubt

the fact that I

many

things,
fire,

"For example, there

attired in a dressing

is

am

here, seated

by the

gown, having

this

paper in

my

hands and

other similar matters." But he goes on:

At the same time

sequently
I

must remember

that I

am
in

a man, and that con-

am

in the habit of sleeping,

and

my

dreams representing

to myself the

same

things or sometimes even less probable things, than

do those who are insane in their waking moments. How often has it happened to me that in the night I dreamt that I found myself in this
particular place, that I
reality I

was dressed and seated near the

in bed!

fire,
it

whilst in

was lying undressed

At

this

moment
it

does indeed
this

seem

to

me

that

it is

with eyes awake that I

I

am

looking at
is
it;

paper;

that this

head which
I

move

is

not asleep, that

deliberately

and

of set purpose that

extend

my

hand and perceive

sleep does not appear so clear nor so distinct as

what happens in does all this. But

I

in thinking over this I

in sleep

remind myself that on many occasions

illusions,

have

been deceived by similar

and

in dwelling carefully

on

this reflection I see

so manifestly that there are no certain indications

by which we
lost in

may

clearly distinguish wakefulness

from

sleep that I
it

am

astonishment.

capable of
2

And my astonishment is persuading me that I now dream.^

edit.

such that

is

almost

Descartes Selections,

1927, pp. 90-91. All page references to Descartes are and are from the Meditations.

Ralph M. Eaton (New York: Scribner's), from this volume,

30
This
is

The Philosophy of Knowledge

the

famous "dream doubt" of Descartes. His point

is

easy to grasp.

When

dream

seem

to find myself

among
do
I

objects

which are

real,

independent of me, and out of

my
I

control.

And
that

yet they are not real

I

and independent of me.

not reaUy a figment of

How
my

know

am

not always dreaming, that the world which

believe to have

its

being outside

me

is

imagination?

As
I

for

my

body, which seems so

irresistibly real, the

body which

inhabit in a

dream seems equally

is

real

and

is

but the insubstantial

wisp of fantasy. This

stuff as

Prospero philosophising:

"We

are such

dreams are made on"; or the mood of Schopenhauer, "The

world

is

my

idea." This

is

philosophy at play with a vengeance.

it is more than that. For it carries a melancholy note, though muted one. For what expires in the collapse of the world into dream is not only the cloud-capped towers and the gorgeous pal-

But
a

aces, but also the people in

them:

my

friends,

my

beloved ones,

the persons in
figures

whose

reality I

had counted myself

blessed, are

now

met

in a

dream, not other than

clamors for

me

at all

but hollow pro-

jections of myself.

Yet thought
still

still

its rights.

Even

if

am

dreaming,

there

are truths
I

which withstand the general catastrophe,

truths

which

can

stUl affirm as unconditional.

Two and

two are

four, whether I

am awake

or asleep; a square has four sides in

both the dream world and the world of such seemingly impregnable truths? Well,

common

sense. Is there

any way in which the methodic doubt can break the defenses of

As

sometimes imagine that others deceive themselves in the things

best,

which they think they know

ceived every time that
I

how do
if

know

that I

am

not de-

add two and

still

three, or

count the sides of a

square, or judge of things

simpler,

anything simpler can be

imagined?^

If I

sometimes make errors in mathematics without realizing

I

it,

what assurance do
3 Ibid.,

have that

do not always make errors? This

p. 93.

The

Critical

Doubt
is

31
in

consideration
reinforce
it,

somewhat weak, and Descartes,

seeking to

now

reaches the extremity of his methodic doubt.

This

is

the hypothesis of the evil genius, by which he

manages

at

one stroke to shake the foundations of every ostensible item of

knowledge he has, includmg mathematical

not be some higher power

truths.

Why should there

me
for his

who

is

toying with

own

purposes and

who

causes

less convictions?

Perhaps

me to be filled I am even the

is

with

all

manner of base-

only person in existence

and

my

entire experience

phantasmagorical, a film of illusion

projected
ing me,

and

by some power malignantly bent on perpetually deceivto which no object whatever corresponds outside of

myself:

I shall
ceitful,

then suppose

some

evil

genius not less powerful than de-

has employed his whole energies in deceiving

me

...

suppose,

then, that all the things that I see are false; I persuade myself that

nothing has ever existed of

to

all

that

my

fallacious

memory

represents

me.

consider that

possess

no

senses; I imagine that body, figure,

extension,

movement and

place are but the fictions of

all,

my

mind. What,

then, can be esteemed as true? Perhaps nothing at

is

unless that there

nothing in the world that

is

certain.*

But what then?

seems, there
is:

Is this equivalent to

a state of paralysis?

Is

there anything that can escape this universal collapse? Strange as

it

But how do
slightest

know

that there

is

not something different from those

things that I have just considered, of

doubt? ...

I myself,
I

am

not at least something? But

which one cannot have the I have

follows from that?

had senses and body. Yet I hesitate, for what I so dependent on body and senses that I cannot exist without these? But I was persuaded that there was nothing in all the world, that there was no heaven, no earth, that there were no
already denied that

Am

minds, nor any bodies: was

not exist?

not then likewise persuaded that

did

Not
95.

at all; of a surety I

myself did exist since

persuaded

4/fe/cf., p.

32
myself of something
. . .

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

But there is some deceiver or other, very who ever employs his ingenuity in deceivcunning, very and powerful I exist also if he deceives me, and let him doubt without Then ing me. he can never cause me to be nothing will, he much as as me deceive
so long as I think that I

am

something. So that after having reflected

all

well and carefully examined

things,

we must come
it.^

to the definite

conclusion that this proposition: I am,

I exist, is necessarily

true each

time that I

pronounce
is

it,

or that

mentally conceive

This then,

the rock

upon which Descartes' doubt

it

finally

comes

to rest: cogito, ergo sum.^l think therefore I exist.

far the acid of

No

matter

how
the

doubt

eats,

cannot consume that which

is

condition for

its

own

existence: the existence of the doubter.

is
if I

My
no

existence as a

self,

then,

the ultimate indubitable which

doubt can eradicate. Even

being deceived
is

am
is

universally deceived, the act of

it

an act of thinking, and

thinks and

delivers

up the

exist-

ence of the

one who

deceived.

Some
it

clarification of Descartes' point is required. First of all,

must be noted that

delivered to
is

in respect to the content of the cogito,

what

is

him
:

is

simply his thinking

self.

The implied com-

plete formula

cogito, ergo

sum
it

cogitans. I think, therefore I

is

am

a thinking being.

What

the cogito renders indubitable

as cogito

just that

which

is

necessary to constitute

and

this

means the

existence of a mind, a conscious substance. It does not guarantee

the existence of a body. Quite otherwise.
cogito, Descartes

When

he reached the
side of his

was not

at that point
still fall

assured of the real exist-

ence of his body, which might

experience. It

on the deceptive

may be

a body which only seems to be real, a dream

body.

Much more

reasoning wUl be necessary before he can infer

his body.

any other status for

5

Ibid., pp. 96-97. remarkably similar point had been made by St. Augustine twelve centuries earlier in his dialog against the sceptics (Contra Academicos) Let us accept your belief, says Augustine, that I am uni.

versally

deceived,

ergo sum," "I am deceived, therefore I exist." Augustine did not go on, however, to extract the methodological cornerstone of his thought from
this truth, as did Descartes.

and yet there remains one ineluctable

truth:

"fallor,

The

Critical

Doubt
is

33
doubt

But what

there from the beginning, given absolutely, given

itself, is

as the condition for

that

I,

as a thinking being,

am.

More

briefly

it

may be
is

observed that

when

Descartes speaks of

"thinking," he

not referring exclusively to reasoning proper;

seeing, hearing, feeling, pleasure or pain, willing, considered as

conscious operations,

are

all

included within this term.

Even

though the status of their objects

(deceptively) aware
tively)

may be

in doubt, the conscious

operations are not in doubt. Thus, the mirage of which I

am

may be
real.

unreal, but

my

act of being (decep-

aware of
objection

it is

The
that

is

sometimes raised against Descartes that the

cogito does not actually represent his only original indubitable,

it is

actually the product of an inference,

and therefore preis is

supposes that the premise upon which the inference

antecedently known.

made

is

What

this

objection supposes

that the

"therefore" in Descartes' aphorism indicates that

we

are

deaUng

with an enthymeme, a suppressed syllogistic inference, which,

expanded into

full

form, would read like

this:

"All beings which

think, exist; I think; therefore I exist."

Here both the premise and

and the cogito
cogito

the rules for the syllogism are prior to the syllogism

itself

would require the previous justification of both of them.

is

This objection, however,

not well taken.

The
is

is

not

reached as the result of an inference, and the ergo

of the syllogism.
existence
is

not the ergo

full

What

Descartes means

is

that

my

personal
find

delivered to

me

in the act of doubting. I

do not

doubt and then infer that there must be an "I"

this "I" is

who
its

doubts; rather,

deUvered in the act of doubting.

is

It is

not inferred, but

manifestation.

co-immediately present; thinking

the ego in

The awareness of doubt

ego's existence
is

is

the awareness of myself doubting.

The

therefore

known

intuitively,

and not

inferentially.

SUBJECTIVISM
It is

apparent that the plight in which Descartes finds himself

is

with the discovery of the cogito

not an entirely comfortable one.

34
While
it

The Philosophy
gives

of

Knowledge

him an

irrefrangible certitude,

it

does so at the

expense of minimizing to a degree the scope of this certitude. For

the subject which Descartes has uncovered in the cogito
private, isolated subject.
is

a purely

At

this stage,

he

is

certain of the exist-

ence of absolutely nothing but himself as a thinking being. Evidently this

is

unsatisfactory,

and he

is

faced with the task of

is

making
starting

his

way out

to the world

which

other than himself

will

from a purely private ego. The task

prove to be an
a

imposing one, not only for Descartes but for

philosopher.

many

modem

The

difficulty

must be stated
as this

in all sharpness in order for its

is

magnitude to be appreciated. What

ception of mental
is is life,
is

presumed

in Descartes' con-

developed in his mature thought,

the data of experience to be
if

that the data of consciousness are purely subjective states. This

implied in his abihty to conceive

all

without self-certifying objective reference. Even

ever existed besides myself,
experiences that I
I

nothing what-

could

still

have exactly the same

I

am now

having; therefore the fact that

am

now having
finally,

these experiences does not prove that they exist as

anything other than

my own

states

of consciousness; therefore

since consciousness as conceived

by Descartes does not must be

as the

have an immediate objective reference to anything other than

myself,
if

such reference

is

to

be established,

it

result of

some kind of reasoning. What we have met here in a stark form

This problem
to this question:
is if

is

the problem of subsince

it

jectivism.

a formidable one indeed,

all

amounts
psyche,

of

my

consciousness

initially

has

the exclusive value of a subjective state of

my own
is

individual

how do

ever learn the nature of anything other than

the awareness that there

myself or even

rise to

anything other

than myself? This question cannot be taken

or another
it

lightly, for in

one form

is

the question with which

It is

modern philosophy has

in a certain
it.

been wrestling since Descartes.

all its

a question which arises in

acuteness

manner, the

when we conceive of consciousness manner in which Descartes conceived

But the

The

Critical
is

Doubt

35
way
of conceiving con-

problem

not only Descartes', since his

is

sciousness

way which
and
it

will
It

appeal to every
is

certain stage of rejflection.

called "idealists,"
this
is

the outlook

human mind of those who

at a

are

therefore convenient to introduce at

point the familiar distinction between epistemological realists

idealists.

and epistemological
each
later.
is

The formulations

of the position of

deliberately broad, for reasons that will

become apparent

a) Epistemological reahsm holds that

my

consciousness puts

me

in

touch with what

is

other than myself.

b) Epistemological idealism holds that every act of knowing

terminates in an idea, which
It is to
is

a purely subjective event.

be noted that the word "idea," from which epistemologiderives

its

cal

idealism

name, does not

refer

exclusively

or

primarily to "universal ideas" or concepts in the strict sense.

Any

conscious undergoing of an experience

red, tasting

is

an idea, so

that, seeing

something sweet, feehng a twinge of pain, being joyful,

etc.,

hoping, choosing,

are

all ideas.

They

are data present for a

conscious subject, in the opinion of

idealists,

"mental events."

As mental
and hence

events, they are modifications of an individual mind,

subjective. Epistemological idealism as defined

above

is

hence equivalent to subjectivism.

scientious subjectivism
is

And

the problem for a conif

unmistakable:

every act of knowing

terminates in a purely subjective event, then

how can

ever utilize

my knowing myself? And

to arrive at the existence of anything other than

if

cannot, then

how do

know
is

that anything other

than myself really exists?

Now

one answer to
is

this

question that

possible

is

that I cannot

know. This

the reply of the position

known

as solipsism, accord-

ing to which

my

self

alone (solus ipse) exists

or at least

can

only be sure that I

exist,

while the existence of things other than

myself remains problematic. Obviously, solipsism, even more than

more an hypothetical extreme for speculation than a genuine alternative. That is why nobody can
absolute scepticism, remains

point to any philosophers

who have been

solipsists. If really

con-

36

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

vinced solipsists have existed, they have, for evident reasons, never

earned themselves a place in the textbooks of the history of

philosophy.

The awkwardness

of sohpsism

is

amusingly illustrated by an
tells

episode recounted by Bertrand Russell.* Russell

us of a letter

Franklin, he once received from the logician, Mrs. Christine assuring him that she was a solipsist and expressing surprise that
lots of

Ladd

other people were not also solipsists! Nothing could better

illustrate the

academic character of

this position
it.

and

yet

it is

not

only useful but essential to take notice of

For, granted that

nobody psychologically and

solipsism,
jectivist
is

existentially

could sustain a stance of

the problem for the epistemological ideahst or sub-

how, given
it.

his

conception of consciousness, he can

is

logically avoid

If all

consciousness

subjective,
It

how can

ever be conscious of anything other than myself?

that a single-minded idealist

reaUy seems

would

find great difficulty in avoid-

ing, speculatively, the solipsistic conclusion.

What

actually hap-

pens, as win be seen,

is

that those

who

begin by adoptmg an

ostensibly subjectivist starting-point, eventually believe themselves

to

have discovered some feature of consciousness which

status

is

exempt

from a purely subjective

fined to their

and which
so, they

also has objective refer-

ence. Unless they were to

do

would be perpetually con-

own

individual psyches.

THE ESCAPE ROUTE

To
is

call Descartes'

conception of consciousness a subjective one

justice to his thought,

to oversimplify

and to do scant

and in an

attempt to present a rounded picture of Descartes,

we would have

to give a far better balanced exposition than the present one.

We

may

offer the excuse that the present

examination

is

interested in
is

only certain aspects of his thought. That there really

jectivist peril in his

a sub-

approach,

is

indicated clearly enough

by the

Bertrand Russell, op.

cit.,

p. 180.

The

Critical

Doubt
it.

37
If

urgency with which he himself sought to escape

stopped with the cogito, he would have had
of the solipsist, but

he had

merely the certitude

no thinker

is

content to stop there.

What

is

needed
it is

is

an escape route from the cul-de-sac of subjectivism, and

interesting to observe the route

which Descartes took.

first

He

reasons that by a careful reflection on the

truth (the
its

cogito) he will be able to discern

what

in

it

guarantees

truth

and thus

to use this feature as a criterion for further certitude.

it

Why

does he find

impossible to reject the truth of his

tells

own
and

existence? Because, he
distinctly" that

us,

he perceives

it

so "clearly

doubt

is

rendered impotent. But

clearly

if it

were thinkable
might

that a reality

which was thus given

and

distinctly

nevertheless be falsely given, his certitude

in

would be

baseless.

Then
and
which

the very recognition of the indubitabihty of this clear

distinct given is also contained the recognition that nothing

is

given clearly and distinctly can be

all

false.

Accordingly,

we "can

estabhsh as a general rule that

clearly

things

which

perceive very

and very

distinctly are true."^

Needless to say, a great deal of criticism has been levelled at

this

procedure of Descartes, some of

it

misguided.
is

It

has often

been supposed

that this passion for clarity

simply a transposition
skill in

into philosophy of Descartes'

own

fabulous

and admiration

for mathematics.
this, it is

Whatever psychological

justice there

may be

to

not quite correct to equate Descartes' emphasis on clear

with a predilection for definition and exactitude.
refers principally to the evi-

and

distinct ideas

The somewhat unfortunate phrase

dential

character
is

of

datum,

rather

than to

its

exactitude;

Descartes

concerned with what he elsewhere called the "simple,"

as the self-evident, the self-given,

which others have thought of

the luminous, the intelligible.

What he

is

continually emphasizing

Descartes, op.

cit.,

p.

108.

On

this,

see

Norman Kemp

(New York: Russell and Russell), that his own examples tend to be
tion,

Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy 1962, pp. 35-37. It is a fact, however,
rather abstract: "extension, shape,

mo-

and the

like."

38
is

The Philosophy of Knowledge

what
I see, I see.

the intuitive character of knowing:

distinct is that

The

clear

and

which shines in

its

own

light.^

His stand

is this:

however much
clear

positive,

non-derivative reality
is

is

contained in a

and

distinct idea, that content

real; the distinction

between

subjective

and objective
do

is

suppressed, and thought reaches what

has unqualified cognitional value. ^

The question

is,

possess any other un-derivative, positive,

and self-luminous notions besides that of

Descartes finds another such idea in

my own

existence?

my

idea of the infinite being,

God. The meaning of

distinct). If so,
it

this idea is perfectly

luminous (clear and

it

has, in respect to

whatever positive content

contains, unqualified reality. This idea exists.

in reality

There must be that

which

sufiiciently

accounts for whatever positive reahty

this idea contains.

But

be the adequate cause of

this as

am a limited being; therefore, I cannot my idea of the infinite. Nor can I regard

an idea which
I

put together by combining other ideas of

which

might be the adequate cause.

No

combination of

finite

aspects will ever give rise to a notion of the infinite. Rather just
the opposite, for Descartes.

negative

The notion

of the infinite

is

not really

it

is

positive. I

could not even recognize something as

its

limited unless I

had a prior standard against which to measure

is

limitation." This

more

easily seen in his conception of

is

God

as

Perfect Being; perfection

the primordial notion

is

and the recogonly possible

if

nition of the beings of experience as im-perfect

I possess the

more

fully positive notion of the Perfect.

infinite,

Then

the

only adequate cause for the existence of the

is

perfect being

the infinite, perfect being.

9 It is true that he conceived of a universal science in which all these "simples" or luminous insights could be linked by a necessary chain of

intuitive

inferences, in
is

which
p.

all

human knowledge

could be welded to-

gether, but that

10
'^'^

not essential to the present context.

cit.,

Descartes, op.
Ibid., pp.

115.

118, 139-142. Descartes'

St.

logical

argument of

by philosophers like St. Thomas and the Scholastic tradition

argument is a version of the ontoAnselm, which has been accepted in various forms Leibniz, Spinoza, and Hegel, but which is rejected by
in general.

The

Critical
still

Doubt
remains the question of the "external world."
independent of me?

39

There

How

do

overcome the doubt

as to the real existence of material things

outside of

me and

To do

this

Descartes has

recourse to two things: the nature of the perfect being and the

nature of

my

sense experience.

My

sense experience

is

not a con-

scious creation of myself.

On

the contrary, the data which present

themselves to

me

in perception are often

imposed upon

me

against

my

will

and

desire.

As a

senser, I

am

a receptive consciousness
I

and therefore not an active cause. The data which

therefore

sense must
myself.

owe

their existence to
this

some cause other than

But why could not

cause be
see,

God

Himself rather than bodies?

is

As

far as Descartes

can

such a possibihty

incompatible

with the nature of

fectly veracious

God

as a perfect being.

As

perfect,

He

is

per-

and cannot be the author of any deception. But I have an irresistible belief that the experiences I have of bodies are imposed on me by the bodies themselves, and there is no way
I

can extricate myself from such

if

belief. If this belief

were not a

true one,

they were simply dream-ideas implanted in

to

me by

God,

He would seem
on

be the author of a universal and invincible

this is

illusion

my

part,

and

incompatible with His perfect truth-

fulness. Therefore Descartes concludes:

Hence we must allow

that corporeal things exist.

However, they are

perhaps not exactly what

prehension by the senses
fused; but

we
is

perceive by the senses, since this

com-

in

many

instances very obscure and conall

we must
and

at least

admit that

things

which

conceive in

them

clearly

distinctly

...

are truly to be recognized as external

objects.^2

We

should not

fail to

note that Descartes' return of the external

world to good standing

apply to
Since
all

is

an extremely qualified one, and does not

sense includes under the term "world."

that

common

God would

only be guilty of deception in the case where

it is

my

convictions were invincibly erroneous, then

-^^Ibid., p.

only those features

154.

40

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

of bodies which clearly and distinctly belong to

certified

as

objectively real.

Which

are these?

them which are They are those

pure mathe-

properties which "are

comprehended

in the object of

matics." This

means extension and motion.

either reduce

Whatever other features seem to belong to bodies

to these or else lose the character of being clear

and

distinct.

Such things
taste,

as color,
like,

warmth, sound, pain,

resistance, coolness,

and the

are not so evidently properties of bodies that

It is

am

unable to dissociate them from bodies. ^^

that these things

quite possible

to

realize

are subjective experiences which I

essentially belong to the clear

attribute to bodies but

which do not

and

distinct idea of

body.

The only property which

so belongs

is

extension,

and therefore the world which Descartes' veracious

is

God
tion.

has underwritten
This
is

a geometrical universe of matter in

mohas

the source of the

famous Cartesian dualism.

is

It

now

turned out that the essence of mind

is

thought, the essence

of matter extension. Everything that

not real in the

real in the

way

that

matter in motion
sciousness
is.

is

real,

can only be

way

that con-

The repercussions

of such a view are tremendous

and
ical

multi-directional. Descartes'

dichotomy cemented the mechanself as

view of the universe which made possible vast advances in

science; but

by
it

treating the

human

a "ghost inhabiting a

machine,"^*

raised the mind-matter

problem in an extremely

exacerbated form.

DREAM AND REALITY

For our purposes,
it is

not necessary to follow out aU the rami-

fications of Descartes' thought, but only those

which are pertinent

for the philosophy of knowledge.

The main question which must

:

be asked

is

about his point of departure

has he correctly described

human
14

consciousness?

We
ss.

will not

be overly concerned about the

^^Ibid., pp. 116-117, 154

Gilbert Ryle's phrase,

The Concept of Mind (New York: Barnes

&

Noble), 1949, pp. 15-16.

The

Critical

Doubt
which he found from
itself. Is

41
his

particular escape route

own

subjectivist

beginning, but about that beginning

of the actual position in which

Descartes' translation
itself

human
Is

consciousness finds
first

an

accurate and adequate one?

the

indubitable for

human

consciousness the experience of

itself as

an isolated and individual

depends
Des-

ego? This question

is

a crucial one and upon the answer to

it

the rest of what happens in epistemology. In the philosophy of

knowledge, everything depends on the point of departure.

cartes
is

If

right in his point of departure, then

we

begin with him

really

in subjectivism
it,

and then must decide whether he

overcame

and

if

we

think he did not,

is

we must

try to find our

route. This

what ensuing philosophy tended

to

own escape do. If we wish

what contem-

to avoid the subjectivist diflficulty,

we must
it.

concentrate on the
is

view of consciousness which produced

porary philosophy
is

This

doing.

The question

requires a full airing,

it.

and

the entire next chapter will be devoted to

Some
in

brief consideration

may be
his

given to the specific language

which Descartes couched

doubt as to the objectivity of the

external world, in particular to his

"dream doubt." Descartes

I

really

does seem to be asking

"How do

know

that I

doing what

ordinarily

mean by dreaming?"

am not And yet if

Our

always
this is

what he means, his question borders on nonsense.

ordinary

dream

state is

identified

sciousness.

We

only

know

by comparison with our waking conit as dream by comparing it with the

world in which we are veridically
It

consistent, organized, coherent

would be hterally nonsensical to ask: how do I know that waking is not what I ordinarily mean by dreaming, because if it were, I wouldn't know what I ordinarily mean by dreaming. It makes no practical sense to wonder if waking
conscious of ourselves and reahty.
is

dreaming;

if

could
it

make

critical

examination of

my

experi-

ence in dreaming,
cartes
is

would cease
really

to

be a dream. Therefore, Des-

not in the condition of the

is

man who

pinches himself to
is

make
tical

sure that he
is

awake;

this

man's problem

a prac-

one which

soluble in principle.

42
Therefore

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

we should perhaps
is

take Descartes to

mean something
dream
it is
is.

a httle less vulnerable. This can be put as follows. Suppose the

waking
that

state

just as shut off

from

reality as the

Not

it is

a "dream" in the ordinary sense, but that

its

as purely

subjective in

own way
is

as the dream.

expressed as a kind of proportion: just

object, so sense object to x.

Then our plight could be as dream image is to sense

And
as

even diagrammed:
Sense Object

Dream imaee
^-

Sense Object

In other words, perhaps in relation to the "really real," the

sense object
It
is

an

illusion.

Even

this belief is

not altogether precise.

is

might only be taken as emphasizing that there

something more

real in a being than

can be given to us by the senses, that sense

is

perception

is

a pale and partial revelation of reahty. But there

nothing particularly
tion. Plato

new about
it

this

way

of regarding sense percep-

had done

long before Descartes; and in a way, anyintellectual insight

this belief

one who subscribes to the superiority of

have to give some weight to
only consign
it.

would

Of

itself

derogate the objectivity of the reahty given to the senses

it

would not
it

would
is

to
is

an

inferior place.

From one

standpoint this

what Descartes

doing.

He

differentiates

between the sensible

and the

intelligible at the
is

expense of the former; his criterion for

objectivity

precisely intelhgibihty (clearness

and

distinctness).
Plato's dis-

He must
tinction

then be classified

among

those

who espouse

between episteme
Descartes

(knowledge of the

intelligible

and

necessary) and doxa (knowledge of the sensory and contingent).

Thus

far,

is

only distinguishing between the other

as given clearly

and

distinctly to

thought and the other as given

obscurely and confusedly to the senses. Yet in the proportion dia-

grammed

above, Descartes

may

equally

weU be taken

as

emphaits

sizing the subjective status of the sense object and not merely

confused character. The comparison with the dream, in other

words, could be used to stress the purely private character of sense
awareness.

On

this basis

Descartes

is

claiming not that the objec-

The
Critical

Doubt
is

43
obscure, but that
it is

tivity

of the sensed entity

is

not given at

all;

the sensed entity

is

just as cut off

from the independently

real as

a dream entity.

But
other

this
is

would mean

that our awareness of the reality of the

purely a

work
if

of thought,

and

this
it

view carries built-in

difficulties.

Even

we were

to accept

as faithful to

consciousness that existence can be delivered to thought alone,

human we

would immediately have the

since

difficulty that

an other delivered only

to thought would tend to be an abstract and universalized other

human

thought

is

conceptual and abstract. Data which can-

not be delivered in this abstractly intelligible

their objective standing. Existence thus

manner would

lose

conceived would be inev-

itably impoverished,

reduced to

its

most abstract character: on

the

one hand, a purely mechanical nature, and on the other, a

purely logical subject. Descartes himself progressed quite far in

this direction.

Human

experience tends to be rich in the direction

is

of obscurity; the

knowledge of Uved experience

cognitional value
to avoid this
is

quite obscure,

and yet to
advantage.

sacrifice its

to reap

a doubtful

The only way

danger would be either to

make
it

Descartes' criterion of intelligibility

in his

meant

own hands (which

in a

mean much more than way is what the phenomemeaning of the

nologists

are doing in their expansion of the

"given") or to refrain from stating the original condition of consciousness in his way.

THE POINT OF DEPARTURE

"INSIDE"

AND

"OUTSIDE"
on
his

Any

evaluation of Descartes should center not

methodic

doubt but on the accuracy of

doubt

his description of consciousness.

Give or take a few nuances, the employment of the methodic

is

inevitable in epistemology, for

it

is

simply the
is

critical

method

self-consciously used,

and
is

criticism

the

business of

epistemology.

The

real question

whether Descartes, in turning

really

the light of criticism

tracing
its

upon consciousness, has

succeeded in

authentic outlines.

Contemporary philosophers,

who
and

by and large disagree with the Cartesian viewpoint, concentrate

their fire

on

his

analysis of the structure of consciousness

suit.

the present chapter will follow

By way
is

of preface,

we may begin

with an admonition which

elementary, but whose usefulness extends

much

further than

its

application to Descartes' thought. For, concealed at the base of

all

subjectivism, including Descartes',

all

is

a false image of conscious-

ness which thwarts

is

attempts to break through to realism. This

is

the image of consciousness as a container "in" which reality

present.

Only

rarely, of course,
is

would

things be stated quite this

baldly, but the attitude

operative even
is

when

it

does not find

its

way
is

into verbal formulation. It

a perfectly natural attitude, as

evidenced by our everyday manner of stating the relation beits

tween consciousness and

prone to
"outside"
say,
is

object.

What

"in"

my

awareness; what

my

awareness. Reality as present

am aware of, I am am not aware of is to me at any given

The Point of Departure

45
consciousness. Sometimes

moment
that
it is

is

"within"

my

we go on
is

to say
to the

"in

my

mind."

And

sometimes the image

it is

pushed

clearly untenable

hmit of saying that

"in

my

head."

However spontaneously we may

it

fall into this

way

of speaking,

is

nonetheless ruinous. For, having posed matters in this way,

am

stuck with the image and with

its

consequences.

The conserise

quences are dire indeed. For the briefest reflection will give
to

an inevitable question.

If

what

then

how

does

it

ever allow

know is "in" my consciousness, me to make contact with what is

I

"outside"

my

consciousness.

My

consciousness

is

my

conscious-

ness, a subjective occurrence in

me; hence
it is

if

the reality

which

know

is

"within"

my

consciousness,

within me, and

my

knowl-

edge therefore leaves

me

locked up inside myself.

There

is

no need

to think that Descartes proceeded according

(if

to this explicit

image

he had,
is

its

shortcomings would have

been more evident). The point

lem, his

that his

way
is

of stating the prob-

way

of describing consciousness,

only possible
is

if

the

image

is

implicitly operative in his thought.

His problem

that of

winning through to the "other," and certifying the varied status

of the "other." This
as a primitive

must mean that he does not regard the other

for consciousness,
is

datum

and hence

that reality as

present primitively to consciousness

not present as other but as

its

"within" the consciousness of the subject:

ness have
still

credentials of other-

to

be

verified.

Many

modern philosopher has been

this implicit
is

trapped into a similar subjectivist beginning by

ception of consciousness as a container.
fied, it

con-

Once

the image

identiit is

clear that

may be summarily dealt with. For if anything is we cannot seriously compare consciousness
this
is

clear,

to a con-

tainer or receptacle.

To

demonstrate

we need
is is

only contrast the manner in which

a container with the manner in

a contained thing

literally in

which the known thing

container and contained
nal objects.

"in" the knower.

literal relation

of

a relation between two spatially exteris

When an

orange
is

in a crate,

it

makes

perfect sense

to say that the orange

from one standpoint

still

outside the

46
crate.

The Philosophy
That
is,

of

Knowledge
it is

the orange
it,

is

not within the

still

wood

of the crate;

surrounded by
it.

but

it is

nevertheless

spatially juxtaposed to

Orange and

crate are touching

one another, and hence exter-

nally related:

it is

perfectly possible to

mark

off the hraits of each,

starts.

to say just

where the crate stops and

is

just

where the orange

cannot

Now
its

obviously this

not so with the relation of consciousness to

object.

When

am

aware of the orange

tell

where
I

my

awareness "leaves off" and where the orange "begins."

point to
stop,

cannot
subject,
is

some point

in space

and say "Here

I,

as

knowing

and here the object

as

known

begins."^

My

awareness
it,

not
it.

juxtaposed in space to
True,

this

orange, not touching

not outside

my

head and the orange are

spatially related to
is

each other

but

this

only proves that consciousness

not going on "inside

my

head."

My

consciousness does not stop at the limits of

my

head, at

my

eyeballs, or halfway
is

between

my

head and the orange.

the orange.

My

consciousness

not spatially related at

all to

This insight

may be

expressed in alternate ways.

We may

use

it

to bring out the non-spatial character of consciousness

and the

ness of the knower.

if the known object is "in" the consciousOr we may take the opposite tack and accentuate the interiority of known and knower. If we should Uke to continue to speak the language of "being in" here, we must recog-

absurdity of talking as

nize that this relation cannot be understood

from the

side of the

container/contained relation, but that

interiority.

it

is
if

a totally sui generis

The known

is

"in" the knower,

is identification.

you hke, but

to the
is

limit of interiority

which

The known

object

in

the subject in such a

limits of

way

that

it

is

impossible to distinguish the

in so far as
it is

knower and known; the knower

he knows

is

identical with the

known

object in so far as

known.

This

is

the line which Scholastic philosophy has traditionally

taken, in an effort to emphasize the non-subjective character of

knowing. Whichever way the position

is

phrased, and they are

it is

only verbally different, the fact remains that

1

senseless to treat

And

this is

so whether

we

are talking of perceptual consciousness or

intellectual consciousness.

The Point of Departure
the relation of consciousness to
its

47
object through the distorting
is

image of the preposition "in." This

no

light observation, for

many

a philosophical problem has arisen just because of a philos-

opher's inattentiveness to the trap set by his

realize that

own

language. If

we

any problem which

this

arises in regard to consciousness

is

from the direction of

image

a pseudo-problem,

we

will

have

made

a significant advance.

THE BI-POLARITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS

As a matter
philosophy has
of fact,

much made beyond

is

of the advance that contemporary

the Cartesian lines has consisted

simply in reclaiming ground lost because of this image.

recognize that there
sciousness,

Once we

no problem of

getting "outside" of con-

we have recovered an
is

essential vantage-point.

To be
to

conscious

already to be outside oneself.

We

do not have

break through the container of consciousness, because consciousness

is is

not a container.

The

circle of

awareness includes the other.

in

This

what various contemporary thinkers are saying

one form

or another.
It is also

what the Scholastic philosopher has

traditionally said

against Descartes' epistemology.

Here

is

where the counter-analysis

of consciousness begins. Descartes' analysis implies that conscious-

ness

is

primarily self-consciousness

and only derivatively conis

sciousness of the other.

self,

The

primitive indubitable
intelligibility

the cogitoit

and

must

infer

by means of the

contained in

the existence of the other.

Thomism has always

reflexively in the

held the contrary: the

self is

only

known

knowing of the
at least

non-self. If this does not precisely

is

claim that the knowledge of the other

sciousness derivative,
it

primary and self-conself

imphes that knowledge of

I

and
in

other are co-temporaneous and indivisible.

only

know myself
which

knowing the

other. In the consciousness of the objects

I

my

awareness encounters,

am

reflexively

aware of

my own

ego; but

my

ego

is

not a datum given in any sense prior to the object

48

The Philosophy of Knowledge

It is
is

neither temporally nor epistemologically prior.

given along

with

it,

and unless the object

is

given, the ego

not given.

learn to say "I"; and I learn to say "I" in distinguishing myself

from what

is

other than myself. It

is at least

significant that

even

Descartes has to appeal to a hypothetical "other" in order to be

the author of his

other
It

who
is

causes

own deception: the evil genius is me to be deceived universally.

the hypothetical

the standard view of the Scholastic

authors that

self'

knowledge cannot be separated from knowledge of the

speaking of the mind's knowledge of
itself, St.

object. In

Thomas

consistently
, '

does so by regarding

it

as grasping itself as a

potency in a certain

order, the order of cognition. But, "Potencies are only

known by
hence
it

reason of their
is

acts,

and

acts

by reason of

their objects";^

clear that the intellect only

knows

itself

in

knowing

its

objects.

For

it is

manifest that by knowing the intelligible object, [the

its

intellectl

understands also

own

act of understanding,

and by

this act

knows

the intellectual faculty. ^

St.

Thomas

often reiterates this:

The human

intellect
first

...

is

not

its
its

own

act of understanding,

nor

is its is

own
the

essence the

object of

understanding, for this object

is first

the

nature of a material thing.

And

therefore that which

this kind,
is

human

intellect
is

is

an object of

and that

known by which is known

the

secondarily

the act by which that object

is

known; and through

act the intellect itself

known
it

.*

St.

Thomas makes
itself,

clear that
is

when he speaks
it

of his mind's
itself

knowledge of

he

thinking of
it

as

knowing
itself

as a

capacity for truth; this implies that

itself

only knows

in

knowing

as this capacity for truth, that

it

is,

as the capacity for reaching

the other. Unless

2

had already reached the

other,

it

could not

De Anima, I, lect. 8, n. 111. Summa Theologiae, I, q. 14, * Summa Theologiae, I, q. 87,

3

a. 2, a. 3.

ad

3.

The Point of Departure

49
is

know

itself

as this capacity for reaching the other. This

unmis-

takably implied in the famous passage from

De

Veritate, q. 1,

A,

9,

Truth
its act;

is

known by

the intellect inasmuch as the intellect reflects

it

not only inasmuch as

its

knows

its act,

but inasmuch as

it

upon knows

the relationship of

act to the thing,

which relationship cannot be

known
is

unless there
itself,

is

known

the nature of the active principle, which

is

the intellect

whose nature
inasmuch

to be
it

conformed

to things;
itself.

hence

the intellect

knows

truth

as

reflects

upon

There

is

no question then of the

It

intellect

knowing

itself

as a

purely private ego.

knows

itself as
it

an openness to the
could not

real, as

an

attainment of the real; unless

had reached the

it

other,

and thus
either

transcended the status of a private ego,

the nature of truth or the nature of
itself.

know

This
his

is

a theme which

many

a contemporary thinker echoes in

is

own way:

the empirical ego

never given in isolation from an

status in

object

and can therefore never claim a more privileged

being than the object.

Edmund

Husserl's notion of "intentionality"

this
is

was

originally

put forward to emphasize

is

very fact: the nature

of a conscious act
It in-tends,

such that the act

its

a reference to another.

or tends out to

other; the intelligibility of consciousis

ness

is its

intentionality.^ In Husserl's words, all consciousness

"consciousness of."
that of
is

To be aware
aware has a

is

to

be aware oj something, and

which

am

status irreducible to awareness

and

just as indubitably real as

is

my

awareness.

purely subjective

awareness

not empirically verifiable;

we do

not have to win our

way out from

selves
cogito-self

subjectivity to objectivity, for

subjectivity.

we never

find our-

within pure

Do

not forget that Descartes'

subject,

was an individual thinking

and that he claimed

in effect that I

can be indubitably aware of myself as an individual

This
exactly

thinking ego without being indubitably aware of the existence of

anything

else.

is

what seems

to

be unfaithful to

actual experience.
5

And

this in

turn

is

a version of the older Scholastic doctrine of inten-

tionality.

50
I

The Philosophy
do not discover myself
is

of

Knowledge
|

as

an individual

self
is

except in relation
it is

to

what

other than myself. Consciousness

bi-polar:

essen;

tially relational.

To

say consciousness

is

first

of

all

to say self-

aware-of-non-self.

ness

is

given as

Both poles are empirically given. Consciousthis bi-polar relation. Then we cannot remove
,

one term of the relation without eliminating the relationship

pole into doubt and

itself,
j ,

Descartes thought that he could call the existence of the objective

still

have the existence of the subjective pole,

is

,1

but

if

the empirically given subject

essentially a relational subit

ject, this

cannot be done.

To

attempt

would be something

like

trying to eliminate convexity

and
one

retain concavity; the concave

;;

and convex are two

intelligible.

sides of

relation,

and are not separately

Subjectivity

and

objectivity are

two

sides of

one

bi-

polar relation and are not separately intelligible.

In order to

make

his analysis stand up,

it

would appear

to be

necessary for Descartes to be able to give an empirical meaning

to "ego" or "self" which excludes
all

reference to objectivity.

If

he

is

really thinking

about the

self of

experience, then he should

is

be able to point to

this self in

such a way that he

not simultanot possi-

neously pointing to the non-self.

ble to

The

trouble
is

is

that

it is

do

so.

The

empirical subject

not anterior to nor

I

more

indisputably real than the empirical object.

subject by separating myself

discover myself as
I

from the pole of the other;

it

consciousness of "self" by identifying

"I" of experience
is

against "non-self."

come to The
itself

known
in

reflexively

by differentiatmg
"self" I also

from the non-I. Therefore,

a discovery of the

knowing a

know
it

"non-self" and hence Descartes' discovery of the "I" could not be

self alone. If "I"

means anything,

it

means

as

designated against "non-I."

Once

again,

we must remind

ourselves that these remarks hold

good against Descartes,

for he believed himself to be talking about

the empirical ego (the "I" as actually experienced),

and not about

some postulated Absolute Ego, which

others have speculated to

underlie both the subjective and objective poles of experience, and

Although

it

is,

secondarily, to say self-aware-of-self-aware-of-non-self.

The Point of Departure

to produce

51
act never revealed to consciousness.
it

them both by an

This

is

the view of Absolute Idealism, and

makes

little

difference

in assessing Descartes.
status

The

"I" to which he assigned privileged

Self of Fichte or Hegel, but

was not the Absolute

what you
entirely

and

mean by
is

"I"

this individual

experienced

self. It is

relevant, then, to urge against

him

the point that the empirical

subject, that the very

object

contemporaneous with the empirical

meaning of the statement "I exist" can be understood only by

contrasting the I with the non-I,
privilege
is

and that therefore the absolute

which Descartes gave to the individually experienced ego

not

justified.

BEING-IN-A-WORLD
It is interesting to

observe the manner in which contemporary

thinkers tend, each in his

own way,

to

surmount the Cartesian

viewpoint.

With Gabriel Marcel, the

rejection of the cogito-subject

forms one of the foundation-stones of his thought.

cogito as an abstraction, a subject which
of the evacuation of content
is

He

regards the

conceived as the limit

self

from the experienced

but not
is

an

existent.

Man's being

is

a being-in-a-situation. This
is

what

is

empirically given; the only "self' that

ever vouchsafed

me

in

experience
table
is

is

a self I find in this situation.

The
is

existential indubi-

the self as incarnate in the

body and
"Here
I

as manifest in the

world.

The

first

moment

of

my

experience

what he
am"!

calls

an

"exclamatory awareness" of

myself.'^

this is

one

translation of the fundamental awareness.

not refer only to

my

incarnation in a
sets

And this "here" does body. No doubt it is my

world of real beings; the
I

body which primarily

me down
is

in a

body

is

not even to be thought of as something which

"have,"

for I only really have

what

other than me. "I

am my

body": so

Marcel translates the limit-experience of

my

incarnate existence.^
this place,

But

my

being "here" means at this point of time, at

^ The Mystery of Being, vol. I, trans. G. S. Fraser (Chicago: Regnery), 1951, pp. 91-92. 8 Dm refus a I'invocation (Paris: Librairie Gallimard), 1940, p. 30.

52

The Philosophy of Knowledge

with these parents, in these cultural surroundings, and so forth.

The only ego which escapes

of; purified of

this

placement

is

one which
is

think

aU empirical intrusions, the ego

contentless and

empty, and therefore, in Marcel's view, inevitably tends to deteriorate into something purely formal, as
it

did with Kant. Such an

ego cannot be

said to exist at

all.

What

is

given to

me beyond
is

all

cavilling

is

the "I" of experience;

but the "I" of experience

given as a focal point within an

is
it

englobing situation, and hence the real indubitable

the "confused
is

and global experience of the world inasmuch

as
is

existent."^

What
retreat
is

is

real

is

the

altogether.

The

cogito

discovered by a
it

from the altogether; far from being the primary datum,

a derivative construction and in danger of being a

mere

abstrac-

tion.

Pure subjectivity

is

contentless subjectivity; as existing sub-

jectivity I

am

not pure subjectivity, but a being-by-participation.

This

is

a key

word

in Marcel. I

am

not an existing subject

who
than

also participates in reality, I

am
it

not a being plus participation: I

existence

am
one

a being-by-participation.^
level,

My
is

may have more

but at every level

participation which founds the

experience of subjectivity. Marcel will not only distinguish a level

of incarnation (actuahzed via sensation and the experience of the

mine) but more significantly a level of communion, in come to myself as spiritual subject through my participation in a communion of spiritual subjects. "Esse est co-esse" is true above all on the level of spiritual being: I am only an I in the face of a thou. The proper beginning of metaphysics, he says, is not "I think," but "we are."^^ The experiences of love, hope, and fidelity, which are the actualizations of my participation in communion are not intelligible on Cartesian terms. Finally, Marcel

body

as
I

which

aUows
^

that I

am

a being-beyond-a-situation, that

my

existence con-

Metaphysical Journal, trans, by Bernard Wall (Chicago: Regnery),

1952, p. 322.
10
11

The Mystery of Being, vol. I, ch. VI. The Mystery of Being, vol. II, trans, by Rene Hague (Chicago: Reg-

nery), 1951, p. 9.

The Point of Departure

tains a vector of transcendence; yet

53
even here
it

is

participation

which

is

decisive.

For the

acts

which found
I

me

as subject-in-

communion

are also the acts

by which

experience the pull of

transcendence.

Perhaps no one has carried the rejection of the cogito-self

farther than Martin Heidegger or

made

a greater attempt to found

philosophy on a

new

basis.

The

terminological obscurity for which

he
the

is

famous

is

actually a consequence of his striving to express

totally

unique

mode

of existence which belongs to

human

reality.

Heidegger has in

common
is

with Marcel the conviction that

the starting point for philosophy cannot be located within knowl-

edge; that
it

is,

if

the self

conceived along purely cognitive

lines,

always tends to become a purely thinking subject and hence a

world-less subject for

problematical.^activity as

whom
is

the existence of the other becomes

is

What

wanted

a recognition of the reflexive

appended

to the profounder reality

first

which Heidegger

has

named

Dasein. Instead of talking

about knowledge,
is

we
the

should talk about the

human

reaUty through which there

ground of the
vealed.

possibility of

knowledge.

Man

is

Dasein, thereis

being, the there of being, the being through

which being

re-

We

should not pose man's knowledge as a problem of knowing

the world, for man's knowledge

side of a being through

comes to
is

itself as

the cognitive
is

whom

there

world. There
it is

no question
as there

that

man's being

is

open to the world, for

for

only his being that

is

allows the question of world to be raised.

As soon

Dasein there
phrase
is

is

world,

Dasein

is

being-in-the-world.

This

hyphenated, says Heidegger, because

we

are dealing with

a unitary phenomenon.

The world

is

a correlate of Dasein, and

Dasein

is this

openness to the world.

We

should not speak as

if

there are two entities, alongside of each other, between which

some
entity
12

relation has to

be validated. ^^ The world

as could

itself is

not an

which can be designated

p. 86.

an item within the world.

on
pp. 78-90 of this work.

Being and Time,

full discussion is

^^Ibid.,Tp. 81.

54
The world
its totality
is

The Philosophy
a primary phenomenon, which
is

of

Knowledge

always there in

for Dasein; the

is

ing,

and

it

every specific

meanthere in every relation of Dasein toward any and worldly item.^* Every object which my action emworld
is

referential totality of

ploys incorporates in

it

a totality of meanings, the reference to

which
allows

is

already there for

me

as

an acting being and which

me

to perceive this object as "something to be employed."

This relational totality of significance cannot be discovered or

verified within the world, for
this
it is it

the world. Dasein always finds

finds itself as the correlate of
It is

world as already-here.

And
is

the world.

world-less subject

never given.

therefore non-

sense for Dasein to raise the question of the being of the world,
for this implies that
it

discovers

itself as

a world-less subject.

Descartes did not have sufficient grasp of the uniqueness of the

mode

of being of Dasein;^^ he
it

lumped

it

under the heading of

"substance," treating

merely as a special kind of "thing" along

with other things.

He

then had the problem of

how

this

substance
is

would make contact with other substances. But Dasein

is

not

adequately grasped according to the notion of substance. Dasein

not a thing: "things" are only there for Dasein because Dasein

primordially has a world.

What comes

first,

then,

is

not a con-

sciousness of things, nor consciousness of a thinking substance;

but being correlated to world. Probably

that consciousness

we should not even

say

comes

first,

for consciousness always emerges

onto a scene where Dasein and world are already correlated. Consciousness tends to translate this correlation into a cognitive relation

between subject and object, but

it

cannot be represented by

14 Obviously "world" here does not mean the physical universe. We should take it on its own terms, or if analogs are needed, think rather of the

way we

"world of sports," the "business world," or the something like the most inclusive use of the term in this manner: Heidegger's world is "the world of all worlds." This includes the notion of a physical world, rather than being included within it. See esp. pp. 79, 92 of Being and Time; a full discussion is included in pp. 91148 of this book.
"political world." It is
^^ Ibid., p. 131.

talk about the

The Point
this

of Departure
ex-sists;
it

55
transcends
itself, it is

means. Dasein

always outside

of

itself.

All this

is,

ultimately, possible because Dasein

is

the bearer of

the question of
of the entities
it

Being. ^^

Dasein

raises the question of the being

it

meets because

itself is

a transcending in the

direction of Being.

the aegis of

The "world" is the gathering of entities under Being. The absolutely primary word is the word
is

"Being"; the existence of Dasein

in speaking
it,

the speaking of that word, and

entities of
first

Dasein polarizes the

is

experience and in-

habits a world. Dasein, then,

reflective

not

of all a

knower or a

consciousness, but a

Being of beings

mode of existing by which the can be revealed. To know oneself thus is not to
is

be aware of an individual thinking substance.

Jose Ortega y Gasset
yet another philosopher

who

breaks

with the purely private

is

self of Descartes.
life,"

His fundamental concept

feels
it

the category of

"my

and

it is

chosen because he

to

more faithfully than purely cognitive language and to bypass the maze which we enter as soon as we begin talking of "subject" and "object." For "life" is a border-notion. It is two-pronged and in no danger of giving rise to the subjectivist difl&culties about how I get "outside" myself. For "to five means having to be outside
translate

the fundamental experience of

human

existence

of myself."^^ Life
since
it

is

inconceivable in purely subjectivist terms,

self

is

commerce or exchange between

life,

and

non-self.

This
is

is

clearly borne out in biological

although naturally there

no question of conceiving the meaning of the notion with primary reference to this. Ortega simply insists that if philosophy
wants to discover the most radical reality of

human

existence as

its

point of departure,

it

ultimately discovers the self as the dyother.

namic exchange with the

1^ On this, see Being and Time, pp. 244-252. See also his Lettre sur I'Humanisme, texte allemande traduit et presente par Roger Munier (Paris: Aubier, Editions Montaigne), n. d., pp. 57, 59, 63. ^'' Man and People, trans, by Willard R. Trask (New York: W. W. Norton), 1957, p. 48.

56
I

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

am

not a "thinking substance," for having said no more than

that I

have not yet comprehended

it:

my mode

of existence as I

actually undergo
in

a "substance" could be conceived as closed

its

on

itself,

completed in

own

borders. But I simply do not

experience myself in these terms. I

am

an out-going existence; for

"exist-

me, says Ortega (in words almost identical vdth Marcel),

ing
is first

and foremost

co-existing."^^

The world and my thought

are in active correlation.

that I

am

not able to claim that

is

The consequence of this, for Ortega, is I know reality as it is "in itself";

it is

the world

not

my

thought, yet
fact
is

not given as independent of

self

my

thought.

The primary

not the

or the world, but

myself as open to the world, or the world as delivered to

unfolding existence.^^

my
like,

My

life is

exactly the clashing of these two

cymbals.

may burrow

into

my

consciousness as deep as I

but

I will

never find anything more than

my

life;

and

my

life is

never pure subjectivity or pure objectivity, but always encounter,

always the clash of the two cymbals.

With these sentiments, Maurice Merleau-Ponty

agreement. Against Descartes, he holds that

is

in

profound

human consciousness is not "self-contained"; no matter how deeply we penetrate into ourselves, we always find a reference to the other. Nor is this
=^

relation to the other merely cognitional:

it is

it is

a relation of being;

a pre-conscious and ontological intentionality. For this reason,

it is

he also agrees with Ortega that

futile to try to discover the

is

world as

it

is

"in itself." Revelation of reality

made

to the

human

subject,
it

and the human subject

is

is

always a situated subject.

Specifically,
tically the

a body-subject. Merleau-Ponty here uses pracas Marcel:

same words
is

we

are our

own

body.-^ Reflec-

tion seeks to discover the authentic lineaments of the real, but

reflection

always upon the unreflected. The opacity present in

Philosophy?,
208.

18

What
Sens

is

p.

19/6/J., pp. 197-202.

20
21

et

Phenomenology of Perception,
p.

non-sens (Paris: Nagel), 1948, pp. 143 ss. trans, by Colin Smith
206.

(New York:

Humanities Press), 1962,

The Point of Departure

our
finite

57
is

and bodily mode of existence

never banished by

thought:

my
it is

knowledge

is

always conditioned by
real

my

existence,

and hence when we speak of the

of

we

will

always be speaking

what

as being-for-us.
it is

Obviously under these conditions

cover a "pure subject."

also futile to try to dis-

My

thought and

my

subjectivity are

em-

bedded

in a situated existence:

man and
is

the world

form the most and

radical sort of gestalt.^subjectivity

The world
body
is

my

field of existence

my
is

does not transcend

my

existence.

My

existence

bodUy

existence,

and

my
is

a dialog with the world. The

cogito-self of Descartes

not something that can be pointed to in

if our thought were totally what the obscure character of

experience.

It

could only be pointed to

itself,

transparent to

but

this is just

human existence precludes. The pure thinking subject could only come forward if thought could totally banish the unreflected, but this human thought cannot do. Actually, Merleau-Ponty will hold
that even
if it

could do so,

it

would be
meaning

contentless, since
originates.
is

it is

from
is

the side of our existence that

Our

existence

an openness to the world, and meaning

presents within the openness which

the face which the world

we

are.

The

subject enters the

world as a question, and the world always has the character of a

reply. ^

We
its

are this questioning existence; the body

itself is in-

serted into reality as a living question. Therefore the self

which

discovers

own

source in a questioning existence has discovered

more than a

subject.

One

of the most interesting of the alternatives to Descartes'

is

point of departure

that proposed

by Father Auguste Brunner.

initial

A
is

purely private ego, he agrees, cannot serve as the

it is

indubi-

table in the philosophy of knowledge, for

not experienced but

simply an abstraction.
^^

On

the other hand, merely stressing

Sens

et non-sens, pp.

170-172. For an excellent presentation of

S.

this,

see

Remy

C. Kwant, O.

Merleau-Ponty (Pittsburgh: 23 Again for an excellent presentation of

21-27.

The Phenomenological Philosophy of Duquesne Univ. Press), 1963, pp. 64-69.

A.,
this,

see

Kwant, op.

cit.,

pp.

58
being-in-a-world or "intentionality"
intentionahty of consciousness
is

The Philosophy
is

of

Knowled^

not sufficient either. The

also

an abstraction;

it is

a pale
really

and

partial apprehension of the concrete reality

which

is

the primary conscious experience: the fact that I exist in dialog

with a community of persons. Here

dialog. 2*

is

where Brunner begins: with

discloses
is

The

self

which

reflection

self

already
dis-

involved in a dialog with other persons.

The

reflection

which

closes the self has already disclosed the "thou," for the self of

experience
else.

is

an "I" in the face of a "thou" and never anything

Even

Descartes, after

all,

had

to use language

and should have

It
is

recognized that language

is

essentially social.

ironic that

Descartes, in wondering whether perhaps he alone existed, used

language to do the wondering

not a creation of

and
it

that language

is

empirically

my

private cogito-self but a bequest of other

I

persons whose existence

am

trying to use
is

it

to question.

Lan-

guage

is

clearly a border-reality;

not the property of any

is

particular self but exists

on the

frontiers of dialog. It
is

phenomI exist,
it

enon of

dialog.

The

first

indubitable, therefore,

not that

but that dialog

is

exists.

My

doubt
is

itself is

framed by

dialog, for

framed by language which

a product of dialog. Empirically,

is

I find

myself within language. Therefore, the thou

is

already given

to me. It

empirically given that language

if

is

not a product of

my

individual self; hence,

the individual expresses his

own

existence

in dialog, he has expressed

more than

his

own

existence. Dialog,

Brunner holds, gives

also gives
is

me

the thou as a primary

phenomenon.

It

me

the existence of the world as that about which dialog

carried on: dialog contains the address of the "I" to the "thou,"
it

but

also contains the "other" of the "I"

and "thou,"
is

to

which

dialog refers.

The

"other," the world, then,

met

as a "third" in

respect to which a dialog

24

beween persons

is

held.

The Fundamental Questions of Philosophy (St. Louis: B. Herder), pp. 18ss. For a fuller treatment see Brunner's La connaissance huniaine (Paris: Aubier), 1943; and the exposition on Van Riet, op. cit.,
1937,
pp. 613-621.

The Point

of Departure

59

THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL CIRCLE

This review could be prolonged, but enough has been said to
suggest
is

why

Descartes' approach to consciousness

is

defective. It

not that he should be accounted wrong in his insistence on the

indubitability of the "I exist," but only that

this certitude

more

is

contained in

than he was willing to allow. In so far as the state-

ment really asserts something, in so far as the "I" has meaning and is not simply equivalent to an empty "x exists," it asserts more than Descartes believed, for the meaning of the existing "I" includes the reference to the other which Descartes felt required to

go on to

validate.

Yet have we done something basically illegitimate here? Have we pretended to "solve" the epistemological question of the truthvalue of our knowledge simply by assuming that in certain privileged cases
it

has such truth-value? The question

is

whether our
it

awareness reaches a non-self.

listing cases

where

it

does

and

We

seem

to

have answered

by

thus to assume rather than justify

the truth of our knowledge. Or, to put the objection another way:

Epistemology

is

an attempt to assess and, where possible, vahdate

our conviction that we

know

reahty other than the

self.

begun

this

assessment simply by the declaration that

Have we we do know

reality other

than the

self? If so,

why

isn't this

a petitio principal

The
edge
is

difficulty is that the

itself
it

question of the philosophy of knowl-

based on the reahzation that in respect to

is

human

knowledge
ance and
tion,

possible to

make

the distinction between appearthe possibility of this distinc-

reality.

Once we recognize
is

however, there

a puzzle as to seeing
it

how

it

can ever be
in this

surmounted.

Do we

simply declare that

is

is

surmounted

or that case and that

criterion

the

end of

which we can use to surmounted? This latter would be the search for the point of

Or do we search for a determine when it is successfully

it?

departure, which has been carried

on

since Descartes.

We

are

moved

to search for

some kind

of starting-point impervious to

attack, in order to assure ourselves that

our

later conclusions will

60
own

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

not be vitiated by a suspect premise. This urge of philosophy to

establish
its

foundations has driven certain thinkers like

Edmund

Husserl to an indefatigable and perpetual beginning-over.

For the dilemma seems to be that if we begin with pure awareness as our basis, we seem to beg the question, and if we begin with anything other than pure awareness, we seem to introduce immediately the appearance/reality distinction,

always at one remove from

its

object.

and to place awareness Thus we may be thought to

the answer to

be condemned either to answer doubt by appealing to a place

where
sible.

it is

already answered, or to

make

it

impos-

In reply to

this diflBculty,

one point may be

is

briefly

made. Per-

haps the charge of "begging the question"

point in a philosophical arena.

not entirely to the

the Une, philos-

Somewhere along
I think I

ophy
if

is

probably inevitably going to beg the point. For instance,

we
if

ask

"How do

know what

know?"

it is

not really

reprehensible to reply that in this or that case I really do know.

For

the answer to this question

is

possible at

all, it

must already

be present to

my

experience. Therefore,

when
I

appeal to the

privileged portion of

my
or

experience to demonstrate that in this

I
it

case at least I really

do know what

think
is

begging the question

know,

am

not really
to

if I

am,

inevitable.

The answer
it is

such a question must either be already available or

able at
all.

not availin

Obviously

cannot go outside of

my

knowledge

order to justify
tion of

my

knowledge, and so the ground for the

implicitly present to
I

justifica-

knowledge must already be

in calling attention to
it,

my

knowl-

edge.

And

do not commit a
do
I

fallacy.

Thus, in answering the question

the only existent?" I
"I

"How

know

that I

am
I

not
say

am
know

not proceeding fallaciously

that other persons exist." I

when

know

it

because

am

bringing

into full focus a

made

the question possible.

datum which is there, but whose obscurity has Somewhere along the line, any attempt
problem
is

to deal with the epistemological

going to have to as-

sume some

privileged instances

where
(or

my
it

knowing does put me

not going to get an

in indisputable touch with reality

is

The Point
answer

of Departure

6
valid objection

at all).
this

The only
where
it

has found

does not really

would be that a thinker exist. For example, if I

were to make the

scientific

world-view the absolute beginning for

were to treat this as an instance of where knowing achieved an original and primary contact with the real, it would not be hard to show that this was erroneous for the
review of knowledge,
if I
:

my

scientific

picture of the world derives

from and presupposes a

whole prior contact of

used as an original

my

awareness with the real and cannot be

justification of the truth value of awareness.

Nor

is

there any initial necessity to think of the search for a

beginning or for a privileged contact with the real in the singular.

We

cannot decide beforehand that there

is

only one such contact,

for consciousness

may

in a plurality of instances reach a privileged

distinction
is

datum
least,

in

which the appearance/reality

surpassed.

we have no reason

for ruling out this possibihty.

At The beginit

ning of epistemology does not have to function as a premise from

which ensuing truths are deduced. Some tend

questionable premise.
singular only
if

to treat

in this

way, which explains their anxiety to discover an absolutely un-

The "beginning"
is

of epistemology need be
if it is
is

truth

delivered deductively;

the product

of direct encounter of thought and the real, there

the encounters should not be multiple.

no reason why

THE QUESTION AS IRREDUCIBLE BEGINNING

The need
not so
the
to find a unified beginning
is felt

by the philosopher

much because of the nature of knowledge as because of nature of his own critical pursuit. He wants to bring the
is

bewildering variety of questions with which he

forced to deal

back to some kind of

unity.

He
it

wants to see knowledge whole,

to
its

and thus

is

driven to bring
is

back

own

foundations.

The

search for foundations

not actually a search for some

privileged

item of knowledge, but for the ground of the possibihty of knowledge. There must be something about knowledge which
possible to answer the question of
its

makes

it

truth-value.

Knowledge,

62
which makes the
sible,

The Philosophy of Knowledge

distinction

between appearance and

reality posis

must

also contain the

ground whereby
its

this

distinction

surpassed.

It

must, as knowledge, in

own

foundations, already

surpass the distinction between appearance and reality.

Now, human knowledge is also complicated by other factors, as we have seen. Human knowledge is the knowledge of an existing
subject, a being-in-a-world;
it is

the knowledge of a being which

is

not pure knower.

We

must therefore reconcile two things:

human

knowledge must
source,

arise out of existence, out of

an extra-cognitional

and must yet as

it.

arising out of that source contain the

grounds for surpassing

Human knowledge has its man is extra-cognitional) and

foundation in existence (which in

yet in that foundation

must

find the

grounds for surpassing the appearance/reality

of existence

distinction.

This

must contain the grounds for means that man's mode surpassing that distinction. Man's existence, which seems alien and external to his knowledge, must itself be such that it is the ground of his knowledge and of any absolute which is attained by his
knowledge. For to surpass the appearance/reality distinction
reach an absolute insight. Here, then,
is

to

we emerge

to a surprising

conclusion: man's contingent existence must be the ground for his

contact with the absolute. This

that our finite

is

unexpected. For

we might
if

think

and situated mode of existence would,

If

anything,
so,

impede and prevent absolute cognition.

this

were

there

would be discontinuity between our cognition and our existence, and our situation would be an accidental and inexphcable appendage to our knowledge. But
situated
if

the foregoing reasoning

is

right,

our

and perspectival mode of existence does not exclude us

is

from the absolute but

absolute.

actually

what provides access

to the

We may
logical

approach matters in the following way. The epistemois

problem

the problem of surpassing the distinction be-

tween appearance and reahty and of justifying the hyper-individual

value of our knowing.
that that

Now

it

may

be taken as a cardinal principle

distinction possible

which makes the appearance/reahty

The Point of Departure

is

63
is

not

itself

dubitable.

Here Descartes' view

is

beyond reproach:

doubt cannot be ultimate, for doubt

possibility of distinguishing

generated because of the

between what appears to be and what

reaUy
two.

is.

Doubt

inhabits the

chasm which

is

It

might

at first

appear that once

this
it.

opened between these chasm has opened for

this is this

our knowledge, then nothing can close

there

Yet

not

so.

For

must be that

in our

knowledge which allows

appearance/
distinction

reality

distinction to appear,
itself fall

and the ground of the

distinction

cannot

on the

side of appearance.
is

For Descartes, the appearance/reality

grounded
tained in
subject; that

sufficiently

in the experience of myself as

is,

an individual thinking
is

the intelligible paradigm for "reality"

that con-

my

reflective grasp of myself as a thinking being, and the

reason that the reality of other things

is

may
I

be called into doubt

that they

do not exhibit

this

same

intelligibility.

The notion

of

appearance, on this view, arises because

besides

apprehend everything
Thus,

my

individual thinking self as a falling-away from the

paradigmatic

mode

of reality which belongs to the

is

self.
is

we
the
the

may

say that the self

unconditionally real, for

it

the ground
if

for the distinction

between appearance and reahty. But

is

criticism of the Cartesian viewpoint

well taken (and that

is

present contention) this will not do.

ciently
itself

The

cogito-self cannot suffiit

ground the appearance/reality

distinction, since

is
it.

not

an irreducible beginning.
experience
is
is

We

must go back behind

The
self

self of

not a private thinking substance, but a

which
in

transcendentally related to a world, a fundamental gestalt

self

which

and other are configurationally

reality is

united.

What

then

is

the irreducible cognitional begiiming, in terms of which the distinction

between appearance and

the question. It

both raised and sur-

passed?
It
is is

my

existence as a questioning being

distinction. If I get

which generates the appearance/reality

to the core of

down
exist-

my

knowing, to the foundation upon which

is

my

ence as a knowing being

built,

what
is

I find is

the question.

At

the absolute center of knowing, there

the question. Nothing can

64
go back behind
jure
it

The Philosophy
this

of

Knowledge

no doubt, no

scepticism,

no error can conI

away; nor can any subsequent knowledge be grasped except

as a reply to the primordial question

which

am. As a knower
I

inhabit the question; I exist questioningly.

Only because

can

call

experience into the light of the question can I distinguish between

appearance and reahty. Before

as a questioning being.

this distinction

comes

my

existence

But

this

means

that the question takes

precedence over the appearance/reality distinction, that whatever

intelligibility is

contained in the question

is

contained indubitably.

The importance
I

of this can be overlooked because

we

are in

the habit of regarding a question as something merely negative:

do not know something, and therefore

I question.

As

such, the
It

question seems to be the pure absence of cognitional value.

seems to occupy the terrain of ignorance, to have no more

gibility

intelliis

than a negation.
is

What

is

proposed here

is

that this

not

so, that the question

actually the primordial

form of cognition.
as

Meaning
existence
picture
reality.
it,

is

first

given to us in the form of the question; man's

question.

is

this

The question
to

is

not,

we

usually

a blank negative posed in the face of a solid block of

picture
it it

To
we

thus

is

empty the question

itself

of value,

to represent

as a cipher oriented towards a fullness.

it

Because we

do

this,

find

hard to grasp what one could mean

who
is

as-

signed cognitive value to the question as such.

One
:

only knows,
often

we
is

feel,

what he can

assert; that

is

why

epistemology

thought to be a review of propositions or judgments

a proposition

the public form of an assertion, and only assertions are cogni-

tional.

Questions express what

do not know. But in putting

all

things thus
assertion
is

we

neglect to advert to the fact that underlying

the need to assert.

Why

do

I assert

anything? Because

implicitly I
is

have previously questioned. The primordial question

the ground for the existence of any assertion whatsoever. This

what we overlook. As Ortega y Gasset says, the ultimately is that man has problems at all. Why should we have problems, why should we question? In asking this question,
is

astonishing thing

thought sees that

it

can go no further.

Man

has problems because

he

exists questioningly.

The Point of Departure

If
is

65
form of cognition, then whatever
contains

the question

is

the primary
is

contained in the question

indubitably real. But the question

it

contains
the
self,
it

much more than

the Cartesian cogito. Surely

but not in an exclusive or even prominently thematic

way:

contains the self as open towards the other.

to itself in the question

The

self

which

comes
other.

comes

to itself as openness to the

is

The
is

other

is

just as present in the question as

the

self.

That

the justification for Heidegger's

the world as the correlate of

my

and Ortega's viewing of existence. Being is present to me

is

questioningly:
tionability.

what
is

is

given in the question

being in
this

its

ques-

This

not playing with words, for

is

presence of

being in
bility.

its

questionability
is

my

ultimate assurance of intelligi-

Reality

given to

me

as correlative to the question: then,

I inhabit

in inhabiting this question,

meaning, and there

I

is

no
the

escape from
question.

it.

am

this

dweUing in meaning, because

cognition, primary cognition,
is

am

The

revelation of the world as questionable

is

is its

revelait

tion as intelligible: this

and

is

given in the question.

The world

the correlate of

my
its

existence

because the world

is

the totality of entities as incorporated into

the question: because

ability,
it is

my

thought

is

open

to

Being in

question-

the correlate of the world as included within the ques-

tion of Being. Self

and world are the two

sides of

an experience

which

is

questioningly open to Being.

More than this, what is given in the question is the fact that we question. The question comes to itself, utters itself, in language. Then it is we who speak and we who question. As the questioner,
I

am

part of a

community of questioning
will say that

beings.

We
is

exist ques-

tioningly.

Thus Heidegger

"language

the house of

being": 2^ man, as questioning existence, raises the question of the

Being of the beings he meets, but he raises

this

question in lan-

guage, and thus Being dwells in language. Conversely,

man

dwells

in the intelligibHity of being by dwelling in language. Here Brunner

is right.

Where thought

starts is

with the question; but the question

question in-

finds voice in language.

The

full inteUigibiUty of the

25

Heidegger, Lettre sur I'Humanisme, p. 24.

66
eludes the
it

The Philosophy
community
addresses
of questioning beings

of

Knowledge
it:

who
I

give voice to

includes dialog. In inhabiting the question,

"thou"

who

me and who
is

dwells with

am open to the me in language.

Contained

in the question

much more

than the thinking sub-

stance of Descartes:

the appeal

and response of the "I" and

also be pointed out

"thou," being in
the question of
existence

its

question ability, the world about which I raise

its

being. It can

now

how my
human

may

be the foundation of

my

relation to the absolute.

For even on a pre-cognitional

reality is inserted into the

level, I exist questioningly:

world as a living question. As he comes

to the consciousness of himself,

man

grasps his existence as a

is

questioning existence. But a questioning existence

absolute. It
is

turned to the

the presence of the absolute, the presence of being

in its questionabiUty.

Then man's properly human mode

it

of exist-

ence
If

is this

openness to being.

these contemporary thinkers are right,

might be wondered
that he did not carry

why

Descartes saw things so differently. In so far as such quesis

tions can be answered, the answer probably

his examination

back

far enough.

He remained

too

much

within

what Husserl has

gards the

caUed-*' the "natural entity as simply

view" of things which re-

human

one among others, even while

trying to subject this view to criticism.

When
self
it

he got back behind

the "natural view," he

still

had not modified

his conception of the

knower, and when he resuscitated the

was the

self of the

"natural view" with the other entities omitted

an

isolated "think-

ing substance." If
in

human

reality,

we carry reflection back to its ultimate ground we discover human reality as a unique openness
and
is

to being: both as existent

as

knower,

am

a question inserted

into reality.

My

privilege

not to be a thinking substance, but to

be

this

unique openness to reaUty.

My

claim to a privileged status

reality.
is

consists in

my

being the scene for this disclosure of

Descartes did not sufficiently recognize that the question

26

more

trans,

Edmund Husserl, Ideas; General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology by W. R. Boyce Gibson (New York: Macmillan), 1931, pp. 101-106,

125-127.

The Point of Departure

than the revelation of the subject.
of thought, but he grasped
it

67

He

grasped the privileged role

as questioning activity,

and thus

reconfined this questioning activity to a separate thinking substance.

He

thus considered consciousness as the act or function of

a "thing" in the same

way

that the activities of the entities

which

consciousness encounters are activities of "things." Consciousness,

however, as the disclosure of

thing in the

all activities is

not an activity of a
are.

same way

that these
is

activities

Birds

fly,
list

fire

warms, plants grow,

activities.

man

conscious, so would run the

is
it

of

But consciousness
as these others:
all

not the activity of a subject in the

is

same sense
hended

the questioning existence which

brings to light

these other activities

and cannot be comprewas that he

conception of

in terms of them. Descartes' essential mistake

suflficiently

had not

liberated

himself from the

thought as a "thing." Man's unique

mode

of existence was appre-

hended by him
leading, since

as the existence of a "thinking thing," a conception

not only terminologically inappropriate but philosophically misit

introduces

more problems than

it

solves.

THE PROBLEM OF PERCEPTION:

NAIVE REALISM
Any
philosopher of knowledge will have some kind of problem

about perception. For the general realization of the bi-polar nature

of consciousness does not settle every question that can be raised

about the objectivity of the whole range of data present to

consciousness.
perplexities.

The area

of perception

is

especially replete with

At

the start
sense,

we

all

stand in the comfortable assurance of com-

mon

presented to us through sense perception

"there," even

which proceeds on the assumption that the world is purely and simply

when we
it is

are not sensing

it.

It is

there as such, in

the exact

manner

sensed, in complete independence of our

conscious awareness. Thus,

when my auto speeds over

sights,
it

the

highway
to think

and

I tranquilly

behold the panorama of

sounds, and smells

which make up the countryside,

anything else but that
I
I

does not occur to

me

am

not perceiving

it.

am perceiving what is there am aware of the green of

as such

when

the grass, the

solidity of the hills, the blue of the sky, the noise

and

clatter of

other cars, the drone of an airplane overhead, the resistance

of the road against the car-wheels, the gigantic collective shape of

the trees, the motion of clouds, the heat of the July sun, the

mingled scent of pine and gasoline fumes.

for

And

all

of this

is

there

me

as extended in space, as a dense distance

as far as I

can

see, there stretches the

voluminous expanse which seems

to suris

round and contain

me and my

awareness. This panorama

The Problem of Perception:

69

successive one, for the speeding car keeps introducing

vistas

me

to

and leaving others behind. But

it

does not for a single

new moit

ment enter
which
I

my

head that

as I leave

each vista behind, as the scene

beheld a

moment ago

vanishes from

my

view, that

ceases to exist. I assume just the opposite. I assume that the scene

upon which
which
it

looked a second ago

still

stands there in a

way

in

stood there for me, ready to be presented to someone else

if

(or to me,

I
is

choose to return).

"Assume"

even a poor word, for

do not consciously assume

this at all; it is

hardly a cognitional act of any kind.

is

The
for

objectivity

of the landscape

a kind of habitation for

my own

being.

The

scenes which are up ahead

on

the road

loom up

me

already;

my present
of

consciousness

is

a kind of living-towards the impending

future, so that the objectivity towards

which

I live is at
is
still

the base
there for

my

present consciousness.
it is

The absent other

me, whether
naive

the other I just beheld or

am

yet to behold.

The

consciousness

(which simply means lived consciousness,

is sustained by the moves and consequently
its

unreflective,

non-theoretical consciousness)
it

pure "thereness" of that amongst which

does not dream of questioning this thereness;

own

self-presence

would
things.

slip

away

if

it

did so, for

it

finds itself out-there,

among

"Naive realism," as
of total objectivity
tive value of this

it is

called, is simply this

hved acceptance

or the philosophical aflQrmation of the cogniIt is

hved acceptance.

often said that naive real-

ism holds that the precise quahties which we sense are formally
there independent of sensation, but this

may
is

be a wrong

way

of

putting

it.

The language

of "qualities"

probably not apt for

expressing the position of lived naive consciousness, for the latter

is

primarily an acting consciousness, and

moves among
which
I act,

things, not
is

quahties.

thing

is,

for

it,

a unified center of action which

is

set

over against
reacts

my

action;

it

that against

and which

upon me. It is both the condition for and obstacle to my action. Those philosophers are doubtless right who, like John

Dewey and Max

Scheler, ascribe our original conviction of objec-

70
tivity to

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

'\

the feeling of the "resistance" of the world.

will

My

actionnj
is
j

and

my

do not flow
actor, I

freely. I

meet impediments, and that

how

I first

become aware of myself; an

actor meeting counterj !

actors.

As an

am

a unified center, and things as counter-

actors are unified centers

met by me. As

resistant, their reahty

is

not conferred upon them by me; therefore as resistant, they are

unqualifiedly real

and

objective.

Since this
world, then

is

the context in which naive consciousness meets the

features of that world tend to share the pure

.*i

all

"thereness" of the world towards which action thrusts.

As soon

as

we

begin to talk about "qualities" and to wonder whether these

^
rj

are objective or not,

quality
is

we have taken

a step back from action, for

a theoretical term. Action does not advert to qualities.

.,

For

it,

the separate features of the world are not

met

as separate

::

features,

but incorporated into the unity of the resisting thing.

shrill, soft,

Green, rough, smooth, warm, blue, soUd, sweet,

large, loud, are experienced as

round,
;

imbedded

in the resistant matrix

"qualities."

which

is

the field of

my

action,

and not experienced as

When
other,

naive consciousness goes on to distinguish an "I" from the

it

automatically includes these features on the side of the

first reflective

independent other. The

consciousness

is

only a regufinds

larization of the situation in

itself.

which the acting consciousness

or not,
that
is

Whether

this is justified
it

a question that

may

well

be

raised, but

would seem

we must

at least realize

what

underlies naive realism.

LOCKE AND REPRESENTATIONALISM

As
it

happens,

when

critical reflection got

it

around

historically to

posing the problem of reflection,

quickly forsook the reahstic

outlook of

common
it

sense. Consequently,

some of the points now

to

to be made in the course of an examination of the problem of

perception as

arose historically

may seem

be somewhat in the

nature of back-tracking from the insistence on the bi-polarity of

consciousness contained in the last chapter. This

is

inevitable,

The Problem of Perception:

since the thinkers

71
problem did

who

initiated the discussion of this

not begin with an acknowledgment of the bi-polarity of consciousness.

On
its

the contrary,

it

was they who gave the

it

subjectivist out-

look

most popular formulation, the so-called "image" theory

is

of perception. Nevertheless, of the

useful to begin the examination

problem

historically with these thinkers, rather than in a

directly analytic
interest to

way, and

this

not only because of the intrinsic

is

be found in their writings. For the truth

is

that their

viewpoint

not merely a contingent historical peculiarity of their

is

own, but

it

one which recommends

at

itself to

any human mind

when operating
It is

a certain stage of reflection.

the version of the British philosopher, John Locke^ which

defined the status of the discussion for those

shall

who

followed.

We

have to concentrate on the most cursory presentation of a

small segment of the thought of a

tial

man who was

all

extremely influen-

influential,

it

may

be, out of

proportion to the profundity

of his thought,

and apparently because he expressed so well a

to justify the use of understand-

viewpoint inevitable in reflection.

His aim
ing,

is

similar to Descartes'
set

and to

knowledge on a firm

footing. His aim,

hke Des-

cartes', is to

carry thought back to

its

own

foundations. But he

does not accept the elevation of the intelligible over the sensible.
Rather, he regards
all intelligibility

as derivative

from the

senses.

His famous comparison of the mind of

rasa," a blank tablet

man

at birth with a "tabula

upon which nothing has

yet been written,

is

meant not only

to dispense with

any recourse to "innate ideas,"

but to prepare the explanation of

an elaboration of sensory data.

how meaning is put together by We know nothing which has not

is

been derived from the senses; the only original writing upon the
tablet of the
is

mind

is

that

which

inscribed by the senses.

familiar philosophical

Locke

thus an "empiricist," in the most

meaning
content

of that word: a sense empiricist, one of thought

is

who

holds that

all

eventually reducible to a sense-reference.

1632-1704.

72

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

While many interesting contributions to the psychology of

knowledge are made in the course of Locke's attempt to trace out how we build up our complex thought-meanings from simple sensebeginnings,
it

is

his

way

of conceiving the objects of this sense

experience which provides the key to his epistemology.

What we

know, according to Locke,

is

an "idea." This
it

is

a highly significant

word with which

to begin, for

immediately gets us entangled in

the image theory of perception.

Most people would say they

this

are
is

aware of things. For Locke, however, the object of awareness

an
idea.

No more
thinks; I

than with Descartes does

it is:

mean
is

exclusively

a "concept." Rather
a

"the object of understanding whenever

it

man

have used

to express
it

whatever
is

phantasm, notion, species, or whatever

meant by which the mind can

idea,

be employed about

in thinking

."-

An

again,

is

"the

immediate object of perception."^ The premises here seem to be

those which are operative in
all

such beginnings: that of which

it is

am my

aware

is

present to
if
it it

my
an

awareness;

therefore present within

it

awareness;

is is

within

my

consciousness,

is

a mental

datum; therefore
moving,

idea. So, data like white, round, cold,

solid, sweet, painful,

extended, are

all ideas.

Now

obviously, one
if

who
I

begins here with Locke has the

immeis

diate problem:

what

am
is

immediately aware of in perception

an idea, and
than myself?
I

if

an idea
is

a mental event and hence subjective,

then ui what sense

Is

my

perception a revelation of anything other

all like

reaUty at

my

idea?

How

do

never

know

extra-mental reaUty, but only ideas?

I know it is, if The experience

of seeing blue, feeling something smooth, tasting something sweet,

hearing a

shrill noise, feeling heat,

me

but how do
Locke

know

that

on in they reveal anythmg of the ways

are experiences going
I

things are in themselves?

really blue,
^

When

am

not sensing things, are they

smooth, sweet,

shrill,

hot, sohd, extended,

shaped?

Selections, edit,

by Sterling Lamprecht (New Yoric: Scribner's),

Understanding).

1928, p. 95. All references to Locke are to this volume. (Quotations are from
his Essay

Concerning
205.

Human

3 Ibid., p.

The Problem of Perception:
Here
that
is

I
It is

73
an acute one.

Locke's problem.

How

do

know

my

ideas resemble things?

Are bodies

really like the ideas I

have of them?

We

cannot simply assume that they are

done) that they are
in the

we may

not think (as perhaps usually

is

exactly the images

subject;

and resemblances of something inherent

in the

mind no more the likeness of something existing without us, than the names that stand for them are the likeness of our ideas, which yet upon hearing they
most of these of sensation being
are apt to excite in us.*

Ideas are

my

ways of subjectively reacting to the influences which

bodies bring to bear on me.

They

are the representations in

my

consciousness of bodies outside me, mental copies or images of

these bodies.

But are they good copies?

How
What

far

do they resemble

the original?

Here Locke

distinguishes.

I directly

know

are

ideas, but in respect to

really
selves.

some of these

ideas, I

can infer that they themto

do resemble

qualities

which are found

in the objects

There are certain quahties which belong

essentially

bodies,

and which are inseparable from them, so that a body could

extension,
figure,

neither be conceived nor exist without these quahties: such are

solidity,

motion or
qualities,"

rest,

and number. These

in bodies

Locke denominates "primary

themselves.

and he concludes that our

found as such

ideas of such qualities represent

what

is

Not aU

ideas are so objectively well founded.

Such

features as color, sound, taste, are not essentially contained in the

concept of body; they are simply sensations caused in us by the

primary qualities and by no means on an equally objective footing.

The

ideas of primary qualities of bodies are resemblances of them, and

their patterns

do

really exist in the bodies themselves; but the ideas,

qualities,

produced in us by these secondary

have no resemblance of
only a

them

at all.

There
are,

is

nothing like our ideas existing in the bodies them-

selves.

They

in the bodies

we denominate from them,

4 7i,vf.

74
power
to

The Philosophy
produce these sensations in us: and what
is is

of

Knowledge

sweet, blue or

warm

in idea,

but the certain bulk, figure, and motion of the in-

sensible parts in the bodies themselves,

which we

call so.^

If

we

wish, then, to speak of color,

sound, taste, as being

is

"objective," the

most we can mean

to

is

that there

power

in

objects

sufficient
is

cause these subjective impressions in me.

some reason why we see the grass as green, rather than red; taste sugar as sweet and lemon as sour; hear a grating noise rather than a melodious one. But apart from our conscious experiThere
ence, these things are not there as such:

Take away
and
all

the sensation of them; let not the eyes see light, or colours,
let

nor the ears hear sounds;

ideas, vanish
figure,

the palate not taste, nor the nose smell;

colours, tastes, odours,

and sounds,

as they are such particular

their causes,
i.e.

and cease, and are reduced to

parts.^

bulk,

and motion of

What Locke

leaves us with, then,

reality" of the

is

a geometrical universe, in
is

which the "objective

the subjective.
things.

world

reduced to the bulk

else
is

and motion of extended bodies and everything

relegated to
of seeing

He was by no means
as

alone in this

way

Descartes,

we saw,
all

said essentially the

Galileo,

Hobbes, Newton,'^
not too

concurred, and this

belief
it is

same thing; view became in

throughout the
is

fact the standard scientific

and philosophical

18th century.

It is

much

to say that

the view which

most immediately superimposed by our culture on the primitive

naive view; with the permeation through every educated and quasi-

educated mind of the

scientific

way

of conceiving the world,

beliefs, to

many

people tend, at the level of their expressed

truth of this outlook.

assume the

Every high school student knows that "of

sugar
isn't "really"

course" the sky

5 Ibid., p.
6
^

isn't really blue,

sweet, water

207.
see E. A. Burtt,

Ibid.

On

this,

The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern

1954.

Physical Science

(New York: Doubleday Anchor Books),

The Problem of Perception:

isn't really

75
H2O).
It is all

warm

(in fact isn't really "water" but

light,

matter of refracted

cortical reflexes, molecules in motion.

This

is

the "bifurcation" of nature which

Whitehead

decries

and

which

is

exhibited in

its

most accessible form by Locke: the

split-

ting of nature

down

the middle into the geometrical "real world"

of extended bodies in motion

sations.

and the "mental world" of our sen-

From

the foregoing

it is

easy to see

why Locke has been

His starting-point
is

called

an "indirect" or "representative"
immediately terminates in
these ideas (those

realist.

actu-

ally that of the epistemological idealist:

is

what
But

my

act of awareness

an

idea.

in respect to

some
is

of

which represent primary

qualities)

we may

infer

that they correctly represent a feature of reaUty

which

there

independent of our awareness, and so indirectly

may

vindicate

realism's belief that consciousness reaches the non-self.

An

evaluation of Locke's theory

it,

is

really contained in

Berke-

ley's rejoinder to

but one or two separate remarks

may be made.

First of

all, it

seems correct to say that Locke was really assuming

a sort of realism from the beginning, in spite of the apparent

idealism of his starting-point. His question really was:

how do we

know which
in bodies?

of the ideas

we have correspond

to qualities present

He

never seems to have asked himself

how he knew
is

that there

were bodies. That he simply assumes. This

not only a

feUcitous

demonstration of that balance which enables British

thinkers to allow down-to-earth considerations to hold speculation

in inconclusive counterpoise. It
is

also an inevitable concomitant

of any brand of representationalism.

to

For

it

amounts to the

failure

examine thoroughly the consequences of one's own assumptions.

overlooks the issue of
if

Representationalism holds that ideas are caused by bodies, but

are themselves subjective data;
it

may know
it

the causal property of bodies

is fatal
it.

how we we do not know bodies

and

but only ideas. This dilemma

to representationalism,

was
8

left to

Berkeley to develop

versity Press), 1920,

A. N. Whitehead, The Concept of Nature (Cambridge: Cambridge UniChapter II.

'

76

The Philosophy of Knowledge

BERKELEY
The term
"refutation" should be used sparingly in philosophy,
it is

but one case where

clearly appHcable

is

to Berkeley's rebuttal
if

to Locke. It certainly seems just to say that

we

begin where

Locke began, we should logically finish where Berkeley finished. George Berkeley, bishop in the Irish Anglican church,^ was prompted by the highest spiritual motives in his philosophizing. Views like that of Locke might not be as directly reprehensible as those, say, of the materialist Thomas Hobbes (who reduced mind
to the motion of atoms), but they played into the materialists'

'

hands through

their granting a mysterious

"material substance"

co-equal autonomy with the reality of mind.

He who

undertakes to

overthrow materiahsm
if

may make

out a splendid case for himself

he can simply show that what the materialist means by matter

exist;

does not

this

is

what Berkeley proposed

spiritual,

to

do. Locke's
is

"material substance," supposed to be independent of mind,

myth.

If

genuine reality

is

then

all

specious objections to
fall

the existence of

God and

the

immortaUty of the soul

away.
is

And

it

is

the easiest thing in the world to

show

that reality

spiritual.

Let us just take Locke

at his

own word: what we know

color,

directly
it

are ideas. Berkeley does not quarrel with this

to the

utmost degree. What we know directly

contents of consciousness.

resistance, pain, pleasure, joy, desire,

he emphasizes sound, sorrow, extension

all

taste,

these

things

are

They

are,
is

as

consciously

known,

ideas.

But

if

this is so,

then the ground

first

cut from under

Locke's ensuing reasoning. Berkeley will

ask Locke upon

what ground he makes anything

significant out of his distinction

Is this distinction

between primary and secondary quaUties.

based

upon experience? When

is

did

ever experience a body which had

the primary qualities without the secondary?

never.

The answer,

clearly,

Then

this is

not a difference between ways of experienc\

1685-1753.

The Problem of Perception: I

ing:
all qualities

77
on even terms

as given are
is

they

are

all ideas.

What

reason, then,

there to give one type of idea a privilege not

accorded to another?^"

Not only
defending
is

is

there

no

basis in experience for Locke's granting a

privileged objectivity to ideas of

primary
if

qualities,

but what he

is

simply unthinkable. For,

what we know

directly are

ideas, then

what can

it

mean

to discover

which ideas "represent"

things as they are "in themselves?"

How

would we ever discover

is

which ideas are good copies of

reality?

The way we
original: this

ordinarily go about deciding whether something

is

a good copy or not

by comparing the representation to the photograph is a good copy of John Smith if it really

resembles him, and this

we

learn by comparing photograph to

this

man. But the

difficulty of

proceeding like

with our perceptions

ideas to the originals

leaps to the eye:

if

how can we compare our

we never

perceive the originals but only ideas?

Not only

this,

but what do
the original?

we even mean by

asking whether this idea resembles

For what could an idea resemble except another idea?

is illusory,

Locke's whole program, then,

impossible.

for

it is

trying to

do the

Again, I ask whether those supposed originals, or external things, of

which our ideas are the pictures or representations, be themselves perceivable or no? If they are, then they are ideas,

our point: but

if

you say they are

is

not, I appeal to

and we have gained anyone whether it

is

be sense to assert a color

soft like

like

something which

invisible;

hard or

something intangible; and so of the

rest.^^

Berkeley will go

still

further. Existence,

he

states, is actually

inconceivable except in terms of ideas. For whatever

know

in terms of experience. Every assertion

if it

we know we we make can only

have meaning for us

^0

applies

to

something in our actual

Berkeley Selections,

edit,

by Mary Whiten Calkins (New York: Scrib-

ner's), 1929, p.

129. All references to Berkeley are to this volume. (This

quotation from Principles of

Human Knowledge)

" Ibid.,

p. 128.

78

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

experience. Grant, however, that experience always terminates in

"ideas,"

and then the statement that anything

else exists

becomes

empty. All we can

as existing.

mean by existing is what we directly experience What we experience is psychic, mental. Therefore, says
est

Berkeley,

"esse

percipi"

the only

meaning for "being"

be

is

"being perceived."^- Actually his complete formula should read:

"esse est aut percipere aut percipi"
to

to

is

either to perceive or

be perceived; for he allows that there are two ways of being:

as a

mind or

as the object of

mind.

I exist,

and the objects of

that
is

my

conscious experience exist

(my

ideas).

But

all I

can mean

by

existence.

To mean something by
to

a word,

must be able

to use

it

to point

some item

of

my

experience; but the

self

word "existence" must

it

either point to

an experiencing

or to the ideas which

is

experiencing, and in either case

we

are in the realm of the spiritual.

is

The conception
pendent of
it,

of something called "matter" which

completely

outside of mind, which exists in a

is

way other than mind and indepseudo-notion. If we do not believe this, let us

make

the effort to conceive of something existing unperceived.

is

To
it is

imagine things existing unperceived

perceiving them, and thus
for perception.
But, say you, surely there
is

simply to imagine oneself

still

to confine their reality to

what

nothing easier than for

me

to imagine

trees, for instance, in a park, or

books existing

in a closet,

and nobody

by to perceive them. I answer, you may so, there is no difficulty in it. But what is all this, I beseech you, more than framing in your mind certain ideas which you call books and trees, and at the same time omitting to frame the idea of anyone that may perceive them? But do not you yourself perceive or think of them all the while? This therefore is nothing to the purpose: it only shews you have the power of imagining, or forming ideas in your mind; but it does not shew
that
exist

you can conceive

without the mind.^^

it

possible the objects of your thought

may

12/fc/J., p. 126.

^^Ibid., p. 136.

The Problem

oj Perception: I
at

79

No
as

wonder, then,

Locke's conception of material substance

an "I know not what" underlying experienced qualities

is

for a

material substance

in principle unknowable. Locke should have

noticed that his reasoning involved

him

in the strange result that

it

matter as such turned out to be an unobservable;

always re-

mained an "I know not what," a useless appendage

directly given

to

what was
than
all

mind and

its

ideas.

Once we
is

see that matter, confiction,

sidered as an independent entity,

sorts

a ridiculous

of foolish problems are avoided, such as the worry over

whether

my
is

ideas correspond to anything other than themselves;

that there
is

the reason

no "external" world independent of ideas

first

for these ideas to "correspond to."

Much
is

confusion

is

sometimes aroused in a
It is

acquaintance

with the doctrine of Berkeley.

declaring that the world
is

thought, for instance, that he

is

an

illusion, life a

dream, and so

forth.

This

not really the point at

all.

He

is

not denying that the world

exists, that things are real.

He
is

is

really asking

what we mean by

the statement that the world

exists, that
it

real.
I

When

say this apple really

is

real,

what do
I

"apple" about which

red,

am

so

mean?" What do I mean by the sure that it exists? The apple is this
I

round, firm,

smooth, fragrant, sweet, crunchy thing here

apply to
it

before me. But every attribute

in this description,

Berkeley would

insist, is

an

idea, a

experiencing. Therefore,

all I

way in which I am consciously mean by the apple is a set of ideas

in

(experienced data)

which form a constant constellation

is

my

experience. If I insist that the apple

is

real, that

it

exists,

Berkeley

far

from denying
which
is

it.

He

will only ask

me

to point out
is

feature

contained in the term apple which

some more than

an

idea.

That
stoutly

is

why

Dr.

championing the

Sam Johnson was missing the point when, interests of common sense, he kicked the
"Thus do
I refute

stone and exclaimed

point, of course,

Bishop Berkeley"! His

thing,

was

that the stone

was a massive material

14 Ibid.,

pp. 124-125.

80
The Philosophy
of

Knowledge
dis-

stubbornly there in spite of Berkeley's abstruse attempts to

solve
it

into the thin air of ideas. This

would not have fazed Ber-

keley in the slightest; he would merely have asked,

"What did you

experience

when you kicked

is is

against the stone?

feeling of resist-

ance, which I declare

an idea; a feeling of pain, which every-

body admits
the

an idea.

You
is

saw, visually, a gray shape,

felt

rough surface, and heard a thudding noise. All

stone

ideas. Therefore

you contend
is it

undoubtedly there

is

(undoubtedly)

there.

But what

but the experienced unity of diverse ideas

so that you have not refuted

me

but confirmed me." Berkeley was

very definite in arguing that he has no quarrel with what the plain

man meant by
be regarded

matter, matter as actually experienced (which could

and therefore a facet of was with the mythical material "substance" of philosophers which was supposed to be some totally unthinking and unthought "x" apart from experience altogether. This was not
as a facet of experience,

mind)

his only quarrel

only an unverifiable

^for,

how

could

we

verify in terms of experi-

ence what

is

in principle

beyond experience

but

it

is

actually

inconceivable.

deny therefore that there

is

any unthinking substratum of the objects

is

of sense, and in that acceptation that there

any material substance.

But
is

if

by material substance
felt

is

meant only

sensible

body

that

which
I

seen and

(and the unphilosophical part of the world,

dare

say,

mean no more)

then

am more

certain of matter's existence

than you or any other philosopher pretend to be.^^

The

objection

is

also raised that

is

if

Berkeley

identifies

being with

being perceived, then he

ceived they do not exist.

implying that when things are not perthis

Does

mean

that
it

when

walk out of

the room, the perceived objects which

fill

simply cease to be?

Not

necessarily, for they

is

can be perceived by some other mind.

Berkeley

not contending that

my
is

individual

mind confers

reality

on

things.

But suppose no one

there?

What about

the building

^^ Ibid., p.

309 (Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous).

The Problem of Perception:

81

when

it is

vacant at night, deserted by everyone, with no perceiver

there at all?

Does

it still

exist?

Berkeley could

still

say yes, for he

is

allows not only the possibility but the necessity that there absolute

an

mind which
be said to

is

at every
if

moment

perceiving the data which

is

I perceive, so that

even

no

finite

mind

perceiving them, they

can

still

exist.
is

As

a matter of fact, the quasi-independence of sensations

the

basis of Berkeley's "proof" for the existence of

God.

He

certainly

does not hold that

not in
of

my

ideas derive their origin from

me: they are

my power my own will.

He

but rather impose themselves upon

This incidentally,
is

me

regardless

why

those persons also err

who

accuse Berkeley of being unable to distinguish dream and

distinguished these in about the

reality.

same way

as

anybody

else distinguishes

them: the dream-world

is

is

disorganized, arbitrary,

subject to

my

control; the real world

orderly, predictable, funda-

mentally beyond

my

voHtional control.^'' I
is

am

not at liberty to

experience anything I like, and this

the sign that

my

ideas are

imposed upon

me by some

superior source.

sensible things cannot exist otherwise than in a

I conclude,

mind or

spirit.

Whence

not that they have no real existence, but that,

on my thought, and have an existence distinct from being perceived by me, there must be some other Mind wherein they exist. As sure, therefore, as the sensible world really exists, so
seeing they depend not

sure
it."

is

there an infinite omnipresent Spirit

who

contains and supports

To Bishop

Berkeley, reality appears as a community of

spirits,

(thinking beings)

among whom one

spirit is

primary, the source

of the experience of the others.

Ibid., Ibid.,
Tp.

We may stiU use the word

"matter"

'^^
1'^

141 {Principles).
276.
It

might be wondered what would happen to Bishop he did not bring in the existence of God but confined himself to what is directly given in experience as he conceived it. In a way, phenomenalism is the working out of the answer to this question: it is Berkeley with the absolute removed.
p.

Berkeley's philosophy

if

82
if

The Philosophy
like,

of

Knowledge

we

but

if this is

to

have real meaning,

it is

simply the term

for certain aspects of the experience of spirits: the aspect under

which experience has the features usually called

quantitative.

Far

from being independent of mind, matter

mind.
In evaluating Berkeley,
of deciding
1)

is

simply one aspect of

we

are faced with the central difficulty

how

to interpret him.
I

That of which

am

directly

certainly

what Berkeley

first

He may mean either: aware is my own idea. This is seems to mean. And if this is taken
all

as his consistent position, then he has subjectivism. If all

the difficulties of a strict

my

consciousness terminates in myself,

how
It

can

use any item of that knowledge to get beyond myself?

his

might be suggested that

that he could

view applies only to sensations, and

did: use

do what Descartes

an

intelligible

argument

for

God

to extricate himself.

Yet he himself argues against the

is

existence of abstract terms, and

quite sensist in orientation.

intelligible evidence,

He

does not develop the argument from

although

he accepts unquestioningly the concepts of cause and substance

(the latter when applied to spiritual substance). We might defend him by saying that he is simply relying on the immediate primacy of the experience of the self and using the self as the norm for the assertion of any existence, but this would be more an argument
offered in his behalf than a reasoning he himself developed.

As
use

matters stand in his

that,

from the charge

on

his

own writings, he cannot be absolved own theory of knowledge, he cannot

of subjectivism, for

God

to find his

way out

on the

subjectivist

assumption, his idea of

God

also has only subjective value. Beginall

ning with the assumption that

of
I

my

perceptions are ideas, I

do not yet have an "other," and

urgently need
ideas.

bestow the coefficient of otherness on these

some means to Even if Berkeley

is still

thinks he has succeeded in reaching this in respect to the absolute,

this

only validates one "other"; at this stage there

the alter-

native of conceiving himself to be alone in the face of an absolute

who imposes
and the

upon him. The reahty of other human multiple reality of the non-human is, to say the
his ideas

selves
least,

not coercively estabhshed. Since to exist entails either perceiving

The Problem of Perception: I

or being perceived,
it

83
clear that

is

fairly

no meaning can be
the existence of

attached

to

the

independent existence of inanimate things or

is

plants; the status of animals

more ambiguous;

other

human

selves is thinkable but not clearly demonstrable

on

Berkeley's assumption that

we know
is

directly only our

own

ideas.

2) That of which
tation,

am

conscious

God's

idea.

On this

interpre-

same thing that exists outside my perception is also perceived by me. Sometimes he speaks Hke this. If this is what he means, then I really do know the non-self, and Berkeley is not an
the
idealist at all,
is

but a

realist.

The essence

of epistemological reahsm

that

my

act of

knowing puts me

in touch with a non-self.

The

fact that Berkeley calls that non-self

it

an "idea" and denies that

is

"matter" seems to be more a metaphysical point than an

epistemological one.

The primary
is

epistemological question

is:

in

knowing, do

know what

other than myself?

On
is

this

second

way

of taking him, Berkeley

would be saying
I

that I do
that

and

simply adding that the real nature of what

mental;
it

know

it is still

is

God's idea (the idea constantly perceived by God)

now imposed on me.

CONTEMPORARY VIEWS
a)

SCIENTISM
universal confirmation of the accuracy of the portrait of
it is

The

reahty as

painted by science has had the side effect of aggra-

vating the

epistemological problem of perception.

For

it

has

pressed

home

to reflection the seemingly either /or choice

between

the outlook of science

and the outlook of

itself,

common
its

sense.

the structure of reality in

apart from

relation to

What is human
scientist

consciousness? If

it

is

really like the picture

which the

paints, then the spectacle present to

fully represent
it

and

common

sense does not faith-

the features which present themselves to

immediate perception are not really there independent of perception;

if

they are not,

we

are prone to ask "where" they exist,

and

to conclude that they

must be subjective experiences of a per-

ceiving subject.

84
Reflection

The Philosophy of Knowledge

on the
findings of either physics or biology could

easily give rise to this sort of consideration. Sir

Arthur Eddington's

famous parable of the "two tables"

difiiculty as
it is

is

a vivid presentation of the

engendered by physics (although he himself does

not accept

it

as insurmountable).

Here he

sits,

he

tells

us/ begin-

ning his task of writing his book on the nature of the physical
world. But troubles arise immediately, for, strange to say, he
is

simultaneously sitting at and leaning on "two tables."

at

The

table

which he

sits is,

for

common

sense, a rather bulky black object,

hard and

resistant,

extending continuously in space for a distance

still,

of about three feet, solid and

quite filling the space within

its

surfaces with a matter called wood.

looks, sees

But the scientist,

when he
is

no such

table.

The

table of the physicist

mostly

empty space, within which atoms of

another.

infinitesimal size are swirling

about in incredibly rapid motion without ever touching one

Which
is

is

the real table? If the table of perception

is

is real,

the scientific table

unreal;

if

the scientific table

is real,

the table
practical
it

of perception

unreal.

Prompted by the unprecedented

success of the scientific view,

scientific table

many

infer forthwith that

is

the

which

is

reaUy there, and that the features presented

to perception are not objective data.

ton's phrase,
qualities,

Not only is color, in Eddingmere "mind-spinning" but so are the other secondary
so, in

and

a true sense, are even extension and the con-

tinuous character of the perceived table, which do not correspond

to a state of affairs obtaining outside of me.

similar difiicult

dilemma could be reached on the

basis of the
tell

conclusions of biology. For what the physiologist has to

us

about the nature and origin of perception does not seem very easy
to reconcile with the conviction of the

man

in the street that

he

perceives a

pubUc world which

all

is

independently there. Perception,

and

this

means
body,

perception, and not merely optical awareness,

we now know
physical

to begin with a stimulus

which derives from a

moves

through

an

intervening
is

medium,

and

impinges on a nerve ending.

18

An

impulse

then transmitted to a

A.

S.

Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World

ss.

(New York: Mac-

millan), 1929, p. ix

The Problem of Perception:

cortical center

I
set

85
up on the
brain-cells.

and a modification

As an

accompaniment of

this cortical activity, sensation occurs.

Various

questions for the epistemology of perception are raised. Obviously

the cortical activity of the brain-cells
activity of the
is

nothing like the molecular

not even like

body which transmitted the original stimulus; it is the hght-waves which caused the neural reaction.

But then how can my sensation, which is simply the accompaniment of a cortical activity give me the awareness of something
which
is

completely unlike

itself?^^

The
that

difiiculty

does not stop here. For the physiologist knows

stimulation of

by an

artificial

my

brain-cells

he can cause

me

to perceive colors, hear sounds, experience scents,

when

there are

actually
as
if

no objects present
I

at

all.

Does

it

not then begin to seem

is

what

always

am

actually experiencing

a sensation which so far from

it

accompanies a brain-state?
putting

On

this basis, sensation is

is

even outside of my own body.^^ With this sort of evidence we may feel ourselves to be faced with a somewhat harrowing dilemma: we either relegate science,
with
its

me in take me

touch with what

other than myself that

does not

unparalleUed store of verified

or

fact, to the status of

a useful

fiction;

we

consign the rich and variegated display of perception

to the cenacle of

our individual minds.

It is

sometimes overlooked
be.

how

far reaching the second alternative

would

For

in attributing

to ourselves

what perception

attributes to the world,

is

we would

have to say not only that the table

not "really" sohd, the sky

not "reaUy" blue, the melody not "really" sounding, but also that
the sunset
is

not really splendid, the

symphony not

really majestic,

the painting not really beautiful. If the "secondary" qualities are

subjective, then surely
ties

what have been called the

"tertiary" quali-

(beauty, goodness, and the like)

is,

are also subjective.

What

the sun "really"

19

is

a gaseous assemblage of molecules, the

if I

Some might even

for

begin to talk as
is

am

really conscious of

my own

brain-states, but a little further reflection

this,

would reveal the foolishness of

my own

brain

never the object of

my

awareness.

For a review of the physiological opinions, see R. J. Hirst, The Problems of Perception (New York: Macmillan), 1959, pp. 145 ss, 279 ss.

20

86
symphony
"really"
is

The Philosophy
is

of

Knowledge
the paint-

a series of disturbances of the

It

air,

ing "really"

a collection of chemicals.

can hardly be denied

that a certain depression settles

is felt

on the
this

spirit

when
is

the obligation

to talk in this manner.

And

depression
it

not irrelevant

to the epistemological question.

For

should begin to be clear

that the question of objectivity cannot be raised apart

from the

exigence of the inquiring consciousness. If the aesthetic consciousness

is

dissatisfied with a certain

way

of conceiving the nature of

to shunt
it

reality, this dissatisfaction

must be reckoned with, for

demands.
is

aside

would not
to our

silence

its

More

immediate point

the quandary in which scienits

tism finds

itself directly
is

upon
up

the enunciation of

own

thesis.
it

Scientism

obviously one version of representationalism;

to date.

is

representationalism brought
fatal

As such
all

it

suffers

from

the
is

weakness of inconsistency to which

representationahsm

subject.

What

scientism contends

is

that

my

sensations are purely

subjective, caused in

me by

the real objective entities

bodies conI

ceived as science conceives them. But the difficulty just will not

down:
then
right.

if

my

sensations are subjective, then

how do
it

know

that

there really are bodies independent of them? If scientism

its

is right,

position vitiates the evidence

upon which
I

claims to be

For example, the physiologist says that

I

perceive this table

the

way

do because

certain Ught-waves are refracted

retina,

from the
There-

table,

impinge on

my

and cause a
it

cortical reaction.

fore the table as I actually perceive

is

a subjective collocation
activity;

of sensations aroused in
actually

me

because of brain
sensations,

what

am

aware of

is

my own

and nothing independently

objective.^^

But when the physiologist says the light-waves are refracted from the table, impinge on my eye, and so on, he is
talking about the table

which

I perceive:
it

this table right here.

!

This table, however, precisely as

21

can be experienced and pointed

what I am aware of is inside my have only to ask ourselves what is the comparative size of the table which I perceive and my head to convince ourselves that the perceived table is not inside my head if we are not convinced by the immediately given externality.

Some

will
is

go so far as to

assert that

head, which

obviously nonsense.

We

The Problem of Perception:

to, is,

87

tions.

on his own theory, simply a collocation of subjective sensaThen his position amounts to the absurd claim that sensation
because a collocation of sensations causes

arises

me

to

have

sensations.

There seems absolutely no way out of the representationalist

predicament. For representationalism
is

actually

founded on a

premise which nuUifies

its

own

conclusions.

The

representationalist

assumes not only that there are things independent of experience,

but that
I really

do experience them,
as

at least to the extent that I

can

call

them "bodies" and can know how they

interact with

my

body (also assumed

declares that external
itself
all I

something independent of sensations) in

order to give rise to sensations. But he then turns around and

directly

know

are

my own

sensations.

Then

the
is

body which he declares

to be causing his sensations

a sensation.

And
is

the anomaly does not stop there.

The

physiologist says that sensations are simply

brain-states.

accompaniments of
I

But what
I

the brain,

on

his

premise? All
Perception
the only
is

know
I

about the brain

jective sensations.

know through perception. Then the brain itself, in

it

of sub-

way
is

ever

come

into contact with

(through

my

perception),

a colloca-

tion of sensations. In other words, the scientific representationalist,

or any representationalist,
that I both

is

in the impossible position of holding

do and do not know more than

as a halfway

my own

sensations.
it

Because of the patent untenability of representationahsm,

must be regarded
ical

house on the road of epistemolog-

Most contemporary philosophers so regard it, and tend to move either to a position of complete phenomenaUsm or back to a more direct reaHsm. We wiU look briefly at some of
speculation.
their positions.

b)

SENSE-DATUM APPROACH: A WAY OUT?

1) Moore, Russell, Broad

from the impasse of both representationalism and Berkeleyan idealism might seem to be to question the starting point which they both take for granted. That is, the belief
of escape

One avenue

88
that

The Philosophy
what we are
directly

of

Knowledge
assump-

aware of

is

our

own

idea. This

tion immediately places the discussion

on a subjectivist footing and causes most of the ensuing trouble. A valiant attempt to bypass it and to carry the whole discussion back to a more

unquestionable basis was

made by

those

who espoused

the episte-

mological primacy of the "sense datum." The notion of a sense datum was introduced by George Moore and Bertrand Russell as a kind of "neutral indubitable" upon which both epistemological
realist

ll

and ideahst could

find

common

ground.^- Prior to any deci|

sion as to whether the "patch of red" of which I

am

aware was an

idea or an mdependent material object,

all

disputants might at least

it

::

agree that I

am

immediately aware of the red patch and that

ll

certainly exists.

We
is

do not have to ask yet whether

it

exists as

an

i'

idea or a material object, for the distinction between idea and material object

not cognitionally primitive;

it

comes

later, after

'

I begin to discern the differences

among

the data which really are

primitive.

What

is

primitively given to awareness

is

that I

am

aware, and

aware of something (a red patch, a shrill sound, a sweet taste); the precise status to be assigned to that of which I am aware is
only determined posteriorly.

What Moore thought

to

be beyond
it

doubt was that awareness reaches something and that what

reaches
is

not identical with awareness. Thus, he argues against

Berkeley, in his "The Refutation of Idealism," that rather than

the "esse" of the perceived

datum

consisting in

its

"percipi," the

datum
to

of which I

am aware
it.^^

necessarily has a status not reducible

my

awareness of

My

awareness of blue, green, yellow has

it

something in common: awareness; but

differentiates
it:

has something which

the objects in respect to which awareness takes

place, blue, green, yellow.

There

is

therefore a distinction between

it

awareness and
22

its

objects,

and hence

is

impossible to claim as

George Moore, Philosophical Studies (New York: Harcourt, Brace),

1922; Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy (New York: Henry Holt), 1959 (first published in 1912). For a brief discussion of sense-datum
theory, see Hirst, op.
23
cit.,

pp. 26-73.

Moore, op.

cit.,

p. 13.

The Problem of Perception:

I
is

89
the being of

Berkeley did, that the very being of the datum

awareness.

At

the very least,

show

that the existence of the

Moore contends, there is no way to datum logically implies awareness

by adopting a strongly
in all
it, is

of the datum;

and he ends
is

his essay

realistic

position: "awareness
that
be,
its
if

and must be
are aware of

cases of such a nature

precisely

object,

when we

what

it

would

we were

not aware. "^^ Russell concurs with this (in his

it

earlier

works), holding that

is

perfectly conceivable that the

sense data which

we

perceive exist precisely as such

when we

are

not perceiving them, and inventing the term "sensibiha" to denote

such unsensed sense data.^^

It
is

evident that the original intention of the sense-datum

theorists

was strongly

realistic.

They thought

that they

had

dis-

covered a

way

to cut straight through the subjectivist thicket

and

affirm that consciousness reaches immediately

and

directly

someis

thing other than

itself.

In this vein,

Moore exclaims

that there

no question of how we get outside the

conscious
ness
is
is

circle of sensation; to

be

already to be outside that private ckcle.^*' Consciousstart.

transcendent from the

But an
It is

interesting

development

occurs in later sense-datum theory.

somewhat foreshadowed in the use to which the sense datum was very quickly put. For it cannot escape us that what the sense-datum theorist says in regard to perception could just as well be said of hallucinations and
dream-experiences. In these, too, consciousness can be analyzed
into

an act/object correlation. This, in

fact,

was
it

felt

by many

to

add

to the strength of the sense-datum view;

not only derived

in

support from but helped to

make

intelligible

what occurred

delusive perceptions. Thus, in a relational experience (the round

penny from a certain angle looks

could be said:
I

eUiptical)
it

or in hallucinatory
felt

experiences (seeing pink elephants)

was

that

two things
I

am

not seeing a physical object,-^ and yet

I

am

seeing something.

What

am

seeing

is

not nothing, hence there

24 Ibid., p. 29. 25 Russell, Mysticism 2

and Logic, pp. 143-145.

27.

Moore, op.

cit., p.

27 In physical reality there is

no

elliptical

penny and no pink elephant.

90
is

The Philosophy
it

of

Knowledge

a meaning to saying that

really exists;

it

was regarded as a
and named a sense

sort of "epistemological object" of awareness

datum.
I

From

here

it is

a rather short step to the belief that what

is

am

seeing in all cases of perception

are,

a sense datum. Delusive

qualitatively
indis-

experiences
tinguishable

as

subjectively undergone,

from

veridical experiences:

the red I

dream about

and the red

I see are identical; if there really

were pink elephants

they would look to those

who

perceived them the

hallucinations.

way

they

now

look to those
that the

who

suffer

from

So

it

was concluded
to say about

immediate object of both delusive and veridical experience

a sense datum. Whatever I go

was the same

directly

"material aware

on

objects" I

must say on the

basis of that of

which

am

sense data.
here. If a sense
it

But see what has happened

to

datum

is

common

both veridical and delusive experience,

evidently cannot

underwrite an immediate contact with a world of independently

existing material objects. In later theory, the sense

datum begins

to function as a kind of "third thing" interposed

between aware-

ness and physical objects. In this manner,

it

many

of the difficulties

was introduced

to eliminate filter

back into the theory. Some

of these appear in a famous proponent of the doctrine, C. D.

Broad.

Broad attempts a continued adherence

ficulty fitting
it

to reahsm, but has dif-

into his sense-datum assumptions.

He

is

sure that
the

we

are justified in ordinary language in saying that

we know

truth of such statements as "I hear a beU" or "There are rats in

the attic," since the situations in which they are justified clearly

sometimes

arise.

Yet the notion of the

bell as a "material object"

contains hypotheses which are not and cannot be verified through

direct

perception.
is

Common

sense

assumes that the

bell
it

as

material object

a unity, a completed entity, that

it

endures

through a stretch of time, that

observers.

is

pubHcly available to other

None

of this

is

perceptually verifiable.

What

are given
fleeting.

to perception are sense data, multiple,

momentary, and

The notion

of an object

is

constructed

upon the

basis of these

The Problem of Perception:

91

indubitable but fugitive givens, but not verifiable purely in terms

of them.2

2) Ayer and Phenomenalism

Alfred Ayer carries this a considerable distance further, and

winds up in a kind of phenomenalism which has had considerable

influence.-^

Ayer

treats the

sense-datum
is,

vs.

material object dispute

as mainly one of language. There

he contends, no substantive

quarrel between the two camps, for no matter which side of the
dispute
tions

we

adopt,
part.

it

gives rise to
is,

no

different empirical expecta-

on our

That

if

the

common

sense defenders say,

"I directly see the car as a material object in the garage"

and the

sense-datum people say "I directly see a collection of sense data

out of which
I

construct the notion of a permanent unity, car,"

no real quarrel arises since each would act towards the perceived datum in the same way and entertain the same expectations with respect to it. The dispute is therefore linguistic, not real. The
parties are really disputing as to

which

is

the

most appropriate
in a

language in which to speak about their experience; each experiences exactly what the other experiences, but each refers to
different
it

way.

One way

is

not "wrong" and the other "right" since

there

is

no possible

test

which

will ever turn

up any

difference

between them.
If I say

"The car

is

in the garage,"

and you say "The car

is

not

in the garage,"

one statement must be true and the other

if

false,

since they are asserting different things; but

is

you say

that the car

a material object and

say that the car

is

name

for a collection

of sense data, neither need be false for they do not refer to differences in experience, but only to different ways of talking about
28

C. D. Broad,

Mind and

Its

Place in Nature (London: Routledge

&

Kegan Paul
29

Ltd.), 1925, Chapter IV.

A.

J.

Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic

(New York: Dover,

n.d.),

(first

published 1936).

Some

modification of Ayer's earlier views are in

evidence in his later writings, particularly The Problem of Knowledge (New York: Penguin Books), 1956, pp. 124-125.

92
experience.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

Each language may have

utility is

its

appropriate use, but the

It

may be more useful to measure in meters than yards, but that does not mean that one who describes a distance as one meter is "right," and one who
question of

not a question of truth.

describes

it

as 39.37 inches

"wrong." Ayer leans to the belief that

is

for ordinary purposes the material object language

satisfactory,

perfectly

while for technically exact philosophical purposes,

the sense-datum language has the advantage.

At

first sight, this

may be
to be
If

considered as an attempt to dismiss

the whole issue as a pseudo-problem; a not unwarranted attempt,

for there does

seem

something tantalizingly unreal about the

problem of perception.
to

we look
is

again, though,

Ayer may appear

be open to the charge levelled against him that he really beheves

factually right.^

that the sense-datum theory

believe that
this basis

what we actually
it

Does he not really perceive are sense data? Only on

is

could

be claimed that there

no difference between
and the sense-datum
is

the beliefs of the material-object theorist

theorist.

Only

if

we

already believe that there

no more

in the

meaning of material object than what the sense-datum people

there could

find

we contend

that their assertions are indistinguishable.

Ayer ultimately seems

to hold that material object statements

can

be exhaustively translated into sense-data statements and hence

are reducible to sense-data statements. His "linguistic

phenome-

nahsm" amounts
object"
is

to the view that

what we mean by "physical

simply constant "patterns" of sense data. Knowing

are

that certain data

conjoined in a systematic and recurring

manner, we signalize
it

this recurring pattern

is

by a name and regard meaning "object" than

is
still

as

an object. But there

no more

in the

in "recurring patterns of sense data."

Hence, Ayer

in the
it

older tradition of phenomenalism, even though he

in a

tries to state

more unexceptionable manner. And

its

it

can even be averred

that of

own

nature the sense-datum theory tends equally well

to either total realism or

phenomenalism, that

in fact the

two are

rather hard to distinguish, given the sense-datum assumption.

30 J. L. Austin, Sense and Sensibilia (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 56, 59, 106-107; and Hirst, op. cit., pp. 116-117.

1962,

The Problem of Perception:

93

In general, phenomenalism holds that the notion of an object

is

a logical construction of thought, rather than something in any

directly given to experience. ^'^

way

What

is

directly given

is

stream of discrete experience, which usually turn out to be a

stream for sense: either sensations, in the older, more subjectivist,

view of John Stuart Mill; or sense data in the neutral manner of

the contemporaries.

For MiU a "material object" was simply a

of

"permanent
stancies

possibility

sensation" :^^

thought discovers

conattrib-

and

predictability in

our subjective experiences and

utes this to an independent

object.

ground or grounds, which

is

it

calls

an

The

object,

then,

the

conceived foundation for the

orderly occurrence of
side of the

my

sensation. Thus, to say that "the other

is

moon

exists

when no one
series

looking at

it" just

means,

that

"If I

went through the

of sensations which I call

I

traveling through space in a certain direction,

series

would have the

of sensations I caU seeing the other side of the

earlier

moon."
to
this,,

Ayer's

theories

are

in

principle

quite

close

although of a more linguistic turn.

The phenomenalist's contention

describe
all

is

that

he

can

sujQficiently

that

is

truly given to experience in his terms

is

and that

every other

way

of speaking

superfluous, since

it

must reduce
rebuttal to

to phenomenalist terms in order to be significant.

The
all

phenomenalism would have

this

to rest

on asking ourselves whether

statements to
assert in his

claim

is

true.

1 )

Can he

successfully reduce

an exclusive reference to sense-data? 2) Can he

rebuttal to

language everything that object language wishes to express? The

phenomenalism on both counts

phenomenalist
language

is

quite strong.

R.

J.

Hirst's objection, in particular,

seems well taken.^^ Hirst

always
turns

argues

that

out
is,

to

be

"tainted"

by

realistic material-object language.

utilizes

That

the phe-

nomenalist always surreptitiously

language which reintro-

duces material-object assumptions back into his

31 ^2

own

descriptions.

For a good exposition, see Hirst, op. cit., pp. 74-110. John Stuart Mill, An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philoso-

phy, Ch. XI.

33

Op

cit.,

pp. 90-94.

94
The phenomenalist,
translate the
after all,

The Philosophy of Knowledge I

has a rather imposing task: he mustr
into

meaning of "object" completely

sense-datum

language without relinquishing any part of what the materialobject statement

object,
its

means

to assert.
its

Now,

the public character of the

permanence, and

causal efficacy

do not lend them-

selves easily to such translation.

If reality consists exclusively in

sense data and the awareness of

them,

it

seems incredible that the continual agreement between

is

the sense experience of different observers

sufficient

possible.

The only
different'

ground for the harmony of the experiences of

is

observers seems to be that there

a
is

common

object different:

from the sense data themselves which

harmonized, precisely because there

the ground for the experii

encing of the sense data; dreams of different people cannot be so

is

no common

object.

Even
is

to talk of "observers," as the phenomenalist continually does,

to

introduce object language, for the observer

sense data.

is

not reducible to
is

When

he says that the statement "There

is

a car in the

garage right

now"

equivalent to "If you were experiencing

garage-Uke sense data, you would be experiencing car-hke sense

data," he has not totally laid the ghost of the object, since the

"you" he

still

requires

is

not reducible to sense data but remains

as an inexpungible vestige of an object.

Finally,

and most

pressingly, the phenomenalist

is

faced with

the seemingly insurmountable fault that his

way

of speaking loses

contact with the character of actuaUty which the ordinary object-

language statement unmistakably exhibits. For

absent object that "There
is

when

say of an

a car in the garage right now," I

is,

mean
must

to refer to

something which actually

it

an actual member

of the world as
translate

here and

now

exists.

But the phenomenalist

thus

categorical

statements
sense

about objects into hypo-

thetical

statements

about

data

and

he loses the

thematic actuahty which attaches to the former. This defect would

be especially glaring
the world before
34

in the case of
existed.^*

an assertion about the

state of

man

"Dinosaurs existed before

man

See D. M. Armstrong, Perception and the Physical World (New York: Humanities Press), 1961, p. 53 and Hirst, op. cit., p. 107.

The Problem of Perception: I

lived
to

95
would have

on

earth," an ordinary material-object statement,

be converted into a contraf actual conditional: "If

man had

existed before he did, he

would have had dinosaur-like sense data."

to state not

But

this

obviously loses the whole character of actuality in the

original statement,

which wants
It

what would have been

but what actually was.

therefore appears that the phenomenalist

claim to be able to render the whole meaning of ordinary state-

ments in

its

own

terms cannot be sustained. The phenomenaUst

this untranslatable

might take refuge in the alternative claim that

additional

meaning

is

not legitimate, but there are few

this

who would

be prepared to accept

way

out.

c)

LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS
Argument

1) Stebbing's Paradigm

By now, many
tion to this

a reader will be inclined to agree with the soluanalytical philosophers

problem offered by certain

who
to

see the
is

whole thing primarily as

linguistic

muddle. Their approach

in

some ways

similar to Ayer's but they are

more content
by

rest in the

primacy of

common

sense and to allow the various ways

side,

of speaking about the data of experience to stand side

rather than contending that they can be translated into each other.

One
Sir

of the liveliest presentations of this view

is

contained in

the vigorous reply of L. S. Stebbing to the "two tables" fable of

Arthur Eddington.^^ She accuses Eddington of an intolerable

generated solely because of his failure to exercise

raddling of language in this and other instances. For his famous

"problem"

is

requisite caution in applying a vocabulary

proper to the speech of

common
is

sense to the inappropriate area of scientific inquiry.

is,

The

primary issue
this?
It
is

what do we mean by "table?" What sort of word a word which derives its meaning from ordinary
is

perception, and has apphcation only to that realm. It

wrong

for

Eddington to make

silly

jokes about "two tables," for the

silly

silly

jokes lead to solemn though equally

35

philosophical problems.

L. S. Stebbing, Philosophy

and the Physicists (New York: Dover),

54
ss.

n. d,, (originally published 1937), p.

96
There
is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
is

only one table, for the meaning of the word table

I

derived from the world of direct perception;

the table of direct perception
is

cannot ask whether

because
if
it

real or not,
is

isn't,

there aren't any real tables. There

is

no

scientific table, for "table"

word

for

which science has no use and no application;

atoms or electrons, but nothing
it

science

may

talk of

says about

these can cast doubt

on the reaUty of

tables as I perceive them.

is

The paradigm
in the

for the reahty of such objects as "tables"

It
is

found

world of direct perception.

altogether misleading to

apply the vocabulary of one realm to another. This would be

easily seen in the reverse case
if

someone were

to try to cast

doubt on the

reality of

atoms and electrons on the ground that

they cannot be perceived.

The

"reality" of

atoms and electrons

is

the reality they have for scientific discourse; their use in science
is

the paradigm of their reality and

it

would be

foolish indeed to

reprobate them because they are not real as are objects of perception. Conversely,
it

is

absurd to reprobate language about the

reality of perceptual objects

on

the ground that science does not

find

it

appropriate.
is

Stebbing's point
tically.

easy to see and she reiterates

its

it

enthusias-

Language derives
it

meaning from ordinary usage; the

is

fact that
it

has such meaning

to

given in

its

usage and the fact that

it

must apply

something
I

is

also clear, since

derives

its

meanand

ing from so applying.

must mean something by "chair," "table,"

etc.,

"house," "red," "sweet," "solid,"

the reality of the referent
fore, the
is

for I use the words,

given in this use of the word. There-

object.

word cannot be used to cast doubt on the reality of its Thus Stebbing roundly rebuts Eddington's amusing account

of the difference between the experience of the ordinary

man and

the scientist in the adventure of walking through a doorway:

am

standing on a threshold about to enter a room.

first

It is

a compli-

cated business. In the

place

must shove against an atmosphere

pressing with a force of fourteen pounds on every square inch of

my

body.

must make a landing on a plank travelling at twenty miles a second around the sun a fraction of a second too early or too late.
I

The Problem
the plank

of Perception: I
. . .

97

substance.

The plank has no solidity of would be miles away To step on it is like stepping on a swarm of flies. Shall I
etc.^*'

not

slip

through?

This

is

mere obfuscation,
is

in Stebbing's eyes.

For what we mean

by "solid"

precisely derived

from our experience of such things

as planks as solid. If they aren't solid, then

solid?

what do we mean by
nonsensical to try to

The question
it

of the "solidity" of anything lives off the

it is

paradigmatic perceptual experience and

question whether
I

really applies to the objects of that experience.

I

do not even know what

am

talking about,

if it

does not apply.

2) Ostensive Signification This view could apparently be generalized to the assertion that
I cannot consistently question the "reality" of the objects of ordi-

nary experience, for the paradigmatic meaning of reality

covered in perceptual experience, and
if

is

disI

they are not real, then

do not even know what

done by other
is

mean by

reality.

Something

like this is

writers, of

whose views the version of Martin Lean

a good and convenient representative.^^

His counterattack

is

against Broad's claim that

we never

experi-

ence objects, but only sense data, and that ordinary language
contains unverifiable hypotheses about the items of experience.

Lean

will

have none of

this,

contending that

it is

simply based on
is

an erroneous view of language. What we directly perceive

just

what common sense believes us

objects.

to perceive
is

^public,

independent

He

insists that

language

completely ostensive and can

contain no unrecognized hypotheses and point to no unobservables. Its

meaning

is

in

its

usage: a
it

word

in itself

is

only a sound,

by the way we use it. Therefore, the word "physical object" must have a valid reference, for it is a

and we confer meaning on

word in perfectly good English usage. Nobody can question the common-sense conviction that we reaUy perceive objects unless he
36 37

Eddington, op.

cit.,

p. 342.

Martin Lean, Sense Perception and Matter

(New York:

Humanities'

Press), 1963, pp. 16-24.

98
thinks he has
if

The Philosophy

of Knowledge]
I

object

to in

on

it

some privileged meaning for the word "object." But means anything, it means something that can be pointed experience, for the whole meaning of language is conferred by its pointing to experience. If it were not to point to
it

would have no meaning; if it does have a meaning, and hence its mere use validates the it does point to experience which it points. reality of that to
experience

There

is

no doubt a very genuine

attractiveness about this

way

of stating things, for the tantalizing nature of the problem of per-

ception does at length generate the thought that there

fishy

is

something

about

it.

We

are prone

to say, "Well, after

its

all,

what would
objectivity?

an object be which did carry the earmark of

own

Where do
which
aware?
I
If

I get

the privileged idea of objectivity

by means of
I

can question the objectivity of that of which

these tables and chairs are not objective,

am now
it

what would

mean

for

me

to be aware of

what

is

objective?" There seems,

then, a genuine

component
thing,

to this view.

And

yet there are

marks

against
rests

it.

For one

it is

clear that a version such as Lean's

is

on

a completely ostensive theory of language. It

questionthe

able whether such a theory can

mean anything more by

word
it

"object" than the phenomenalist means. In order to do so,

would have to be able to point to more than the phenomenahst

can point
to turn
to
to. The argument between Lean and Broad would seem on the unresolved, and in effect unrecognized, dispute as what exactly the notion of a physical object entails and how

much

of

it

can be simply verified in sense perception. Broad

is

equivalently holding that there are conceptual elements involved

in the notion of

an object and that therefore what

is

given to the

senses

is

not an object but something (sense data) on the basis

of which

we

infer or construct the notion of

an

object.

Lean
per-

simply begins with the common-sense conviction that

we do

ceive objects and tries to defend this conviction, while remaining

within the confines of his ostensive theory of language.

say,

He wiU

against Broad, for instance, that

we do

not merely see a

surface or a temporal shce,

we

see

"something which" has a

The Problem of Perception:

surface and duration.

I
is,

99
however, in what way
it

The question

can be claimed that

we

see a "something which." Actually a

comdis-

pletely ostensive theory of language

would

find

it

hard to

tinguish

its

meaning for object from the phenomenahst's.

preferred to put his emphasis not on the vahdity
object, but simply

If the analyst

of the

word

on the appropriateness of the two

would

vocabularies,
object

he might avoid making the claim that the word

the phenomenalist means, but he

means more than

do so

at the penalty of allowing the

two vocabularies

to stand side

by

side in a completely unresolved

manner. This gambit has the

effect of

suppressing the problem altogether. For

now

there

is

no

problem of how the world of science and the world of

common

sense are compatible; there are no longer two "worlds" or two

kinds of entity, but one experience described in two languages.

This treats language as purely conventional and neglects the extralinguistic reference.

But the language through which we

refer to

experience under the

name

"table" and "atom"

may

not seem to

aU to

differ

only conventionally.

The

difference seems to have a

relation

real foundation,

and the question of the

between them

to

be a real question.

To

allow them to coexist in a merely juxta-

posed manner seems more a matter of refusing to raise the question of their relation than proving that there
is

no question.

As
as

a matter of fact, Stebbing reaUy does specify further the

nature of the relation between the two languages. For she treats,

do many

others, such things as

"atoms" and

"scientific

laws"

as conventional statements about the formal relations of perceived

entities. ^^

Atoms

are not special kinds of perceptual entities but

pegs on which to hang perceptual statements.

scientific

On

this

view

it

is

language which has a somewhat secondary

status.

For

the objects of science turn out to be not invisible "things," which

causally generate the perception of the perceived data (as repre-

sentationaMsm holds) but formalizations introduced to

facilitate

the expression of the orderly connection between perceptual enti-

38

Stebbing, op.

cit.,

pp. 65/66, 78-91.

100
ties

The Philosophy
constructions.

of

Knowledge
parallel
utilized
I

to the reality of
in language

They must have "reality" in a way physical objects: They are meaningfully
real to the exact extent

and are

and

in the exact

man-

ner that the language employing them requkes. Perceptual lan-

guage
sively

is

ostensive,

and so perceptual objects are "real"

scientific

as ostenscientific

indicatable;

language

is

formal,

and

entities are "real" as constructions

which make the formal laws of

in confusion

science possible.

But

immediately bog

down

if

think of the

reality of perceptual objects

by the methods of science, or try to

validate the objects of science

by means of perception, or
I
is

if I

try

to

compare the two.

cannot compare the incomparable.

to the formula
ttt^,

cannot
a per-

compare the color blue

for the

one

ceptual entity and the other a formal rule. Note that this approach

tends to regard perceptual objects as

more primarily
While
it

real,

and

to

consider scientific entities

considerable favor

as

abstractions.

has found

among

scientists themselves,
it

one cannot escape

a certain queasiness in accepting

Wittgenstein, Ryle,

as the definitive solution.

3)

and "Ordinary Language"

Perhaps the best known and most fascinating attempt to deal

with philosophical problems in terms of the primacy of "ordinary

language"

is

that of

Ludwig

Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein agrees that

problems

like the drflSculty

about perception arise out of language

and he views philosophical analysis principally as a "therapy"

which
will bring to light

and dissolve these

that our

linguistic neuroses.

In

this therapeutic process, ordinary

language must occupy a place

of primacy, for

it is

from

it

words derive

their

meaning.

Yet he cannot rest content with a simple "ostensive theory" of

meaning, which
derives
is

entirely too short-sighted.

just

No

doubt meaning
it

from use and a word means

far

what we use

to

mean.

But the "uses" of words go

beyond simple pointing;

try grasp-

ing the meaning of "if" or "but" ostensively, for example.

To

ask

what a word

is is

similar to asking

what a certain piece

is

in the

The Problem of Perception:
I
is

101
what
it

game
chess;
fit it

of chess. ^^
it

pawn

simply

does in the game of

has no properties occult or latent besides the ones which

its

for

role in the

game. Analogously, a word

is

what

it

does

in the

game

of language.

Of

course,

one could think of variant language-games, and

the

Wittgenstein amuses himself by doing so, but ordinary language

has a primacy because

it is

game we
is

all

play.

Words

are

more

complicated pieces, just as language

a more complicated game,

is

but the bewildering diversity of their uses

no more mysterious

than the fact that things which are

all

equally "tools" can do

such bewilderingly different things. * "The" meaning of a word

even of a single word

is

a chimera: a

word

is

everything

it

does.

Wittgenstein's view has relevance for the problem of perception,

since this can be regarded as arising

from a
signify.

failure to appreciate

the diverse

manner

in

which words words and

One who

imagines

that ordinary-language

scientific

words "signify" or

same way will find himself faced with the exasperating problem of which ones signify the "real" object: the words (and their presumed targets) will be in competition with each other. But once we realize that the language-games of science and of common speech are quite different affairs, we will be no more
in the

mean

inclined to feel that

that

we must
is

decide between them than to feel

we must

decide which

the real queen of spades

the poker,

pinochle, or hearts queen.

In a similar manner, Gilbert Ryle denies the right of the scientist

to derogate the reahty of secondary qualities

and

to claim that

reality

can be described only in terms of the primary qualities

finds useful.*^

which he himself
39

For the

truth of the matter

is

that

Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical

(a bi-lingual edition)

Investigations,

trans,

by G. E.
p.

M. Anscombe
47.
40 Ibid., p. 6.
4^

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell), 1953,

Gilbert Ryle,

Dilemmas (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press),

1960, pp. 82-85.

02
words do not function

The Philosophy
in the

of

Knowledge

scientific

same manner
all.

as ordinary-

language words. They do not

describe at

A physicist's

view of

nature differs from the ordinary man's in somewhat the same

that

way

an accountant's view of a university

is

differs

from the underthis

graduate's.*^ If the accountant

thorough enough, everything in

does

the undergraduate's world wiU be referred to by him, but

not

make them

competitive, and certainly doesn't turn the under-

graduate's world into a bubble

there are not

two books, the

librarian's

compared to the true reality. Thus, and the accountant's, side

and what
reached

by

side.

balance-sheet must be constitutionally speechless about

it

some

things;

does not describe at

all,
it.

is

descriptively

must remain inaccessible to

don't describe at

Just so, the physical

rivals to

theorists neither describe ordinary tables

and chairs nor

them

they
is

all.

Actually the language of the

physicist presupposes the world of the ordinary

man, and the

real

question

not which

is

real,

but

"How

are the concepts of physical

theory logically related to the concepts of everyday discourse?"*^

It

must be said

in favor of approaches like Wittgenstein's

and

Ryle's that they

seem

to afford a breath of fresh air,

and one that

linguistic

often does seem to

come from
is

the

mouth

of an escape-tunnel.

Some

genuine promise

undoubtedly held out by

analysis.

And
is

yet of themselves they

do not impress

as sufficient

anyone who

not prepared to regard the entire problem of per-

ception (and indeed of philosophy at large) as a matter of the

way

in

which we use words. Not many would be prepared to

this

concede

much, for language

itself;

in

some way

is

felt

to

be a

window opening beyond

shades and turn
it

these approaches tend to pull the

after

inward.

Even
to

we
is

untie the linguistic

knots, the question

is still left

over: what

the character of the

reahty which
references?
^2 Ibid., p.
^3 Ibid., p.

allows

itself

be the subject of such diverse

75
91.

ss.

THE PROBLEM OF PERCEPTION:

II

SCHOLASTIC SOLUTIONS: PRELIMINARY

Before considering some typical Scholastic opinions on sense
perception,

we may

briefly re-iterate the position of naive realism.

The

latter holds that in perception

we

are immediately aware of

objects other than ourselves; that these objects are "public" in the

sense that numerically the same object

is

perceptible

by an

in-

definite plurality of observers; that these objects are

entities

permanent

which

exist as

such when

we

are not perceiving them;

and

finally

that in their independent existence they have the

same

qualities

which they present

to perception.

tion

is,

then, that

my
it

act of perceiving
it

The habitual presumpmakes no difference at all

it is

to the perceived object, that

I perceive,

has no hand in constituting what

in
itself.

but that

reaches this object just as

The

features

of

extension,
forth,

motion,

resistance,

color,

sound,

taste,

warmth, and so
perceive them.

which

I perceive, are there

when

do not
all

Now

while there are philosophers

who
it

defend most or

of

these convictions of

common
is

sense,

probably would not be

accurate to refer to these philosophers as "naive realists." For the

essence of philosophy
realism
is

reflection,

and the essence of naive

unreflecting taking-for-gr anted; so that even

when

cer-

tain statements about experience coincide, the philosophical realist

is

always a "critical"

realist in the

sense of not being "naive."

But consequent upon

their critical scrutiny of

it

Scholastic philosophers find

necessary to

some make more emendasense,

common

104 common

The Philosophy of Knowledge

tions than others in the naive realism of our everyday convictions.

Certain basic points are

to the standard Scholastic treat-

ment of

this subject,

however, and as a preliminary to the main

issue, they

should be noted.
all,

First of

there

is

the elementary observation that the

problem

cannot be argued in terms of the "errors" of the senses, for the

senses do not "err" at
all.

The question
do

of the truth or falsity of

itself.

perception

is

a question which takes us beyond sensation

that the senses

For the same reason

does not judge
it.

not, properly speaking,

contain "truth," they cannot be charged with falsehood. Sensation

it

it

merely reports on data immediately present to

judgment, for judgment

The

possibility of error only arises with

asserts
tion,
is

something about the datum immediately present to sensaasserts

is

and what

may be

either so or not so. Until there

assertion, there

not, in a full sense,

any "deception."

speak of the senses "deceiving us"

or shades of color, for example
speaking. If I judge that one line
not, I err; but

but
is

We

in the case of optical illusions,

this is

an abbreviated way of
it is

longer than another, and

my

senses,

which simply grasp the visual appear-

ance, do not err. Error will be found to consist in going

beyond

immediate data of sensation and

falsely going

beyond.

judgment which confined

to

itself to

a mere expression of what

also

was immediately present

error. If I

sensation would

be immune from

were

to content myself with reporting that "this line

this

appears longer than the other to me,"

simple truth

would be no error but

it

really does

appear longer.

When

the color-bhnd
is

person

is

charged with having defective sensation, the charge

really levelled against his judgment.

His sensation merely reports

red
the

what he

now experiencing. He really is experiencing a datum. But when he judges, he spontaneously goes beyond
is

immediate report of the senses and declares "This patch of cloth

is

red"; this

means

that

he

talks

about an object which

is

public

and which possesses for everyone the property which he is experiencing. If he were to confine his judgment to the datum itself, he

would say "I am now experiencing a red datum," and he would

The Problem of Perception:

not be wrong.

II that our

105
judgment always spontane-

The

point

is

ously takes us beyond the immediate, our assertion outruns the

sensation,

and the gap between the scope of the judgment and the
is
it

report of the senses

what makes error

possible.

This

is

an

obvious remark, but

quickly calls our attention to the fact that

the whole question about the "objectivity" of sense perception

cannot be settled in terms of perception alone.

Of

course,

we may

still

charge the senses with "error," meaning

that they present us with data into judging erroneously. It

on the
is

basis of

which we are misled

with this in mind that a second

Scholastics regarding the "con-

standard point

is

usually

made by
it is

ditions" of a reliable act of perception.

logical setting of sensation,

Given the physico-physio-

suggested that

that certain requirements have to be met before

we must recognize we can rely on

Sensation

our sense experience to give trustworthy testimony.

appears to involve a stimulation of a bodily organ, by a physical

object, through a

medium

of action, and certain conditions are

these elements.

requisite

on the part of

all

The

object

must be

properly proportioned to our kind of senses: infra-red colors or

microscopic objects are not so proportioned; nor are sensible

objects

which are too distant or otherwise unfavorably given.

condition are found in the case of

Secondly, the organ of sense must be a normal and healthy one.

Flagrant failures to

fulfill this

bhndness, deafness, or color-blindness; but there are more moderate

damages

possible, including

temporary aberrations, such as

the morbid state of a sick man's palate because of which his taste

sensation

is

distorted, or the

abnormal condition of an eardrum

is

which has

just suffered a

heavy blow. Finally, since the object

the proper
is

perceived through a medium,

ception must be present: color

medium

for this per-

properly perceived in sunlight,

rather than under a photographer's red-lamp, sound, in the

air rather

open

than underwater. Oddities like the bent appearance of

a partially submerged oar

the oar
is

may

be explained from

this direction:

water

being perceived through a duahty of media

air

and

in

which the behavior of hght

varies.

106
As
a third preliminary,

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

we may

cite

the familiar distinction

between proper and

for example.

common

sensibles.

Proper sensibles are those

data which are perceived by one sense alone: color, sound, odor,

Common

sensibles are those

which can be presented

to more than one sense: extension and motion (which can be perceived by sight and touch, and perhaps other senses). This distinction is deemed to be useful in explaining various common sensory illusions. For when we perceive and judge of a common sensible by employing one sense alone, we seem to be quite liable
to error. Thus, the

man who
is

"perceives" that the railroad tracks

converge on the horizon

sensible)

judging about shape

(a

common

by means of

sight alone; so, too, with the perception of

is

the oar bent in water. That

why

the child

who

plays the

of closing his eyes and guessing what objects are

their "feel"

game by means of

alone

is

easily

mixed up. The correction for these

if

errors

is

correspondingly simple, since

we

dehberately test our

into play,

single-sense observations

by bringing the other senses

we soon
a certain

set things to right.

air

Considerations like this serve a purpose in clearing the

initial

of

confusion. But

it

must be emphasized that they by

no means advance the philosophical understanding of perception very far. For they all take place within the common-sense conception of sensation and its object, and they leave quite untouched the question of the status of the object which is reached in sense
perception. Reference to the conditions required for perception or
to the distinction between the proper

and common

sensibles

help to explain some practical puzzles which arise for

sense, but
it

may common
sort.

bears within
is

it

assumptions of a quite obscure

What exactly medium? Does

this refer to

meant by a "normal" organ, or a "proper" anything more than the way a standard

observer perceives?

Why

is

the standard observer convinced that

is

the green he sees in the carpet

really there

and the red which

is

the color-blind person sees

is

not? Because his organ of sight

normal. Which means what? That most people see things the

way

he does? Yet

this

does not touch

at

aU the question of the status of

what

is

seen.

The Problem of Perception:

II

107
the

The phenomenalist could make

normal and deviant within
way, so
this

same

distinction
is

between
is

his

framework: what

perceived

not independent of the perceiver, but most perceivers see things

in this

consensus

is

used as a standard. What

is

is

*'objective,"

on phenomenaMst grounds,

decided by what agrees

with this usual

way

of perceiving things.

But then

this distinction

doesn't advance us one inch towards validating the independent

existence of perceived data;
it

is

a distinction which could be

made either within the phenomenalist or the realist assumption. The same thing can be said of the distinction between proper and common sensibles. This amounts to little more than an admonition of how to avoid being led into certain errors based on
perception.

But the avoidance of sensory error

is

a practical

question, not a philosophical one. It only

becomes philosophical
status of the "correct"
littie

when

the existence of error recoils

upon the
(I

datum.

By

seeing

how

certain errors arise, I further very

my

philosophical grasp of perception

extent that I
really

am

benefited only to the

am

freed from the worry that the railroad tracks

if

do come

together,

that
is:
if

happened
the

to

be bothering me).
is

The

philosophical question

datum which

given to

me

in perception is susceptible to this

kind of deviant presentation,

then precisely what

is its

status?

This question can be raised about the data given in "correct"

perception, as

weU
is

as erroneous perception.

When

claim that

my
I

color perception

right

and the color-blind person's wrong,

I

am

merely rejoicing in the support

majority (and scorning

get

from the views of the

him

as a non-conformist) or

am

saying

something about the reality of color? What exactiy is the proper medium for viewing the color of an object? Normal sunUght, we may say. But does that mean sunlight at noon, at dawn, at sunset,
at three o'clock

on an overcast day,

at

10:52 on a windy morn-

ing,

or what?

but they
ference,

Some might say that the variations are neghgible, can only mean by this that they make no practical difis

which

not in dispute.

We

are

all

familiar with the series

of paintings which the impressionist

Monet made

of the cathedral

of Rouen, depicting the wealth of subtle color-changes which the

108

The Philosophy of Knowledge

cathedral exhibited as the day progressed.

Now

which of these

was

the real color of the cathedral?

VIRTUAL REALISM
Questions hke the foregoing arouse the suspicion that
putting things
color,

we

are

wrongly. Maybe in dealing with something like we should not even be asking which is the "real" color of

the object.

That might involve us

in the

seemingly impossible

attempt to single out

of a certain object

which of our numberless color-perceptions

"right," all the others being

was
is

presumably
this

not quite right. There

something very dissatisfying about

way

of speaking. This dissatisfaction leads

many

a philosopher to

the conclusion that in dealing with such data as color,

we

are not

dealing with intrinsic properties of the object at

all,

but with data

ask

which are

essentially relational.
is

On

this view,

we should not
datum

what color an object

"in itself," because the

of color

already entails a reference to an observer and to the conditions

under which his observation occurs. "The" color of an object an abstraction: there
is

is

only the color viewed in some relational

context by a viewer situated at a certain perspective within that

context.

When we

have said "color," we already have spoken of

to ask

a reference to a perceiver and of the conditions of his perceiving;

therefore

we should not go on

which

is

the "real" color of

an
to

object. This

seems to be hke asking how

this object

would look
there were

an observer who was situated nowhere and

his seeing
is

for whom

no conditions of

a question of doubtful validity. Color,

It is

say these philosophers,

a relational reality.

the face which

the world presents to a given observer under given conditions.

As

with color, so with other sensible properties.

What

shall

we

say of sound, taste, warmth, odor? Very

much

the

same

thing.

They are not intrinsic properties of an object in total isolation from an observer, but data which are present in the interaction of object and observer. Sound is a datum which is there for the consciousness of an observer in interaction with the world. Then

The Problem

of Perception: II

109

the lamented tree which falls in the middle of the forest falls
soundlessly, since
interaction,

sound

is

the consciously experienced side of an

is

and where the interaction

missing, sound

is

missing.

Such
tics,

is

the view of those philosophers,

among them many

Scholas-

who hold what may be

called "critical virtual realism." This

is

the position that sensed qualities are fully objective only for

consciousness, and only virtually objective independently of consciousness. This

"critical
is

to

be contrasted with naive realism and with

conscious experience.

formal realism," which holds that sensed qualities are

all

formally objective independent of

latter

The

holds that the precise formality of color, sound, taste, exten-

sion, motion,
is

and the

rest, are

present even
virtual

when consciousness
If the

not going on.

Now

this is

what

reahsm denies.

full

meaning of color or sound

it

entails a reference to

an observer,

then

cannot be formally realized apart from that reference.

this view,

On

we would have

to say that the grass

is

not for-

mally green outside of experience, stones hard, flowers redolent,

sugar sweet, or sounds loud.

What

this

view does should be clearly

understood.

It

reduces the world outside of consciousness to a

qualitatively barren state. It does not, however, introduce

com-

plete arbitrariness into perception.

qualities are not formally present virtually present.

For

it

holds that while these

still

beyond perception,
is

they are

That

is,

there

a power in the object indeis

pendently of perception which accounts for the formality which

present

when perception
Then

occurs.

Why

do

perceive grass as green,

is

lemon

as bitter, roses as sweet-smelling? Obviously this

not a

matter of whim.

there

is

some determination in the object

sensory organ, gives rise to
It is

which, in interrelation with

my

my

experience of these data and not to others.

quite conceivable,

however, that
relation with

this

same

objective determination might, in interdifferent sensory organs

an observer with

and under

different perceptual conditions, generate the experience of a for-

mally different datum for his consciousness.

One or two explanatory points should be made. First, let it be remembered that virtual realism wants still to be regarded as an

110

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
\

immediate realism, and in no way an indirect realism. That

is

is, it|

we immediately know a non-self. There is no pretense that I first know my own "idea" and then have to argue to the fact that an object corresponds to it. What I know is not a subjective modification of myself. It is an object.
not denying that in knowing

'

This rose here, red,

of

soft,

and sweet,

is

an object, not a collection

is

my

ideas; the green of the grass

objective,
I

and so

is

the

sound of the locomotive. In knowing, then,

am

immediately

beyond the sphere of

my own

individual

self.

True, the data under

j
'

discussion are only formally objective for perception, but they

are formally objective for perception.

To

say that color, sound,

taste, odor, are relationally objective is

not to say that they are

I

subjective.

This

is

where

virtual realism differs

from the theory of John

Locke. Locke held that the secondary quahties were, as experienced, "ideas," and hence subjective, and he then had to cope

with the problem of

the object.

Now

way
his

of stating

how well these ideas resembled the quality in may well have been a deficiency in his own things, and he may have been driving at a point
this

quite similar to the virtual realists.

But the

fact remains that

on

view as expressed in his

own

language, he does not think that

critical virtual

we immediately know
that awareness
inferentiaUy.
is

objects.

The

realists

hold
other

always of the other and does not reach

this

Nor do

they have to ask whether the sensed data

it

"resemble" the object as

qualities

exists un-sensed; formally objective

do not resemble
is

virtually objective qualities.

is

What
is

is

real

apart from sensation

ible (able to

an object which

determinate and sens-

be sensed) and a determinate subject which

is

capable

of sensing: consciousness

the actuahzation both of the capacity

of the subject for sensing and the capacity of the object for being
sensed.

As

such,

it is

not something "subjective," but the actuali-

zation of an object's presence to a subject.

Secondly, and very importandy, attention must be caUed to the

way

in

which

this position

has been presented. The reader will

The Problem of Perception:

II

III

have noticed that the entire discussion has centered around the
secondary qualities or "proper sensibles."
It
is

these

qualities

which the

virtual realist has declared to

is

be only virtually objective.

this

The

natural question

why he

has

made

statement exclusively
qualities

in respect to them,

and exempted the primary

from

his

conclusion.

Why

does he allow formal objectivity to these inde-

pendent of consciousness, and refrain from extending his reasoning to include

them?
is

Two

points

may be made
if

in answer.

a)

The

feeling

that the relational character of a

intrinsic objectivity

datum

is

only

a reason to doubt

its

there

is

a relation of

heterogeneity between perceiving organ and perceived object. In

such a case, where the organ

is

different in nature

from the

object,

then this difference wiU be a cause for distortion and militate

against the intrinsic character of the perceived datum. Thus, the

datum of color is perceived by the eye and neural apparatus; but there is no likeness between the color-datum red and the optical
apparatus: the eye, nerves, and cortex, are not red.

Or

a sound as
"like"

heard has no similarity to an ear-drum, which

is

not

itself
is

a sound. But in the case of extension and motion, there

no such

heterogeneity, but rather a homogeneity between perceiving organ

and perceived

object. Thus, the

ceive the extension of the table-top

hand by means of which I peris extended in the same general

distortion into perception,

way

as

is

the table-top. Therefore the fact that I perceive extension

by means of an organ introduces no

for there
is

a homogeneity in respect to the perceived quality.

This homogeneity introduces an invincible conviction of objectivity

into my perceptions, for I can run my hand along the table-top and perceive a continual coincidence between organ and object.

Therefore, although these data, too, might in a

"relational," the relation does not detract
tivity.

way be
their

said to be

from

formal objec-

That

this point,

is why Van Steenberghen, who makes a great deal of wiU say that not every conceivable knower would have

to experience objects with the secondary qualities they present to

us,

but that for any and aU knowers, the primary qualities would

112

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

be in the object: even for an angelic knower, there would objectively be a distance between Louvain and Brussels.^
b) Secondly, some Scholastic authors rely on the fact that science gives us no reason to doubt the objectivity of primary
qualities.

This

is

in contrast to the
it

view of science on secondary

qualities,

which
is

finds

quite

dispensable.

What

underlies this

second view

the recognition that for immediate consciousness

qualities are experienced as objective: the green

many,
as

if

not

all,

of the grass
its

is

experienced as just as

much
is

a quality of the object

extension, for example. Therefore, the only reason

that this doubt
is

we have
imposed
of color,

to doubt the objectivity of any quality

upon us by some other

facet of our

knowledge or experience. But

science has succeeded in demonstrating that

phenomena

sound, and the other secondary qualities can be understood by

considering bodies
as

atomic structures in contact through an

with

electromagnetic

medium

my

physiological body; at

no point

do the secondary

qualities enter into this description.

They

are

causally explained as arising from the interaction of entities which

are sufficiently conceived without their aid.

And

so

many
to

philos-

ophers draw the conclusion that there

the objectivity of primary qualities

is

nothing to be said against

and a great deal

be said
scientific

against that of secondary qualities.

They accept

the

picture as hard-core philosophical datum. Fr. Gustave Weigel will

say, for instance, that the scientific

view makes speculation in

this

area unnecessary.^ R.
effort in behalf of

J.

Hirst

is

not inclined to put forth

much

secondary qualities because "science has no

need of them."^ Other authors tell us* that science gives no ground to doubt the objectivity of primary qualities, implying the decisiveness of the scientific outlook for epistemology.
1 2

Van

Steenberghen, op.

cit., p.

217.

Gustave Weigel, S.J., and Arthur Madden, Knowledge, Its Values and Limits (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall), 1961, p. 19. ^ Op. cit., p. 318. 4 Joseph D. Hassett, SJ., Robert A. Mitchell, S.J., J. Donald Monan, S.J., The Philosophy of Human Knowing (Westminster, Md.: Newman
Press), 1955, p. 151.

The Problem of Perception:

II

113

EVALUATION OF VIRTUAL REALISM

Critical virtual realism decides the

problem of perception by
formally belongs to
in second-

holding that in spatial qualities

the object as
it is

know what

in itself apart
is

from perception, while

be seen
the

ary qualities, I

know what

only virtually in the object apart

to begin habitually

from perception. The

sciousness, that

virtual realist will

is

with the assumption that perception

it

work of

a bodily con-

takes place by

means of
this as

the causality of sensory

organs.

Now

whoever begins with

the
objectivity

an assumption
quahties

is

not so

much

validating

of primary

as

he

is

assuming it. For a sensory organ is a spatial organ, and if we begin by assuming that perception is caused by spatial organs, then our question has been answered before it has hardly been raised.''

Some might protest that this is a justified procedure, since there is no way of getting behind the role of the sensory organs in consciousness; in epistemology we must begin somewhere, and that
will turn

out to be with the role of the organs in sensation. Withsettle the

out even striving to

to point out that

legitimacy of this stand,

we

only wish

any one who does begin here has obviously

if

already granted spatial qualities a formally real status:

spatial

organs are at the origin of perception, then they must be formally

real independent of perception.

Consequently,

it is

not even necessary for these apologists to go

reality of the

on

to raise

arguments in favor of the formal

primary

quahties.

One who

believes that sensory organs play a causal role

to the sensory organs that

in perception
all

must be referring

we

are
all

familiar with

and

these are spatial.

Given
is

this, it is

not at

necessary to show that because there

homogeneity between

organ and object no distortion

5

is

introduced into perception. For

Of

course, the problem of secondary qualities might also be regarded

meaning for "sensory organ" normally includes secondary qualities, and hence an assertion of the role of the body might be thought to include as part of its meaning the contribution of the secondary qualities involved in identifying a "sensory organ."
as finished with at this point, since our

114
once consciousness
is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

seen as originating in an interaction between

:

organ and object the formally spatial character of both of these

is

assumed. Otherwise, when

Van

Steenberghen shows^ the homo-

geneity between

hand and

table in respect to extension, he

would
j

merely be correlating two objects of consciousness; that two objects of consciousness

have a homogeneity would of

itself

prove
In

'

nothing about what

is

true independently of consciousness.

itself"

order for his point to have weight about a reality "in

apart
j

from consciousness, he must already believe that consciousness

originates in this spatial contact, that the
is

hand of which he speaks

that this

not simply an object of consciousness but an organ by which

is

consciousness
spatial

generated

and hence he must assume

organ

is real,

independent of consciousness. Likewise, when

i

he speaks of the lack of homogeneity between the eye and color,

this

could only be evidence against the objectivity of color

is

if

he

assumes that the eye of famiUar conscious experience

causally
its

'

involved in the production of vision; but this assumes at least

formally spatial reality. In other words, the virtual realists are

posing the whole question of sense qualities within a context which simply takes for granted extension as a formal reality independent
of conscious experience altogether.

Sometimes
uous
extended

it

appears that the virtual

realists are exerting stren-

efforts to

prove that the objects of perception are formally

all. It is

a fact which does not need proving at

evident

that the desk, the piece of paper, the rock,

which

is

the object of

my

perception

is

in itself,
out.

as

such,

extended.

No

argument

is

needed to bring that

But

it is

also evident that the objects of

perception are colored, sounding, and odorous. This piece of paper

which
I

perceive
is

is

not only rectangular but white;

this grass

which

perceive

not only two inches high but green.

it

No

argument

either proves or disproves that, since

is

given.

Then what has

but that

Van

Steenberghen proved which warrants his statement that not

this grass as green,

every knower would have to perceive

Op.

cit.,

pp. 215-217, 222-223.

The Problem of Perception:

II
it

115
as

every knower would have to perceive

is

extended?

What

grass

he talking about?
it is

If

he

is

talking about this grass, the object of

perception, then

a tautology to say that every observer would

have to experience
this

this grass as green, for part of the reality of

is its

perceived grass
is

greenness.

that

not perceiving this grass but something

Anyone who does not else. Does

itself to

perceive
he, per-

haps,

mean

not this perceptually present grass but the object inde-

pendent of perception which presents

green? In that case, perhaps there
as
is

me
is

perceptually as
that this object

no assurance

unrelated to consciousness
it is

is

green

but

there any

more

reason to think that

sciousness
it is

extended? Just because, as given to con-

extended, seems no guarantee that, as not given to

it is

consciousness,

extended.

The hand which

I perceive

and the

desk which

perceive are both objects for consciousness; that

they are both extended does not apparently prove anything about
either

hand or desk apart from consciousness.

is

If

he pleads that

this

takes too disembodied a view of consciousness, that perceptual

consciousness

the

work of a sensory organ, then he

virtual reaUst
his

is

no longer
his
it

arguing but treating this as an irreducible beginning.

It

would seem that the

must make up

mind

either to go the

whole way with

view or else to treat

is,

not as

a conclusion but as an irreducible premise. That

if

the data

given to perception are really relational data, then perhaps there

is

reason to think that they are

at

all

relational data,

and do not

inform us

aU about
There

how
is

objects are apart

from

their relation

to consciousness.

no compelling reason
It

to stop with the

secondary qualities which does not already assume the right to

stop with the secondary qualities.
therefore

comes down

to a

question of which "object" the virtual realist

j

is

talking about. If

he

is

referring to the perceived object, then all qualities are for-

mally in the perceived object precisely as they are experienced as

being;
if

he

is

talking about the object independent of perception,

there seems to be no sufficient reason for saying that any perceived

quality
is

there.
if

In other words,

virtual

reahsm goes

to the

end

in its reason-

116
ing,
it is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
j

very likely to wind up in the position of Immanuel Kant.''

is

Kant's view

based on

his
is

distinction

between noumena and

phenomena. The noumenon

reality as
it

reality in itself, the

phenomenon
that
all
it is

presents

itself

to consciousness. Since
its

human knowlrela-

edge

is

not in toto creative of

object,

Kant assumes
apart from

legitimate to speak of reality as

tion to consciousness.

it is

in

itself,

But every conceivable consciousness (human

presents
itself to

or otherwise)

is

a definite kind of consciousness, with a deterit

minate structure. Reality as

knower must,
which he can
also deter-

then, present itself according to the conditions under

know. Whatever determines

him. Turning to

his

manner of knowing

mines to that extent the manner in which objects are known by

human knowledge, Kant found

that the

a priori

my consciousness independent of all actual content) which specify my kind of knowing are the forms of space and time. What determines my way of
forms (or structural determinations constituting
is that whatever I know I must know spatially and temAny reality which cannot be present in this way, is never present to my consciousness, and so is never known; conversely, any reality which is present to my consciousness must conform to

knowing

porally.

the conditions under which something can be present, and hence

must be known

spatially

and temporally.
is

Underlying experience

a noumenal subject and a noumenal

is

objective ground. Experience

the product of a relation between

these two (which must forever remain inexplicable). Everything

present to

my

experience

is

phenomenal. This word must not

to signify that
it is

mislead

us.

Kant does not mean

it is

"illusory" or

"deceptive," but only that

reality as present according to the

conditions of

my manner

of knowing. In

knowing phenomena,
I

know

objects, not illusions, or merely subjective occurrences.

The

rocks, trees, water, animals, people

just as real as the self of
real.
'^

whom

experience are real,

my

experience, but they are phenomenally

That

is,

the qualities which I find in

them are
full

objective, not

Without, of course, necessarily subscribing to the

range of Kantian

philosophy, in particular his metaphysics.

The Problem
subjective

of Perception: II
are objective in

117
them as phenomena. That is Kant has a "subjective" theory subjective as a jorm of our knowit

but they

why
ing,

the accusation of
is

some

that
is

of space

misguided. Space

but

it is

objective in the sense that

is

informs every object of

it is

my
of

experience. Space

real in the sense that

a qualification

human experience: the objects I experience really are spatial. What about noumena? Here no answer is possible. The noumenon
the
trans-experiential

is

objective

ground of

my

experiencing

things the

way

I
it.

do,

and because
I

it is

trans-experiential, I
is this

can say

nothing about
of

What

mean by space

indicatable feature
is

my

phenomenal experience;
is

as long as there

human

experiis

ence, there

space.

Whether the noumenal ground which

ex-

perienced by

me

in a spatial

manner could be presented

I

in another

manner
tinction

to another

knower,
is

cannot say.
this

Once experience
point.
real:

viewed as phenomenal in

way, the

disits

between primary and secondary

is

qualities loses
is

much

of

What
this

given to
is

me

perceptually

experienced as fully

grass

green, sweet, smooth, extended, moving. All

these properties are real exactly as they are experienced as being

real:

formally where they are experienced as being.

is

What about

the grass apart from experience? This

grass precisely
to ask about
it

a confused question. This

it

is

the grass as experienced, and

If I

makes no sense
the

apart from experience.

this

mean what about

it

noumenal ground of
ence, then there
to think of
it

perceptual experience, apart from experias extended than

is

no more reason to think of

as having the secondary qualities.

There

is

no

clear reason

why

the virtual realists should check

If

their reasoning short of a

Kantian conclusion.

experienced data

are relational, then

relational.

it

would appear correct

to

view them aU as
a rock-bottom
all

No

argument seems

to prevent this, but only the conis

viction that our experience of ourselves as spatial

inexplicable which reveals a

datum

that
falls

is

real

independent of

consciousness. Everything stands or

viction.

on the

truth of this con-

The

other reasoning which

is

at the basis of virtual

reahsm's

118
conferring of formal reality
briefly handled,
this direction. It
i.e.,

The Philosophy
on the primary
qualities

of

Knowledge

may be more
',

the scientific evidence which seems to lead in

scientific

cannot be too often reiterated that

this issue, for

data
| ,

cannot be decisive on

reasons which have already

been pointed
statement

out.

No

scientific

statement can provide an ultimate

'

ground for judging the nature of perception, for every

is

scientific
:

built

upon a perceptual foundation.

It

can have no
test

more

objectivity than perception has,

and cannot be used to

the fundamental objectivity of perception.

The

fact that science

|

has no need of secondary qualities and can confine

its

description

of reahty to the quantitative language of the primary quafities does

not establish either that secondary qualities are un-real or that

the world independent of consciousness
is

characterized formally

by primary

quafities.

The long-entrenched opinion

left

to the contrary

is

now

increasingly

recognized as the hypostasizing of an abstraction. Because science

aside
all

secondary qualities and attended only to the quantita-

tive

aspect of reality, there grew up a propensity to treat this

quantitative aspect as a "thing" or "collection of things" existing

in itself. Part of the epistemological

advance within science

itself

in recent times has consisted in recognizing the abstract character

of

its

own way

of conceiving reality and repudiating the projection

of this abstraction as an autonomous reality. This repudiation

facifitated

was

because the progress of

scientific

theory had finally

reached the point where not only had science been able to dispense
with the secondary qualities in
its

description of reality, but

it

now

found

itself

denuding the object even of the primary

it

qualities.

Thus, Werner Heisenberg could say of the atom as

was connor

ceived by a physical theory which he himself had been influential

in

bringing into being,

that

it

had neither

color,

sound,

extension, nor any of the qualities which the bodies of perceptual

experience have.
to decide just
8

It is
is

now

a matter of the most extreme perplexity

what

the status of such an entity.

Some regard

it

Werner Heisenberg, Philosophical Problems of Nuclear Science (New

86.

York: Pantheon), 1952, pp. 38,

The Problem of Perception:

II

119
which serves as a term of

as simply a logically conceived "x"

reference for a set of mathematical equations.

object,"

The

"scientific

on these terms,

is

not a special entity, but a special

way

of regarding the famUiar objects of experience. Far from providing

a sure basis for solving the

problem of perception,

this special
stirs

procedure retains
hornet's nest of
its

all

the puzzles of perception,

and

up a

own.

SUMMING UP
As some
gestions
:

contribution towards the unravelling of an extremely

tangled skein of puzzles,

we may make

the following basic sug-

1)

The fundamental
is

obstacle to the decision as to whether

is

"material objects exist unperceived"

assertion

that the
it

meaning of

that

multivalently obscure. Strange as

it

may

seem, after

centuries of speculation,

would not be possible

true or false.

to get anything
this

approaching a consensus of opinion as to what

statement

means,

much

less

whether

it

is

Every

single

word

in the statement contains

cipally
this

an on the notion of "object" which is at stake. In order for statement to be true, what is it which the asserter thinks would
obscurity.
will concentrate prinis

We

have to be true about the "object" which

"object" which he claims
secure:

involved?

What

is this

to exist unperceived? Several points seem

a) For judgmental consciousness, every

datum

is

objective and
precisely as
is

independent. That

is,

my

judgment experiences
its

itself

a complete self-effacement in favor of

object.

The judgment

an awareness of

itself

as

what

is

judged about.^ Whether

making no difference whatsoever to I say "The table is round," "Two

effaces itself

and two are four," or "I have a pain," the judgment

9

On

the self-effacing character of judgment, see Maritain, op.

cit.,

p.

and a quite different kind of reahst thinker, the English philosopher H. A. Prichard, Knowledge and Perception (Oxford: Clarendon Press),
87,

1950, pp. 63, 204.

120
altogether before
its

The Philosophy
object.

of

Knowledge
objectively,
is

My

pain

is

just as

much

there independently of

my

judgmental consciousness as

a table

or a chair.

We

are in the habit of thinking of pain, joy, sorrow,

and the

like,

as subjective experiences, but for the judging con-

sciousness, they are found, there, other than itself as judging.

b) For perceptual consciousness, every quality

is

is

just

where

it

experienced as being. This

is,

is

a matter of direct experience.

it

The
I

green

for perception, just

where

is

experienced

in

what

call grass; the

blue

is

in the sky; the gurgling in the brook; the

scent in the rose.

is

The only question

is

that can be raised in this area

the psychological one of whether I

am

sure where I experience

these quahties, and this

often obscure.

the sweetness in the sugar

or do

Do

I really
it

experience

experience

in

my

tongue,

or do

I
is

experience

it

in the

encounter between sugar and tongue?

This

a factual question which

I

may

often be hard to answer.

is

But wherever

do experience the

quality, that

where

it

is,

and

nowhere

else.^

From
viction
is

here on, things become less clear. For,

my

habitual con-

not simply that everything

is

objective in respect to judg-

mental consciousness, but that the objects of perceptual consciousness are completely objective.

Whence do

derive this conviction?

is

What appears
and

to

happen

is

that

my

lived consciousness

integral,

that I assimilate the perceptual data to the independence of

the objects of judgmental consciousness.

That

is,

just as the object

judged about

is

altogether independent of the act of judging, so

is
is

the perceived object

posited as altogether other than the total

consciousness which
1*

aware of

it.

assimilate

perceiving to

Suppose

of two things:

experience the pain in an amputated limb? Even so, one 1) I really do experience it there which cannot be de-

clared an impossibility except by assuming that

exactly

a bodily appendage no longer exists, which is the assumption in question. (For a forceful exposition of this, see E. A. Burtt, op. cit., p. 315.) 2) I am psychologically mistaken in thinking that I experience it there: I really experience it elsewhere and immediately interpret
its

cannot feel a pain where only an assumption and

location through past recollections.

The Problem
judging,

of Perception:

U
come
to believe that
there,
if

121

and then the perceived object has the same independent

status as the judged object. I then

my

individual perceiving consciousness

were not

the objects

which

perceive would

still

be there exactly as they are for

perception.

Endless

difficulties are raised

by

this belief.

Rather than attempt-

ing to deal with them, let us only try to specify

what

is

involved

in this claim for the independence of perceptual objects. If I claim that tables, rocks, chairs, clouds, are there independently of indi-

vidual perception, what do I want to assert?

Are they

there as

they are for consciousness? But then

am
is

hypostasizing the pure

there for an observer.
as they

"outside" view, which

is

the one which

Are they

there for themselves!

But then they are not there

are there for consciousness

for, for

consciousness they are there

for us. Furthermore, to speak of these things as being there "for

themselves"
clouds.

is

difficult

to

do

in the case of tables,

rocks,

and

The only way of being "for itself" that is clear to me is my own way consciousness's way; surely, though, I don't quite mean

that these objects are there for themselves as consciousness

is

there

for

itself.

But how can they be there independent of

all

other

consciousness without being in any

way

"for themselves"?

We now

begin to reahze that the

epistemological

assertion

overflows into metaphysical territory. In order to assert fully that

perceptual objects are independent of
all

individual consciousness,

we ought to know what we mean by this assertion. Yet as soon as we try to spell out what we mean by it, we must theorize as to the nature of their independent existence. Are they something analogous to conscious selves, a la the monads of Leibniz? Are they data for an absolute experience, a la Hegel? Are they substances, a la St. Thomas? The dire uncertainty in the face of all
these questions

may be

utilized in bringing us to the reahzation of

the limits of the self-contained character of the epistemological

inquiry.

To

a large extent,

we can

separate the epistemological

question from others, such as the metaphysical, but

we

eventually

722

The Philosophy
I

of

Knowledge
I

reach the limits of this separation. Unless

know what
I

mean by

saying that "material objects exist unperceived"

to

cannot be said

know

the truth of that statement in anything but a most rudiin order to

mentary way. But

attempt to conceive the

objects,

know what I mean, I must make an mode of existence of these independent

and then

am

in a theory of being, rather than a theory

of knowledge.
It is

not too

much

to say that the

problem of perception remains

it

the most unresolved in the whole of epistemology. In fact,

would

be somewhat disingenuous to say anything

ing from scratch seems to
afflict

else.

perpetual start-

our inquiries here. This should

not be taken as a defeat for thought, however, since the recognition of this plight

and the
to

restless effort to

surmount

it is

rather an

indication of the genuinely philosophical limit-situation which

we
the

reach here.

If

we were

sum up what can be

salvaged as episte-

mological currency from a very fluid situation,

following:
1 )

we might
It

list

Perceptual consciousness

is

never pure subjectivity.

always

contains an actualization of the presence of a non-self as well as

our

own

presence to ourselves.
is

2) Perceptual consciousness never stands alone, but

incorporated into the total

always

relation to the other which includes

elements which go beyond perception.

3) Perceptual data always exist just exactly where they are

experienced as existing.
4)
Perceptual consciousness seems to put us in contact with a
it

multiplicity of non-selves; in so far as

total acting consciousness,
it

is

incorporated into a

presents us with multiple centers of

resistance.

How much
able.

further than this

we can go with

security

is

debat-

quite consistent picture of reality can be presented

all

by a
full

view which regards

perceptual objects as existing in their

and formal reality only for

done
either
in

human

consciousness. This could be

a Kantian manner,

or by regarding perceptual

objects as "events" which are there at the

boundary of a subject-

The Problem

of Perception: II
is

123
tendency to do just that on

object encounter. There

common

the part of

many contemporary
is
it

thinkers.

Some,

like

Merleau

Ponty, will say that there

the world as

no sense contending that we reach

exists "in itself," since the objects of experience

always contain a reference to our experiencing selves.

famihar

view among Scholastics that through perception we know "objects

as they affect us" could be fitted into this framework.

One

simple

way

to hold that

we do know
its

the world in
it

itself,

of course,

would
itself:

be to hold that the world as

that reality
is

is

"for us"

is

the world in

relational to

very foundation, and that therefore

the very question of a search for the "object in itself" apart

all

from

relations

is

an empty search.^^ Relational properties are only

if

defined against intrinsic properties

one fancies that the reahty

of an object can be conceived in total abstraction

If this is

from

its

relations.

not so, then there would not be the same difficulty in

conceiving the qualities of the object as at the same time totally

relational

and
still

totally intrinsic.

There
with

remains the other alternative of simply stopping with

the irreducible givenness of the bodily experience of consciousness

all

that that entails.

We

might confine

this irreducible there-

ness to extension, as do the virtual reaMsts, or maintain a similar

irreducibility for the

secondary quahties.

We

could claim what

some do, that just because science correlates color with light-waves or warmth with molecular motion, this does not by any means
prove that the secondary quahties do not also exist objectively.^-

Heat may be an objective concomitant of molecular motion, color

an objective concomitant of fight-waves; or they both might be
co-equal objective properties, discernible from different vantage11

This

is

the view of the later Husserl; in a quite different

way

it

is

the view of quite different idealists like Hegel, Leibniz, or Bradley, and

of an "organic" realist like Whitehead.

12

This seems to be the basis for the defense of the objectivity of sec-

ondary

qualities made by P. Coffey, Epistemology, 2 vols. (New York: Longmans Green), 1917, vol. U, pp. 127-137 and by Reginald O'Neill, S.J., Theories of Knowledge (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall), 1960, pp.

41-47.

124
points. It really

The Philosophy of Knowledge

seems to be only a prejudice which throws the;
reality.

secondary qualities out of

either, since they only

Illusions

are not conclusive,

prove that these qualities are conditioned

by circumstances, not

that they are un-real.

When we

see a
is

round
again

penny from a certain angle

as elliptical, the explanation

the relational character of the datum.

We
:

are seeing a round-

penny-turned-at-a-certain-angle-to-my-eye

a total circumstantial
this

datum. What would be amazing would be that the penny from

angle
still

looked round, for

this

would

nullify the reality of space

and of the whole context of

entities. I

relations

which the penny has

to other

am

never perceiving the penny, but a whole contextual

relation, out of

which

concentrate on a single member.

is

To

exist
if

spatially
fail

is

to exist perspectivally , but that

is itself

only confusing

we
a

to see that perspective

an objective datum. True,

it is

not a property of an object apart from a viewer, but neither

is it

property of a viewer.
here.

It is

a property of an object-as-viewed-from-

The

intelligibility

of perspective implies a reference to a

is

determinate object and

therefore a revelation of that object.

The same can be

ary qualities.

said about the perspectival character of second-

To
which

hold that sensory perception puts

exist formally in

me

in

touch with qualities

an independent object, we would have to

it

hold several things: a) The conception of an object as

itself,

exists in

apart from

all relations, is

a meaningful conception, b)

The

conception of primary and secondary qualities existing apart from

all
is

relation to consciousness

is

a meaningful conception, c) There

this possibility.
It

nothing in experience that would eliminate

safely declared that sensory illusion

may be

and

scientific evidence,

the only two reasons usually adduced for the elimination of objectivity are

not conclusive. Therefore the decision on this question

to our stand

comes down

on the
is

first

two

points.

Even

if

the possi-

bility of the first

two points

denied, there

is at

least

one more

alternative that
reality

one could adopt who wanted

to hold the strict

of sensory qualities.

That

is

the behef in an Absolute

in

Consciousness transcending our

own

which

all

these qualities

The Problem of Perception:

are perpetually held fast;

II
this view,

125
one way
to sustain naive

on

realism would be by espousing Absolute Idealism.

PUZZLES ABOUT "OBJECTIVITY"

Two more
of objectivity

points
is

may be made

in conclusion. First, the question

usually discussed in complete neglect of the con-

sciousness which asserts this objectivity.

the fact that every assertion of objectivity
tain exigence of the consciousness

We
is

too easily overlook

in function of a cerit.

which makes
felt

Consequently

we overlook

the keen dissatisfaction

by certain realms of
aesthetic con-

consciousness in the face of the Kantian or virtual realist disposal

of secondary qualities. Specifically, what
sciousness feel
if
it

would the

were told that secondary

tell

qualities

were only

virtually objective?

Suppose we were to

Marcel Proust, remem-

bering in ecstasy the taste of his aunt's madeleine cake, the azure

Veronne River, the long-ago peal of the church bells, and the scent of the hawthorn blossoms along the lanes of the childhood
village of

Combray,

that secondary qualities

were not as formally

contact with the

real as extension

and motion

would
if it

that

make

reality of his experience?

And

did not, in what

way

is

it

satisfactory

view of perception?

The

aesthetic consciousness

seems

to experience itself as a proit

found, though stammering, affirmation of a splendor

the most irresistibly objective manner. brates
is,

finds in
it

The world which

will just not take

cele-

for

it,

gloriously there

and

it

no for

an answer.

Now

the exigence which this consciousness feels to

assert absolute reahty cannot be

brushed aside by a consciousness

operating at a different level or in a different way.

just

The

scientist

cannot

tell

the artist that the sunset

is

not really a riot of color

nor a benediction of beauty; nor can the "neutral observer," the

sensory knower, the down-to-earth man, or any other than a
poetic consciousness.
of a certain exigence,

The

assertion of reality

is

always a function

and the tendency

to overlook this introduces

a fantastic confusion into the problem of "perception."

What

re-

126
flection

The Philosophy
can do
is

of

Knowledge

to mediate

and harmonize the various exigences

it

and the various realms of consciousness, but

as reflection,
it

can do

this

only

if,

inhabits these realms

and

feels these exigences.

Up

to the present day, epistemological discussions about the ob-

jects of perception

have not done

this.

Progress in this quarter

is

urgently caUed for.

Secondly, reflection must also apply

itself

to the continued exis

ploration of the meaning of "object" which

discussion, something never quite clear.

at stake in this

Even the aesthetic consciousness is not sure what it means when it says that it wants its world to be there, to be there-for-itself; it wants, somehow, to
afiirm the glorious

and overriding

reality of the objects

it

it

encoun-

ters,

but

it

is

not reaUy sure what

means by

this

yearning.

Philosophical reflection must delve into the inarticulate yearning

of this and other levels of consciousness.

For consciousness must

its

recognize something puzzling and elusive about

the "reality" of perceptual objects.

conviction of

an amalgam of an indefinite
is

Not only is a perceptual object number of perspectival views, but it

one has yet fuUy incorporated time
I feel that I

involved totally in time.

No

into the discussion

on perception.

experience objects
perception. But

and

that these objects are real independent of

is

my

each object

a temporal unfolding, and therefore in demanding

that the object be real, I

am demanding
want
it

that each temporal per-

spective be relatively unreal. I

to

be

for-itself

and

yet

how can

conceive the for-itself reality of a rock with an infinity

of possible spatial perspectives and a continuity of real temporal

moments?

It

would seem that

in asserting the reahty of objects, I

I

am
in

always asserting more than perspectives:

am
is

asserting the

ingathering of perspectives into a unity which

somehow

there

and for

itself.

Yet how can

this

apply to non-human things?

Perhaps a clue

may be

gotten by considering the non-conscious

unitary aspects of consciousness, such as the

way our
is

bodily ex-

periences are there for us. Physiologically our body

for consciousness;

not a datum

what does

it

and yet not consciously there?

mean for the body to be there, The possibilities for questioning

The Problem of Perception:

II
it

127
is

along this line seem limitless, and

to these questions that

philosophical speculation about perception must press

to be fruitful.

on

if it is

subjecting

it

Only by continually turning the problem over and to the whole range of conscious exigences will we
in the

ever

do much more than mark time

same

place.

THE SEARCH FOR THE UNCONDITIONAL

THE PRIMITIVE ASSERTION

Although the objectivity of sense perception can be placed upon
firm grounds, there
is

no denying

that there
it

is

a residue of uncer-

tainty in this area. If nothing else,

is

clear that the objectivity

here vindicated

is

compatible with a relatively vast amount of

error; sensory illusion of

one kind or another

is

familiar to every-

one. Therefore

it

makes obvious sense

to say that the objects of

sense perception
really are.
in

may
it

often appear to be other than what they

is

That which

known

in sense perception

is

not given

such a way that

can underwrite an unconditional certitude

about reality apart from the immediate perception.

The mind

finds itself restive

is

under these circumstances, for

its

ineluctable urge
satisfied to rest
tivity,

the urge to the absolute.

We

are not at

all

with the rather adulterated brand of sensory objec-

but wish to press on to an area in which

Is

we can

leave

all

qualification behind.

there present in
will

human

experience any

knowledge about which we

no longer have

to fear that things

may be
tion

other than they seem? Is the security of unconditional

assent forbidden to us?

Or

is

there not open to thought an affirma-

which
if

it

can make with altogether unqualified assurance?

is

Now
datum

there

such assurance,
distinction
is

it

can only be founded on a

reality is

in

which the

between appearance and

surpassed. If there

to be absolute certitude, there

must be an
it

absolute datum, one given in such a

way

that with respect to

The Search

for the Unconditional

129

we need not, even seem. As long as

seem, then
to
it is

cannot, ask whether things be other than they

it

is

thinkable that things be other than they

thinkable that our knowledge of them be not true

what they

really are.

The search

for the unconditioned therefore

resolves itself into the search for the absolute datum.

Such a datum
the term "being,"

is

given to us through the idea of "being."

designate
all

By

we

that

is

and

all

that can be.

We

designate the totality of reality, whether actual or possible.

star,

Man,

stone,

amoeba, are

all

beings; red, sweet, hard, loud, are

beings; satyrs, unicorns,

mermaids are beings (beings of fantasy);

are

numbers,

lines,

points,

beings

(beings

of

abstraction);

thoughts, acts of will, emotions are beings.

applies to everything

The idea of being

between
also a

which

is

and

to every difference

everything which

is:

daisies

and grasshoppers are both beings, and

is

whatever makes a daisy different from a grasshopper

being. Thus, green, leafy, with a yellow

and white flower, contain-

ing chlorophyll, are

are

modes

of being.

modes of being; brown, many-legged, winged, The notion of being applies to every whole
is

individual and to every part of that whole. There

no exception
is

whatever to the idea of being:

ray.

God

is

a being, and so

gamma-

Absolutely nothing
is

falls
is

outside the scope of this notion.

Whatever
will

not nullity,

being.

Suppose there are things which we have never known and never

planets

forever

unseen,

types

of Ufe

never encountered,

Descartes' evil genius, or

we cannot even begin

about
it

to

in

advance

it,

the

some peculiar thing so foreign to us that imagine it. Even so, we know one thing idea of being applies to it. Whatever we
at all,
is
it is

do not know about

within our concept of being.

we do know that if it is The idea of being

included

not, then, limited

in ex-

to experience. It applies to every being

which participates

perience and to anything that could participate in experience but

also to things

which could never be part of our experience. This

it

idea

is

absolutely universal, and no exception to

whatsoever

is

thinkable.

Moreover, in respect to
reality
is

it,

no

distinction

between

appearance and

possible.

It

may make

sense to say

130
"maybe
is

The Philosophy
this

of

Knowledge

only looks red and

isn't really

red," but

it

makes no

sense to say,
not."

"maybe

this

red only seems to be being, and really

The

idea of being, then, provides the fulcrum

upon which

absolute certitude turns.

We

have already suggested that the absolute unconditional

is

underlying thought

the reality of the question

is

itself

as

the

ground of
controvert

all

knowledge, and what

said here

is

not meant to

this.

Being

is

delivered to us fundamentally as question.

is,

What we
wrong
for
if

are seeking

now

as

it

were, the

first

irruption of the

question into the order of affirmation.

And we

cannot go far
affirm uncon-

we
is

begin by saying that one thing

we may

ditionally
it is

our right to affirm} This

is

not playing with words,

way

of recognizing that that which allows the question

is

of the truth or falsity of individual assertions to be raised

different order

of a

from

the object of these assertions. That which

is

allows the distinction between the truth and falsity of assertion

the questioning grasp of experience. But the question, as turniiig

to experience,
is

immediately diffracted into a duality in the order

it

of assertion. For

grasps experience as at a certain "distance"

from

its

own

ultimate and inexpressible intelligibiUty. That

is

upon

which assertion bears

obliterate the latter.

twofold:

it is

not a sheer existent, which

would leave no distance between

itself

and the question and thus

rendered in the
itself,

This distance of experience from the question

is

order of assertion as a distance of experience from

and

expressed in the primitive assertion that

thing exists."

"something

is"

or "some-

No

assertion

may

escape that formula, and that

intelligibiUty of the question

formula entails the diffraction of the

into a

"what" and a "that." In the order of assertion the identity

made by one
of the major thinkers of the

This point

is

strongly

mod-

ern Thomistic movement, Joseph Marechal, SJ., in his monumental six

volume work, Le point de depart de la metaphysique. See Cahier I, p. 35, and Cahier V, p. 377. For an exposition of Marechal's thought, see the exhaustive and remarkable survey of 19th and 20th century Thomistic
epistemology by Georges

Van

Riet, L'epistemologie thomiste, pp. 263-300.

The Search
of the

for the Unconditional

131

what and the that (essence and existence) is impossible. Hence the unconditional in the order of assertion derives from the primitive fissure which underlies and makes possible this order.
Experience as answering to the question always renders a twofold
reply: something
.
.

exists.

Neither of these can be reduced to

nor deduced from the other, and the search for the unconditional
,

in this area

must lead through the distance which separates them.

FIRST PRINCIPLES

Now

in the recognition of the irreducible value of the primitive

assertion, that

"something exists," there are contained a plurality

rooted in the

of principles which derive their standing from this recognition.

The unconditional

certitude of these principles

is

unconditional value of the primitive assertion

tionally stated as follows:

itself.

They

are tradi-

1) Principle of Identity:
exist,

What

exists,

exists;

what does not

suffi-

does not

exist.

2) Principle of Sufiicient Reason: Whatever exists has a

cient reason for existing.

3) Principle of Efficient Causality: Whatever begins to

requires an efficient cause.

exist,

A
1 )

detailed justification of the unconditional value of these prin-

ciples is

now caUed for. To many ears, this

is

principle sounds like an

empty tautology,
express
it

and

it

not hard to see why.

Even when we
expression
is

in this

existential

(A

is

way rather than in A; non-A is non-A), the

it is

the purely formal logical

manner
it

so basic that

seems

futile to

go to the trouble of asserting

it.

But while
all

it

may be

regarded as a truism,

a truism upon which

thought turns.

Unless

we

recognized

this principle,

we would be

able to recognize
is

or assert nothing whatsoever.

that there to
is

What

the principle asserts

simply

a radical difference between existing

and

not-existing;

be

is

not the same thing as not-to-be. Being and nothing are

or better put, being
is

distinct,

not equivalent to the absence of

132
being.

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

One who thought

is

himself capable of denying this principle

all

would obviously have surrendered

principle

right to think at

all.

The

readily converted into the Principle of Contradiction:

exist

Nothing can both

of this truth
is

and not

exist.

Once

again, the recognition

involved in the recognition of any truth whatever:

is

the very possibiUty of asserting

to assert

grounded

in the realization that

and deny are not

identical.

We

cannot both assert and

is

deny the truth of a proposition. But what

being.

asserted or denied

is

The ground,

therefore, for the recognition that an assertion

is

and denial of the same proposition

of the impossibility that what
is

impossible,

is

the recognition

asserted both exist

and not
its

exist.
is

2) This principle
clearly understood.
less

is

equally indubitable, once

is

import

What

asserted

is

not some relatively shape-

confidence, such that "Everything exists for a reason," or

"God

created everything for a purpose," which piety

may

fairly

accept (and perhaps consequent thought lend credence to) but

something
ing to do

much more

basic.

"Reason"

in this principle has noth-

with "purpose" or "goal" and therefore carries no

connotation either of God's providence or the benevolence of

"Nature." "Reason" here means "ground" or "account," and what

is

asserted

is

just that

thought must apprehend a sufficient ground

for the fact that something exists.

will
is

Upon

inspection this principle

first. If

be found to be

as irreducibly intelligible as the

there

a difference between being and not-being, then wherever

we

have being, there

2

must be that which

sufficiently

accounts for the

This principle
this

is

often formulated to include a reference to time: "Noth-

ing can both be and not be at the

same time and

it

in the

same

respect."

Although

seems

just

as unexceptionable,

introduces into the pure

intelligible clarity

of the principle some of the opacity of our knowledge

In order for the principle so formulated to be directly might be thought to include an assimiption of the extremely suspect notion of a "point" or "instant" in serial time, at which simultaneous existing and non-existing are deemed impossible. It was Hegel who directed

about time
intelligible,

itself.

it

attention to the limitation of the principle

when temporally

applied, treat-

ing the process of becoming as founded

this principle.

There

is

no need

to

upon a sort of dynamic violation of take up his reservations here, although

they are very

much

to the point in metaphysics.

The Search

for the Unconditional

is

133

fact that here there

being and not nothing. Anything else would

sufficiently distinguished

be absurdity.

If

there were not that which

being from nothing, then being would not be sufficiently distinguished from nothing (an obvious violation of the insight contained in the principle of identity). But
nothing, then there
is

if

being

is

different
it.

from
If

that which

sufficiently differentiates

the

absence and the presence of being are not identical, then where

we have presence
its

of being rather than the absence of being, there

for the presence of being rather than

must be a ground or reason

absence.

Once

again, to say anything else

as identical.

would be

to regard

existing

and non-existing

Since the principle of sufficient reason amounts to the

demand
is

of thought that the order of existence be intelligible, there

sense in which
existing.

it it

might be applied wherever there

is

an act of

Thus,

might even be thought of as applicable to the

that
if

infinite being,

God. Even here we could say

the infinite
exists.

being
If

exists,
is

then there must be a sufficient reason

why He
a

He

distinct

from nothing, there must be that which

nothing.

sufficiently
se, of

differentiates
self;

Him from
is

God

is

said to exist

him-

His nature

to exist. This does not exactly

is

mean

that in the
It

real order

God's essence
is

the ground of his existence.

means
it is

that His existence

not distinct from His essence, and that

intelligible

grasped by us as an

terminus in which thought

may

come
this

to rest.

Of

course,

from our standpoint, we could express

by saying

that for our knowledge,

we

see God's essence as the

if

sufficient

reason for His existence; but that only means that

we

understand what

God
is

is,

we cannot

ask

why He

is.

This could be

put in more Thomistic terms: since in

are identical,

God

essence and existence

raises the issue

He

"esse."

Then our thought which

of the sufficient reason for the existence of

the nature of

God

recognizes that
is

God

is

existence.

As supremely
So that

actual, there

no

severance of the ground of His existing from His existing;

exists

He

because

He

is

existence.

God

is

grasped by us as

His

own

sufficient

reason for existing.

Yet

this

same statement cannot be made about contingent

134
beings.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

'

We

cannot say of man, stone,

tree,

animal, or any other

of being.

familiar object that they are their

into being

own ground

They come
Whatever

and they pass out of being; they begin

its

to be.

begins to be obviously does not exist of

exists of its

own

nature.

What
exist

own
It
is

nature exists necessarily; what exists necessarily

cannot not-exist. Therefore, what begins to be does not

necessarily.

said to be contingent, indifferent to existence,

its

meaning simply
Jones

that

nature

is

compatible either with existence

not exist

or non-existence. John Jones does

because he

is

John

for

it

is

not only thinkable but predictable that one day

he

will

not exist (just as one day he did not exist). Therefore

existing as
existing.

John Jones

is

compatible with the possibility of not-

Certain types of being are susceptible of existing or

not-existing: then
their existence

when

they do exist, the sufficient explanation for

this

cannot be that they are

kind of being (or

this

kind of individual). But

sufficient
is.

the fact remains that there

must be some

reason
its

It is

not

why this being which could not-be here and now own sufficient reason for existence; nevertheless it
its

requires that which accounts for

It

standing outside of nothing.^

has become increasingly

common among

Thomistic writers

to disparage the value of the principle of sufficient reason,

on the

grounds that
cal terrain

it

is

an intrusion of "essentialism" into a metaphysiis no doubt, does not go back in its Thomas, and Thomists who are con-

which should be reserved for a properly "existentiaUst"

principle, there

thought.*

The

explicit formulation to St.

3

Not only beginning

to be

and passing away

in a

complete sense, as

the appearance and disappearance of individual unities, but any state of

change gives the same reasoning. For no being insofar as it is changing is its own ground of being. Every state of a changing being is contingent: it was not a moment ago and will not be a moment from now. Therefore the grasping of a being as changing is the grasping of it as not intelligible in itself as essentially referred to something other than itself. * See, for instance, Joseph Owens, C.Ss.R., An Elementary Christian Metaphysics (Milwaukee: Bruce), 1962, f.n. pp. 16-11. A history of this

principle as well as a criticism of

its

rationalist character is contained in

John E. Gurr, S.J., The Principle of Sufficient Reason in Some Scholastic Systems, 1750-1900 (Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press), 1959.

The Search

for the Unconditional

135

cerned to uphold the primacy of the act of existing in metaphysics

do not take kindly

to a principle

which derives

at least verbally

ifrom the rationalist tradition of Leibniz

and Christian Wolff.

to be asking that the

Those who make use of

essence; but
It is

it

seem

to

them

existence of an entity be either "implied" or "not implied"

this

by

its

procedure confers a certain priority on essence.

intelligibility is

held to suggest that the ultimate principle of

falls

essence and thus

circles

afoul of the

anathema passed

in Thomistic

on

this viewpoint.

The cogency

of this objection, however,

sufl&cient

is is

not easy to credit.

here in question
is

For the principle of

suspect
use.
is

reason which

not the principle of Leibniz, which admittedly was put to highly

It
is

a thoroughly

existential

principle.

What

it

amounts to
bility to

simply the application of the

itself.

demand

for intelligi-

the order of existence

This does not

mean

that

existence

must

justify itself
it

by an appeal to the order of essence.

that
it

On An

the contrary,
existent

means

must

justify itself as existence.

which did not leave room for the

to

distinction

between

what and that

existent
right to

be made would so

justify itself;

an existent which
itself.

does leave room for this distinction does not so justify

it

As

points

beyond

itself.

Someone

might like to question the

make

the essence-existence distinction, but one

who con-

cedes the right cannot easily question the principle of sufficient

reason. Furthermore, the very fact of an existent which begins to

be

is

evidence of the fact that in this case the affirmation that

"this exists"

cannot be an
I

intelligible termination.

For

in thinking

such a beginning-to-be,

am

thinking an existence which contains

as existence a reference to a not, and therefore a reference beyond

itself.

An

existence which begins-to-be

is

not a self-terminating
otherwise would

intelHgible in the order of existence.

To contend

be to contend that negation as such

3)

is intelligible.

This consideration leads directly to the principle of causality,

as the exphcitation of the principle of

which could be looked upon

sufficient

reason in the area of contingent being. This third prin-

ciple states that every contingent being requires

an extrinsic suf-

136
ficient

The Philosophy of Knowledge

reason for
its

existence. Since

it

is

not

its

own

sufficient

reason, and since, nevertheless, there must be one (or negation as

such would be an

intelligible
its

terminus) then

it

refers itself to
"efficient

another as to the ground of

own

existence.
is

Then an

cause," within the purview of this principle,

sufficient

simply an extrinsic

reason for the coming-to-be of something (or of any

feature or state of a thing). This exact

meaning must be kept

sometimes taken
to

in

mind, for "cause," as

will

be seen,

is

mean

something quite

different. Ultimately,

what the metaphysical prin-

ciple of causality

amounts

to

is

that the order of

becoming and
that

existence must be intelligible; that

no phase of the process of

in
itself;

contingent existence contingent existence

ferred,

is is

intelligible

and

therefore

always relative existence, essentially re-

qua

existing to another.^

THE PRIORITY OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLES

In view of what has been said,
tional
it should be clear why the tradiway of speaking about "first principles" is well founded. They are called "principles" in keeping with the philo-

a)

sophical conception of a principle as "that from which something

else

flows

or

derives."

What
'^

derives

from these principles

is

thought

itself.

They

are the sources

arises.
it is

from which the

possibility of

every specific thought

b) For that reason

they be called
first

only a matter of nomenclature whether

principles or "last" principles.

They

are the

beginning of thought, the source {principium) from which thought

arises;

but they are also ultimate, in the sense that every particular

assertion can be reduced to

5

them

as resting

its

ultimate intelligi-

Note
effect

that the principle

does not state that "every effect requires a

cause," which

an

is

would be an empty tautology (since we do not know what except by already conceiving it in relation to cause) but that

"every event requires a cause," or "every process of coming-to-be requires

a ground in another." 6 They may be called

are also
first

first

principles of thought for that reason, but they

principles in respect to being, since they hold

good of being.

The Search
bility

for the Unconditional

is

137

chronological sense, as
that

no claim that they are "first" in a first judgment a child made were "Nothing can both be and not be"; the point is only that the
if

upon them. There

the

intelligibility

of these principles
is

is

present in every judgment, infirst.

cluding the one which

c)

chronologically

They

are often called self-evident, in the sense that they

neither can be nor need to be justified in terms of further evi-

dence.

With these

principles, thought reaches

an ultimate ground,

and

it

would be nonsensical

to speak of justifying these principles

in terms of sense perception,

induction, or anything else. This

"self-evidence" need not

tion

mean
is

that these principles arise in abstraclight in

from experience, but only that they are the ultimate

terms of which experience

of course,

apprehended by thought. They

are,

not self-evident as purely verbal utterances but as

immediate transpositions of the direct encounter with being. There

is

stration
in

no way to "prove" or "demonstrate" them, for every demonwould presuppose them. Normally, demonstration consists
educing reasons for belief in a proposition which
is

relatively

less

known than
it.

the evidence which

is

brought forward to demonfirst

strate

But

if this

were attempted in the case of the

prin-

ciples, the absurdity

would soon appear. For the recognition of the

would be involved
first

principle of identity, e.g.,

in recognizing the
it.

cognitive value of any premise offered to "prove"

Any

premises
implicitly

offered to demonstrate the

principles

would already

contain them.

That

is

why

it

is

sometimes said that these principles are

are virtually there prior to any judgment
first

"virtually innate."

They

whatsoever, including the

naturally does not

mean

that

we

formed by an individual mind. This are bom with the words "Nothing
souls.

can both be and not be" inscribed on our

that

But the point

is

we are born with minds, and that part of the very structure of the mind is the power (virtus) of recognizing the truth of the first principles. Mind would not be mind without this native
Suppose someone suggested that these principles could be

endowment.

138
formed by induction. That
be and not be," ...
doubt the
mula,
is
is,

The Philosophy of Knowledge

by
realizing that

and not be," "B cannot both be and not

I finally

"A cannot both be be, "C cannot both

conclude to the generalization that

"Nothing can both be and not be." Here we must distinguish: no

explicit principle of contradiction, as a universal for-

derived by a quasi-induction from experience in this

way. There surely must be many people

who

live

and die without

the

making
first

this

expUcit reflection and hence without knowing the

universal principle. St. Thomas's insistence that

principles

we know even
in this

from experience must be interpreted

first

way:

the explicit assurance of these

principles
I

is

won from

experithe

ence

itself.

Yes, but on the other hand

I

could not even

make

individual judgments from which

induce the universal principles

unless

akeady

implicitly recognized the truth of these principles.

is

What
make
false.

appears to be true

that

recognize, implicitly, in individual

if

cases, the truth of these principles;

did not,

could not even

to be worry-

the individual judgments. I

would always have

ing that the individual judgment could simultaneously be true and

Thus, in any individual assertion (the child's "This

is

is

my

mother," "This dog bites," etc.), there

principle of contradiction in

already operative the

which

it

is

recognized that asserting

and denying are not equivalent.

It is also entirely plausible that the intelligibility

even of these

first principles cannot be justified simply as a universal, as perhaps

a rationalist might contend; perhaps,

cannot claim that they are

indisputably evident, without implicitly referring

them back

to the

experience from which they were originally drawn. In this manner

some seek
that
7

to vindicate the indispensable role of sense perception

'^

in our knowledge.

The

vindication has point

if

the claim simply

is

we

discover even absolute intelligibihty through direct experi-

Peter Hoenen, SJ., Reality

and Judgment According

1952,
first

to St.

trans,

by Henry

Tiblier,

S.J.

(Chicago: Regnery),

Thomas, makes a great

our
to

point of insisting on the fact that the

experience.

principles are rooted in sense

principles, arise out of
is

Now,

that these principles, as

any

existential encounter with reality

(and not vice versa), there

no need
it is

contest; but as

derives

Hoenen himself admits, the intelligibility of the from the light of the mind itself (p. 20). On this basis,

principles

hard

The Search
ential

for the Unconditional

it

139
leaves intact the non-sensory

contact with being, but

intelligibility.

source of their

To

say, therefore, that the first prin-

ciples are already there in sense perception is to

speak in a rather

misleading manner, for the light according to which they are

grasped

is

not derivative from sense but an original work of

thought. In respect to this, as well as in

many

other ways, the

first

hoary formula that "Nothing

in the senses,"
in such a
is

is

in the intellect

which was not

either completely misleading or

must be amended

way

as to cast serious

doubt on

its

usefulness.

One
are

or two further clarifications are in order.

it

When

it is

said

that these principles are "first,"

should not be thought that they

assumed simply

as
is

"postulates" or "rules of the

neither true nor false

game"

of
for

thought.

postulate

it

is

assumed

the sake of lending consistency to

what

follows.
it

A postulate always
its
it

has the character of an hypothesis and

derives

strength solely
possible;

from the body of consequent propositions which

makes

no matter how

consistently articulated these propositions

become,

the postulate itself always has a lingering air of the tentative and the arbitrary about
it.

But the

first

principles are not

assumed

for the sake of argument; they are

known. They are not simply

it

positions

which thought occupies when

were regarded

has reached a certain

stage of evolution; nor are they expressions of

in reason. If they

some kind
them

of "faith"

as useful results of

an evolutionary
(just as a

process, in the

manner
for

that the pragmatists regard

man's hand
strictly

is

a useful result of that process), their value

would be
principles

factual,

a further development of the evolutionary

first

process might generate a thought in which the

would no longer be
sible,

true.

Even

to think this eventuality as pos-

however, we would have to employ the principle of contraits

diction in asserting

possibility.

And more

than

this:

in order

to see how much is at stake in tying them to sense. No doubt Hoenen is on a firm basis, too, in declaring that we cannot justify the first principles by beginning with their universal character (198); but it is not contended

that they are primary as universal.

^

For an explanation of and

rebuttal to this, see Daniel Robinson,

The

Principles of Reasoning

(New York:

Appleton-Century-Crofts), 1947, pp.

367-368.

140
for

The Philosophy
to

of

Knowledge
for

what we are asserting

true.

have meaning

it

must be possible
first

us to conceive already a thought for which the

principles

would not be

But such a thought

its

is

inconceivable, and there-

fore the assertion of

possibility

is

meaningless.

The

first

prin-

ciples, then, are absolute in a rigorous sense; they are absolute as

cognitive,

and not merely

factual.

The attempt
is

to

deny them would

subject to the

reaffirm them.

No

doubt

this indubitability

still

existential structure of

our

human
They
is

condition, but this does not

are cognitional absolutes apthis

make them

objects of "faith."

prehended by a being which

apprehension

not an existential absolute;

may

always necessitate an effort to close the gap

intelligibility,

between existence and

but this

is

not "faith" in any

useful sense of the term.

CAUSALITY AND DETERMINISM

Perhaps the most important philosophical requirement with
respect to the principle of causality
is

that

it

be distinguished from
is

the similarly denominated "law of causality" as this

often conscientific
is
it

ceived by both common-sense

wisdom and

science.

The

law of causality can be variously formulated. "Every event

necessarily connected with

some antecedent
is
it

event, given which

must occur";
which

or,

"Every occurrence

the consequence of

some

antecedent without which

it

could not have occurred and given

this is

had

to occur."^

Sometimes

conceived rather naris

rowly: the event of the breaking of the

window

connected with
is

the antecedent motion of the rock through the air (which

con-

nected with the antecedent motion of the hand,

and so on).
it

Sometimes the conception becomes more sophisticated and

is

assumed
event
is

that the only adequate causal explanation of

any given

not some localized occurrence but the entire antecedent

it is

course of the universe. In either case,

clear that the scientific

law of causality
9

is

equivalent to the principle of determinism. For

p.

See Robinson,

ibid.,

253. For a positivist's statement and criticism

of this principle, see Philipp Frank,

Modern

Science and
p.

its

Philosophy

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 1949,

54

ss.

The Search for the Unconditional

it

141

holds that given the antecedents, the results will necessarily

its

follow. In

ideal expression,

it

assumes the grandiose proportions

of Laplace's declaration that, given the position

and motion of
of time,

every elementary particle in the universe at any

moment

and given a mind

time.

sufficient to

comprehend

this,

then the entire

course of future history could be predicted for every

moment

of

Now

this scientific principle carries built-in epistemological

puzit

zles of its

own^" but the present intention

is

only to distinguish
it

from the philosophical principle of causality with which

be confused. The philosophical principle merely

could
given

insists that

any contingent entity or event there must be some extrinsic sufficient

reason for

its

existence. It

by no means says that

of a "free cause"
it

this

cause
it

has to be a

member

of a temporally antecedent series, nor that

has to act necessarily.

The notion
is

is

not a

philosophical contradiction, although

tifically.

is

a contradiction scien-

scientific

"cause"
free

equivalent to a necessary ante-

cedent,

and therefore a

(non-necessary) cause would be a

patent contradiction. This must be kept in mind, or the news that

many contemporary
would be

scientists,

under the influence of the Heisen-

berg principle of indeterminacy, repudiate the notion of causality

startling indeed.^^

THE CRITIQUE OF HUME AND KANT

The foregoing stipulation is also useful in considering David Hume's famous arguments against the vahdity of causality.^^ What Hume was primarily combatting was really the common-sense
1

Especially

when

it

is

from
11

similar antecedents,

put in the form that similar consequents follow for here there is the question of whether an

exactly similar antecedent ever occurs in nature.

sible to assert that

According to the principle of indeterminacy it is intrinsically imposan electron has, simultaneously, a definite position and velocity; if this is accepted, strict deterministic causality cannot be held at the sub-atomic level, since the conditions upon which it rests are not
'^'^

fulfilled.

Hume

Selections, edit,

by Charles W. Hendel,

Jr.

(New York:

Scrib-

ner's), 1927, pp. 22-39.

(From

Treatise of

Human Nature.)

142

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

notion of a cause, according to which event

"makes" event
things:

happen; for example, for

common

sense to say that the moving

stone "caused" the v^indow to break

means two

1) there

was a power

in

(moving stone) which made

this

(breaking

window) happen, 2)
that given a similarly

connection was a necessary one, such

stone,

moving

and a

similarly constructed
in keeping

window, a similar breaking would occur.

with his sensory epistemology,
of this "power."
It is
first

Now Hume,
we
is

asks where

get the notion

not drawn from observation and cannot be

verified through observation.

What we

observe

the sequence of

moving stone and the breaking window (or the approaching fire and the feeling of heat); we do not observe some occult "power" which acts between one and the other. As for the
events, the

"necessity" of this event,

we

surely
its

do not observe
necessity.
it

this either.

We

observe the sequence, but not

get the notion of necessity?

Where, then, do we

We

get

from the habit we develop

of expecting event

to occur

whenever event

occurs.

We

have

observed such sequences

event
of

follows event

Athey

many

times before, and in each case

are constantly conjoined. Because

this,

whenever we witness event A, our mind automatically

anticipates event B;
is

we

can't help anticipating

it.

This, however,

a psychological necessity in us, not an objective necessity in

things.

We

project this psychologically inevitable expectation into

the objective sequence

in events.

and

treat

it

as

an inevitable connection
cannot be logically

While understandable,

this projection

validated.

For the two events are physically

distinct,

and there

is

nothing inconceivable about the consequent being different from

what

it

normally

is.

What

is

there to prove, then, that the concept

is

of cause has objective validity and

not simply a subjective

category?

Immanuel Kant's answer

influential in the

to this reasoning

is

one of the most

history of philosophy

and actually forms the

it,

foundation for his

'^^

own

thought;" in following

we must

not lose

Kant
pp.

Selections,

edit,

1929,

122-130,

145-155.

by T. M. Greene (New York: Scribner's), (Selections from The Critique of Pure

Reason.)

The Search

for the Unconditional

143

sight of the fact that

Kant

is

attempting to defend the concept of

is
still

causality

which

Hume

attacked (and that this

not to be

confused wih the philosophical concept as defined above).

What
show

Kant attempted
for
is

to do, in brief,

is

the following:

He

tried to

that the concept of cause

it

must be applicable

to objective reality,

only because of the applicability of such concepts as

"cause" that

jective reality.

we can even distinguish between objective and subHume, in asking whether this concept is really only
this

"subjective" has distinguished himself as a subject from objects;

if

he could not do

without using the concept of cause, then

obviously he cannot then turn around and question the validity

of this concept.

Now, Kant
this,

holds that experience arises with the raw material

of sensations. But the senses alone do not give us "objects." For

the

categories of the understanding, of

raw material of sensations must be molded by the formal which Kant numbered twelve.
is

Among

these formal categories, "cause"

especially important.
all

All our sensations are given as in temporal sequence;

sensations are flowing.

our

But what we notice

is

that

some of our

sensations flow in necessary order and that the sequences in which

we experience them cannot be arbitrarily ordered: the ship flowing down the river cannot be experienced in any succession whatever, but must be experienced in a regular and orderly way.^* The
steps in this experience are uniformly connected. It
is

only because
a river and

they are that

experience this as a ship flowing

down

not a dream ship. Those of

my

sensations which are whimsical

I

and disorderly do not form part of any necessary sequences;

But
it

consign them to the purely subjective status of illusion or dream.

is

only on the basis of the distinction between the lawful

that I distinguish
is

and the arbitrary

jective.

between the objective and sub-

The

objective realm
I

the realm of orderly

phenomena.

Furthermore,

only become conscious of myself as a subject

as a spectator of this orderly realm.

by separating myself out

completely chaotic experience would give no ground at aU for

i*/6/W., p. 124.

144
distinguishing between subject

The Philosophy
and object;

of

Knowledge

in a completely chaotic

experience,

could not even say "I" for there would be no ground

to distinguish the "I"

from anything

else.

Contrariwise, experience

of objects just

is

the experience of the necessarily connected and

if

orderly. Therefore,

one of the categories according to which

is

my

experience of orderly sequence

possible

is

the category of cause

(necessary connection of events), then this category must necessarily

apply to objects:

it

is

the condition for the experience of

objects.

Note what
at
least:
it

this

reasoning of Kant's does, to his

own

satisfaction

completely vindicates the validity of "cause" with

it

respect to

phenomena, but

also restricts the application of this

category to phenomena. "Cause" for Kant means the lawful connection between phenomenal sequences; then
if

am

to

have

orderly phenomenal experience the category of cause must be

vahd
its

of that experience.

But

this is
is

a very far cry from showing

validity in respect to

what

beyond phenomenal experience.

Its validity consists in

being a condition for phenomena.

is

Then

to

ask whether

it

apphes apart from phenomena

to ask

something
use of this

absurd. Therefore,

we cannot
to

try to
its

make noumenal
so,

concept of cause
of

prove by

means, for example, the existence

God

or the free causation of

will.

To do
is

would be

to seek to

extend beyond experience a notion whose entire meaning consists

in being a tissue

by which experience

bound

together.

Kant

therefore denies

all

metaphysical value to the principle of causality.

is

What Kant
in respect to

holds, in effect,

that

only have genuine knowledge

what

is

an "object," and that the complete meaning

I

of object

is

a synthesis of sense intuition and formal concept.

"know" what

I can integrally lay hold of. But do not give me anything to lay hold of: they do not have any content. They are only pure forms or rules according to which

the categories alone

things can be lain hold of.

tive content
tion.

They demand completion through

filled in

intui-

and can only be

I

from the

side of sense intui-

Then when

try
is

to

use these categories beyond sense

experience,

my

thought

empty

think nothing, I only

"make

as if" to think something.

The Search

for the Unconditional

145

An

evaluation of this position must attend to the exact meaning

of the philosophical principle of causality.

refute this principle

Kant does not

it.

really

because he does not really engage

We may
It is

begin by allowing Hume's statements their proper desserts.

true that

we do not

perceive causes;

we only

perceive sequences.

The notion of cause is formed as a result of the demand which the mind makes upon experience; it demands that succession as
such be
is

intelligible, since, as

mind,

it

is

the insight that

all
is

being

intelligible.

The

philosophical principle of causality

simply

this

demand
like

applied to temporal events, which results in the realias such

is

zation that

becoming

essentially relative. It

is

only one
to

who,

Hume, was

prepared, to deny the right of

all

mind

make

any demands upon reahty and to reduce

sense perceptions,

experience to passive

who would be prepared

to accept non-percepti-

bility as non-validity.

We
event.

must

also distinguish the general philosophical principle

is

from the realization of what

the cause of any specific contingent

Hume

would be on

fairly secure

grounds

if

he were merely

pointing out the difference between our realization that every event

has a cause and our decision as to what this cause was

whether
Finally,

an immediately prior temporal event or

as

not. This

is

by no means

metaphysically certain.

We
it

can hardly claim to be able to

identify the specific cause of

tainty that
it

an event with the same absolute cer-

we can

assert that

must have such a cause.

goes without saying that any statement about the necessity with
is

which that cause operates

the principle of causality

completely outside the province of

Therefore, neither the reasoning

itself.

of

Hume

nor Kant

is

conclusive against the philosophical question

posture, in particular,
is

of causahty.

Hume's

patently clumsy. His

whole

effort

can be construed as a search for the causes of our

belief in respect to the notion of cause

giving clear enough indicait

tion that

he thinks there must be causes for

and thus sapping

the

life

out of his
is

own

conclusions.

on somewhat more plausible ground when he contends that the categories alone do not give us an "object" or "thing" and hence that their metaphysical use does not provide knowledge

Kant

146
in the

The Philosophy of Knowledge

same sense
as

phenomenal knowledge. This seems

it

at least

psychologically vahd, although

does not justify the repudiation

of metaphysics to which he went on.

Even

if

we can
"first

use the

category of cause metaphysically to prove

cause" of

phenomenal being, we do not reach

satisfactory sense.

this

way an

"object" in a fully

knowing in same sense as phenomenal objects. In one way He is much more intelligible, in another much less but in any case He is not intelligible in the same way. Then, metaphysical knowledge is significantly different from phenomenal knowledge. So much may
is

God

surely not an object for our

the

be conceded without surrendering the cognitional value of the

first

principles.

The answer
first

to

aU philosophical doubt as

to the validity of the

principles

must invoke the absolute nature of the idea of

this idea, the distinction

being upon which they are based. With

between appearance and

distinction

reality is surpassed. So, likewise, is Kant's

else

between the noumenal and phenomenal. Whatever

reality-in-itself
it

the

noumenal

idea of being applies to

and whatever
from deriving

may

be,

it

must be such

that the

intelligibility is
its

based

upon the idea

side of the

of being. Far

meaning from the

an extension into
It
is

phenomenal, the category of cause

is

the phenomenal of a trans-phenomenal category.

that as this category
is

may

well be

commonly employed
its

it

hampered by
is

intrusions

from the imagination and that

has not a

metaphysical use

considerably vitiated ;^^ to this extent the distaste of

many

con-

temporary philosophers for

it

little justification.

The remedy
rather than
its

for this, however,

would seem

to

be

its

purification

repudiation.

The
them

justification of the category of

cause

is

the

same

as that of all metaphysical notions: the level of

is

insight sufficient to question

sarily valid.
first

a level at which they are neces-

We

could not pose the question of the validity of the

principles unless

we

inhabited the absolute center of thought

one another

15

For one

thing, the quasi-spatial externalization vis a vis

of cause and effect, or again the tendency to picture the activity of non-

phenomenal causality by

strict

parallelism with

phenomenal

activity, arriv-

ing at a kind of "ghostly mechanics."

The Search

for the Unconditional

reality into question.

147
But we only inhabit that center
and
it

and called aU

by

virtue of the idea of "being,"

is

just the idea of being

which necessarily implies the

validity of the first principles.

No

attempt of scepticism or relativism wiU succeed in reducing these

to a provisionary status, for they are the

grounds for the asking

and answering of

all

possible questions.

EVIDENCE, CERTITUDE,

AND DOUBT
at this

few words on the question of evidence are in order

point, since the analysis has

been based upon the conception of

an "absolute evidence" being contained in the notion of being.

Certitude

may be

defined as "warranted assent"

It

an
it

assent of
that the

thought warranted by adequate evidence.

certitude of the
first

was found

principles

was absolute because

in

was warof this

ranted

by a datum present

such a way that the appearall

ance/reality distinction
kind, that

was surpassed. Not

and
so,

evidence

is

much

is

clear;

not

all

evidence can underwrite

is

an absolute conviction.
present,
it

Still,

wherever there

any certitude

at all

wiU be seen

to

be directed towards a certain kind of

is

evidence. This notion of "evidence"

hard to pin down, although

recourse to
it

it,

patent or disguised, cannot be avoided.

We may

take

to

mean

"the

way

reality is present" or the "manifestation of

being to thought."
It is easier to give
is

examples of

its

role than to define

it;

and

it

easier to

make

it

conspicuous in

its

absence than

its

presence.

If

in the

someone makes the statement "there are exactly 301, 614 fish Hudson River," what would be our intellectual response to

this statement?^*^ Surely,

we would

not merely nod and say "Interlikely to

lift

esting fact."

We

would be much more

an eyebrow

at

the temerity of the person

who made such

a remark.

By no means

could our reaction be described as one of "certitude." The possibility

could not be ruled out, of course, that by some wild stroke the

speaker had

named

the right figure, but

it is

so unlikely that

we

^ See Hassett, Mitchell,

and Monan, op.

cit.,

p. 82.

148
find
is

The Philosophy
no
difficulty at all in

of

Knowledge
is
is

withholding our assent.

Why

this? It

because the evidence

is

suflEicient to

warrant the assent

thought in such a

clearly

missing. Reality
I

not present to

my

way

that
if

can

feel

secure in an assent to this proposition. Whereas,

someone were to say of the room in which I sat, "There are exactly three windows in this room," my agreement or disagree-

ment would soon be forthcoming. And

that the evidence to warrant the assent

this for the

is

simple reason

easily available.

So with any possible type of judgment. The evidence

may

vary.

The kind

of evidence needed to warrant one assent might not be

suflEicient to

warrant another, but every time

judge, I orient
reality
is

my
the

thought in the direction of the

experience

way

in

which

present. I

my

thought as

this

attempt to take

my

bearings

on

presence of being. This

is

the foundation for the frequently re-

peated declaration that being has dominance over thought.

thought experiences
to
itself as essentially

My
it.

submissive, as an attempt
is,

bow down
thought

to evidence. I

do not decree what

I discover

My

is,

then, a pursuit, an openness to the real

itself

and not

pure spontaneity. Being imposes

thought.

upon me and "coerces" my

There
it

is

clear justification for this

real difl&culties, as

way

of speaking,

although

raises

some
If

we

shall see later.

For the
clearly

present, attention will be directed to the notion of the

range of evidence.
it

evidence

is

"the

way being

is

present to me,"
this

may

vary greatly, and the sort of assent warranted by

will

varying presence

also

vary greatly.
assents

Shall

we

reserve

the

name

certitude

for

those

which

are

absolutely

war-

ranted and regard every other assent as simply highly probable?

This, in effect,
is

what Descartes proposed doing, and

not "certain" at
is

it

is

the
is,

inchnation of anyone of a rationalist temper. Either, the feehng

something

is

absolutely certain or

it

is

all.

This

view has obvious merits, and yet there

famUiar view which
sidered as "warranted assents," there

a lot to be said for the

various "types." Conto

classifies certitude into

seem

be various positions

mind which are not unconditional and yet which are not satisfactorily lumped together as mere "high degrees of probof the
abihty."

The Search

for the Unconditional

is

149
to

For one, there

which
is

some reason

speak of "physical certitude,"

an assent based upon the evidence of the habitual behavior

of physical bodies, often formulated into the so-called "laws" of

nature. Thus,

what of the

attitude of the outfielder

it? It

who

is

waiting

under the

fly-ball,

poised to catch

does not seem sufficient to

it
it.

describe the cognitional side of his readiness as an opinion that

is

highly probable that the ball will descend.

his certitude

He
is

is

certain of

Yet the evidence which warrants

opposite occurrence
is

not such that the

unthinkable. For the evidence (the normal

to.

course of nature) contains a proviso not usually adverted

the positivist might state
it,

As

the proviso
it

is:

//

the future resembles

the past, this ball will descend; as

//

might occur to a believer:

God

concurs and

lets

the natural ends of physical beings

be

achieved, then this ball will descend (but of course, miracles are
possible).

On

either

view the opposite

is

conceivable, and therecertitude,

fore physical certitude differs in kind

from metaphysical

where the opposite

(even

is

strictly

unthinkable.

Thus

the "laws" of

nature, such as gravity, chemical combinations, or thermodynamics

if

they are interpreted in a completely coercive

is

way and not

is

merely as conventional generalizations, as

now

the fashion),

always retain a less-than-absolute character. There

always a

certain distance between the nature or essence of things

activities.

and

their

While assent based upon

it

this sort of

evidence

may be

denominated "certitude,"
of a condition.
If

is

certitude against the

background

we were

to carry matters further

and inquire

into the force

of such "moral certitudes" as

will

my

assurance that "The bus driver

not dehberately crash this bus," or the child's trust that

"My

mother has not poisoned

arise.^^

my

oatmeal," further hesitation might

In some respects,

we might wonder whether we should

true that,

talk of certitude here at

all. It is

from the point of view

of lived conviction, these assents are not subject to active doubt.

It is

not a working question for

me

as I

board the bus whether or

I'^Note that "moral" in moral certitude does not refer to the goodness or the badness of the act of the agent, but only to the fact that he is a rational agent, a responsible person, hence a "moral agent."

150
not the driver intends to crash
it; it

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

does not even occur to

me

as

a conscious possibility to have an opinion about. Yet the motive

for
this

kind of un-thinking confidence

is

simply the normal

behavior of persons, and persons are free agents, and free agents
are capable of deviating from norms.

Even
in

so, if I

met someone

as I

came

into class,

who

told

me

that he
it

had seen an accident

detail,

outside the building, and described

shocked

my

first

reaction

would not be one of suspicion ("Watch out for

this
lies

fellow, he

may be

trying to put

one over on me"). This way

belief.

paranoia.
belief,

My

reaction

would rather be one of

Warranted
it)

we might

say, for

we

are relying (without even noticing

on the general
Still,

principle that "People

do not he without reason."

this
if

does not obliterate the implicit condition in such certithis

tude:

being behaves as a rational being normally does,

liars,

may

rely

trust in

on him. There are, however, pathological testimony must be duly circumspect.

and a

An

interesting situation arises in this area.

We
One

might be prone,
variety,

at first, to regard

"moral certitude" as a rather weak

and

often rightly so. But there are special cases.

certitude
is
is

source of moral

testimony, as has been seen. Normally this kind of

rather diluted. Suppose, though,
is

certitude
selves

we were

to ask our-

what

our mental attitude as we express to ourselves such

is

propositions as "There

in

France a

city called Paris," or

"There
of the
as

once lived a

man

called Julius Caeser."

How
it

certain are

we

truth of such propositions?^^

As

certain,

would seem,

we

are of any possible propositions.

Any

proviso or condition has

dwindled to the vanishing point. Most people would say that they
are

more

certain of the truth of these propositions than they are,

say, of the

law of

gravity.

And

yet this sort of truth

is

based

exclusively

on testimony

(for

one who has not been

to Paris or

been a contemporary of Julius Caesar).

It is interesting

that

what

seems

like

a poor sort of certitude can reach a conviction that

18 On this, see John Henry Cardinal Newman, An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent (London and New York: Longmans, Green, and Co.),

1903, p. 189ss. (Chapter VI, Section 2.)

The Search

for the Unconditional

151

might as well be called unconditional.

this? It

What

is

the explanation for

seems that the convergence of testimony in respect to these

so great and so

truths

is

unanimous they are

itself.

practically

subsumed
sufficient

into the principle of sufficient reason

The only

reason for the existence of

the reality of

this

convergent testimony seems to be

what

is

testified to. Incidentally, this

example

also

highlights the independently evidential character of convergence,

which can confer cumulative strength on individual sources of

evidence which, taken piecemeal, are not conclusive.

Allowing the

title

of "certitude" to

all

these situations,

we

still

would hardly have touched the surface of the great bulk of cognitive responses given by man. For it is an unmistakable, if lamentable, fact that man for the most part is deprived of anything
that can be dignified

by the name "certitude"

at

all.

Numerically

speaking, the quantity of our judgments which

we
is

ourselves would

care to go on record as classifying as certain

the judgments of ours which others

rather small; and

as certain
is,

would admit

alas,

even smaller.

Our

life is

passed under conditions which

make

impossible the

kind of

sifting of

evidence that would allow us to certify

If

many

judgments as "certain."

we made

the attempt in practice to

withhold our assent and our action except on grounds adequately

evaluated as "certain,"

we would be

largely paralyzed.

Most

of

our

lives are spent in acting,

and acting does not require and most

It

often does not allow hidebound certitude.

probability.

can be

satisfied

with
a

What we most
warrant action.
"fills

frequently act

upon

is

opinion:

cognitive response to evidence not grasped as coercive but seen as

sufficient to

Action, so to speak,

in"

what

is

missing in the evidential

character of our convictions.

The

social, political, cultural,

and

interpersonal arenas are pre-eminently the scene of opinion, not

certitude. It
in the
is

of hmited use asking whether this should be, since

human

condition

it

must

be.

The

speculative and practical

is

lesson to be learned by the epistemologist

simply the awareness

It
is

of the difference between certitude and opinion.

a fairly

152

The Philosophy

of
is

Knowledge
one who
is

accurate definition of the fanatic to say that he

certain about everything: he maintains his opinions as

certitudes

if

they were
his

and he

treats

differences

from himself or from

"truths" (his "fixed ideas") as proof of the

bad

faith of others.

In a democracy, especially,

it is

the

first

poHtical virtue to acknowl-

edge the ambiguous character of

political truth

and

to

commit

oneself to a positive tolerance of the opinion of others.

Even opinion
is

is

sometimes forbidden

territory, since there are

innumerable questions in which our

complete. For example, in a
finance

inability to render

an opinion

economy and
hgation
is

modern complex society, issues of can become so abstruse that the only proper
doubt: a suspension of judgment.
to pass a verdict

cognitional response
laid

is

No

obis

upon us

on everything. This

a point which public opinion polls frequently ignore, assuming in

their professional inquisitiveness that

everybody has a right to an

opinion about everything.

Only evidence warrants a cognitive

response, of either certitude or opinion.

Lack of evidence (or

While
this is,
it is

largely inconclusive evidence) warrants only doubt.

in

one sense, a shortcoming of thought, the recognition of

not

a shortcoming, but something extremely salutary, perhaps even the

indispensable prerequisite for genuine truth and authentic political

virtue.

7
The
fairly

CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE

UNIVERSALS
first

epistemological problem that

is

some would

like to raise
It is

in respect to concepts

simply whether they exist or not.

spontaneous inchnation on the part of the common-sense

to abjure the reality of such "invisibles." If seeing
is

mind

(or

sensing)

believing,
is

then not seeing (or not sensing)

is

not

beheving; such

the initial state of mind,

and such often remains

the final state of mind.

level

When
the

this state of
it

mind

is

raised to the

of a philosophical position,
is

is

known

as

"pure sense

empiricism," which

contention that the only elements

present to experience are particular sensory data and that "concepts" or "universals" either do not exist or are empty.

Those who speak of "concepts" or "universal ideas" do so in the opposite conviction that besides the momentary and individual
data which are present for the senses at any

moment

of our experi-

ence, there are also present aspects of reality which are just as

and indisputable presences), which are not equatable with sense data but which are
stricdy

"data"

(that

is,

"givens,"

irreducible

unmistakably there.

Thus, when

am

sitting at

my

desk, looking about the

room and
consciousthe

out the window,

it is

no doubt true that present to

my

ness are a whole stream of particularized sensory details:

particular shade of
is

mahogany

reflected in the particular light

which
top,

slanting through the

window, the smoothness of the desk

the uniquely shaped ink-blotches on the blotter, the dehcious odor

154

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

of the trees wet by the rain, the slightly distracting tapping of the

window-blind moved by the cool breeze. All these data are present to my senses in a perfectly particularized way: it is always
this color, this

warmth,
at

this

smoothness, this shape,

this

motion
are

which
act

I perceive

any and every moment. These

all

details

present to

me

before

naming and before any more complex

be present, in their sense

on

my

part; they could just as well

immediacy, and they are present, to a purely sensory knower such

as a

young infant or an animal. There

this,

is,

then, a

complex of

transitory particulars perpetually present to

my

sensory organs.

But besides
that that

there
I

is

present to
is

me

the awareness of the fact

is

upon which

lean

a "table," the shade

known
I

as

"shade," the "mahogany color"

known and named

as such, the

cool breeze mentally hailed as "cool breeze." In brief,

have

names for what my them but I do. I name

ficult,"

senses experience.

My

senses

may

not

name

things "red," "white," "blue," "flag," "dif-

"easy," "sweet," "large," "pleasant," "painful," etc.

is

My

sensory experience
or
all

pre-nominal; as a child

experienced

many

of these things in a purely sensory

I

manner without naming

them. In naming them

point to but what
is

am

pointing to what the senses cannot

in a real sense "there"

because
or
I

it

can be

(mentally) pointed

to.

Every time

I
I

name something
"table,"
is

this

name

word expresses

meaning which
In naming
certain
this

grasp as being fulfilled in that which

I

experience.

grasp

it

as fulfiUing or manifesting a

meaning which
there for

just as

much

there for

my

thought as

its

color

is

my

sense of sight; in calUng the

there for

my

sense of sight

datum which is "color" or "red," or "mahogany," I am

visual particular,
I

not simply perceiving

this

am

aware of a

generalized meaning present through the particular.

To name what
thing;
it

perceive

is

to

do more than perceive. This

use a fairly neutral term,
is

grasping or conceiving in a con-cept (con-ceptum) grasps somedoesn't grasp nothing.

To

we

may

call

what

it

grasps a meaning. This

what Socrates and

Plato origmally meant by an "eidos": the meaning manifested in

Conceptual Knowledge

155
instance.

and through a particular sensory low them

We

do not have

to fol-

into the metaphysical superstructure

which they erected

is

on the
is

basis of this simple recognition;

is

what

important epistethat this

mologically

to realize

what

is

meant by saying

meaning

really "there," that

it is

in a true sense a datum.

Man,
things,

after

all,
still

does not create meanings "ex nihilo." In underturns to what

is

standing, he

already there.

When
reality

he names

he seeks to capture in speech aspects of

speech.

which are
it

there before

Speech

lives

off

experienced reality:

is

essentially referential. This

means
is real.

that thought discovers,

and does
Plato's

not create or invent what

doctrine

This
to:

is

essentially

what

on the "eidos" amounts

just as

the eye does not

create meaning,

create colors, but finds them, so the

mind does not

but discovers

it.

Then, whatever characterizes our concepts, our

graspings of reality, must be in

just is this seizure of the real,

some sense real: for our concept and it would be contradictory to

seize
it.

have a seizure of the real which did not

meaning-value which
ally present in that
this
is

Therefore, the
is

apprehended through the concept

is

actu-

which

apprehended. In naming and knowing

"table,"

as

"red,"

"blue,"

"water,"

"mountain,"

"air,"

"tree," I

am

aware of what-is.
is

Now

the interesting thing

is

that the

meaning apprehended

is

meaning which
stances in which

apprehended as transcending the sensory

in-

it is

found. In knowing this thing present to the

senses in

its

particularized

immediacy

as a "tree," I grasp a

mean-

ing which

is

not limited to this particularized immediacy. This

I

meaning which

find here I could find elsewhere; I call other

things "trees." Therefore, the

meaning which

discover in the
It is

sensory particular transcends the sensory particular.

in other sensory particulars.

reahzable

"Red"

refers not only to this particular

vision,

color-item

now impinging on my

but to myriad other

I

possible color-items

which could so impinge. As

look out the

I see that

window,
they are

observe the manifold leaves on the tree, and

all

"green"; then this meaning "green" which I find in

is

the manifold particular instances

not restricted to any of these

156
instances.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

There
is

something really and objectively similar in

is

all

these leaves,

and that

the

meaning "green" which they manifest.

the meaning
it is

We
in a

are

now

in possession of a twofold insight:

is

apprehended in the concept

objectively real,

and yet
It is

real

way which

transcends sensory particulars.

is

not

itself real

as a sense particular

real.

For

this

reason

it

is

called a "uni-

versal." This simply signifies that the

meaning grasped through

a one-in-many, a unitary
instances.

the concept

is

not a sense-particular:

it is

meaning capable of being multiplied

in

many

As

multi-

phed
it is

(that

is,

in so far as there exist instances of this

meaning)

found in each instance: each

leaf really manifests the

meanus

ing "green."

At
all

this point, the

spontaneous "materiahsm" which

aflOicts

may

rebel.

We

protest that

we cannot

discover this "universal

eidos" of red, or the "universal meaning" tree anywhere;

ever seem to discover are the particular instances.

concept seems to

all we The so-called be simply a notion which we build up in our

thought, but which has no application to extra-mental reality; the

latter

seems to be composed entirely of particulars. Some have

existence

disclaimed the very

of

"universal

concepts"; others,
is

while admitting that they exist for thought deny that there
really

any universal aspect

in things.

Now

while there

is

no deny-

ing that a certain increduUty

on

this score

seems to be both natural

if

and healthy, there

cogently

is

also

no denying that
it is

anything can be quite

shown

in philosophy,

the existence, nature, and ob-

jective reference of universal ideas.

Many

Thomistic philosophers

are of the opinion that

Thomism
if

is

fundamentally based on the

value of abstract ideas;

tion.

so,

it is

based on a rather firm founda-

But

let it

be noted that the

stress

not a pecuhar possession of any one philosophical system.

insight originates with Socrates

on the value of concepts is The

is

and

Plato,

adopted and adapted

by

Aristotle,

and passes over

divides
all,

into the

mainsteam of the philosophia

is

perennis.

What

adherents of this doctrine

often not

epistemological at
of the doctrine.

but the metaphysical or psychological aspects

It

would seem

that the

epistemological issue

Conceptual Knowledge

157
one way of making
a genuine feature of

comes down

to this: are our universal ideas

contact with the non-self?

reality revealed to us

Or

conversely,

is

through concepts? Stress wiU be put in the

following discussion on this

way

of asking the question, and dif-

ferences between Aristotelianism, Platonism,

and other systems

minimized.

NOMINALISM
One way
fact that

of cavilling at the objectivity of ideas

may be

given

short shrift, the claim that they

do not even

exist.

In spite of the

some splendid minds have talked as if they held this behef, nothing is easier than to show its falsity. For what is given beyond peradventure of doubt is the fact that we use language, and that we use it in a certain way. We name things. And names do not name particulars. Our names "desk," "man," "triangle," "door," "building," "tree," are called in grammar "common
nouns," meaning that they are appUcable to whole classes of things.

But of course the word

with that

is

not

itself

the idea or concept;

is

it is

the

utterance of an inward mental act of conceiving, but

tical
act.

not iden-

This

is

easily

shown by

the fact that

many
be

different
ing:

words (as mere vocables) could express the same meanI

what

now

express by the

word "dog" could

is

just as well

expressed by the word "gUp" which

right

now

meaningless.
is

We
ex-

have only to consider that the meaning which in EngUsh

pressed by the word
different

"man"

is

as a matter of fact expressed

by quite

French by "homme," in German by "das. Mann," in Latin by "vir," in Itahan by "uomo," in Greek by
words:
in

"anthropos" and so forth. Here the sounds vary, but the idea re-

mains the same, proving a distinction between the two.

the reahzation, then, that ideas exist,
tical

We

reachi

and that they are not idenrevealed in the

with words.

We may
in

add that the nature of an idea

is

is

which

it

used. If they are used as signifiers of a

way common

quality found in

many

subjects, they

can be called "common" or

/ 58

The Philosophy
For the time
being,
it

of

Knowledge

"universal."

is

not even necessary to go

very far into the nature of ideas.

ideas exist,

We

need only the recognition that

and that they function

the

in a certain

way

(as signifying
is

a quality which can be found in many). This alone

substantiate

sufficient to

claim that

we

actually

do conceive universal

meaning: we do use ideas, and the way we use them demonstrates

their universal character.

An

ingenious

way

to bring out the impossibility of carrying out

is

a denial of the role of ideas

eliminate

simply to

make

the attempt to

them and conceive of experience without reference to them. This is what Plato did in his dialog Theaetetus, and the
results are shattering to the
latter

pure sense empiricist.

we

take the

with complete seriousness and consistency, the self-defeating

character of his belief becomes graphically evident.

Let us suppose that there

besides sensory experience
that
is

exists in

no
way

human
is

consciousness nothing
aspects, nothing

ideas,

no universal

not present in the

datum

present for the senses.

is

What

is left

of experience? This amounts to asking what

all

experi-

ence for the senses as such (eliminating

the elements

which as

a matter of fact are contributed by the concepts which the

empiricist also wants to reduce to sense data).

What

the senses
particulars;

experience

is

just a

complex of diverse and transitory

is

every sense datum precisely as sensed

unique in time, space,

in this

and

quality.

The

senser as such

is

immersed

stream of

immediacy.
Perhaps we might be able to think of him as gleaning a certain
order out of
this

sequence through habit and association, as

animals do. But one thing he would not be able to do: he would
not be able to speak about his experience, for speaking entails a
certain transcending of the stream of immediate particulars.
entails first the deliberate "distancing" of one's
It

own

experience in
seen,
it

order to communicate

it;

and secondly, as we have

entails

the use of language to do this objectifying. Words, by isolating

the

common

elements of our sensorily fleeting experience, render

Conceptual Knowledge
it

159
Words

stable
its

and communicable. This, however, means that they lay

universal aspects.
it is

bare

are the utterance of the uni-

versal,

and
is

impossible to express by their means the fact that

there

no

universal.
are, they

Animals
cannot
tell

really are

pure empiricists, but

because they

us that they are.

think about our experience at

Conversely, the fact that

we do
is

once demonstrates that there

sensory particulars.
It

more

to that experience

than

also goes a long

way towards

rejecting the

nominahst claim that ideas are nothing but words.

seen the difficulty of maintaining
this,

We

have clearly

but at the same time

in

must not

gloss over the mysterious

and intimate union

we human

thought of language and idea; to say that the two are not identical
is

not to pass on to some over-facile disjunction between them.

vocis" and that there

But the nominalist contention that the idea is a mere "flatus is nothing more in consciousness than words

and the particular experiences which they verbally bind together is quite untenable. It is only held because one is able to forget
that
if

he really meant

it,

it

would render

all

thought arbitrary.

Unless there were real resemblances apart from words, then

my
on

words could connect things whimsically and without a

outside themselves.
It

criterion

cannot be that when

is

I call all the leaves

the tree "green," the only truth

that I

am

experiencing a host
of a

of sensory particulars and lumping

them together by means

I

word. There must be a real objective resemblance among these

particulars, or else there
is

no reason why

should lump these

particulars rather than others, or

as

why

shouldn't include "roses"

an instance of "green."

The temptation to nominalism arises when one asks himself "Where is this idea which is supposed to be present as a universal
in

my

consciousness?" and then begins to search about for

of inventory of the items which are

it.

He

makes a kind
and words

open

to inspec-

tion in his experience.

but

He

can easily catalog

colors, sounds, pains,

he

fails

to find anything corresponding to

it

an

"idea" and decides at last that

must be nothing but the words

160
themselves. This procedure
perfectly fallacious, for
tuiXgiout to
it

The Philosophy
is

of

Knowledge
but also

perfectly natural to

man

consists in "looking" for ideas.

invisible.

They

be undiscoverable because
however,
is

The
failure

fallacy,

that this kind of "looking" guarantees

from the beginning.

big

We

are asking the questions which his

hearers

mistakenly asked Plato:

is

"How

the eidos 'man'?"

"Where is "What color

the

eidos

'man'?"

hair does the eidos

etc.

'man' have?" "Is this ideal 'man' thin or fat?"

tion, of course, is that there exists

The

implicaindi-

no idea "man" but only

at first,

vidual men.

These questions, which seem so persuasive

pointless.

are really

They
if it

are equivalent to asking about and searching for

an idea as

were not an idea but a sensory item.

is

An

idea

is

no-" where"; the only thing that can be some-where

sensory item.

a particular

An

idea

is

not an individual (that

it

is

the thing

we

continually fail to grasp) and hence

individual.

does not exist as does an

To

take inventory of our experience and look for the

is

idea "man," "table," "blue,"

in a haystack.

like

looking for the

An

idea

is

real in the

number "three" manner of an idea. What

our use of language.
for

manner
If

is

that?

The manner revealed

to look for ideas,

to us in

we want

we must look

them

in the

region in which they are real: the region of thought.

idea and to be sure that
it

To

"find" an

exists is

simply to turn to thought and

it

to discover the constituents

to be.
ideas.

which make

to

be what we know

it

One of these constituents is the apprehension of meanings Then ideas exist in the mode of thought, and it is futUe

to

look for them in any other manner. The temptation to

this futility
it

seems to hold a permanent fascination for the human mind, but

must nevertheless be

resisted.

CONCEPTUALISM

A position somewhat more

stand of the conceptuahst.

plausible than the nominalist's

is

the

He

agrees that ideas exist and he also

agrees that their reahty must be searched for in thought. So

much

Conceptual Knowledge
does he agree with
this that

161
he cannot see that they have any

status at all except for thought.

An

idea,

he acknowledges,
ex^

is
,t

a
is

universal datum.

But the only way a universal datum can

is

for thought. Outside of thought, all reality

that of individuals.

The conceptuaUst therefore dichotomizes experience into existing particulars on the one hand and universal thought-contents on the
other.

He

denies that the universal character of ideas has a real

reference.

Our thought seems

in itself
I
is

to

him

to transmute into a universal

datum what

through and through individuated. Thus,

its
is

each leaf which

perceive in the tree exists with

own shade
what
I
is

of

green, each individuated

from every other:

I

that

real

outside of

my

thought.

When

form the idea "green,"

is

have a

universal notion, but in the thing itself there

nothing correspond-

ing to this datum, but only the individual sense-particular.

It is

a httle

difficult to

deal with conceptualism without seeming

or too
little

to concede either too

much

value to
is

it.

There

is

obviously a sense in which the conceptualist

tional philosophy could

"right,"

and

tradi-

be construed often enough as emphasizing

his point: that only individuals exist. In a

point which Aristotle and

St.

way this is the great Thomas thought they were making

exist as they

against Plato. Thought-data

do not

do for thought

except
tic

for thought. This

is

why

the Aristotelian-Thomist-Scholas-

tradition repudiates Plato's notion of the "Eidea"

(Forms)

as

eternally real apart

from

their individual

embodiments. Universals

precisely as universal are not extramental.

Nevertheless, there
ceptualist position.

is

also a redoubtable obstacle to the con-

Even though

the

datum

as explicitly universal

has reahty only as present to a thought-process (for example, the

universal idea

"man" has

existence only for thought

and not

outside of thought), the fact remains that there are objective

similarities

among

individuals.

Each

individual instance of

reaUy does resemble each other instance in exhibiting the

man common

meaning. Each patch of red deserves to be called "red," so that

the

universal
its

meaning "red"

really

is

manifested
it is

identically

through

instances. This objective similarity,

easy to over-

162

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

look, also implies that each individual instance really does

a meaning;

we

only recogni2e that different instances

if

embody embody the

same meaning,

we

antecedently recognize that each instance

does in fact embody a meaning.^

The meaning which we conceive

similarities

as

an

explicit universal in

our

thought has some status outside our thought, for there are objective

among

individuals; objective similarities

among

indi-

viduals cannot be founded

fore, objective similarity
is

on what makes them

individual; there-

a sure sign of a real foundation for

it,

universality.

sure sign of
first

we

repeat, but not

its

first
is

conthe

firmation.

For the

sign of the objectivity of

meaning
as

recognition of any one instance as embodying a meaning.

as,

As soon
and

upon

seeing even one patch of red, I cognize

it

embodying a
actual

specific color-value, I grasp that color-value as multipliable

therefore universal; so that I do not have to instances of a

plied.

know many
it

meaning

to

know

that as

meaning

can be multi-

Where, then, do matters stand? The

instances really do yield meanings to

facts are these. Particular

my

thought. In fact, indiis

vidually different instances )rield identical meanings.- There

no
I

gainsaying this;
experience.

it

is

not inference,
is

but simple description of

Then
a

there

no gainsaying that the meaning which

thought-content has
the absolute

conceive as

universal
is

some
and

application
is

beyond thought. This

teed,

minimum which

guaran-

and

it

is

enough

to overturn conceptualism

to vindicate

some
If

sort of realism.

The

fact is that particular instances

can be

and are dealt with by thought and serve the purposes of thought.
thought makes use of universals, and
1

if

particular instances lend

In other words,

we do

not arrive at universal ideas by classifying

instances which manifest meanings, for

we must

first

recognize that each

does manifest a meaning before

classes;

we can

recognize them as separable into

and

this prior recognition

already entails the conception of a uni-

versal. Therefore, the recognition of universals precedes classification

and

does not derive from

-

it.

Different instances given to preception yield the idea "red," or "loud,"

etc.

or "man," or "house," or "table,"

Conceptual Knowledge
themselves to this use, then this
particular instances are in
ideas.
is

163
enough
to

show
by

that these

some way

referred to

my

universal
is

The claim

that universal ideas really

do refer to reahty
reality.

proven by the fact that they really do refer to

fully use ideas.

We

successis

Therefore they can be successfully used. There

no appeal from that. But if ideas are successfully used, if we know that by means of them we really can refer in a non-arbitrary

way

to particular instances, then obviously there

must be

real

objectivity in the universal data.

That
of

is

the most unexceptionable

way

to express the viewpoint

"moderate realism," that

It
is,

my
at
all

ideas

have a "foundation

in

reality."

however, not
is

necessary to

make

a choice

between what
erate realism."

usually called "extreme realism" and this

is

"mod-

Extreme realism
as

ascribed to a theory like Plato's

which held that universals

were
his

such existed extramentally; these

eternal realities,

Forms ("Eidea," or Absolute Ideas),

universal meanings subsisting in themselves independent of indi-

vidual things.

The reasoning

that
this

we have gone through

Platonic realism.
It

so far

does not automatically validate

shows only

that the universal character of ideas

(their meaning-character)

has a status beyond our individual thought, that particular instances

provide a foundation for these ideas. Whether
is

we can go

farther

not immediately clear.

Nor does
The
tion

it

appear that the main epistemological question

always: to what extent does
it

lies

in the direction of reaching a decision between Plato and Aristotle.

epistemological question

is

my
to

knowing reach the non-self? To what extent does

have apphca-

beyond

my

individual self? It

is sufficient

for the

moment

make plain that the universal-datum has an undoubted objective

reference, without going further.

MEANINGS AND INSTANCES

It is in

down

in a

the attempt to go further that we tend to get bogged quagmire of metaphysical and psychological difficulties.

164

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

We insist upon asking what is the relation between this universal meaning and its individual embodiments; how the idea can be one
and many
at the

meaning takes
use ideas in

same time; how the individuation of the universal The essential thing to cling to is that we do the described manner and that this implies that things
place.

are already such as to serve the purposes of thought: that therefore there
is

a real sense in which the particular does not have

it

its

being entirely aside from the meaning, that

is

a "carrier" of
that the

meaning. Sometimes the

last

point

is

stated

by saying

universal exists "in" the individual, and then

again.^ For, having used this language,

we are in hot water we begin poking about in

up the universal mean-

the individual instances in an effort to turn

ing which
to

is

"in"

it,

and naturally we don't succeed.

We

continue

have on our hands meanings (universals) and instances (indi-

viduals) and

no matter how we scour the

meaning "man"

latter to find the

former,

we

fail.

To

seek the meaning "red" in this patch here present to

in this figure

my

vision, or to seek the

now ambling
What could

towards
after
all,

me

is

inevitably to revive the conceptualist suspicion that

is

an individual

nothing but an individual.

an individual be but an individual? "In"

this individual

man

will

be found bones, blood, and muscles, but no universal meaning

"man."

And
it

so with every instance.

that

But

must be plain
is

we

are proceeding fallaciously here.

universal
it

not "in" the particular in any

way

that could allow

us to find

by proceeding on these

lines. It is
is

not concealed in the

particular in particular
is

some way. The point

already,
if

rather that the particular as

viewed in the proper way, the manifesta-

tion of the universal.

comparison

may

help to

make

this clear,

and
3

to obviate the tendency to

view the matter in a naively mate-

Sometimes

this is

even said to be the great contribution of Aristotle,

that whereas Plato said that the

Forms

existed "apart"

from

individuals,

Aristotle said that they only existed "in" individuals.

The inappropriateness

and vacuity of

this

language

is

quite complete, since ideas obviously exist

neither "in" nor "out" of sensory instances.

Conceptual Knowledge
rialistic

165
searching for the ore of universality

manner

as

if

we were

contained in the dross of particularity.

Let us ask what happens when a carpenter

table.

sets

about making a

He

begins with a certain ideal model of this table which he

is

already has in his mind, and which

product. After he finishes operating
nails,

there before the physical

his materials

upon

varnish

wood,

his idea

There now

exists a

now embodied physical table. What is

is

in the physical product.

the relation between this

physical table and the idea in the carpenter's

it

mind which brought

is

into being? Evidently

it.

we can
this

say that the table manifests his

idea and embodies

table?

Does

mean

that the idea

it

"in" the
it

We

would hesitate before putting

this

way, since

seems

to imply that

if we carefully took the table apart we might find we did speak that way, we might begin to puzzle our heads over how the mental idea could be "in" the physical table.

the idea. If

And

wonder how, if it cannot, the table could really manifest the idea. But if we stick to what is indisputable, we skirt
possibly to

such false problems. The table really does manifest the carpenter's
idea.

Furthermore,

of view of an observer
table,

we meditate more closely and adopt the point who comes along and beholds the finished we can easily appreciate how this observer could recognize
if

the physical object as manifesting a certain meaning.

further recognize that this

He

could

meaning which the particular instance

manifested was not exhausted by this particular instance, but

rather could be repeatedly

embodied

in

many
this

other particular

instances (the carpenter could keep

to the idea

making

tables corresponding

which served as the model for

one).

Then

this

observer in recognizing this physical particular as a "table" has

simultaneously recognized that the meaning "table" here embodied
transcends
respect to
its

individual

embodiment
is

that

it

is

a universal in
is

its its

embodiments, a unitary meaning which

manifestations but

not ex-

hausted by

indefinitely multipliable.

He

recognizes, in other words, that the particular manifests the uni-

166
versal

The Philosophy of Knowledge

and he recognizes that the universal
which manifests
it.

is

just as real as the

particular
is

Does he

also feel that the universal

"in" the particular, and begin to have a

maze

of problems about

how
he
is

the carpenter's idea can be "in" the physical table?

Not

unless

fond of paradoxes.
it

In largely the same way,

is

paradoxical to raise questions

about
It is

how our

universal ideas can really be "in" physical things.

enough

that

we
is

recognize particular instances as manifesting

meanings to

realize that

some meanings have

objective reference.

We

say that this

an instance of "water," "rock," "man," "red,"

"loud," "sweet," "animal," and so forth; and in doing so

we simply

recognize that the individual instance yields a

datum
it is

for thought,

and

that therefore thought's

way

of conceiving

founded upon

reality.

We

don't simply discover particulars;

we

discover

meanit is

ingful particulars.

Our thought then

but
it

deliberately turns

away from
a
if

the particularization to the meaningful character of which

particularization;

must already be meaningful

we

are

to

discover

it

as

such,

and therefore our thought-contents are

raising the issue of

grounded

in the

meaningful particular.^
insist

Some may
to

still

on

how

a universal can

be said to be embodied in a particular.

An

attempt

may be made
it

make
might

this

understandable, but before doing so

should be

reiterated that the previous

comparison

is

the standard of reference.

We

just as well

ask

how

the idea of table can be embodied

is,
it

in a particular table

but

the fact

is

so embodied, and

we
the

should hold on to that

fact.

An

explanation designed to
legitimate but

make

"how" more comprehensible may be

remain secondary.

must always
not the

This problem happens to have been the primary,

exclusive,

if

way

in

which the epistemological problem presented

-*Tliis would remain true whether we take a Platonic or Aristotelian view of the status of meaning. Even if the meaning is only potentially there, and can be activated variously by us, it still remains true that its potentiality for being thought characterizes the particular independently

of our actually thinking

it.

Conceptual Knowledge
itself to

167
St.

the thought of

Thomas, and an answer

it

to

it

could be

fairly easily

couched

in Scholastic terms. If the content of our

thought

is

to be objective,

must

exist in reality

but how can a

that the thought-

universal exist in a particular?

The

suggestion

is is

content or essence as absolutely considered

neither universal

nor individual.^ As conceived by thought,

ing in things,
it

it is

a universal; as existitself

is
is,

individual.

Considered absolutely in
its

considered, that
neither.

apart from

real or mental status

it

is

The essence

absolutely taken prescinds from either order

of existence.

The

doctrine of the "two esse's''

It
is

is

a technical capsulization of

this view.

said that the essence

may have two modes

of

existence: in one case, as individualized in the physical thing, in

the other as grasped intentionally by thought. Since the essence

in
itself

is

neutral

in

respect to either of these

it

acts

of existing
if

(although of course
it is

must

exist in either

one way or the other

in saying that the
is

to

be

at all) there is
is

no contradiction

same

meaning which
essence

present to

my

thought as a universal,

present

extra-mentally as an individual.
is

The

explicit universality of the

is

conferred on

it

by thought, and the conceptualist no

right here, that outside of thought there are

explicit universals;

but the same datum which

singular manner.
It is

is

thought as universal exists also in a

possible to

thus

deemed
is

presume a thorough(and therefore

entirely bypass

going realism since there

an

identity of essence

of meaning-content) within a duality of existence.

As
this

to

question.

how we come to generate Many texts include

cannot

these ideas,

we

large doses of psychology in

their justification

of conceptual objectivity, but this cannot be

justify the objectivity of

proper.

We

concepts in terms of a

highly theoretical doctrine of abstraction, for that would be to

justify the

more evident by an appeal

to the less evident. Since the

is

whole doctrine of abstraction, which

5

elaborated to explain the

For a

clear exposition of the Thomistic view

on

this,

see P. Coffey,

Epistemology
269ss.

(New York: Longmans, Green and

Co.),

1917, vol.

I,

p.

168

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

manner in which universals are drawn out of sense experience, bears upon supposed processes carried on by the mind which are wholly non-conscious and wholly unavailable for direct awareness, it must retain a hypothetical character. How can it seriously be
contended that an appeal to the ghostly mechanics of the electrolytic

action of an agent intellect, species, signa quo,

and so

forth help to

prehensible?
is

make the To justify

objective reference of concepts

more com-

the evident by

means of
is

the hypothetical

not a useful undertaking.

What we know

that

phantasms are
in the

particular

and concepts universal and that nevertheless concepts

do

refer to phantasms.

The theory
:

of abstraction

is

main a
as

detailed statement of this

it is

a careful enumeration of the condiit

tions of the cognitive situation, but

leaves us
in

none the wiser

to

"how"

ideas

came

to be,

which may,

any case, be an unan-

swerable question.

JUDGMENT
The position is often held that we reach existence, the order of
it is

only with the judgment that

ideas being at

one remove from

an existing
state

actual existence. Concepts like "grass," "green," "wicked," "cold,"

"poison," and so forth do not attach the

of affairs, but represent

mind
it

to

ways

in

which

could be so attached.

When we advance to the judgment "This grass is green," "This man is wicked," "It is cold out," "Poisons are dangerous," we
insert these
affirms,

meanings into an
it

existential context.
is

The judgment

"Thus

is."

Until this affirmation

made, the mind has

not reached existence in a proper sense.

Now, no one can

question that the judgment represents a cogni-

tive addition to the idea,

and yet some

qualifications

must be made.
setting.

There should be no inference that ideas by themselves are merely

"free-floating"

meanings,

detached from

all

existential

On

the contrary, the reason that the idea as such does not reach
is

existence

that

it

is

fuUy immersed in existence. The idea

is

Conceptual Knowledge
mental reference: as reference
the stage of idea, yet withdrawn
it it

169
refers to a

world of

actuality.

At

might even be claimed that the mind has not

reahty. It

from

must learn that not

all

ideas are
it

equally referential, or referential in the same way.

And

would

seem that in this disengagement, the judgment has a hand. So that the judgment is not only what reaches existence, but some sort of
judgment
equally
is

involved in the recognition that every idea does not

In
is

reach existence.

other words,

the

cognitional

pre-

eminence of the judgment

that
it

not just that

it

reaches existence, but

is

the instrument for the emergence of existence as such,

it is

whether reached or un-reached. In a way

also the

judgment

which reaches essence, since the

This

distinction of essence

and

exist-

ence only emerges in the judgment.

is

not said to countermand the importance of the judg-

ment, but only to emphasize the existential foundation

common

to

aU thought. Once the

fissure
it is

between essence and existence has

the judgment which re-attaches the
is

emerged

in the judgment,

concept to existence. The judgment

thus involved in the disen-

gagement of meaning from the immediate, as well as being involved in discriminating the various ways in which meanings can
be re-inserted ("man," "centaur," "blindness," "larger,"
"justice," are not re-inserted in identical ways).

"V^,"

What

the judgment basically does, therefore,

is

not to examine

the relation between ideas as disengaged meanings, but to seize a

present object in terms of these ideas.

singular which confronts
is
it

It

applies the idea to the

in the existential present. "This

man

wicked,"

is

not a comparison of the ideas

"man" and "wicked"

but a seizure of the singular through an idea, an affirmation that

"Thus

it

is"

with a singular object

now

present to me. Sometimes

the affirmation
exists," or

may be

a bare existential, such as "This

man
not
a

"Scorpions are real," but even

at least a

when

existence

is

the issue

it is

concomitant theme. Admittedly

this is

basic statement, applying most obviously to one particular sort of

judgment and skipping somewhat hghtly past such judgments as

170
"It
is

The Philosophy
better to suffer than
is

of

Knowledge

do

injustice,"
is

"Circles are round,"

"The square root of 9

a host of others.

3," "Gravity

a universal factor," and

Some excuse may be

given by appealing to the

primary position of the singular existential judgments; unless we

made
In

these, there

would be no way of making or

justifying the

existential reference of the others.

this

connection, the problem

is

often raised about

how
it

the

intellect

can know singulars. In order to affirm a meaning of a

it

singular,

would have

to

know

the singular, and since

knows
is

through concepts (which are universals) there appears to be a

puzzle about
that
it

how

it

can achieve

this feat.

The

familiar answer

knows
and

the singular by a conversion to the sensory phantasm.

is

We may
senses,

take this to mean: sheer immediacy

the
singular
is

contained in the

always

given
is

immediately.
is

True
not

enough, the singular which the mind

usually after

not the
is

singular of the sensory data (the singular

"man"
its

or "dog"
is

the

same

as that of "red" or "furry") but

presence

experi-

enced through the sensory data. The words "this" or "that"

derive their application not

from concepts,

it

might be

said,

but

from the sheer here-and-nowness of sense experience.

This view
is

acceptable up to a point, but not comprehensive.

if
it

There are many reasons to think that

non-sensory intuition,
lect," I
it

is

meant

to rule out
if

begs the question. Obviously,

by

"intel-

mean cannot know

(universals)
is

the faculty of conceptualization, then the intellect

singulars. This,

however,
I

is

a tautology:

it

simply

states that the faculty

by which

the faculty by which I

This decides nothing about

how

know in a non-singular way know in a non-singular way. do know in a singular way. It

conspicuous

seems correct enough

role in

to say that the senses play a

my

knowledge of singulars without thereby precluding that

the singular

may

be present to

me

in a non-sensory

way

as well.

Subjective and intersubjective experience, in their specifically nonsensory aspects, may in fact be a more important source of im-

mediacy than the senses themselves.

Conceptual Knowledge

171

CONCEPTS AS CREATIVE APPREHENSIONS

Up

to this point

we have attempted

to clarify

and vindicate the

traditional
sufficiently indi-

existence

and objective reference of concepts. The

formula that they have a "foundation in reahty"

cates the extent of this claim to objectivity.

The question which

particularly

now

naturally presents itself

is

that of the

adequacy and exactitude

is

of conceptual knowledge. This question

imposed
to imply

because of the doctrine of the two esse's which

may seem
we have

the total adequacy of concept to reality. In addition, the familiar

contention

among

Scholastic philosophers that

a "knowl-

edge of essences" reinforces

cepts

this possible belief that

through con-

we know

things exactly as they are in themselves.

this

Various ways of speaking lend credence to

attitude:

the

habitual claim that the senses give us superficial knowledge while

through the
insistence

intellect

we

penetrate to the nature of things; the

as
if

upon

defining our terms,

the correct definition

captured the essence of the object defined; the standard metaphysical view that "essence,"
definition while "existence"
is
is

the source of intelligibility and

hyper-conceptual and indefinable.

has often

Consequent upon
locking,

this latently rationaUst attitude, there

been a tendency to regard the ideal of knowledge as a

objectified,

set of inter-

and perfectly transmittable

definitions,

in

which our knowledge would perfectly capture experience. There

are not lacking places in
St.

Thomas

himself where he seems to

speak as

if

the definition seized the essence of the object without

remainder; so that to
to defining
it,

"know

the essence" of a thing

to

was equivalent
to

and conversely
this,

"define"

it

was

know

its

essence.

Notwithstanding
direction.
^

all

the truth seems to

lie

in

the other
intel-

Granted that the essence may be the ground of

Rousselot,

St. Thomas's thought, see Pierre Thomas, trans, by James O'Mahoney, O.F.M. Cap. (New York: Sheed and Ward), 1935, p. lOlss.

On

a certain ambiguity in this in

The

Intellectualism of St.

72
granted that
it

The Philosophy of Knowledge

ligibility,

may be what we aim

is

at

by means of our
definition con-

definitions, this is a far cry

from holding that our

tains the essence. This question

clarifications are in order.
is

a many-sided one, and various

said in a preliminary

What may be

way

that the referential character of the concept does not ipso facto
its

establish

exact coincidence with the essence of things.

It

does,

however, provide one solid reason for saying that

essences. If to

we do know
aware of
itself

know an

"essence" means to

know
it is

things "as they

are," our thought surely

as a

knows

essences, since

pure reference to things. In making such judgments as "This

is

table

brown," "It
rain,"

is

windy today," "The game was postponed

aware of
itself as

on account of makes no
is clear.

my judgment is

a completely

self-effacing reference to the reality

about which

I judge,

which

difference whatever to the object in-tended. This

much

Some of the difficulty that arises when we try to go further stems from thinking of "knowing" too much by analogy with seeing.
This analogy
limits.
If
is

both spontaneous and useful, but

is

it

has

its

built-in
if

knowing

hke

seeing, I could begin to feel that

its

"know" an
is

essence, I ought to be able to enumerate

features

as I could the features of

an object

was "looking
If

at."

The

trouble

that

we do not

find that the traits of essence are as available

for listing as this

image might suggest.

we regard
essences.

a possible

enumeration of features as a requirement of knowing essences, we

may

well hesitate to think that

we know

Another

fre-

quent manner of conceiving our knowledge of essence, as the

grasping of the "content" of the
matters.

known

thing,

can also confuse

For we might think that if we lay hold of a "content," we ought to be able to unpack it and inspect it and this we often find ourselves unable to do. But knowing is not seeing and it is not grasping contents; knowing is just knowing. To reaUze that both these images are faulty is to make some

start in

understanding

how

the claim to

know

essences does not

reality.

entail the claim of a perfect equation

It will

between thought and

I

then not sound so peculiar to say that

can know what

Conceptual Knowledge
things are without being able to unfold content. Surely I

173
and display
their explicit

know

the essence of red, stone,

man, dog, water,

if

justice, sky; just as surely I

cannot define them

is

called

upon

to

do

so.

The paradox

of this claim

reduced

if

we

cease to think
it

of knowing in terms of clearly defined viewing, and simply take

on its own unique terms. Our "knowing" admits of depths. If we must use metaphors (and we probably must) perhaps we might think of our knowledge of the essence of a thing as exhibiting
progressive stages of saturation. This
its

is

still

an image, and has

own

limitations, but

it

has at least the merit of avoiding any

is

either/or connotation.

The essence

not something I either

know

or do not know, but an

intelligible

concentrate which may be

present in weaker or stronger manner.

Now

if

our knowledge of essences consists in the progressive

precipitation of

meaning

in experience,

it

clearly cannot be under-

stood in terms of definition.

is

To be aware

of the essence of a thing

not to be able to define

it.

essences" consists of rests

The view that this is what "knowing on the conception of an essence as a

"content" which our definition can enclose. Perhaps only with

artifacts

could there be such a perfect equation between definition

and essence.
tion of
it,

An

artifact really

is

exhaustively
is

for

its

only meaning

the meaning

known we

in our defini-

confer on

it.

There

is

no antecedent
its reality.

reality in

an

artifact at all:

what

it

is

is

exhaustively available to our thought, since our thought

is

the

measure of
they are for

watch, a table, a hammer, just are what

is

human

thought. But the reality of natural things

their "essence"
is

not

measured by our thought, and

to us in the

not accessible

man, a

stone, color, a

same manner. What is water, tree-ness, justice, a cow? Their meaning transcends our thought
it.

to the exact extent that their being transcends

Our thought does

by them. Yet

not measure their reaUty but seeks to measure

itself

we can
of

still

be said to "know"
itself

their reality, since this effort of

is

thought to measure
itself as

by these objects
it is

already a knowledge

open to them:
This

the

first

precipitate of

meaning

in

experience.

"intelligible

solution" of thought

may become

74

The Philosophy
it is

of

Knowledge

more and more saturated with meaning, but

ning knowledge of "essences."
as being "given"

from the begin-

We may

therefore speak of essences

in a

from the beginning, but

manner which allows

for an indefinite purification.

Thomistic philosophy has always held that complex essences are

reached by a great

effort, built

up by a process which includes

there
is

judgment and runs the whole gamut of reasoning. Sometimes an

opposite impression
is

given

when

glib talk of tree-ness

cat,

or animality, or

when

class concepts

hke dog,

mountain, are

offered as examples of

how

the intellect

"knows" what the senses

cannot. Yet

it

should always be kept in mind that these concepts

are simply meanings which the intellect has been able to precipitate out of experience at a given stage in the process of thought.

They
ence
ideas

are the

means by which thought

restores itself to

an experithese

now rendered more responsive to its needs. Through we may be truly said to "know essences," since our
itself as

judg-

ment, in using them, experiences

the real.

the active assimilation of

But experience
ence.

is

on-going, and these ideas are the creative

itself to

instruments by which thought restores

an on-going experiflux of experience

Through these concepts thought spans the

from time
else

while re-plunging into experience. These concepts are not ways of

fleeing

into a secure realm of static abstractions, but

ways by which thought

fully.

re-enters time, but re-enters

it

thought-

What

does

St.

Thomas mean by
intellect

the oft-repeated refrain

to the phantasms?''

that in order to

know, the

must return

We

would do

better to think of this as a return to experience,

St.

however, rather than as a return to "phantasms," for

experience, which
that the

Thomas's

phrase suggests a devaluation of experience to the level of sense

may be

quite unsound.
is

What

is

emphasized

is

meaning of an idea

not something which can be grasped

It is

in abstraction

from experience.
qu. 84,

the paradox of

human

thought

'^

Summa

Theologiae,

I,

a. 7.

Conceptual Knowledge
that
it

175

both surmounts time and yet occurs in time and with referambivalent situation which gives

ence to time.
It is this

rise to the

ambivaa living
as this

lence of the claim of thought to

referent to experience, thought
is

"know

essences."

As

continually aware of
this

itself

knowledge of essences. Under one aspect

knowledge can be
itself

regarded as a stabilizing movement by which thought frees

from

time;^

under another

it is

a creative
first

means by which thought

restores itself to time.

Now

the

aspect of this process can be

separated from the second, and thought can

come

to rest in a

detached and objectified structure which

it

regards as a terminus
its

rather than an instrument. It can then begin to regard

knowl-

edge of this objectified structure as a "knowledge of essences" and

then

when

it

defends

its

grasp of essences,

it is

speaking not of an
this simul-

openness to experience but a closed preoccupation with

acrum.
This

way

of

"knowing essences"

is

a temptation, not a goal.

It
its
is

really represents the temptation of

human

thought to refuse

own

conditions and to reify one side of a total process. This

is

what rationalism does. It

makes us
municate

liable to.
is

what the human condition itself For man, to think is to communicate; to comalso
is

to use language; to use language

is

to objectify.

What

inevitably happens
tively established

that our thought,

coming
to

to itself in

an objec-

language and culture, often tends to stop with

it

the objectification rather than using

return to experience.

Examples of
thought

this

could be endlessly multiplied. Take a

man who

proceeds habitually on a vaguely acquired cultural conviction that

is

a matter of brain-processes and

is

ultimately reducible
rest in these bits of

to cortical reflexes. In so far as

he comes to

"knowledge" and ceases to measure them against experience, his thought is spurious. The danger of this seems to be inherent in
language
8

itself

which, while an objectification of the

it

spirit,

threat-

Since the universal meaning

discerns

is

not a particularized and tran-

sitory item.

176
ens to screen the
spirit

The Philosophy
from
its

of

Knowledge

own

experience.

How many men

dwell unreflectively in such concepts as people's democracy, liberalism, high standard of living, capitaUst
life?

warmongers, our way of

Once philosophers were content

to conceive nature in terms

of substantial forms, natural motion, appetites, and four elements.

All categories in which thought simply comes to rest detach

it

from

experience, the very experience which the categories were devised

to understand.

have

in so far as they are

their

To know

The genuine meaning which concepts have they beams cast in the direction of experience. meaning is, as St. Thomas suggests, to turn to the
it

experiences which they illuminate. In so far as

concepts, thought grasps
itself as referential.
is

genuinely uses

The

interesting point

that

human

thought grasps
it is

itself

as

referential

and inadequate. Could we even say that

is,

referential

as inadequate?^ That

in

knowing
its

itself as

imperfect, as seeking
itself.

fulfilment, thought grasps

reference to what surpasses

Shall

we

then say that

we can know

the essences of things only

inadequately? But this quickly tends to be reduced to the banality

that

we know
is

essences "partially," which in turn suggests that

there are a few or

many
if

pieces missing from our knowledge.

The

implication

that

thought progressed far enough in the direction

it is

of supplying the missing pieces (which

assumed are of the

it

same order
Thought
because
adequate
it

as the pieces

which are present),

would eventually
inadequate

attain complete
is

and adequate knowledge. Yet

it is

this is erroneous.

not inadequate because

nonoriginative.

partial. It is

is

is

the

The only knowledge that would be knowledge that makes a thing. Thus, our knowlis

edge of an
that

artifact is perfect in so far as the artifact

its

something

owes

being to that knowledge.

a table to be what

because
9

we make

We know what a table is, it is. Now it is obvious that

the objectivity of knowledge in the

is

This seems to be in the thought of Marechal, op. cit., when he grounds "dynamism" of the intellect, by which it related, as pursuit, to a transcendent reality; in Marechal's view, objec-

reality of the

does not derive from sense, but from the partial fulfilment by sense ultimate exigence which is the intellect's mainspring. See Le point de depart de la metaphysique, Cahier V, pp. 231-232, 261-262.
tivity

Conceptual Knowledge
in respect to the realities of

177
our experience, we do not make them
is

in toto. In so far as their being

not originated by us, they will

always transcend the power of our thought to know.

is

Our thought
is

always after-thought.

As such

it is

mode

of

knowing which

essentially inadequate.
will ever
fill

No amount

of supplying "missing pieces"

in this inadequacy, for the necessity of proceeding in

is

the

manner of "supplying pieces"

is

already an inadequacy.

The

significant contrast, then,

tially

not between knowing something par-

and knowing
matter

it

completely, but between knowing something

it

originatively

and knowing

derivatively.

No

how much

know "about"
if

water, a stone, a bird, I

know them

them would I know them adequately, for then my knowledge would be the measure of their being. Really, in so far as I know things at all, I know them
inadequately. Only
I

created

by

calling

them

into the originality

which

is

my

thought.
think,

We

do

not originate the beings of experience, but

the next best thing:

when we
is

we do

we

address them in their originality and hail

right to

them
ence

into the original process of thought. It

speak of

experience as a "given" from which thought sets out. But experiis

not given as a possession, as an inert item which

It is

we can
as a

envelop.

given as an offering. Thought

is

is

aware of

itself

response to an appeal.
tive
itself

Our concept knowledge which would know

a substitute for the originais

things in creating them. It

a creative act, and not a "copy" of something already there

in sense. ^
It is
if

surely

wrong even

to talk of thought

"and" experience, as
experience in which

the two were juxtaposed in

is just

some way.

An

thought played no part

as unthinkable as thought in

which

experience played no part. Thought does not

come

to experience

from the

outside. Thought, as question,

is

there

from the beginThat

the

ning; concepts are the crystallizations of questioning thought in

experience.

As

such, their

meaning

is dialectical.

is, it is

product of a reciprocal exchange with experience. The concept

'^^

For a vivid version of

this,

see Rousselot, op.

cit.,

p.

98

ss.

178
lights

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

up experience, but experience in turn illuminates the concept. The analogy here is with the idea of the artist, which makes the artistic process possible, but which only comes to birth in that process. It is the work which reveals the artistic idea even though

it

is

the artistic idea which

is

the source of the work. Just so,

it

is
it

experience which reveals the meaning of concepts, even though

is

the concept

which makes experience possible.

Try

to think of the

meaning of
Unless

stone,

man,

justice, color, liberty,

tiger, purity,

apart from their experiential reference, and this stateclear.

ment

will

become

we conceived meanings we would

its

not have the experience

we

have; but having the experience reflects

back upon and

tion.

alters the
artist

very concepts which are

his creative idea,

own founda-

Unless the

had

he could not proceed

to the experience of painting his picture; but as

he applies the
very idea

pigments to the canvas, the unfolding picture

alters the

which

is

bringing

it

to birth.

Because

man

conceives of "freedom"

and "democracy" he constructs a society on the basis of these

ideas; but then the developing society manifests to
really

him what he
way, every

means by freedom and democracy. In

is

its

own

concept

a creative instrument
it.

which both transmutes experience

able to carry forward
It is

and

is

transmuted by

The

virtue of thought
it

is

that

it is

much
is

of the meaning

has brought to birth in experience.

only this

carrying forward which allows progress to be

made

at

all.

This
is

where
point

objectification

acquires positive value, since this

interrelations,

what
at

permits

deductions,

systematizations.

But

no

may

the objectification be taken as anything but a principle

of elucidation.

Knowledge may enrich

itself

by commerce among

concepts, but the whole order of concepts must turn back to the

canvas of experience or risk total academicism. This

is

what

Bergson was driving

at in his distinction
inert,

between pensee pensee

and pensee pensante:

accomplished thought and thought as

the ceaseless interchange with experience.

8 THOUGHT AND
ON "KNOWING ESSENCES"
What
effect

EXPERIENCE:

do the remarks of the previous chapter have on the

question of whether

we can know
is
it.

"essences" or "natures?"

The

ease with which this question

difficulty in

raised conceals the vastness of the

except in

For we could not genuinely answer it terms of a review of the tremendous range of meaning
answering
a variety too often skipped over.
its

in "essence,"

The "essence"

means

the what-ness of a reality,

"such-being." This "whatness"

let

we

try to grasp in concepts.

But

us ask ourselves about the

status of this "whatness"

when we

think about: the spirit of the

furniture,

times,

Western

culture,

French provincial

man, desk,

triangle, the

middle

class, red, sweet, justice, society, virtue, per-

son, cow, beauty, up,

down, larger than, cause, substance, V-l?

to say that

mystery
forth.

stories,

atoms, the second law of thermodynamics, and so

it

What does

mean

we know

the "essence" of

these things?

Obviously the meaning of essence undergoes a significant alteration as

it is

used in each case.

It is legitimate to try to
it

reduce

this
first

bewildering variety to basic "types," but

is

a task of the

magnitude.

It is

by no means clear that to distinguish

Like
divisions, the

in a routine

way between

the essence of substance

and the essence of accident

division of
it

does justice to the situation.

reality into substance

all

and accident conceals

as

much

as

reveals.

We

are

still

at

arm's length from understanding what sort of

knowledge

is

contained in our conception of the "spirit of the

180
times," "society," or "beauty,"
realities
if

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

we

are content to classify the

it

thus

known

as either substantial or accidental. Suffice

for this to be pointed out, without attempting the

monumental

task of exploring this question at length.

Our

discussion

will

be confined to the more familiar and

it

straightforward question of what

means

to

know

the essence of

substantial individuals. This question includes several presuppositions.

It

presupposes

first

that there are individual unities of a

basic kind, "substances."

to

For our purposes, we may take substance

mean

a being existing as a complete and unitary principle of

action, a "nature" of a certain kind.

We

experience ourselves, most

people would
aspects of

feel,

as such fundamental natures:

entity,

not superficial

some more fundamental

but autonomous centers

of activity.

When we

observe the rest of reahty,

we seem

to find

examples of other such fundamental unities

ourselves: dogs and cats

at least

analogous to

seem

to

be individual unities of a funda-

mental kind; so do rosebushes and oak-trees; chemistry discovers,

even

at the

inanimate

level,

a whole range of molecules and ele-

ments which seem to provide examples of "natures," basic sources

of activity.

Now

the question of whether

we can know
are, as

the "essence" of
unities,

such things presupposes also that they

determinate in kind.
It is

fundamental

not only a metaphysical principle but a

simple fact of observation that "action follows being." Not just

anything does just anything. Characteristic activities belong to

different types of being; that
is

principally

ent types of being

because we presume a fundamentally

why we speak

of differdiverse

substantial nature to underMe fundamentally diverse activity. Rose-

bushes don't practice asceticism; monkeys don't write operas;

acorns don't develop into cats. There are in nature, prior to any

human

intervention

(and providing the indispensable condition

for the possibility of any effective

mental determinations in the

entities

human intervention), fundawe encounter which assure a

we
call the

non-arbitrary character to their activity. These fundamental deter-

minations in the individual unity as unity

"essence"

Thought and Experience: I

of the being. So

181

question of

much is presupposed even in order to raise the whether we can know the essence of substances. Disdifficulties

regarding the

which could be

raised, let us

proceed on

the assumption of the vahdity of these presuppositions.

We

will

ask only whether the claim that we can "know" essences

the claim that our
tion

entails

knowledge grasps the fundamental determinathis

which makes

being to be what

it

is:

is

there a perfect

equation between our cognition and the fundamental determination in the being
It is

which characterizes

it

prior to

all

cognition?
the

apparent almost at once that

is

we must draw back from

claim that there

it is

such an equation.

We

have seen already that

it is

an essential characteristic of conceptual knowledge that

it

derivative; as such
it

is

never the measure of the reality of what

knows.

If to
it

know
is

a thing through

and through

is

to

make

it,

not to

make

not to

know

it

through and through. This

is

apparent whether
at aU.^ It is

we

feel that the things of experience are

if

"made"

even more apparent

created by God.

we do

believe that they are in

fact

made

On

such a

belief,

then the only idea

which adequately knows

is

this plant, this dog, this

it

man,

this

atom,
of

the divine idea which measures

is

in

its

origin.

The "essence"
is

these beings

equivalent to the fundamental ontologico-mtelligible

determination as conceived in the divine mind. This

Pieper will assert^ that far from
St.

Thomas

claiming that

know know

essences

by means of
all.

definitions,

he holds that

why Josef we can we cannot

essences at

In this sense of essence, only creative knowl-

edge can

know

the essence of things.

the thing qua individual:

differentiates

Sometimes the recognition of this is confined to our grasp of we cannot know, it is allowed, what

John from James or Rover from Fido, but only the universal "essence" of man or dog. But this is not enough. On
the meaning of essence

now

in question,

we cannot even know

is

the

generic or specific essence.

1 If 2

The gap here

not between knowledge

known at all, by anyone. The Silence of St. Thomas, trans, by John Murray, and Daniel O'Connor (New York: Pantheon), 1957, pp. 50-67.
they are not made, they are not
Josef Pieper,

S.J.,

752

The Philosophy of Knowledge

of individuals and knowledge of universals (in Aristotle's manner).

It is

between knowledge as derivative and knowledge as originain so far as the essence of

tive:

man, dog, rosebush, amoeba,

means the fundamental determination of these things in their origin, our knowledge does not coincide even with the generic
essence.

The "essence"
and

in this sense
it

is

hidden in the abyss of the

to claim that

divine knowledge,

would be rash

we can

plumb

that abyss.
is
still

There

much
all

left,

however, to the belief that

we can

know
means

the essence of substantial beings.

first

To know

their essence

of

to
is

know them
it

according to the category of

essence. Thus,

what

the difference
as a

between merely perceiving a

I

cow, and "knowing"

ness?" Well, at

cow?

Do

know

the essence "cow-

least, I

know

this perceptible

datum

as a ''being
I

which looks

like

this."

Manifested in the sensory experience,

I seize this

grasp a certain fundamental structure;

sensory appear-

ance as the manifestation of a

unity for
activity

mode

of being which exhibits a

my

thought.

Then

understand that the appearance and

is

which

my
it

senses perceive in this case

not a haphazard
penetration of

one, but that

this

possesses a certain necessity.

My

necessary structure

may admit

of

many

degrees.

At

first

encounter, I

may

simply subsume these perceived data under the

heading of a "thing"
to

but doing only

Even
if I

so much, I

still

can claim
of what I
is,

know

the "essence."

don't

know

the

name

am

looking

at, it is still

"something which looks like

this." It

then, the notion of thing or being

which provides the basis for our

water, rabbit,
it

knowledge of individual substances.

We can hardly claim to know the essence of horse,

sodium, rosebush, amoeba, in the sense that
its

we can plumb

to

depths or that

we can

define

it.

In their depth, these things are

the manifestations of a divine idea; in the essence as conceived in

that idea, the full richness of actual

and potential being of these

things
sibly

is

meted out

to

them by

this idea.

No

definition could posis

enclose this meaning. This meaning

a source of their

reality; definition is

never a source of meaning. Nevertheless, the

Thought and Experience:

claim to
think

I
is

183
not empty.

know

the essence of these things

We

will

not

it is

unless

we conceive

of knowledge of essence in either/or

terms. In "knowing" a horse or cow,

we

think a perceptual apis

pearance in

its

unitary ground. Thought

creatively,

always at the origin:

on God's
that

side,

on our

side re-creatively.^
is

Now,

that

experience can be thus dealt with by our thought

sufficient sign
is

we know

the essences of things.

Our knowledge we

an original
the ground

construction by which our thought assimilates

of an ongoing reality. For our purposes,
essive
reality,

itself to

discover, in that procnecessities,

structures,

articulations,

connections,

repetitions:

we

discover

them

therefore they are there.

Then

to

"know" the essence

so forth
is

to call

man, dog, horse, amoeba, stone, and forth the ground of unity in these perceptually
of water,

encountered

entities.

In so far as

know

essences:

we reach out to this ground of perceptual unity, we we know what things are. A distinction between
call the "ontological

what we might
cal essence"

essence" and the "gnoseologi-

would help
and

here.* Let us say that in the being, prior

to

all
its

human knowledge,
activity
its

there

is

present the determinate source

of

potentiality,
its

patent only to the creative

existence. In respect to
its

knowledge whose thought founds

manifest activity, essence
"ontological essence"
is

is

the super-actual source of activity. This

unreachable by

human

thought. But our

its

knowledge projects

itself

towards

this ultimate

ground by

work

of transforming the merely sensory appearance into a form answerable to the needs of thought. This intelligible transformation can

go further and further, but

at

every stage

we do know
is

"essences,"

since the gnoseological essence

we form
is

our original creative

in the ontological

expression of an experience which

3

grounded

See Rousselot, op. cit., pp. 98-122. Georges van Riet, Problemes d'epistemologie (Louvain: Publications Universitaires de Louvain), 1960, p. 163, approximates this distinction. In effect it is present in Maritain's distinction, op. cit., pp. 91-99, between
*

"thing" and "object," the thing being the trans-objective subject existing in
itself,

and the object the

thing's cognitional presence to the

mind of

the

knower.

184
essence.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

We

do not know God's idea of horse, nor can we define

a horse. But in a sense

is

we know

the essence of horse, for our idea

a transcendence of sense experience towards the ground of the

unity discernible in that experience.

Some may

feel dissatisfied

with this explanation, for

it

seems to

leave our knowledge of essences in a fluid state,

insight into essences
is

whereas often the

stability

thought to be the basis for the

and

permanence proper
here.

to knowledge.

But we must tread carefully

things:

We may

first

distinguish

two

our knowledge of

generic structures as precipitated out of the experience of individuals,

embody

and our knowledge of the individuals which we feel to those structures. Take the process by which we "know"
all

a rosebush. First of

we may
here

simply notice

it

as

"a thing that

looks like this," a "this-something."

name

is

rosebush.

From
(its

Then we may find out that its we can go on either to enumerate

cell

the detailed features which are constant concomitants of this per-

ceptual structure
position, etc.)

leaf pattern, petal arrangement,

comit

as scientific

knowledge does; or we can grasp

philosophically as an instance of

what

is

meant by "plant

life."

In this case

we

see

it

as

a special perceptual manifestation of

"immanent

activity at the physiological level."

is

The meaning conthis

tained in this notion

a pellucid one, perfectly distinguishable

from other meanings:

the rosebush,
certain things about

in so far as
in a
it

we can apply
it

meaning

to

we know,
it:

permanent and unchanging manner,

living,
is

is

self -perfective,

it

is

natural unity of heterogeneous parts. Whatever positive meaning

is

embodied

in the gnoseological essence thus conceived I

know
this

as permanently apphcable to the individual

which embodies

essence.

The only remaining issue is: 1) Does any given instance really embody this intelhgibility? 2) Does any given instance embody only this intelligibility? The first question, in spite of various obstacles, we may take to be successfully answerable. But what about the second question? Even if I am sure that I am dealing with an individual which is really a rosebush, how can I be sure that there

Thought and Experience: I

is

185
than this?
If it is
:

not more meaning in

it is

it

a rosebush, then

cannot say

inert or a

mere aggregate
I

if it

manifests the meanit

ing I conceive
that meaning,
will

when

conceive "rosebush," then obviously

has

and anything

can say on the basis of

it.

this I

meaning
that

apply permanently and stably to

ultimate ontological essence
it

Yet how do

know

in

its

does not

embody more than

which manifests
even though
I

this

meaning? Perhaps potentially

life

this individual

merely vegetative
it

to

me

is

also a conscious being,

does not manifest

this

potentiaUty as yet. After

all, if

placed an

amoeba and a human embryo at aU I could say about them both,

were physiological forms of

the unicellular stage side

in so far as I

by

side,

knew them accordwould be

that they
these, the

ing to the actuality they presently manifested,

life.

Yet one of

human
this,

embryo, has the potentiality of becoming much more than

of

developing into an actually conscious and even thinking individual.

When
at

observe the two microscopic cases,

know

that they are

at least physiologically alive; but I

do not know that they are

the potentiality for some-

most physiologically

alive.

For the physiological individual may

it

(and in one case does) bear within

thing more.
If I

formed

my

gnoseological essence of

man

at the single-cell

stage, I

would completely overlook the wealth of the ontological

essence.

Why

could not the same possibility be present in

plants,

my
The

"knowing" of
answer to

animals, or inanimate beings?

Why

could

they not carry ontologically more meaning than they reveal?

this

seems to be that there

is

no way

can be sure that

they do not carry such meaning.^

to

To

a large extent, the tendency

assume that
thought
is

reality lives

up

to the

boundary

lines

drawn by
I

my

a product of a tendency to see essences from the

side of classification. If I

draw

my

hnes carefully enough,

can be

sure that the genera into which I classify things do not overlap.

But

in order to

know

that individuals
I

which are

carriers of these

genera do not overlap,

5

must assume

that reality stops within

is

The relevance of

this to the process

of evolution

too obvious to need

stressing.

86
boundary
lines.

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

my

The

trouble

is

that the classifying tendency,

is

right

from

its

inception in Aristotle,
fast lines

often preoccupied with

artifacts,

where hard and

can be drawn. "Chairs" and

is

"tables" are eternally different;

will a chair ever

what

one
is

is

not the other, nor

is

become a
here.

table.

But that

because an artifact

wholly formed
comfortably at

to the measure of our concepts. Classification

is

home

Those natural
us,

existents,

however, which

have

their

measure outside of

cannot be trusted to confine

themselves to our generic concepts. In regard to natural beings,

classification is at best

an outline of the present and not a precept

for the future.

Perhaps there
dog, atom, or

is

a great deal more in the individual rosebush,

I
if

amoeba than

can comprehend. Normally,

even potentially
is

pro-

ceed on the assumption that

perfection,
it

a being does not manifest a certain

it

does not possess

but
gives

this is

not

an absolute
gives

necessity.

What

occurs

that I detect certain intelli-

gible facets in the

activity of beings:

sometimes an event only

it

me

the meaning "motion," sometimes

me

"selfIt is

motion," sometimes "consciousness," sometimes "thought."

apparent to

me

that

between these meanings there

is

an irreducible

intelligible difference.

The

difference

between
have

"life"

and "matter,"
of stable

or between "vegetative

life"

and "conscious
I

life" is just as irreall

ducible as that between red and green.

manner

and unchanging knowledge on the

in respect to

basis of these differences,

strictly

and

any individual beings which

and exclusively

embody

these meanings.
is its

But there
embodies, in

the catch.

How

do

know

that any individual

ontological essence, only these meanings?^

How

A point

along similar lines

Ontology, trans, by Reinhard

is made by Nicolai Hartmann, New Ways of Kuhn (Chicago: Regnery), 1953, pp. 110-112.

Hartmann holds
between a
hibiting

for a hierarchical gradation in being, but distinguishes

stratification of categories

and a

stratification of individuals ex-

these categories.

The

categories themselves

(inanimate,

organic,

psychic,

but this does not rule out a genetic continuity; the categories do not shade off into each other, but the actual
spirit), are discrete,

and

individuals or structures carrying the categories

may.

Thought and Experience: I

187

do
Still

conscious?

know, for example, that the rosebush is not potentially It is hard to avoid the answer that I cannot know this. this does not mean that I do not know its essence. My knowlis

edge

a grasp of the actuality manifested in this individual; in

it

so far as

really does manifest this actuality, I really

do know

what

it

is.

Maybe

it

contains
it

more

actuality

(and more poten-

tiahty) than I
it

know, but

does contain what I know. Therefore

is

possible to

know

all

kinds of stable and permanent proposi-

tions

concerning entities which are themselves processive and

changing.

DEWEY, PRAGMATISM, AND TRUTH

We
and

should examine in this context one of the most interesting

influential

modern

contributions to the question of

human
is

knowledge, that of pragmatism. Often the pragmatic doctrine

summed up
is

in the

formula that "truth

is

what works."

A judgment

true

if,

in acting
it is

upon
if,

it,

achieve results which are useful and

I act

beneficial;
If

false

when

upon

it,

disadvantage ensues.
activity,

any proposition makes no difference whatsoever to

is little

then there

sense in talking about

it

as either true or false,

this

in the pragmatist's estimation. William

typically vivid
is

James put
do

behef in a

manner when he

said that the truth of a proposition

in

its

"cash value."

What
is

difference

human
truth;
reality

experience?

my

judgments make in

that

the pragmatic criterion.

For many

this

has appeared to be a complete depreciation of the grandeur of

no longer

is

truth

measured by the mind's openness

it is

to a

beyond the

individual, but

viewed through the spectaLet us look

at the

cles of a crass

and vulgar

utilitarianism.
its

form

the theory assumes in the hands of

most systematic exponent,

a socio-

John Dewey,
historical
7

to see whether these fears are really justified.

his

Dewey approaches
direction.
'^

philosophical position from

asks:

He

why has

traditional

philosophy

See John Dewey, The Quest for Certainty; a Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action (New York: Minton, Balch and Co.), 1929.

1 88

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

tended to dissociate knowledge from action, and to elevate the

former

at the

expense of the

latter?

Contemplation {theorid) was

viewed by Plato and Aristotle as the supreme good of man, man's

participation in the ineffable
life

of the gods,
life

and action was

of the soul.

looked down upon as extraneous to the true

Why
came

was

this

so?

The answer, Dewey

suggests,

is

that philosophy

into being as a regularization of the quest for security

which pre-

occupied primitive man. At the mercy of a capricious and cruel

nature, primitive

man

first

sought rehef from the perpetual risk

of action in magic and the propitiation of the holy.

But no

efforts

to banish risk are completely availing within the sphere of action

itself,

which

is

always parlous and unpredictable. Therefore

man

now

retreats to the
relief

realm of thought, where, at

least,

he

feels that

he can find
afford

from the ceaseless

perils of life.

Even

action can

an awareness of the difference between the recurring and

the unlooked for, but

erects this disparity

when philosophy comes on

two realms.
It

the scene,

it

between the ordinary and the extraordinary

decides that theory reaches
is

into a difference between

the immutable, the antecedently real, true Being; while action

sunk

in process, contingency, non-being.*

The thought which

contemplation of

seeks
this

genuine knowledge

should turn to

the

superior realm of stable being and leave behind the swirling confusion of temporal process. If
for
it

perseveres,

it

will discover

norms
good

knowing and coercive

ently real"

rules for conduct

which are "anteced-

real prior to all

human

thought

and

its

true

will consist in

conforming

itself
is

to these transcendent standards.

The

quest for certainty

then simply one side of a quest for

it,

security, which, as

Dewey
is

paints

appears distinctly pusillani-

mous. What he suggests

that the

whole procedure

is

mistaken

and has prevented

his
8

man from making

contact with the wealth of

own

experience.
is

new

era must begin. Action must be al-

Dewey

thinking of such views as Parmenides' declaration that change

was an

illusion

distinguished between the "really real"

inferior reality of temporal experience.

and that true Being was immutable; following him, Plato domain of immutable forms and the

Thought and Experience: I

lowed to evolve
its

189
Our

own

standards and not forced "to conform to

ideas

what

is

fixed in the antecedent structures of things."^

are not privileged glimpses into transcendent standards; they are

facets of

our action. They are conceptions of the possible conseis

quences of our operations. Where thought begins

begins

where

man

with

reality

as
is

immediately experienced. This primary

itself

experience of reality
for
cognition.

not

cognitional;

it

gives us materials

Through our

activity

we

transform the unruly

plethora of directly experienced reality into the carrier of

values. It
is

human

only then that

we can be

said to

know

it.

Ideas are

the instruments by which

we

effect this transformation.

this

Often Dewey gives a quasi-biological cast to

position.

Man's ways of knowing are the instruments he has developed in the course of an evolutionary process and their worth derives from
their eflQciency in furthering his

adaptation to the environment.

Ideas are working hypotheses, or anticipatory plans for projected

action.^"

Inasmuch

as these

anticipatory plans

are fruitful

and

render experience responsive to our needs, they are true. But their
being "true" does not signify that they are ghmpses into "essences"

which are concealed somewhere behind experience;

it

signifies that

they are instruments for the successful transformation of experience. Therefore the criterion for the truth of an idea
is

not some
it is

antecedently real essence to which our concept conforms;

the

value of the consequences to which this idea leads or would lead

in experience.

different realms of reality.

there

is

Knowledge and action are not, then, directed to They are directed to the only realm and knowledge is only reality as actually experienced

a kind of anticipatory doing.

For a long while, many Scholastic philosophers,

other philosophers

as well as

many

who defended

the traditional concept of truth,

have been repelled by the pragmatic approach and have exercised

themselves in calling attention to
its

defects.

The obvious

aspect

of relativism inherent in the theory

9

makes

their distaste easy to

Op.

cit.,

p. 72.

10 Ibid., p. 167.

190
understand. There
is

The Philosophy
reason to think, however, that

of

Knowledge

this attitude is

now

passing,

and that

traditional philosophy will henceforth

view
in

Dewey's theory in a more

favorable way, recognizing

of and advance

it

as,

some ways, both a confirmation

too dissimilar to what

upon
is

its
is

own
not

views of the nature of the concept.

What Dewey

saying

Thomism
is

stresses against rationalism: that

the meaning of concepts

not present to us except in an interplay

with experience.
the ladder

It is

surely only the thinker at the lowest rung of

who
their

envisions philosophy as a set of ideas which have

yielded

up

meaning without remainder and need only

is

to

be

conscientiously "handed on." Tradition

not transmission; one

can only "hand on" an idea as an idea, not as an inert thing.

Much

of the diflBculty with

Dewey

arose because of vocabulary

If

differences
listen to

and

differences in intent.
is

we

take the trouble to

what he

saying,

it

will often

be so obvious (discounting

the sociological-political-religious bias evident in his approach)

that one
Is
it

may

well

wonder how

it

could be questioned.
is

not true that our idea of "what" things are

often,

if

not

exclusively, a conception of the consequences of the possible

ways

upon them? What does my idea of water, wood, amount to? In one sense, it is based on an appearance, what the thing "looks like." Beyond this, what else do I
of acting with or
grass, horse,

mean

by, for example, "water?"^^ It

if I

is

something which
into
it
it; if

will give

me

a cool, wet feeling

it,

plunge

my hand
push

I light

fire

under

it

wiU give

off

steam;

if I

it,

wiU move rapidly

it; if

away from my hand and yet it will refresh me; if I bathe

it

continually surround
in
it
it,

drink

it,

it

will cleanse

me;

if

I subject

to electrolysis, I
is

may break

down

into elements.

Every one of

these statements
water, then,
actions from
is

a statement in respect to action.

To "know"
is

to anticipate the consequences of a certain series of

and upon an appearance-unity. There

surely

no
in

particular difficulty with this.

similar point could be

made

regard to our knowledge of artifacts: what a watch or a chair

is is

" Ibid.,

p. 158.

Thought and Experience: I

primarily conceived in terms of what
it

191
does. It seems justified to

say that most of our knowledge of the essences of natural entities

is

likewise founded

upon our action upon them and

certainly
it

their inter-

action with us.

We

do not conceive the "essence" of

water or stone by reading

the flux of time.

off

some transcendent standard above

Of course, it may be properly objected against Dewey that nobody ever really said we did do this. He has stacked the cards against traditional philosophy by presenting a near-caricature of its position. In spite of this, he has done something valuable, for the distinction between essential knowledge and sense perception
has historically lent
for
itself

to this caricature. It

is

much

too easy

one who thinks that he knows essences to cease

to test his

conceptual coinage against the hard floor of experience; he

may

tend to treat his ideas as finished, as closed. The great virtue of people like James and

Dewey

is

to bring us

back

to the wn-finished
is

and open character of thought.

edifice,

Human

thought

not a timeless

but the reflective apprehension of a meaning present in

experience.

temporal

The meaning which

that

is

present

for

this

thought always remains compatible with novelty.

It

must be admitted

Dewey cannot be

absolved from a

share in the blame for the disfavor in which his thought has long

been held by traditional philosophers. The cavaHer manner in which he handles the nature of truth, the failure to clarify important
issues in this regard, are not to his credit. It
is

often said, with

textual basis in
radically

Dewey

himself, that pragmatism has offered us a

accurate.

new conception of truth. Actually this is not altogether The older notion of truth continues to be operative in
is

pragmatism. Pragmatism
of

probably better understood as a theory

truth; better stiU,
it is

meaning than a theory of

a theory about

the discovery of truth.

Dewey

is

pressing for the fact that the meanings of our thought

are in perpetual dialectical interplay with experience and action

and capable of an
knowledge
is

indefinite

enrichment from that source. Our

said to reach "truth"

when

it

gives rise to fruitful

1 92

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

consequences. But obviously this view presupposes in multiple

ways the

traditional

meaning

for knowledge. First,

it

retains the

pure notion of awareness: no more than anyone else

is

Dewey

able

to swallow up the irreducible act of awareness in action. Knowl-

edge cannot entirely be reduced to the consequences of action, for

there
is

an inexpungible necessity that we be aware of the consethis

quences of action, and

meaning for knowing (awareness)

is

remains sui generis. Secondly, there

raised:

the point that

many have
conse-

we must be

able to

know

that

we have reached

quences which are

tion of at least

fruitful.

This would seem to entail the recogni-

some

types of consequences as fruitful in them-

selves; otherwise the process of reference to further

consequences

would proceed endlessly and knowledge would be by definition impossible. What I mean by calling my judgments true cannot simply be that they work out, because I must know it as true that they

work
e.g.,

out. Thirdly, while

my

knowledge of what

mean by

water,

may be

largely in terms of the consequences of projected or

possible actions, that this

meaning

really applies to

an object rebetween

mains true independently of any

activity.

The confusion
truth

arises

because

Dewey
truth.

fails to distinguish

and our knowledge of the

Granted that in many cases

we could not know whether

testing
its
it

a proposition was true or false without

consequences, the fact remains that what

true or false
is

calling

that

my

judgment conforms
I

things are.
after I test

That
it,

my
its is

judgment does conform,

truth
is

mean by to the way may know only

I
test,
is

but

not conferred by the

it

but only

disclosed.

This

extremely obvious, and yet

relevant to
in con-

Dewey's other main point, that knowing does not consist

forming to an antecedent standard but in consequent
is

utility.

What

unmistakably antecedent to

my

knowledge

is

the structure of
noir.-fruitful

reaUty which wiU determine the eventual fruitful or

character of
of
its

my

idea.

My knowledge

does not create the conditions

own

fruitfulness. This is the antecedent recognition

which

the pragmatic theory of truth must make.

Thought and Experience:

193

The superiority of the Western view of reality over the tribal view was conclusively demonstrated, says Vere Childe, when
British bullets penetrated the supposedly infaUible

magic armor of
truth

their tribal opponents. ^^ Yes, but the fact that the truth of the

Western view was thus vindicated only means that

to

its

came

be known through being tested; but that reality wUl vindicate one view and repudiate the other is due to the antecedent structure of the real itself. The truth of my idea may be measured by its
consequences, but the consequences are measured against the
antecedent nature of
reality.

This realization

is

inevitable, unless

we were
denying

to maintain the hterally insane

view that human thought

creates ex nihilo the nature of the real.

it;
it

Dewey
is

is

really far

from

is

only that his attention

it.

fixed elsewhere

and he

speaks in neglect of
it

There are many occasions where he makes

must take account of antecedently real means that there is a structure in the real independent of all thought on our part. In his own words, nature is "potentially intelligible,"" and he is joined in this acknowledgplain that our thought
conditions.

But

this

ment by many who espouse a pragmatic or sociological view of truth. But this admission is enough to make it plain that the pragmatic theory must be inserted into a larger framework in order to

make
nature

its

own

point.

To
it:

recognize the potential

intelligibility

of

is

to recognize that our

knowledge

is

measured by a mean-

ing which transcends

our actuaHzation of the meaning latent in

nature cannot proceed arbitrarily. Clearly then,

Dewey

does not

and cannot deny

12

that our
p. 113.

knowledge must conform to an antecedVere Childe's remark that the assumption

cit.,

Childe, op.

cit.,

13

Dewey, op.
inquiry
is

cit.,

p. 215. Cf.

of

all

that reality has a pattern (op.

p.

63); similarly C.

I.

World Order, p. 343, declares that the requirement for the possibility of knowledge is that the world be "orderly," that it be susceptible to organized knowledge. See, too, the further statements of Dewey, pp. 148, 164, 167, which grant some standing to pre-existing conditions. The alternative to such acknowledgments is actually chaos. But it is not seen clearly enough that even a minimal acknowledgment of this kind concedes the most important point to the traditional theory of truth.
Lewis,

Mind and

the

194
ent realm of meaning.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

He

is

really

concerned with the manner in

to light; his decision
is

which we bring
for

this potential
is

meaning

that

man
is

action

an instrument of knowledge. Our knowledge of

nature

principally a product of our ability to act

so,

upon

nature.
it

Even

some might take exception

itself

to this approach, since

confines our knowledge to nature

and seems
is

to preclude

any

transcendent use of concepts.

If

our knowledge
range

principally of the

consequences of action, the

full

of intelligibihty
is

seems to be

limited to the realm of action,

and Dewey

quite consistent in

the "naturalism" which rules out metaphysics.

Could we allow

full

scope to his approach and

of knowledge?
in the

still

admit metaphysics into the realm

Does Dewey's approach admit of being completed direction of metaphysics? There does not seem any comdeny the
possibility. All that is required is that

pelling reason to

we

see

human knowledge

as the rising towards

an absolute out of

an experiential ambience. What Dewey leaves unexplained (what

no genetic or naturahstic theory can explain) contribution of thought by which man is impelled
ence
at
all.

is

the

original

to think experi-

This original impulsion

all

is

already a participation in an
it is

absolute,

and renders

naturalism inadequate. Surely

right

to say that thought only

in the

comes

to recognize its

own

participation

absolute through a continuing dialog with experience

it

but what

reads out of experience

is

not just experience, but

experience as held fast in the questionability of being.

I

search, the

more

am

haustibly searchable.

The more become aware of reality as inexThen there is no contradiction in viewing

able to

thought's orientation to time as simultaneously an orientation to

the absolute

for

its

way

of being oriented to time

is

way only
thought
is

possible for a being oriented to the absolute.

Human

not oriented to the absolute by means of the

brittle clarity

of

concepts but by means of their unclarity. For our thought, the sign
of depth
is

darkness.

thought oriented to experience

is

nearer

to the presence of this darkness

and mystery than a thought pre-

occupied with glossy conceptual security.

Thought and Experience: I

195

The

fact that

Dewey

often selected science as the example of

the interplay of knowledge and action has led to the erroneous

impression that he depreciates other sources of cognition. The

fact
is

that he

is

to be counted
scientific

among

those

who

stress the abstract

character of the
scientific "objects"

method; he expressly declares that

status.

do not have any privileged

final thing is appreciation

They

are

ways

in

which we enrich the ordinary objects of experience with

meaning, but "the

and use of things of

direct experience."^*

a sensist like

Nor does Dewey mean by "experience" what Hume would mean by it, a series of sense impressions.
is

He

is

talking about the fullness of life-experience, which

variegated qualitative panorama.

Not only does he deny

the right

of the scientist to construct reality solely in the image of the

primary qualities and to consign the secondary qualities to limbo,^^

but he frequently defends the irreducible status of the whole
qualitative face of lived experience:

Empirically, things are poignant, tragic, beautiful, humorous, settled,

disturbed, comfortable, annoying, barren, harsh, consoling, splendid,
fearful; are

such immediately and in their

is

own

right

and

behalf.^^

Science

one highly

but there are open to

way of thinking about man many kinds of knowledge

selective

experience,
that of the

historian, the poet, the artist,

and so

forth.

These are independently

cognitional and do not have to justify themselves to the canons of

science.

Once we abjure

the "spectator" attitude of the scientist,

is

and

realize that all

knowledge
will

tributary to the lived participation

slavish sub-

in experience,

we

no longer see any need for a

are to be

servience to the world- view of science.

If

Dewey's

insights

incorporated into

traditional

philosophy, they must be supplied with a metaphysical foundation.

"/6irf., pp. 221-222.
15/6/i/., pp. 104, 120-121, 131. 16 John Dewey, Experience and

Nature (New York: Dover Publications),

1958, p. 96.

1 96

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

But once they are supplied with such foundation, the incorporation would not appear to be very difficult.^'^ No traditional philosopher,
however he may sometimes
off" essences in the
talk, really feels that

he can "read

manner

that

Dewey

abhors.

Our knowledge
Does

of essence

is

a product of a continual traffic with experience.

Dewey

preclude a resulting knowledge of "natures" or "essences?"

He

himself

may

neglect

it,

but his philosophy, like

real.

all

thought, of

presumes the antecedent structure of the

Our knowledge
on the

"human

nature" or "animal nature" would then be the gnoseologi-

cal deposit

which experience has

left in

thought. But

basis

of this deposit of actual

intelligibility,

we may claim

to say various

permanendy true things about man. For example, we may know him as a "person" and know that certain behavior towards him is
forever incompatible with his worth as a person.
off" the essence of person, but

We

don't "read
it

we do awake
is

progressively to
to
it,

in

the confrontation with experience. Having

awakened

we

are

then in the presence of meaning which

enduring. Nothing that
of this;

not ephemeral but

Dewey
is

says can eliminate the possibility

much
is

that he says

enlightening in showing us

how

this
is

awakening

to be pursued. Finally,

much

of

what he says
it

salutary warning against a premature belief that

has been con-

summated; we are
just as

stQl in the process of finding

out what

man

is,

we
is.

are

still

in the process of finding out

what reaUty

as a

whole

Obviously,

many

of the questions raised by Dewey's approach

come up

in the field of ethics, in

which traditional philosophy has

If

rehed on the "natural law" approach.

are as elusive as

the "natures" of things

Dewey

indicates, small

room would seem

to

be

left to settle ethical

questions by measuring

human

actions against

For a sympathetic discussion of Dewey by representatives of tradisee John Dewey: His Thought and Influence, edit, by John Blewett, S.J. (New York: Fordham University Press), 1960, and Robert J. Roth, S.J., John Dewey and Self-Realization (Englewood Cliffs,
i'^

tional philosophy,

N.J.: Prentice-Hall), 1962.

Thought and Experience: I

the "nature" of

197
disparity

man. But even here the

is

between Dewey
real.

and Thomistic philosophy

more apparent than

No

natural
in a

law advocate with any sophistication applies

this

method
really

pseudo-deductive fashion, but always proceeds circumstantially

and

historically;

conversely,
is

no

Deweyite

can

ignore

"essences," since this

the

presumed

criterion to

which experience
it

converges. Neither Thomist nor Deweyite would think

that

desirable

man

act in
in

an inhuman way. Dewey

is

stresses

the role of

experience

deciding what

the properly

human

conduct;

Thomism

stresses the

imperium of man's nature

in enforcing

an

unconditional sanction to this

demand

for genuinely

human

action.

SOCIAL

AND HISTORICAL DIMENSIONS

finds
it

The contemporary mind

and

natural to pose speculation

about the relation of thought and experience in terms of the social

historical character of thought. It

was Hegel who

first

emphaand the
con-

sized the omni-historical character of concrete reahty,

19th century learned

the biology of

its

lesson well, as the ideology of

result,

Marx and

Darwin show. As a
is

we cannot today

ceive of any existent in isolation

and knowledge
historical

from its no exception. Epistemology may consider the dimension of knowledge in two ways first, as a difliculty
historical dimension,
:

in the

way

of the claim that

we reach

objective truth, secondly, as

contribution

towards

the

understanding of the meaning of

objectivity.
It
is

the

first

question which has usually preoccupied epis-

temologists.

How

can a thought which

is

circumscribed in time and

culture
truth?

mount above time to a stable At the very least we must wonder about

and independent order of

this,

and more

than one will be inclined to view "objectivity" and "historicity" as

mutually exclusive; a thought constituted by social and historical
processes
the
is,

in this opinion, essentially

it

doomed
and

to relativism.

For

way

things appear to

from

its

social

historical perspective

198
is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

not necessarily the

way

they will appear to a thought in a

different social

and

historical perspective;

what

is

"true" today
all

is

not necessarily true tomorrow, or the next day, or for

men.

two points may be quickly made: it is quite evident that human thought is socially and historically conditioned; it is by

Now

no means evident that this leads to relativism. After all, in this case what is historical is thought: not dress, custom, or conduct, but thought. What makes thought historical is not the same thing that makes it thought. The task for the philosophy of knowledge is to do justice both to the historical character of thought and to its
cognitional character. That
set,
it

can have both

is

plain
its

from the outsocial

its

for the

power of thought
is,

to recognize

own

and
tran-

historical limitations

in a sense, already evidence for

scendence of those limitations.

It is

only from the standpoint of a hyper-scrupulous rationalism

that the historical character of thought should appear as a scandal

and a

threat.

For one who regards

very trying.

his ideas as

mental properties

whose content can be publicly

displayed, the notion of a "develop-

ment of

truth"

is

He
is

feels that

one either "has" or

"does not have" these ideas, either possesses or does not possess
the truth. Yet,
is
if

an idea really

a creative apprehension, then

it

not something one "has" at

creative idea.

all,

any more than the

this
is

artist

"has"

his

To acknowledge
it

not to surrender the

domain

of truth, but to occupy

is

more

effectively.

The

unity of

knowledge

not destroyed by

its

being subject to growth and

self is

development, any more than the unity of the individual

destroyed by the development of the individual consciousness.

The meaning
sciousness.
to

of "development" can probably most easily be

brought out by reference to the development of individual con-

Development

is

not a process of the addition of items

It
is

an originally meager supply.

not related to his

the simultaneous transfor-

mation and preservation of previous

ness
is

states.

The

adult's conscious-

childhood consciousness simply by way

it

of addition or replacement;

is

at

once continuous with and

Thought and Experience: I

199
Nothing
It is
is

beyond

his

childhood

self.

preserved in consciousness

except by being transformed.

continuity. In a

transformation which provides

somewhat

similar way, the history of philosophical

ideas should be conceived neither as an addition of intact items of

knowledge nor as a
trouble
is

rivalry

between competing items. Part of the

"knowledge" rather than
separable from the minds in which

that

we

instinctively think of
is

of knowing.
it

No

knowledge

comes

to birth. Philosophical categories are not things literally

"handed down" through the generations. They exist only in so far as the process of thought exists; what really traverses time is the
process of thinking.

conversation between minds

is

not the
it

transferring of objective thought-items

back and

forth;

is

mutual turning of minds

alone minds really
exist.

to

each other and to the process in which

is

"Objectivity"

generated by the exist-

ence of

this

process; the very idea of objectivity rests

on the

notion of a datum to which

selves,

many

minds can mutually refer thema

and

it

therefore

presupposes the living dialog between

is

minds. The possibility of communication (commun-ication)

testimony to such a

common

reference.

Then

the historical charit is

acter of thought cannot mihtate against objectivity, since

one

component of the conception of

objectivity.

But could not one retort that what objectivity presupposes is that an identical datum is there for a multiplicity of minds, and that if the sociologists of knowledge are correct, this cannot be so?
It
is

one of

their favorite

themes, usually directed specifically

is

against positivism, that the notion of a "pure fact"

"social a priori" provides the

a myth.^^

frame of reference within which

every empirical datum

"perspectival"

is

seen; all

human knowledge
It is quite

is

ineradicably

and
is

to

achieve an objectivity unaffected by the

social perspective

a hopeless ambition.

apparent that

18 Karl Mannheim, Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, edit, by Paul Kecskemeti (New York: Oxford U. Press), 1952, pp. 150ss; Werner Stark, The Sociology of Knowledge (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press), 1958, p. 126;

Lewis, op.

cit.,

p. 121ss.; Childe, op.

cit.,

p. 54,

200
this difficulty is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

one manifestation of the larger puzzle about how a thought which arises out of a non-cognitional background can be truly objective. With good reason, then, Karl Mannheim, one
of the pioneers in the
field,

defined the sociology of knowledge as

the analysis of the "relationship between knowledge and existence."^^ Instead of attending to such non-cognitional intrusions
as diet, physiology, temperament, neurosis, economics, or other

possible factors, the sociologist concentrates

on the

social deter-

minants of thought. But the problem

thought which
is

is

the same:

how can

essentially perspectival reach an absolute?

is

That

this is

not impossible

insisted

upon often enough by

those sociologists of knowledge

who

protest that they are not

defending relativism. ^^

Any

opinion which held that our thought

its

was

totally

determined by social influences would destroy

is

own

value as knowledge; sociological relativism of this type

as self-

refuting as any total relativism. Describing the social-historical

dimension of a proposition does not

has to be decided
is this:

settle its truth or falsity.

What

can

the notion of truth or falsity really

apply to perspectival thought?

We

might begin to draw the teeth

out of what strikes too

a counter-question:
is

many as a grave difficulty merely by asking why not? Just examine the supposition which
on
the
is

the foundation for the objection. It apparently rests

behef that objective knowledge

edge.

equivalent to absolute knowl-

Or
all.

that the absolute

must

either be revealed absolutely or

is

not at

Failing this,

aU other knowledge

robbed of value and

consigned to a "subjectivist" or "relativist" status.

the justffication for this very strange belief? Is
it

What can be

supposed to be a

contradiction that an absolute be revealed perspectivally?

To
I.

hold

so would appear to be
19

a flagrant petitio principii. C.

Lewis

Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia, trans, by Louis Wirth and Ed' Shils (New York: Harcourt, Brace), 1952, p. 237. 20 See Paul Kecskemeti, in the introduction to Mannheim's Essays on thi Sociology of Knowledge, pp. 28-29. Werner Stark adds a strong disclaimed of relativism, p. 152ss.; and of course Scheler was strongly anti-relativistic. Even Mannheim, who is accused of relativism by Stark, tries to escape its

ward

clutches, op.

cit.,

p. 171.

Thought and Experience: I

points out in a

201
different connection,^^ the fact that

somewhat

presents

different

perspectives to x, y

and z

is

no argument
it.

against the existence of

but rather an argument for

similar

thought prompts Werner Stark to adopt the device:

absolute through the relative, "^^

He means

this in the

"To the manner of

Max

Scheler,

from whose writings the contemporary sociology of

of

knowledge may be said to spring; for Scheler, the perspectival

manifestation

"essences"

like

"man,"

"justice,"

or "good"

were obscure revelations of an eternal eidos (an ideal archetype)

which could be descried through them,-^ But a similar statement

could be

made

in respect to the Absolute

if

which

is

the ground of

all existence,
is

even

we frame

this

merely hypothetically.
it

there

an Absolute Source of existence,

finite existents;

can obviously not be

it

revealed absolutely to
that this

yet

is

nonsense to think
finite to
is

would

logically preclude all

it

approach of the

the

Absolute.

What

does

mean

is

that every revelation

at the

same time a concealment.

The
it

possibihty that man's perspectival knowledge can reach

insights with enduring value

is

sounds presumptuous largely because

too often discussed in generalities without reference to the

many

simple instances where the possibiHty

is

evidently actualized.

Once our consciousness has awakened

cruelty," "Hitler's slaughter of the

sufficiently,

we
is

are able to
better

understand very well the truth that "Kindness

than

Jews was a monstrous crime,"

is

or the

falsity of

"Slavery

is

preferable to freedom," "Conceit

moral virtue," or "Children ought to despise their parents."

say that

To
a

we know
this is

these truths

is

not even to say that

clear idea of "kindness" or "slavery"

we have

the "exact" meaning of

terms like

a will o' the wisp. Yet,

we

nevertheless

know

that the truths enunciated in these propositions in

21

some sense

Lewis, op.

cit.,

p.

178ss. Lewis's thought in this work, however, has

strong elements of relativism.

22 StarJc, op. cit., p. 196.
23

See Stark's summary of Scheler's work, Die Wissenformen und die

cit.,

Gesellschaft (1926), op.

p. 328ss.

202
transcend time. "Kindness"
is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

only perspectivally revealed to

me
social
is

but on

the basis of this revelation I

know

that

no future

perspective will warrant anyone to judge truly that cruelty

better than kindness. It does

no good
this,

to argue that

many

issues

are

much more

obscure than

for the existence of obscure

cases must be understood from the vantage point of non-obscure cases, and not vice versa. Nor can the lack of a consensus be
conclusive.

What we

are trying to vindicate

is

the possibility of

enduring insight arising out of perspectival knowledge, and there

is

no caU

to

be optimistic about
this insight will

its

frequency and certainly no

call

to

assume that

have the support of a social conis

sensus.

The
is

basic theoretical issue

sometimes confused with the

practical

one of how we can decide between divergent perspectives,

quite a different question. Since

which

no human agent,
it

indiis

vidual or political, transcends the perspectival condition,

part of poUtical

the

wisdom
is

to refrain

from imposing any perspective from the admission

vision
all

by coercion but that that one perspective is

our
is

quite a different thing

as

good

as another.

We know very well from

own

individual consciousness that at

some moments our

it

clearer than others;

we would

not say about ourselves that

our opinions are equally enlightening, nor should we say

about

humanity
will like

in general.

The more

ontologically rich are the categories, the

to development. It
is difficult

more they

be subject

to credit that notions

"substance," "thing," "knowledge," "matter," "good," "I,"

"person,"

"God,"

"necessity,"

"freedom,"
is

"love,"

have

some

univocal packet of meaning which

transferred through the ages.

Take a concept
the

like "substance,"
St.

which begins with Aristotle and

continues through

Thomas, Descartes, Spinoza, Hegel, and

modems. When the modern Thomist uses the word does he mean the same thing as Aristotle? The answer seems to be "yes and no." And this does not signify that he means the same thing plus a few more things. The successive transformations undergone by the word do not allow us to identify some univocal core

Thought and Experience:

of meaning.

203
not merely

To

cite

only one example: the distinction between

is
it

essence and existence, which Aristotle did not make,

added
have

to the notion of substance

which he had, but

all

completely

transforms this notion. Likewise,

histories.

the philosophical categories

Their continuity gives us a kind of one-many rela-

tion through time; they are analogically, rather than univocaUy,

similar.

Only the abstract

an

is

non-historical. Philosophy

is,

or should be,

effort to think the concrete.

That

is

why

it

cannot attempt to

surmount the conditions of temporality by seeking out categories

which seem to be exempt from

logic. It is true that

history, as

do mathematics and
like: If

any mind

at

any socio-historical perspective an inference

would have
not
tell
its

to agree

on the

validity of

A,

then B; but A; then B. But such truths are purely formal and do
anything about the character of existence.
categories as intelligible in the
If

metaphysics
it

views

same manner,

has really

taken refuge in formalism and forsworn the concrete. That

a metaphysics which conceives
ring to
it.

itself in this

is why way has such a hollow

Let us
knowledge,

now
its

consider the second aspect of the sociology of

positive contribution.

For the impression must not

dimensions of knowledge are
to

be

left that

the social

and

historical

simply a

diflficulty

to be

somehow "handled" by one who wants

continue to maintain the objective value of our knowledge. This

to miss the very real contribution made by the modem mode of thought to our appreciation of what objectivity is. Here we may advert to the remarks made in connection with Kant's view that we can only be properly said to know things and

would be

historical

that only

phenomenal consciousness (a combination of formal

category and sense intuition) apprehends things.

add, with

To
is

this

we may

Dewey and

the pragmatists, that action

also involved

in the conception of a "thing."^*

There appears

to be, at a mini-

2*

See esp. Lewis, op.

cit.,

p. 142.

204
mum,
knowledge

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

a genuine psychological justification for saying that our

feels truncated unless
is
it

is

dealing with "things" and

is

that a thing

a triplex of concept, sense, and action. That

label of

why

Kant withheld the

"knowledge" from metaphysical con-

cepts, since they did not bear

upon

things in this sense.

Now

with this in mind

we may

confer a very positive cogni-

tional relevance

on
if

the social and historical dimensions of

human
"soul,"

existence.

For

metaphysical categories like "being,"

"God,"

"immortality,"

"freedom,"

"love,"

"person,"

and

so

forth are to afford us the

edge, they must be filled

same assurance as phenomenal knowlthey must in with some kind of content

begin to bear upon something approximating a "thing."

obviously this content cannot
as such,
ever,

Now

come from

the side of sense intuition

It

which cannot exhibit these notions.

might come, howis

from action of a superior kind.

historical

And

here

where the

social
it

and

dimensions become extremely relevant. For

is

through his higher activity as a social and historical being that

man

gives a visible manifestation to the

in these philosophical concepts.
is

meaning

creatively appre-

hended

His grasp of himself as a

cognitionally

trans-phenomenal being

weakened and rendered

it

unstable unless he can read

back out of

his existence. Therefore,

the historical process by which he creates an authentic

existence for himself
is

human

integral to the cognitive grasp of the tran-

scendent dimension of reahty.

In line with the analogy

we have used

before:

as the artist
it

cannot afl&rm his creative idea except as he embodies

so

on canvas,

man

cannot affirm the transcendent character of his

it

existence except as he embodies

in history

and

society.

own Or to

revert to the comparison with individual consciousness:

man

says "I" at five and at

radically developed

fifty. is

But

his

meaning for that word has

itself
it

and
it;

inseparable from the life-process in

too,

which he has learned

to be

so,

humanity recognizes
it

as

"man" throughout human

history, but
is

must learn what

means

man, and that meaning

inseparable from the historical

Thought and Experience: I

process. ^^

205
we
are in a better

Can anyone

seriously contest that

position today to understand

means to be a person than was, say, a slave in pharaoh's Egypt? Man knows what it means to be a person by making himself a person.
it

what

We

could say similar things about the other categories:

we confreedom

vince ourselves of immortality by bringing forth immortal works,

of love

by creating the climate

free society.

in

which

it

may

flower, of

we even say that in order to know God, we must make God? That is, we must make the reality of God in-stant in human existence. We must
by producing a
audaciously, could

Most

bring God forth from hiding and let Him appear as the ultimate meaning of human existence. Such a conviction seems to have animated the thought of Teilhard de Chardin.^^ His phenomenology
of

man

is

a phenomenology of
intelhgibihty
at the

man

as a

movement
really

to the

end of

history.

The

of the

end

falls

across the present.

Perhaps only
but

Omega
and

Point do
less

we

we may speak

less

stammeringly as

know God truly, we move toward

that point.

And
is

thus the historical growth which propels this

movement

an integral part of our cognition.

In speaking thus, in trying to do justice to the relation of history

and knowledge, we must beware of any vulgar optimism which

reduces
the
is

whole discussion to the

single

word,

"progress."
is

"Progress"

a word to beware of in philosophy, for there

is

sense in which philosophy

origin than
it is

more

a continual thinking at the

is

a progress. Certainly there

no guarantee

that a

thinker

who

appears later on the historical scene than another

automatically stands at a better vantage-point for the vision of

philosophical truth; as

an example, nothing said above would

commit us

to the belief that Sidney

Hook

is

a better philosophical

guide than Plato. Things are not that simple. Just as there are
25 Cf. Michael Polanyi, The Study of Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 1959, pp. 82-83. 26 See Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, The Phenomenon of Man, trans, by Bernard Wall (New York: Harper and Bros.), 1959.

206
moments
so
the
of great purity

The Philosophy
and
intensity in the

of

Knowledge

consciousness of

individuals

by which the
thinkers

rest of their experience

can be measured,

great

represent

moments

of great purity
history does

and
is

intensity in the consciousness of humanity.

What
it

to

pool the experience of the past and to offer

tunity for philosophical penetration.

as a fuller oppor-

THOUGHT AND EXPERIENCE: U

INDUCTION
Induction
is

defined as reasoning from particular instances to a

general conclusion. According to the

number

of such instances,

induction

is

called complete or incomplete.

Complete induction

means reasoning from all existing instances to the generalization; incomplete induction means reasoning from less than all existing instances to the generalization. Complete induction deserves only
the briefest notice, since
it is

"reasoning" only in the loosest sense

of that word. If

check a certain block and observe successively

that each single house

it,

on

the block has a tree planted in front of

may

generalize to the statement "All houses

on

this

block

have

trees."

By

completely tabulating

all

instances of this generalidis-

zation, I place the generalization

beyond doubt and beyond

what
I

pute.
for

The only

thing
is

is,

"reason" here in only the weakest sense,

already know.
it

all I

am

doing

stating succinctly

have

not advanced

my
if

knowledge, but only

is

summed

up. Therefore,
it

while this complete induction

teresting, since

unexceptionable,

is

also unin-

our knowledge were confined to

it,

we would

not

progress at

all.

is much more important and also much more puzzling. For it seems to involve a process of passing from "some to all," a process against which formal logic has consistently warned us. (It is well known that the truth of an I or O proposi-

Incomplete induction

tion does not warrant

an inference

to the truth of

an

or

E
we

proposition.)

Yet,

when we employ incomplete

induction,

2 08
infer

The -Philosophy
from an observation of
all

of

Knowledge

either

few or many instances (in any

is

case, not
this class.

instances) that something

true of

all

instances of
state

We

do

this in

an everyday manner when we

con-

j&dently such familiar facts as that "All

men

laugh," "All dogs

bark," or "All unsupported objects

fall to

the ground."

Nobody
is
if

has ever observed

the observation
is

all

men,

all

dogs, or all unsupported objects;

impossible in these and most cases

induction
is

which
But

another reason

why complete
all

relatively useless.

we

haven't observed

cases of a class,

how do we know

with

certitude that they

must exhibit a certain

trait?

Why

couldn't there

be non-barking dogs or unsupported objects which remain comfortably suspended in mid-air?

Yet physical
lies

science,

and indeed

all

systematic knowledge, re-

very heavily on incomplete induction. Medicine speaks of the

properties of a malaria or typhus germ; biology of the normal

structure of a

human

cell;

chemistry prescribes the atomic structure

of molecules and

lists

the weights of elements in a table.

all

Yet

nobody has observed or could observe

or
all

typhus germs,

all cells,

elements of a certain kind.

How
is

then,

by observing only

some, can
would, on

we

prescribe for what

true of all?

How

can

we

distinguish a valid induction

fair consideration,

from a hasty generalization? Nobody

grant

much

value to such pretended

generalizations

as

"All Irish are drunkards,"

"All doctors are

quacks," or "All politicians are cynical."

We

would counsel a

person

who made such

validly inducing
this

statements that he was judging

basis of a few instances

and proceeding

fallaciously.

on the When, then,

are

we

and not generalizing

hastily?

In one sense

question simply means: in what cases are

we

proceeding according to the proper and recognized canons of a

certain
field?

Thus, the hasty generalizations cited above sin

all

against the cardinal rule of

induction, which states that the

existence of even a single negative instance destroys the universal

character of the conclusion.

lates this rule is
is

Any

pretended induction which vio-

immediately to be tossed out of court. That

much

easy to see.

To go

further in estabhshing the correct procedures

Thought and Experience: 11

209
and of the
differences

of induction in given areas requires prolonged consideration, and

practitioners of the separate sciences
logic of discovery

have devoted much time to

Mill's

it.

method of agreement and

is

one example of

an attempt to lay down general

criteria.

Actually, though, this

way

of stating the question has largely to do with the procedures

valid in a certain science

and

is

principally to be settled

by the
one

practitioners of that science.

The philosophical question proper only begins where

from an invalid one, what
acquired?
let
is

this

leaves off: after a valid scientific conclusion has been discrimmated

the status of the knowledge thus
is it

Is it

merely probable,

certain, or
tell

what? For instance,

us say that a chemist can successfully

the difference between

the right and

wrong way
its

of determining the structure of a molecule

and can write

which

formula.

The philosophical
is

issue
is
it

is:

having

arrived at the scientifically correct conclusion,

is

the knowledge

thus gained absolutely certain or

simply highly

probable? The philosophical question does not have to do with the

Tightness or wrongness of procedures within science, but with the

question of the status of the knowledge which can be reached with

this sort of

procedure.

HUME'S OBJECTION
mounted against the necessity of conclusions reached inductively was that made by David Hume in the course of his quarrel with the principle of causaHty.^ Hume's
best

The

known

attack ever

point

may

be epitomized in

this
is

way: experience

is

always of

particulars,

and therefore

it

always at one remove from any

it.

generalization that can be

made about

What
still

is

given to us

is

stream of perceptual particulars.

No

doubt they are linked in

given as particulars.

certain customary sequences, but they are

When we
'^

try to raise ourselves to an entirely different level and

Hume

Selections, pp. 34-38.

(From

Treatise of

Human

Nature).

210
decree as to
selves
cases,

The Philosophy of Knowledge

how

this

sequence must appear,

we have

dealt our-

an extra card. "Laws" of nature pretend to be valid for all both observed and unobserved but where do we find the

absolute warrant for this?

What makes

us sure that the cases

we

have not observed must be

unsupported objects
fall to

like the cases

we have observed?

"All

the ground," "All hydrogen combines

with oxygen to form water,"

are these really certain pronounce-

ments or only

satisfying probabilities?

Hume's point can be made especially striking by relating it to time. For every "law" of both common sense and science feels itself to be a pronouncement about the unobserved events of the
past and future, as well as about spatially remote and unobservable
events.

But

as such, according to

Hume,

it

is

proceeding on the
this

assumption that the future must resemble the present, and

must remain forever an assumption. What makes us so confident that it must be true? Just because something has happened in a

manner in the past is no guarantee that it will happen in that manner forever afterwards. Perhaps ten thousand years from now (or ten seconds from now) the law of gravity will no longer hold good. Our mind boggles at the possibility ^but who can
certain

prove that

it

can't be?

Or why

shouldn't the behavior of bodies

alter altogether, so that fire no longer burns paper, and hydrogen and oxygen no longer combine to give water? We cannot appeal to the past to prove what will happen in the future.

Nor can we even

say that in the past the future always resembled

the past, for that only repeats the issue. Just because the past future

resembled the past past,

how

does that prove that the future

future will resemble the future past?

Always involved

here, says

Hume,

is

an assumption.

No

appeal to experience can ever justify

the assumption, for every appeal to experience re-introduces the

assumption,

pseudo-generalization, such as the appeal to the

"uniformity of nature" will not help either, since this simply hallows
as a fact the very principle

whose vahdity
in principle

is

at stake.

This

is

the

question:

how can

experience ever provide the evidence for a

is

pronouncement about what

beyond experience (as

Thought and Experience:

the future
is

II

211

always in principle beyond any accumulation of

experience)?

Many

people at

first

find

Hume's reasoning merely

captious.

But he has actually done thought a great service by placing the reality of the empirical in the sharpest relief. Every thinker who
brings us to the extreme enlarges our vision, since philosophy
is

matter of thinking at the extreme point. At the same time,

true that not everyone

it is

would have

this
is

problem quite in Hume's

heightened by his basic

manner. For

his particular difiiculty

assumption in respect to the character of experience.

He
is

believes

experience to consist in the awareness of a stream of particularized

impressions given without intrinsic connection. If what

given

is

mere sequence,
from
this picture,

clearly

no reason

is

discoverable

why
is

a past
missing

sequence should be repeated in the future. Something however, and

it

may be

variously supplied.

In the language of Scholastic philosophy, what Hume's sensist

theory of knowledge does not allow him to recognize
is

that

we

do not experience mere impressions or

activities of different

activities,

we

experience

beings acting. In grasping the events of our experience as the

kinds of being,

we have passed beyond

se-

quence to the foundation of the successive

of the beings which are acting.

activity in the nature

Hume's sensism does not allow

him
but

to grant

meaning

to the notion of "nature" or "kind of being,"

we need limit ourselves thus only if we arbitrarily adopt this beginning. Once allowed the realization that there are "things which" act, we have the notion of a determinate kind of being
its

which underlies
ground.

manifestations as their permanent source and

is,

What

a being

its

determinate ontological structure

it

(its

"essence"), determines what

least

does. Therefore,

a hypothetical answer to the question of

we can give at why the future

kind of nature
to
its

should resemble the present.

in existence,
it

As

long as there

is this

wiU

act in a

manner proportionate

nature.

Action
less:

is

not arbitrary nor are the experiential sequences groundis

action

rooted in nature, and sequences of action in inter-

acting natures.

And

so

it is

safe to

assume that

as long as there is

212
the kind of "nature"

The Philosophy of Knowledge

we

call

hydrogen or oxygen, there wiU be

possibility of a criterion

the typical activity proper to this nature.

Putting things in this

for a valid induction.

way opens up the Whenever on the

basis of observation of

particular instances,
certain
is

we may

discern that a certain feature or a

way

of acting belongs to the nature of

which

this particular

an instance, we

may

then induce that

all

instances possessing

this
it

nature will exhibit this feature or this

mode
it

of acting. For,

if

is

founded

in the nature of this being,

will

be shared by

all

who have

the

same
all

nature. Thus,

we may
is

safely conclude

by

incomplete induction that "All

men

are risible" (even though

we

have not observed

men)
of

since laughing

a property seen to

be grounded in the combined animal and rational nature of man.

We

can say

this, it is felt,
it is

all

possible past and future instances

of this nature, since

a property of such a nature. Such a state-

ment could not be made about "white" or "short" or "strong"

which are not necessarily connected with the essence "rational
animal." Wherever
erty

we can
is

glimpse the connection between prop-

and nature

in this way,

we may

feel secure in

our induction.

Yes

but

the trouble

that this simply tends to transpose the

problem:

how do we know

that a certain feature or action belongs

to the very nature of a thing? In the case of

man we may seem

to

have a privileged example, but suppose we take the essence "tiger"

or "swan." Is "All tigers have stripes" or

"No swans
it

are green"

an example of a valid induction and does

tainty?

give us absolute ceris

This amounts to asking whether "having stripes"

tiger.

necessary property of the nature of

while before saying so
a non-striped
tiger.

even though we may never have observed

bom to
tiger parents

We

might hesitate a long

Suppose an offspring were

which was completely non-striped. Most people would probably

accord him the prerogative of tigerhood in spite of his deficiency.

And

couldn't there just possibly be "green swans?"

at that?

Or would we

draw the hne

What

is,

at

any rate

clear, is that

we

begin to get into a rather

nebulous area once

we

pass beyond obvious examples drawn from

Thought and Experience:

man's
"risibility"

II

213
The The
criterion
is still

or "tool-making ability."

the

same

(the necessary connection between feature

it

and nature) but

is

the opportunity to apply

is

only

slight.

trouble

that

we

have comparatively
horses,
entities,

little

insight into the "nature" of tigers, swans,

water,

atoms,

or the

whole panorama of non-human

seems that even on the

and so very

little

capacity to judge what does or does not

comport with

their nature. It therefore

philosophical assumption that there are permanent natures, there

is

ample reason to believe that our inductive knowledge of them

is

extremely limited. In the case of the physical "laws" which are

based on these natures, we must also stop short of claiming an

unconditional necessity. Even if the universe is a system of permanent natures (which Hume overlooked) the most that this would unconditionally warrant is a certitude as to the existence of necessary laws, and not a certitude that our knowledge had formulated them in any particular instance. It would seem that reasoning

which

is

inductive in the usual sense

and nothing more

is

going to

be confined to an approximate and probable conclusion.

AVER'S TAUTOLOGY VIEW

To many minds
by the logical
that aside

there

is

a comparatively easy

way out

of this

puzzle about induction, that along the lines so lucidly

positivist,

expounded
is

A.

I. all

Ayer.^ Ayer's position simply

from

definitions,

truths about experience are cor-

rigible in principle

and hence merely probable. Conversely, every truth which is not corrigible in principle is simply a definition and hence tautologous. Thus, suppose we are puzzling our heads over
the question of whether gold has to be yellow.

Ayer would simply

say that this

is

a matter of the

way we

decide to use words. If

we
is

include as part of our meaning

yellow,"
it

for "gold" the quahty of "being

is

the clearest thing in the world that "All gold

don't,
if

yellow." If
2

we

we

content ourselves with defining gold

Alfred Jules Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic

(New York: Dover Pub-

lications), n.d., pp. 72, 94-95.

214
without any reference at
all to its

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
its

color (say by reference to

if

atomic weight and structure) and

we
is

are willing to let this be

at all

what we mean by gold, then there

no reasoning

which
defini-

would ever
tion

sufficiently establish that

whatever

fulfills this

must unconditionally
an instance of
this

also be yellow.
definition
is

Every time we discover

that

also yellow,
are,

we

are really

discovering something; but because

this
is

we

we

cannot say that

connection must hold good in every future case.

Our

assertion

"corrigible"
all

future experience

may show

that something can

have

the other properties of gold

and yet not be yellow.

tigers"

So with "green swans" or "non-striped

these things are possible
is

to ask

whether
will-

just to ask

whether you would be

ing to call such things tigers or swans;

and

to ask this

is

just to

ask how much you include Someone who roundly asserts

in the definition of tiger or swan.

that

"No swans

are green"

is

simply
is

declaring that he will not acknowledge that any green thing

swan.

Or suppose

a chemist

came upon an element which gave

all

all

the other reactions of hydrogen and yet stubbornly refused to

combine with oxygen

into water. In

likehhood, he would at

length decide that this element could not be hydrogen but

hitherto undiscovered element;

some
to as

which would only indicate that he

must be able to say that "All hydrogen combines with oxygen form water," because otherwise he will not recognize it
hydrogen.

But then
nitions.

all

pretended inductive generalizations are really defiis

"All gold

yellow" would not be a statement about

experience but a statement about

I

how

have decided

to use words.

include the property of being yellow as a defining characteristic

of gold
it isn't,

and hence
it

can safely declare that

I

all

gold

is

yellow. If

is

not what
it

mean by

gold.

No

experience can correct

my

statement since
if I

is

not a statement about experience. In a

parallel way,

were

to

mvent a word "brable"

to signify "tables

which are brown," then the statement "All brables are brown"
is

unconditionally true, and no experience in the future can ever

it

contradict

or

make me

rescind

it.

But

it is

true because

it is

Thought and Experience: II

tautology: the predicate repeats
subject.

215

what is already contained in the Ayer we have a simple choice: to make statements which really do refer to experience but which are to correction then open by future experience; or to seek the unAccording
to

conditionally valid

but then we

are simply decreeing

how we

will

use words, and not reveahng anything about experience at

all.^

The gist of Ayer's position is quite similar to that of Hume: we cannot make necessary statements about experience as such.

Now

in great part this

is

what philosophy

aspires to do. It

is

not

satisfied as

some mathematicians might

Ayer
tells

be, to think of itself as

it

elaborating the implications of concepts;

sary insights into existence.

wants to achieve necesis

us that this

impossible.

But

if

we look more

closely,

we

find that the basis of the impossiis

bility is that the

evidence to warrant necessity

unavailable

and
is

this in turn directs

our attention to Ayer's narrow view of what

is,

evidential.

To

speak about experience

in his view, to speak

is this

about a sequence of sense data; what

is

"given"

sequence

and every meaningful statement must

else
ity."

refer to this

sequence or

be tautologous. This

is

the gist of his "principle of verifiabilin

He

denies

all role to

what could
entitled to

any way be called

it is

intel-

lectual intuition.

To surmount
is

his view, then,

restrict

only necessary
this

to

inquire whether he

knowledge in

manner.
In answering this question, traditional philosophy instinctively
thinks of the notions of being, unity, cause, substance, essence and

so forth, which

it

regards as fundamentally intelHgible and yet

not in a manner acceptable to the verifiability principle.

it

Nor does
It

regard these conceptions as purely formal in Kant's manner.

holds that there are data which are available to intellectual intuition

which are not given

to the senses
this is

although they

are given

through the senses. Unless

understood, the old Scholastic

formula, "Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu"

would be rather hard

3 Ibid.,

to distinguish

from the

verifiabihty principle.

pp. 77, 95-96.

27 6
Ayer wants
to reduce all

The Philosophy
meaning
to

of

Knowledge

what

is

available for the

senses; but these meanings are not so available. Scholastic philoso-

phy, in pressing for their non-tautologous necessity,

holding that
senses.

is

really

we can know more than is available in and for the Thus the proposition "Every event requires a cause" is not
It is

a tautology, but a statement about experience which necessarily

holds good.

not precisely reached by "induction" in the usual

sense; the universal

meaning

is

not the result of an extrapolation

of particular observations, but discovered with necessity in each

particular instance.

Here

it

seems a

definite concession

must be made
That

to the opin-

ion of those like Ayer. Induction considered simply as enumeration will apparently never give necessity.
is,

the inteUigibility
is

which consists

in

adding up

particulars

and nothing more

excluded from the domain of necessity. Where what appears to be

enumerative induction leads to necessary conclusions,

out that something more than
this
is

it

will turn

was involved. Thus, even

It is

in the

example, "All

men

laugh," this

not a conclusion reached by the

extrapolation of a merely enumerative induction.

into the relation

an insight

between

rationality

and

risibihty,

an insight for

which enumeration might provide a favorable occasion, but which

is

theoretically possible

on the

basis of a single case.

is
is

What

is

usually called induction, then,

insight.

really

an amalgam of

enumeration and

Where

the latter

not possible

where

the meanings dealt with are too

opaque ("swans," or
rise

"tigers," for

example)
can
rise

induction can never

is,

beyond
That

insight.

for a revelation

beyond probability. When we some role must be allowed for the particular must be capable of being the vehicle which is at once existential and intelligible. Ayer
probability, then
this,

would not admit

but his reason for refusing to do so

is

the
if

verifiability principle,

which tends
is

to

beg the whole question:

we assume
inated.

that this

the criterion for meaningful statements,

then necessary statements about experience are, of course, elim-

But why assume

it?

Could we not go much further than the habitual reply of

Thought and Experience:

11
is

217
usually confined to the metaphysi-

Scholastic philosophy, which

cal

principles

and certain large

things, plants, animals,

distinctions between inanimate and men? There would seem to be a whole

range of meaning which

we can know

in a
is

Ayer
all

suggests. His

fundamental mistake

manner other than what to equate knowing with

I

definition. This

approach inclines us too

status. I

hastily to the belief that

definitions

have the same

I

can define terms any way

like,

and then whatever

is

tions

irreproachable

but not informative about

still

go on to say on the basis of these

defini-

experience.

We

tend to forget that the possibility would

be open that some of

our definitions reach unities which exist as such beyond our

thought, even
if

others are merely verbal.

We

forget this because

the approach from the side of definition turns us

away from
it

experi-

enced

reality

towards the attempt to express

is

verbally. If

we

recognize that any definition

cinctly features

simply an attempt to envelop suc-

which have been experientially encountered, we

may
If

think differently.

we can know reality without being able to define it, then some experience may provide a foundation for necessary truth. It surely seems accurate to say that we can know by acquaintance whole swathes of experience long before we can define them (if we ever can). I know what it means, in a sense, to think, exist,
will,

hope, remember,

live,

rejoice,

admire, disapprove, and so

forth, entirely apart

from any

definition.

And
I

because

"know"

these things, I

know with

necessity certain truths

about these

processes which are not tautologous. Thus

that

may

be said to

know

"Memory

involves an identity through time" and I can dis-

cover by laborious penetration of

my

direct (but obscure)

is

knowl-

edge of remembering that

"Memory
is

not to be equated with

mechanical repetition," which

what Bergson did in one of the

ever carried out.

most acute philosophical

proposition I

reflections

The

first

may know

rather easily, the second only after proI

found thought; but in each case

existential reaUty reached by

know two

things: there

is

an

my

concept "memory,"

and the

proposition I

now

enunciate

is

necessarily true about this reality.

218
This proposition
It is
is

The Philosophy of Knowledge

not a matter of definition and not a tautology.

an insight that has been reached by bringing into sharp focus

the intelligible components and consequences of a meaning usually

present in an obscure manner.

I

do not begin with a

it

"definition" of

memory and

then see

what
ence

"contains." I begin with the experience of

it

memory, and

as I bring
I

into clearer focus, I

have the insight that the experiis

undergo in "remembering"
figure I

an

intelligible constellation

whose

can discern

at least to

some

extent. Likewise, the

basis for

my

apprehension of the truth of the proposition "Moral

values are not reducible to self interest" or

utilize

"One man should not

I

another as a mere thing"

is

is

not the fact that

I

perceive that
to the

the predicate

contained in the definition

have assigned

subject. It is the fact that as

my

thought turns to the Uved experiit is

ential encounter with

strata

man

or moral value,
in these

able to lay bare the

of

meaning contamed

experiences.

Our thought

reaches necessary insight in experience and about experience. That

this is possible,

Ayer's theory notwithstanding,

is

attested only in

the doing of

it.

VON HILDEBRAND AND

PHILOSOPHICAL INSIGHT
Probably no one has contributed more to our understanding of
this point
is

than has Dietrich von Hildebrand, in whose writings

it

from which he

main theme.* In keeping with the phenomenological school derives, von Hildebrand stresses that all philosophical thought must gravitate around a "given" which is embeda

ded in lived experience. This notion of a "given" should not be

construed as a dogmatic club to silence discussion.
only that reflective thought takes
its rise

The

point

is

from a

fuller experiential
is

source and must be faithful to that source.

necessarily
4

The "given"

not

what

is

plainly available to everybody. It

is

may

be a

Dietrich

von Hildebrand, What

Philosophy? (Milwaukee: Bruce),

1960, Chapters IV, VII.

Thought and Experience:

II

219

matter of the greatest exertion to get back to original experience;

there
is

reason to think that philosophical genius consists primarily

in this rare ability.

The

fact remains that thought should be con-

tinually conscious of proceeding with reference to this experience.

Von

Hildebrand holds that our thought

may

discover in experireal,

ence meanings which are indisputably there and indisputably

and which are apprehended

statements to be

in a

way

that allows "eternally true"

made on

the basis of them. These "givens" are

not grasped in conceptual definitions but hved encounters, and

hence the insights founded upon them are unconditionally referential to reality.

The examples suggested above might be

as

supple-

mented by others such

person,"
for the

these:

"Moral values presuppose a

entails a will

"A

promise founds an obligation," "Love

good of the other,"

is

"It is better to suffer injustice

than to

do

injustice," "Generosity

different

from purity."

Certain realms afford us the opportunity for a fruitful penetration not

open

in others. It

may be
is,

that

my

meaning

for "atom,"

"electron," "swan," or "gold"

beyond a certain

point, largely a

matter of construction. But

"justice"
is

my

meaning for "person," "love," or

is

not a matter of construction but

founded upon direct

experience. I do not really "induce" these things in the familiar

sense. I grasp
that,

them

in their singular manifestations,

and

I I

find

having grasped them, they provide

me

with a depth

may

continually explore. If I

am

to

make
beyond

necessary statements about

their specific character to

"swan" or "gold"

must

rise

another level of abstraction, and grasp them as "being," or "substance," or "living"; but in the case of "person," or "love" or
"justice" I

can discover necessary truths about them in

does not

their

own

specific character.

Again,
tions

this

mean

that I can define them.

The proposialready con-

mentioned above are not "analytical"

is,

in Kant's or Ayer's
is

view: that

it is

not the case that the predicate

tained in the content of the subject. These propositions are revelations: they are the unrolling of a rich scroll of

meaning which

have actually discovered in experience.

Von

Hildebrand points

220
to "persons"

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

out that the insight into the necessary reference of "moral values"
is

really
it

an can

insight. It

is

not part of the definition of

moral value that

exist only in persons.

The

fact that I

psychologically encounter moral values in persons would not

make

the proposition tautologous; I discover aesthetic values in persons

too, but they are also

found in non-personal beings.

My

realization

of the essential and necessary connection between moral value and

person

is

a discovery of the meaningful character of a special

is

dimension of being. This

an experiential discovery, since the

is

meaning of
ligible

"justice,"

"moral value" or "love"

not an arbitrary

construction but the grasp of something really present as an intelunity in experience.

These propositions are indubitably

real.

referential to a

dimension of the

But the

interesting thing

is its

that the reality to

which they

refer

can yield up insights into

corrigible

structure

which are neither tautologous nor

by future

experience.

Remember

here that the discussion centers on the lived enrealities

counter with these

and not on our concepts of them.

When

we speak about "moral values," "justice," "generosity," or "purity" we are not speaking primarily about the concepts with which we deal with these experiences, but about the experiences themselves; just as when we speak of "red" or "green" we are
speaking of the encountered reality of colors. "Generosity" and
"purity" are as different as "red" and "green," even though their
intelligible structure

may be more

complex.
it

As our thought

brings

this intelligible structure into focus,

is

able to enumerate truths

about

it

in

its

unity which are just as eternally and necessarily

true as the statement

is

"Red

is

not green." The latter proposition

not a tautologous definition or a mere decision to use words in

a certain way, but a statement about a non-verbal facet of reahty.

In like manner, the statement "generosity

is

not purity"

is

not a

tautology but an insight into a non-verbal difference in experience.

The

additional factor

is

that "generosity," "purity,"

and similar
due
to their

givens are complex unities and that they are intelligible as complex.

"Red" and "green" do not

yield

up meanings

readily,

Thought and Experience:

extreme simplicity; "red
in this case.
is

II

221
is

not green"

about as far as we can go

But the

intelligible

complexity of love, moral value,

generosity, purity,

and so

forth, is

an extremely

fruitful

one:

it

allows not only the simple recognition of irreducible unitary differences, but the further necessary insights provided
gressive penetration of this unity in
its

by the proas "givens"

complex character.

The
and

fact that

von Hildebrand speaks of these things

stresses the "objectivity" of

such "essences" and the "eternal"

character of the truth they underwrite

fusion.

may

cause needless con-

As we have

seen, the notion of a "given" should not

intelligibility is

be

understood in a rationalistic manner. Their

acterized

char-

by depth; they are

invitations to explore further.

does the fact that they

that once

make

"necessary insight" possible

Nor mean

we

delve them out of experience,

we can

disregard

experience thereafter and merely peer into their timeless structure

to

comprehend them
if

further.

Sometimes von Hildebrand speaks

to penetrate a given "essence"
it.

as

this

were the case, but actually

is

of this sort
It is

not to turn away from experience but towards

not unfaithful to von Hildebrand's position to say that the

is

"given"

always not-yet-given, or not-quite-given. Surely

it

makes

insights possible,

and surely

it

underwrites "eternal truths" which

we do

not have to keep re-verifying and which are not subject to

correction.

But

just as these insights are originally the products of

a close focusing

upon experience, so

their retention is a

product

of a continuing adhesion to experience.

The meaning contained

love
is

in the concepts of person, justice, or

not an acquisition snatched out of experience and wrapped

it

in mental cellophane;

is

the intelligible epiphany of a certain

I

mode

of experience.

To

explore these "essences"

must continuI

ally rejoin in

thought the experiences from which their meaning

shines forth. This

meaning

is

not "given" in the sense that

it

can

unfold

its

explicit content
it

from the beginning;

it

is

given in the

sense that
possible.

is

only with reference to

that certain insights are

full

For example: even though the

still

meaning of "love"

is

never available to me,

such truths as that love entails benevo-

222
lence, or that love
is

The Philosophy
a value response, or that love
is

of

Knowledge

not reducibile

to an instinctual urge, are eternally vouchsafed to

me

even in

my

limited penetration of this experience.

that once I "see" these truths, I retain

Even so, this does not mean them as permanent intelmust continually re-see
experiences in which

lectual property; really to "see" them, I

them

must dwell thought-fully

is

in the
is

their truth

manifest.

The "given"
I

not a permanently acquired

it

premise from which

deduce consequences;

is

meaning
it

emergent and clung to in actual experience. As experiential

nevertheless generates unconditional certitude. In this
fers

way

it

dif-

from other experientially encountered meanings which do not

pointed out, this view presupposes that there

warrant certitude.^

As has been
more
is

is

in experience than
is

Ayer would acknowledge.

It also

implies

that there

much more
. .

in experience than Scholastic philosophy

in the habit of adverting to.

."

Too

often the latter rests content

with the "Nihil est

of
it.

formula and conceives experience in terms

If this

few words are in order here.

formula were really

taken Uterally, there would be nothing to distinguish Scholasticism

from pure sense empiricism.

themselves
fall

Now

and then some Scholastics

if

into the groove of speaking as

the "something

more"

in experience

beyond the data given

and so

to sense are notions

like cause, substance, necessity,

forth.

This gives a quasi-

Kantian concept of experience which completely neglects the

abundance of meaning which

gory of
existence
this
is

is

neither sense

datum nor a

cate-

sort.

For one

thing, the

whole reahty of personal

overlooked. Willing, rejoicing, loving, hoping, respond-

ing, admiring,

envying and their objects are every

St.

bit as irreducibly

given as are "sense phantasms."

Thomas
little

stresses that

a direct knowledge of the soul through

it

its activities;

we have we know that

exists,

even though we
is

may know

of

its

"whatness."

No

doubt a notion of "soul"

5

a relatively late intellectual arrival, the

"eidos" as imposing

Sometimes von Hildebrand speaks in a rather objectified manner of this itself on me, as if it were an atemporal external thing,
this

but

manner of speech

is

not integral to the doctrine.

Thought and Experience:

II

223
and the
immediate data

product of various inferences; and yet not only the that but the

what of
It

willing, rejoicing, loving,

rest, are

of experience.

would be perfectly vacuous

to treat these experiences

as

abstractions.

We
are

surely have abstract concepts of these things, but

the concepts
stances.

drawn from

directly experienced

singular in-

No

one thinks of disclaiming our immediate encounter with

instances of red, loud, or sweet, because our concepts of

them are
is

abstractions. Just so, the concept of justice, generosity, or love,

generated by an encounter with these

realities in singular instances.

Experience contains singular instances of love, hope, or

just as
this
it

justice,

does of red, sweet, or loud. The alternative to recognizing

to treat sense data as the only directly given reality,

would be

and then

to treat the other data as

somehow

"abstracted" from the

this is the

sense data. It

sometimes

is

wrongly inferred that

meanform-

ing of another Scholastic formula: the proportionate object of the

intellect is the essence of material things. In

some ways
all

this

ula

is

even more misleading than the

first. It

seems to say that only

of our knowledge
it

material things are of spiritual reahty

that
else

known
is

directly,

and that

indirect; but St.

Thomas makes

quite clear

we know the acts of our own soul directly could we know them? It further seems to
cow)

and

indeed,

say that

how we know
one

the essences of "material things" (such as, perhaps, the natures of

stone, tree, or
better than the nature of a person. In
is

sense, of course, even this

true, since I

can easily grasp the

referent of these words,

and

would never
I

get

mixed up

if I

were

given the job of sorting out stones, trees,

grasping their ostensive signification,

and cows. But beyond

very
I
little

know

about the
little

essence of stone, tree, or cow. Contrariwise,

superficial ostensive
I

may have

knowledge of

love, justice, or a person,

and

may

have to win through to such knowledge quite laboriously;

in depth

and yet what I can know of these realities far exceeds what I can know about a stone, tree, or cow.
It is

surely true that

that

to

mean

we ought not to take the Scholastic formula we know material things better than persons. It is.

224
Some
is

The Philosophy of Knowledge

its

unfortunately, just as surely true that

misinterpretation.

wording

facilitates this
if

of the difficulty

would be avoided

we

simply understood the formula to

object of our thought

mean

that the proportionate

being as

it is

revealed through the senses.

still

This

is

distinctly less exceptionable,

though
in the

unsatisfying.

Ac-

tually the genuine residue of

little

meaning

formula seems to be

more than the insistence that my incarnate situation is the my knowing and that it colors and conditions all my knowing. This is a fair enough statement, but it could be put in a
vehicle of

manner

less

open

to misinterpretation. It

is

not true to say that

all

our knowledge of

spiritual reahty is indirect, as the

is

formula could

be taken to imply. Nothing

existence

closer to us than our interpersonal

and

this is a spiritual
it

mode
is

of existence.

one wants to emphasize that

of an incarnate being, that
is

the spiritual

unobjectionable;

Of course, if mode of existence we have no direct

awareness of the

mode

of existence proper to disincarnate spirits.

Yet then the statement that we know properly and proportionately

the "essences of material things" widens to

mean

that

we know

persons best

which

is

rather far
is

from

its

original implication.

We now
The

stipulate that a "person"

the essence of a material thing:

a highly unilluminating

manner

of speaking.

last interpretation is

suggested by Thomistic philosophers

who wish
yet bring

to preserve the experiential orientation of

it

Thomism and
Thus

into alignment with the clear truth of experience.

is

de Finance proposes that what our intellect

is

primarily ordered to

not just the "essence of material things," but other persons.'^

It

would seem

just as legitimate
it,

a procedure to stop using the

it.

formula.

Once we use

we

are stuck with

For once having

all

employed the formula we are impelled

ential data into this

to try to

squeeze

experi-

mold. The attitude inherent in

it is

what led

Aristotle to try to understand

man

in terms of a "material thing,"

is

albeit a material thing of a special kind. It try to

6

a thankless task to

understand

how we can

rightly represent a person, beauty,

Clarke,

Joseph de Finance, S.J., "Being and Subjectivity," trans, by S.J., Cross Currents, VI 163-178; see p. 169.

W.

Norris

Thought and Experience:

justice,

II

225
history, ambition,

number, generosity, V-1, law, charm,

realities as the

and a milHon other

"essence of a material thing."

No
that

doubt the one who holds

this

formula goes on to acknowledge

grasp of
all

we can have an inadequate

is

being; but this

realize that

acknowledgment
ordinarily

considerably quahfied
this

when we

he

we can grasp reality according general principles made possible by the concept of to the very being. The real point is, however, that we can have an immediate
means by
simply that
experiential contact with realities

which are not sense data and not

data.

usefully understood

from the side of sense

There

is

very

little

doubt that Thomistic philosophy implicitly

its

recognizes this truth, but

habitual terminological dependence

on a

delineation of experience as "phantasms"

intellectual

on

the one

hand

and generalized

concepts on the other impairs this

is

recognition. Historically there

this recognition. If

no doubt that

it

has not exploited

a constricting vocabulary or formulas with very

limited usefulness stand in the

way

of a philosophical appreciation
to relinquish

of experience,

it

would seem the course of wisdom

on.

them and move

10

EXISTENTIAL TRUTH

ON THE NATURE OF EVIDENCE

We
the

have already met the

fairly

standard definition of truth as

reality.

conformity between mind and

it is

In this relationship of

conformity,

natural to think of reahty as having the initiative.

what the conception of "evidence" likewise suggests: reahty imposes itself upon me, and in the presence of the evidence, I submit. In submitting, I confirm to what-is, and thus my judgment
This
is

may be denominated
this

true.

There

is

not the shghtest question that

a permanent vahdity, but the

way of conceiving things has manner in which we spontaneously

questionable and highly misleading.

express

it

may be both
it is if

highly

Imphed
is

in as

what might be

called a "billboard" theory of evidence. It

off

the
it,

mind stands

and reads evidence which

is

is

posted before

and then the

read evi-

assent

inevitably forthcoming.

The problem

of error then befail to

comes

that of

comprehending how anyone could

doubt that there

dence posted plainly on the billboard of reahty.

There can be
tual temptation

little

is

operative in this concep-

tion of things another instance of our succumbing to the intellec-

which Bergson has called irrevocably

to the atten-

tion

of philosophers

the

temptation of substituting a mental

scheme or image for the

reality

which we are trying to compre-

hend. Our thought has an

habitual reliance

on the imagination,

and the imagination

If
is

is

primarily a faculty of spatial representation.

spatial
is

we

try to deal

by means of

imagery with a reahty which

essentially non-spatial, difficulty

bound

to arise.

That appears

to be what happens in the case of the familiar conception of the

Existential Truth
relation

227
is

between mind and evidence as outlined above. What

is

experientially given

some kind of

distinction
itself as

between thought

and being, or thought's experience of

tive.

not in toto origina-

As soon
as

as

we
it

express this distinction, however,

as

we

fall

into

the conception of

an externalization of thought and being.

As soon

we

think any duahty,

we

represent

it,

and involved

in

this representation is the imagination.

Now

the only
is

way

in

which

the imagination can represent things as dual

as spatially outside
tation,
tilings
it

to represent

them

one another. For a faculty of

spatial represen-

is

impossible that there be two things unless these two

are external one to the other.

is

The

duality of thought

and

being

then conceived as a quasi-spatial juxtaposition of one to

the other.

AU
itself

our language about mind and evidence tends subtly to rein-

force this representation.

We

speak about the evidence "imposing"

spatial image.

on

us, conjuring

up an obviously
same
if

Even

the

seemingly inevitable tendency to speak of "knowing" analogously

to "seeing" leads to the
is is

result.

For
I

in literal seeing, the seer

spatially other

than what he sees:

am

here and the seen object

there, outside

me. Then

we

"see" evidence (and

who can
is
is
is

help talking this way?)

we

spontaneously picture the relation

between knower and evidence in a quasi-spatial manner: here

the mind, and there
is

the evidence. Again,

we

say that knowing

a confrontation of the mind with evidence. But "confronting"

also a spatial relation. Is
it

possible to escape this spatial

way

of

speaking?
the reality

If not,

what then? Are we enjoined from speaking about of knowledge altogether? No, but we are put under the

necessity of being constantly aware of the limitations of our

own

ways of speaking.
and
try to

We

will,

no doubt, go
be aware of
very
is

right
their

on using these
hidden presence

involuntary images, but

we

will

surmount them. In

fact, the

ability to recognize the

its

incongruity between image and reality

in

own way a

tran-

scending of the image.

We

are in a

much

better position after

we
be
if

have realized that knowing cannot

literally

be likened to seeing
literally

and that therefore the problem of knowledge cannot

either

posed or answered

in terms of seeing than

we would be

22
we had not adverted
to this.

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

And we

are better off even though

we

may go

on using the image. Philosophical reflection often amounts to this going beyond a distorting imagery. What we find when we thus go beyond may be relatively less communicable than what preceded it, but it is nearer to the adequation of thought
right
reality.

with

This brief excursus on the nature of evidence should be useful

as a preliminary to the present chapter, for
it

brings out

what

might be called the "unstable" structure of evidence. Paradoxically,

it

might be said that the status of evidence

existential

is

not entirely evident.

Modern

thought can be interpreted as an attempt to

exploit this realization in one important direction. It begins

on

grounds not unhke those explained above. For the juxtaposition of

mind and evidence

is

conceived, in one familiar form, as the juxtait is

position of subject and object. Knowledge,

said, consists in a

judgment which a subject makes about an

object.

Almost immediour mind

ately (through this spatializing tendency) there arises in

the conception of a subject standing off and characterizing an

object which

is

juxtaposed to his subjectivity and his thought. The

impUcation in
the

this

(which often passes unnoticed, but which

is

is all
is

more

influential for being unnoticed)

is

that subjectivity

irrelevant to truth. If the object

juxtaposed to

my

thought,

if

the

evidence
is

is

posted out there, then the only function of the subject

this object.

to

be a pure viewer of
in

pure viewer, however,

is

One

whom

all

the impediments to viewing have been

is

removed

and whose gaze

simply offers
tivity.

turned peUucidly to what he views. But the

impediments to viewing are not from the side of the object, which
itself to

view.

They

are

from the

side of

my

subjec-

Perfect knowledge would, then, consist in the reduction of

the subject to a cipher: a perfectly transparent eye opening

on a

world of objective evidence.

Something Hke
other than
object;

this is

what Edmund Husserl, the founder of

to

phenomenology, declared
ness
is its its

be the ideal of knowledge.

If

aware-

object, then

pure awareness

is

purely other

than

and phenomenology aimed at the delineation of these "essences" or evidential structures which offered themselves

Existential Truth
to the view of a subject

229
which conscientiously reduced
his

own

contribution to nullity and converted himself into a pure viewer,

or what Husserl called a "transcendental subject."^

Actually, Husserl can be regarded as simply extrapolating and

making
is

explicit

an attitude which

familiar with the shibboleth that

in

must be "objective"

common. Everyone we want to get at truth, we our inquiry; we must not let personal
is

exceedingly
if

prejudice, passion, interest, or emotion

sway our judgment, but

see things as they really are. Apparently, then, the

sees things as they really are
is

knower who

the one

who

eliminates from his

scrutiny every intruding element of subjectivity which could

mar

and

distort his
is

vision.

On

this

basis,

the knower
It

who
is

reaches

"objectivity"

the characterless cipher-subject.

should not pass

linked to

unnoticed

how

clearly this rather strange conclusion

the conception of

knowing

as viewing. If knowledge cannot be

is

adequately seen in terms of this analogy, then there

start

from the

something wrong with the reasoning which poses the question

it.

in terms of

There

is

no denying

that this conception of things has a genuine

basis in our knowledge.

tional desire to explain

We

do experience knowing as an uncondiis.

what

do not want
I

to

be trapped by
it

wishful thinking; I want to

regardless of

know

reality just as

is

in itself,

my own

wishes. Furthermore,
is

recognize this desire

as one of the things that

best and noblest in me, this desire to

say "yea"

crushes me, I want to

aspiration to leave

come what may. Even if the truth hurts, even if it know it. I experience my judgment as this
its

object untouched, to abdicate completely

before what
exactly as

is

affirmed. Unless

my

knowledge reaches the

real

it is

in itself, unless the act of judging

is

makes no

differall.

ence whatsoever to what

Cognitively,
I

judged, then

it is

not knowledge at

am

this aspiration towards pure, transcendental

subjectivity, this abnegation in the face of the evidence.

There

is

1 See Edmund Husserl, Ideas, p. 14. It is interesting to observe that ultimately Husserl's subject manages to be not such a cipher after ail, since it emerges as the constituter of the objective panorama which, as pure knower, it

beholds.

230
not the slightest doubt of
this.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

And

yet.

And

yet the question

of truth also contains the question of the origin of evidence. I

want

to submit to

what

is

there.
is

But how comes

it

that there

is

anything there? Evidence

thought. But
Cognitively,

the

way

reality

is

present to
in

my
is?
is

why

is

reality present in the

is is

way

which

it

my

judgment

an assent to the given. But

why
Even

there anything given? This

it is

a rather crucial sort of question, and

if

the sort of question which the existentiaUst will ask.

were to agree that

my

cognitional ideal

would be
there

to convert

myself into a transcendental subject for

whom

was a pure
stiU

vision of reality as evidentially present, there

would

remain

the question of what subject carries out

existing

this conversion.

As an
tranre-

human

being, I

may be

a pursuit of the ideal of pure

it.

cognitional meaning, but I

am
is

not the achievement of

The

scendental subject remains for

flection;

me

an ideal which propels

of an

my

but

my

reflection
this

the

work

existing subject.-

Furthermore,

transcendental viewing would have to be

conceived of as purely passive: a pure abnegation before what-is.

The trouble is that for a purely passive consciousness there seems no reason to think that there would be anything present at aU. The only reason that there is anything present to human consciousness
is

that,

from another standpoint,

am

not a pure

viewer, but an

acting, existing being.

is

My
me

reality as existent is the

source for the given which

there for

as

knower. First

I exist,

then

know.

AU

cognitional consciousness, then, occurs against a

pre-cognitional or extra-cognitional background. Therefore, even

if,

as knower, I

want

to affirm objective evidence (the

way

reality

is

present)

my mode

of existing has a hand in determining the

way

reality is present. Subjectivity

is

cannot be considered irrelevant

to truth, for subjectivity

not irrelevant to evidence. Thus, the

central existentialist contention

may be summed up

in this

way:

^ It
either:

would seem
1)

that the transcendental subject

must be considered as

Actually constitutive, and therefore supremely active, as a sort of absolute self. 2) Purely formal, a mere name for the structure of certain aspects present to consciousness, as vi^ith Kant, and perhaps, too, Husserl.
3) Purely ideal, the ultimate term of an ideally realized reflection.

Existential Truth

231
reality is a function of his

man's ultimate verdict on

existing
as

manner

of

human

being,

and hence of

his

subjectivity

and

freedom.
This
thesis,

while radical enough,

first
is

is

not as foreign to traditional

for one, has always

thought as might at
held that the
the knower,
this

appear.

The Thomist,

known
It

in the

knower according

to the

manner of
is

and he might incorporate the

existentialist thesis into

framework.

has always been recognized that knowing

total act,

but the insight usually does not go

much beyond

recog-

nizing the sensory-intellectual composition of knowledge.

tentialist

may be
is

taken to be extending the insight to

knower's whole

mode

of existing

is

contributory

The exismean that the to the way in

comes

which

reality

present to him.

Traditional philosophy

closest to this

view in

its

notion of "connatural knowledge,"

afiinity

knowledge which involves an

of the

knower

to the thing
is

known:

thus, the

good man's knowledge of what

sensitivity to

right

may

proceed simply from his

moral value, and yet be as

dependable in

its

ceptual evaluations.

own way as the ethician's theoretical and conFrom yet another standpoint, the existentialist
the metaphysical
is,

may be taken as treating with ultimate seriousness maxim that "agere sequitur esse," ("as a being
for

so

it

acts");

what he

stresses

is

that "as a being

is,

so

it

knows." Knowl-

edge, as the act of an existing subject cannot occur in abstraction

from the existence of that

subject.^

KIERKEGAARD AND SUBJECTIVITY

We may
first

first

consider this insight in the presentation of

in

it

given

by Soren Kierkegaard,

whom

the

modern
is
it

existentialist

temper

appears.^ Kierkegaard's position

probably best orchestrated

around the central theme of what

3

means

to

be an "existing

A
is

33,
it

very

remark of Pierre Rousselot, The Intellectualism of Saint Thomas, p. much to the point here: "So little is knowledge indivisible that
it

varies necessarily with the nature of the thinking subject."

*

"Existentialism,"

may

be noted,

is

new name

for a fairly old philo-

sophical attitude, going back to Pascal,

to Socrates

St.

Augustine, and, in

many

ways,

and Plato.

232
reason."

The Philosophy of Knowledge

The development
of reality as

of this theme by Kierkegaard resulted

from
static

his violent reaction to the rationalism of Hegel.^

Hegel had

conceived

through and through rational: logic was the

form of

rationality,

and history

its

dynamic unfolding.

Time and
rationality in

history are, then, the outward manifestations of a

which human thought

system,
since
to

also participates.
is

The

sign of
as

rationahty

is

understand

to

see

things

articulated wholes. Then, man's reason progresses towards explicit

understanding in so far as

it

progresses towards a comprehensive

felt

conceptual system. Kierkegaard seems to have

that

Hegel reis,

garded

this

conceptual adequacy as

self -enforcing:

that
its

given

the rationality of a system of concepts, the assent to

truth

would

be automatically forthcoming.
or

Human

reason was simply a phase

moment

in the coming-to-explicit-rationaUty of the

Absolute

Idea and hence for

man

to

form adequate concepts was the same

were two truths which Hegel

thing as afl&rming their application to reaUty. That the Absolute

exists

and has entered

into history

thought could be validated simply by exhibiting the fact that an

adequately rational system incorporated them.

Against

this

optimism, Kierkegaard championed the view that

conceptual adequacy would never be enough to enforce assent in

man.

Man

is

not just reason, he

is

existing reason.^ His existence

inserts a

estranges

wedge between his thought and the Idea, His existence him from reason; at least, it means he is not just reason.
is

His existing through time

abstraction,
it

not just a stretching out of a timeless

is

an irreducibly unique dimension. One idea

may

"necessarily" imply another; two premises

may

"necessarily" imply

a conclusion; but no ideas and no premises necessarily imply man's

automatic assent. There
is

a gap between existence and reason.

is

Reason cannot close

5

this

gap because reason

always the reason

At

least

we may speak

of the rationalism of Kierkegaard's Hegel, a

version of the master which

6

Hegelians would not recognize. Kierkegaard Anthology, edit, by Robert Bretall (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 1947, pp. 201-207. This passage is from Concluding Unscientific Postscript. All references to Kierkegaard will be

many

On

this, see

to this convenient edition.

Existential Truth

233

of an existing being.

Man

is

not a syllogism, nor a

moment

in a

self-articulating system.

There can be a system of abstractions, but

no system of existence. Man exists, and his existence him in an extra-conceptual order where the validities of concepts are not decisive. Only abstractions are airtight, but abstractions do not apply to existence and to the thought which
there
is

places

thinks existence.

As an

existent I

am

not the embodiment of an

abstraction or of a reasoning process. Therefore,

when

try to

think existence, no conceptual process can be automatically vali-

dating for me.

Kierkegaard considered Socrates to be an exemplary representative of this insight,

and the doctrine of reminiscence

its

to

be his

expression of

it.^

For, stripped of

mythical accoutrements, what

is

the doctrine of reminiscence signifies

that

man

both does and

does not belong to the truth.

He

is

existing reason.
is

As

reason, he

participates in the truth; as existing, he

If

separated from the truth.

if

he were totally estranged from the truth,

it,

he were in no sense
it; if

already attached to

he would not even be able to seek

it,

he
it.

were

totally coincident with

he would have no need to seek

it,

Furthermore, when he does seek

when he does

strive

to

assimilate into his existence the intelligibility

which he "remem-

bers," he never succeeds in achieving a perfect coincidence with

that intelligibility. His philosophical inquiry cannot be conceived

as a search for self-validating arguments.

We

may, building upon

Kierkegaard, illustrate this by means of Socrates' arguments for

the immortality of the soul, as given in the Phaedo.

Not even

to

Socrates do these arguments have the character of self-enforcing

processes; there
is

always something

left

over,

some gap between

evidence and assent. But Socrates

his

fills

in this

gap from the side of were part of

is

own

existence.

He

does not feel the "objective uncertainty" as

It is

a factor against the arguments.

almost as

if it

the evidence, an intimation of the abyss of existence which

the

source for our hope of immortality. These arguments for the

'^

Ibid., pp.

also pp.

155-157. This passage is from Philosophical Fragments. Cf. 210-217 {Concluding Unscientific Postscript)

234

The Philosophy of Knowledge

immortality of the soul are not processes which could be given to

an abstract thinker, for the evidence upon which they

function of the exigence or
for

rest

is

demand

of the existing consciousness

whom

they arise. Socrates'

own

hopeful confidence has a hand

is

in constituting the evidence

upon

the basis of which he

able to

say "yea" to these arguments.

Actually there
is

no argument

for immortality

which could be

constructed in such a

way

that the subjectivity of the arguer

is

would
not

not be implicated. For this argument

spoken directly to the

is

existing subject. His assent to the "immortality of the soul"

detachable from the afl&rmation "Yea, / will live forever."

The

argument for immortality

spirit abstractly,

is

a translation into cognitional terms of

the experience of oneself as spirit.

A man
is

cannot afl&rm himself as

but only as a

free, singular subject.

What

Socrates

attempts to do in these arguments

rationale of his Socrates, or for

to bring before his eyes the

whole

life,

the rationale of his existence.

Only

for

one who

lives as Socrates,

do these proofs contain

is

"evidence." Only because, as existent, his Ufe

pervaded by a

transcendent appeal, can he give cognitive expression to the evi-

dence for immortality.

One who

lived his life otherwise

would have

no

such "evidence" available to him.

A man

at Kierkegaard's so-

called "aesthetic" stage of existence,

whose

life

was dissipated into

a series of transitory sensations, would not be able to see the

evidence requisite for these arguments. For the element of depth

which characterized Socrates' existence

is

a component of the
It is

evidence which was there for his knowledge.

implicated in

the "given" which reflection discovers. It therefore cuts across the

simplistic

dichotomy between subject and object in knowledge.

This evidence

may be an
is

unqualified revelation of reality, but

it is

a revelation which a neutral observer.

only there for an existing subject and not for

Kierkegaard himself

may be

accused of slighting the truly cog-

nitional character of this kind of revelation

and of
will call

treating
it

it

too

much hke

"faith" in the stricter sense.

We

"existential

Existential Truth
truth," truth
definition
is

235
is

m which my own existence

that "truth
is

involved,^ Kierkegaard's
fast in

an objective uncertainty held

an

appropriation-process of the most passionate inwardness."^ Truth

is

the objective, conceptual inadequacy taken

the lived yea of

dition
is

my

existence. It

up and sustained by must be emphasized that this conif

not a defect of

to

aim to eliminate

my

knowledge which we somehow ought

reaUy would be better
this truth

as

if it

could be estabhshed in a more abstract way, and

a noble effort to manage
it.

we should make
is

The
is

point

is

that this truth

spoken

to existence and that there just

no way

to establish

it

or even to

express

it

abstractly.
is

The

role of subjectivity

not an unfortunate factual state of

is

affairs. It is essential.

certain kind of intelUgibility

only availto

able through subjectivity.

To

eliminate subjectivity
will

would be
spirit as

eliminate the intelligibility.

We

soon provide more examples,

the

but for the present

we may adduce

meaning of

one

category of freedom and subjectivity, only meaningful in so far as

it

incorporates these.

Secondly,

it

should be quite clear that what Kierkegaard has in

every three weeks," "Columis

mind

is

applicable to a certain sort of truth only. Statements Uke

in the

"200,000 radios are sold

shoelace

U.

S.

bus discovered America in 1492," "It

is

raining out,"
status.
this

"Your
Kierkesort of

untied," surely

do not have the same

gaard naturally would make a distinction between

merely factual truth and philosophical

truth. Philosophical truth is

not simply a characterization of some item within

but a characterization of the meaning and value

itself:
it

is

the affirmation of the transcendent

as such
it

my experience, of my experience dimension of my

existence,

and

can only be made by the existence which

formula "Truth
subjectivity"

experiences
Thirdly,
8

itself as

thus transcendent.
is

it

may

strike us that the

calls
it

Although he himself

"essential truth," a bit of

nomenclature

puzzling to
^

modern

ears.

Op.

cit., p.

214. {Concluding Unscientific Postscript).

236
could be carried
incorporated into
I
still

The Philosophy
further. If certain truths

of

Knowledge

emerge by being

my

existence, then

it

may

not be amiss to say

am

these truths.

We may

then distinguish in the fashion of

I

Gabriel Marcel between truths which I have and truths which

am.

It is to

Marcel that we

will next turn for a further

exphcation

of the notion of existential truth.

MARCEL: PROBLEM AND MYSTERY

Marcel's thought does not in any sense derive from Kierkegaard's,

and therefore any

similarities

between them should not

if

be put down to a genealogical relation;

indicate that there
is

anything, they serve to

something authentic in the thought of each.

Marcel's views are most profitably explored from the standpoint

of his already classical distinction between a "problem" and a

"mystery," a distinction peculiarly well suited to epistemological

presentation. ^

The
all

differences

between problem and mystery are manifold, but

have their root in Marcel's view of the type of datum to which

is

each question
in respect to

directed.

A problem
is

is

an inquiry which

is

initiated

an "object,"

in Marcel's semi-technical use of that

term. Etymologically, an ob-ject

something which

is

thrown in

front of me, something which I encounter as external to

me and

over against me. In an objective situation,

object
that I
is

am

here and the

there,

complete and open for inspection. For the reason

to myself

meet the object as juxtaposed

is

and

as not involving

!<*

Grateful acknowledgment
III

made

to

Fordham

University Press for

permission to reprint the following several pages which comprise part of

Chapter

Fordham
Press),

of the author's The Philosophy of Gabriel Marcel (New York: University Press), 1962. For Marcel's scattered treatment of this

by Katherine Farrer (Boston: Beacon The Mystery of Being, vol. I, p. 204ss.; and the entire text of the essay "On the Ontological Mystery," published in The Philosophy of Existentialism (New York: Citadel Press),
subject, see

Being and Having,

lOOss.,

trans,

1951, p.

117ss.,

126ss.;

1961.

Existential Truth

237
it

myself, I can envelop

ates
its limits.

in a clear

and

distinct idea

which deline-

With

this clarity

comes perfect

transmittability,

and

with the transmittability the object begins to lead that public and

independent

life

which

is

the privilege of the world of the "probfail

lematic." Marcel does not

that the

to notice the peculiar coincidence

Greek
is

roots of the

word "problem"

are perfectly coris

respondent to the Latin roots of "object": a pro-blema

thing which
the way.

some-

thrown

in

my

path, something which

is

met along
in respect

A
to

problem, then,

is

an inquiry which
self

is

set

on foot

an object which the

apprehends in an exterior way. Such

would be a problem
in fixing

in algebra, or the

problem a mechanic faces

an automobile. The engine and the

man
from

are

two quite

isolable entities; the engine is

something complete and entire outliterally inspect

all

side of him,

which he may

sides.

Not

every object, naturally, presents a spatial externality of

this sort,

but the problematic datum

verted, as
it

is

always regarded as juxtaposed, con-

were, into a possessed thing. Thus, the attempt to

solve the equation 2x-

3x

2 would be a problematic inquiry

spatial.

even though the elements are essentially mental rather than

The point

is

that the data as presented

I

conceiving the numbers,

do not conceive myself:

posed

do not include myself; in I retreat from

in front of

them and regard them

intently as

me. The area

of the problematic covers a wide range of

human

knowledge. The

mechanic and the mathematician may stand, perhaps, as types of the domination of nature which the problematic knowledge of
science

makes

possible. Science

embodies the ultimate achievement

the theorists of cybernetics to the

of problematic knowledge.

From

researcher pursuing the links between cigarette-smoking and cancer, science is

uniformly the application of the mind to an object

sense of this word. But
it

in Marcel's

strict

is

not only science

which

fulfills

the notion of a problem.

class,

A
all

bored student doing a

are engaged

crossword puzzle in

a reader frowning over a "whodunit," a

file,

clerk consulting an orderly ofiice

solving

238
can effectively

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
I

problems. In each case, the data of the questions are such that

divorce myself from them and concentrate upon

them

as manipulable external objects.

mystery, on the other hand,

is

a question in which what

self.

is

given cannot be regarded as detached from the

There are

data which in their very nature cannot be set over against myself,
for the reason that as data they involve myself. If I ask

"What

is

being?" can I regard being as an object which

is

thrown across
me.
it

my

path? No, for being, as datum, includes me; in order to conit

ceive being as a datum, I must conceive

as including

cannot get outside of being in order to ask questions about

a purely external way.

in

The attempt

to isolate

what

is

before

me
is

from what

is

in

me

breaks

down

completely here. Being, then,

If I

not a problem at

all,

but a mystery.
all

decide to treat
it

it

as a

problem, to stand on

fours with

it

and approach

as just

one

more manipulatable
question.

object, I
is

no longer have hold of

which
I

my

original

mystery

a question in

am

caught up. In the

is

area of the problematic, the status of the questioner

completely

prescinded from, and only the object

I

is

called into question.

But

if

ask

"What

is

being?" the question recoils upon

I

my own
17

status as

a questioner.

Who am

who

question being?

Am

At

this point

the "problem" of being impinges

its

upon

the intrinsic conditions of

and becomes the mystery of being. For the condition of a problematic research is that the subject wear the regaha of unquestionability, and it is only this privilege which quahfies him to render the object totally intelligible. But to ques-

own

possibility

tion being
at

is

to question myself as questioner.

like to direct questions
is

That

is,

this

"being"

which

would

not an object given to

uncertainty outward;

a non-obscure subject which

may

direct all

its

for here, in questioning the object I call myself into question.

Being

is

not an object

can inspect from aU

I

sides. If I

were to

have a clear and distinct notion of being,

would be completely

an object for myself (since being envelops me, and in order to objectify being I would have to objectify myself). But I cannot
objectify myself; I cannot observe myself

from the

outside.

The

Existential Truth

239
I?"
is

question

"What am

another example of a mystery.

do not

even know for sure what the question means

say that as a problem
it

and here we can

encroaches upon

its

supposed data. In the

case of a true problem, the elements are clearly given; so that I

may

use them to proceed to the unknown. In a problematic situa-

tion there are always traceable analogies of the splendidly lucid

conditions of geometry, "given" and "to find." For instance, in a

crossword puzzle: given, the dictionary meaning of valley; to

a four-letter

find,

word which

equivalently

conveys

it.

Or,

in

the

mechanical problem: given, the known functions of the various

parts of the engine; to find, which has broken

down. But

in a

mystery the given

itself is

not clear and distmct. Thus, the "I"

which causes

me

to tremble

when

I call it into

question contains

no element exempt from the mystery which wraps the whole; there is in it no small segment framed within defined limits and exhaustively

known,

to serve as an opening

wedge from which

to launch

an encircling ratiocination.
Therefore not every reality can be the target of a purely problematic inquiry. Wherever I deal with something which encompasses the
self, I

may
it

never hope to keep contact with

if it

its

authentic

nature

if I

treat
this,

as

does not involve the

is

self.

The supreme

example of

of course,

the mystery of being. I

all

am

a mystery

to myself in so far as I

am;

things are mysterious in so far as

they are. Only what

is

not being

being

or what

is

not encountered as

is

not mysterious. The only thought which does not run

full tilt into

mystery
itself

is

deontologized thought, thought which, by

its

immunizing
operation

against the opacity at

own

center, succeeds
its

in conferring the
is

same kind of immunity upon

object. This

quite possible, even desirable, in vast areas of

human

knowledge.

But there are certain

realities

which

in the nature of things are

not amenable to this sealing-off process; because what they are involves the self in all its singularity, I cannot prescind from that
singularity

when

conceive them.

We

have seen that the question

of being

and

the question of the self are examples of this, but

we

240
may mention
others.

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

My

body

in so far as

it is

mine cannot be

adequately rendered in problematic categories; the body which the

physiologist studies
server, but the
ner.
is

an objective structure available for an ob-

body

as

mine simply
as

is

not accessible in this

is

manand

In fact,

my
if I

situation

a whole

non-objectifiable

refuses to be reduced to a problem. I cannot pass judgment

on
as

the world as

am

a spectator; every judgment

on the world
it

a whole

is

passed on

my

world since

qualify

through

my
evil
it

participation.

Again, suffering and evil only are what they are

inasmuch

as they involve

me; looked

at

from the outside,

seems the mere malfunctioning of a mechanism

is

that

is

to say,

not seen

as evil at all.

So too with love and with knowledge.

We

will see at greater length in the next chapter that the co-

presence of love cannot be regarded as the juxtaposition of two

"objects." In effect,

we have
is

already seen in the refutation of

if

scepticism that knowledge

a mystery:

ask "what

is

knowl-

edge?"

can in no sense get outside

it

my own knowing
I
it

in order to

describe

in

an exterior way. The act through which

in order to study
is

would

like

to objectify

knowledge
it

already an act of

knowledge. So
questions.

is,

apparently, with most truly philosophical

non-objectifiable data, realities which
it is

They bear on
under

forever impossible to externalize. Freedom, time, space, sensation

all

seem

to fall

this classification.

The second
from the
diligence
first.

characteristic of

a problem derives immediately

solution.

problem admits of a
the

By

use of the

proper techniques, a "period" can be put to our inquiries. With

(expended

at

proper hourly compensation)

his finger

the

mechanic wiU eventually put

on the
is

defective part of

the engine and declare confidently:

the algebraic problem, the inquirer

"There

your trouble." In

may, by

suitable manipulations,

reach the ready conclusion that x

is

2.

At

that point, the

problem

finished, over

and done with. Final

is

results

have been attained

and further thought

is

unnecessary.

The

possibility of a solution

directly linked to the objectified nature of the

datum; because
solvabihty

the

datum

is

isolable,

it

is

subject to being circumscribed and

skill. Its
is

dissected by one

who

has the necessary

not

Existential Truth

241
it is

what makes

it

a problem; but because

it is

a problem,

it is

solvable.
it

And

because

a problem, the notion of a "result" applies to

in the strictest sense.

relative

The notion

of a "technique"
result,

is strictly coris

to

this

kind of definitive

and that

why

the

problematic can provide the arena for the "expert," the

man who

"knows-how," who has mastery of a

style of techniques fitted to

wrest results from objects which he has at his mental disposal.

the region of mystery.

But the notion of a "result" cannot be applied in this sense to Here it is not possible to reach the point
I

where
being?
lessly

can say "That

is

is

done with," the point

is

at

which further

thought

unnecessary. There
is

no Q.E.D.

in a mystery.

What

is

What

freedom? What

is

the self? These questions ceasein

is

renew themselves. They are not susceptible of a solution

a sense univocal with that of a problem.

On

the contrary, there

the prevailing impression of an inexhaustible profundity, of depths

which no amount of thought can ever fathom. The best that we

can do
is

to locate ourselves within the mystery, but this

can

hardly be said to constitute a solution.

The

third characteristic of a
is

problem

is

based upon the fact that

it is

an object

conceived of as indifferent to me;

is

simply there

"for anyone." Because this

so,

it

follows that the self as con-

scious of an object is just anyone an anonymous impersonal mind for which any other mind might just as well be substituted. The object is what is thrown in front of a purely logico-sensory subject. As a logico-sensory subject I am perfectly "interchange-

able" with anyone else:

share the neutrality of the object

itself.

But since the mystery involves

prescind from that
self in

my

singular
it.

self,

then

cannot
I

pursuing

The datum about which

raise the question includes

my

singularity,

and hence the process

singularity.

by which

explore the datum includes

my

TRANSCENDENCE AND "PROOF"

Now
its

the repercussions of Marcel's distinction are manifold, but

significance for epistemology can be appreciated

by concen-

trating

on

its

consequences for the notion of "evidence."

We

have

242
seen that as this notion
is

The Philosophy
usually presented
it

of

Knowledge

presumes some kind

however, there
is

of dichotomy between subject and object.

If,

a
in

kind of evidence which transcends

fact only available in so far as this

this

dichotomy, which
is

is

dichotomy

transcended, the

consequences are drastic indeed.

No

longer can

we

visuahze the

knower

as

an autonomous subject "in the face of" or merely

evaluating evidence.

The knower

of mystery
is

is

not a spectator

but a participator: some evidence

only available to the particiI

pant and not to the neutral observer. As existing subject,

essentially being-by-participation. I
tion,

am

am founded by
credentials.

this participa-

and
I

have no priority to the participation in terms of

it

which
is

can require

to present

its

The

participation
is

the foundation for

my

subjectivity;
is

my

knowledge
in

posterior

to participation. Therefore, there

no way

which

my

knowlthe

edge can evaluate the participation in a purely exterior way, since

it

is

not available for inspection in this way.

still

If

evidence

is

ground of cognition,
recover
thought.

participation

is

the ground of evidence.

is

In the region of mystery what

my

thought does

to try to

and express

participation

which
this

is

there

prior

to

The thought which attempts

to the participation

expression must do so

by returning
word.
It

itself.

This means that

we

are

not dealing with a "proof" in the ordinary connotation of that

means

that the sort of "proof"

which

is

typical in the

area of problem cannot be transferred to the region of mystery

and so cannot be regarded as the norm for

strate."

all

reasoning. In a

problem we can demonstrate; in a mystery we can only "mon-

typical

example of

this

has already been cited in the

case of Socrates' arguments for the immortality of the soul.

To

"prove" the immortality of the soul does not consist in demonstrating that a certain property belongs to
it

one

class of "object"

consists in shovv^ing or "monstrating" that a certain

mode

of

existing opens

beyond the phenomenal. That

this is true

can only

be comprehended by a knower

who

inhabits this

mode

of existing.

An

even more obvious example

is

the question of the existence

of God.

The

traditional attempts to

prove the existence of

God

Existential Truth

243
from proofs
is

do not
sible is

sufficiently distinguish proofs in this area

in

the area of problem.

realm of inquiry in which despair

last

pos-

a realm in which the

word does not belong

is

to argu-

mentation. I cannot raise questions about the existence of

as
if

God

God were an

"object," for

He

supremely non-objectifiable.

He
If

is

not out there, external to me, juxtaposed to

my

existence.

my

thought poses the question of

God
own

as

if

God were

another

"something"
aroused,
this
it

about

whose

existence
its

my

curiosity

has

been
I raise
It is

has already guaranteed

futility.

Nor can

question as a mere spectator or an anonymous subject.

not a matter of mere curiosity for

It is

me

whether

God
I

exists or not.

a matter of concern.

If it isn't,

then obviously

am

not even

raising the question at

all.

cannot engage in theodicy in the

mood

of the geometer or grammarian, for then I

all.

am

not engaging

in theodicy at

The question

of the existence of
is

God

is

raised

only in function of

an exigence which

felt

by the

subject,^'^

No

one who does not feel this What about the "proof" for
is

exigence can be a metaphysician.

the existence of

God? What

the

proof does
bility

to raise to the level of self-recognition an intelligiis

which
is

already contained in the exigence. For the exi-

gence

a form of participation. Man's longing for

God

is

not

epistemologically irrelevant, but uniquely and irreducibly evidential.

Nor should we
is

only visuahze this as the stipulation that the

evidence

"there" independent of this exigence, but that

it.

we

require the exigence in order to see

This puts the exigence

on the

side of a prerequisite "subjective disposition," while pre-

serving the "objective" evidence intact

thus reintroducing the

is

schema of a dichotomy between subject and object which

basic difficulty.

the

The

point

is

rather that the exigence

is

in

no

sense external to the evidence.

The evidence

for the existence of

God

is

there only for an apprehending self and the

is

mode

of exist-

ing of this self

a component of

this evidence.

see Gabriel Marcel, The Mystery of by Rene Hague, pp. 33-51; and on the question of a "proof" for the existence of God, see Being and Having, pp. 121, 124-125. the

" On

ontological exigence,

Being, vol.

II, trans,

244
Sometimes the impression
to the existence of
is

The Philosophy of Knowledge

given that

we

argue syllogistically

function in

God; but obviously the notion of being cannot the same way in a syllogism as can a limited concept:
stated,
it

Thomistically
everything,

is

transcendental

idea

(it

includes

and every difference between every thing) and hence

is

spans the distinction between subject and predicate, and

ent in
all

pres-

terms of the syllogism. But not only that, the genuine

notion of being also spans the dichotomy between subject and

object.

way.

If I

Hence its meaning is not available in a purely objectified want to know what I mean by being, I cannot prescind
subjectivity, for then I

from

my own

have a pseudo-notion, "be-

ing as object."

On

the basis of this pseudo-notion,

no argument
such a gen-

for the existence of

God

is

possible.

Only a genuine notion of

being will provide the approach to

uine notion must include
It

this proof.

And

my own

existence.

would be perfectly possible

for

me

to fulfil all the require-

ments of a phenomenal community of knowing subjects without

encountering the evidence for an authentic notion of being.

As

member

of such a

community,

require merely orderly sense

I

perception and the apparatus of logical thought;

"rationality" in the ordinary sense without this
ical

could not claim

endowment. But loga subject characis

thought as such does not provide

is

me

with the genuine notion

of being. Logical thought

terizes

the
is

mode by which

an object. But being

for a

not an object. That

why

it is

easy

enough
fail to

give

knower who is "rational" in the ordinary sense to meaning to the arguments for or assertions of God's
is

existence. Ordinary "rationality"

a social property.

It

does not

of

itself

reveal to us the trans-temporal abyss contained in the

notion of being. Rather the opposite.

One who

is

accustomed

to

have

his

attention

turned in the direction of the phenomenal

serviceabiUty of thought will treat as simply vacuous any thought

which cannot
identified

justify itself in these terms.

The
is

real then

becomes
in

with the publicly verifiable. This

what happens

the case of the logical positivists, for

whom

any question of a
verifiable
is

"truth" which surpasses the

phenomenal and

simply

Existential Truth

245
existence of
this

meaningless.

The

God (among

other things) surely

cannot be verified in

manner, and hence the assertion of

affirmation that there

God's existence becomes meaningless.

Now how

do we

rise to the

is

such a

thing as truth

beyond the

verifiable? It

must be by contact with

the potentially infinite intelligibility contained in the notion of

being. This intelligibihty, however,
is

available only as including

me

in

my

unique singularity.

notion of being which leaves out

out,^^ deteriorate into

subjectivity will, as de

Finance has pointed

a pure Kantian form, an empty concept, which could never serve

as a point of departure for

an argument for God.

When Marcel and

way, that "theodicy
is

others say, in a deliberately inflammatory

atheism,"^^ they

mean

that

by not

differen-

mode philosophy may

tiating its

of approach from ordinary scientific knowledge,

treat

God

as a "something" alongside of other

somethings, a special kind of object for thought.

for the oft-quoted remark:

That

is

the basis

about
to

God

that

we
is

speak."

him

as absent, a "third
third.

"When we speak about God, it is not To speak about someone is to refer person," an "it." But God is not an
true

absent
lute

He

absolute presence, or, as Marcel says, Absois

Thou.^* Whatever

of the infinite being,

it

clearly

could not be correct to represent

plenitude of being includes me.

Him
it

as outside the finite.

The

Therefore, the thought which

as
it

seeks

the

infinite

cannot approach
alongside

approaches things
things.

which are

"somethings"

of

other

And

the

knower who
the

affirms the infinite cannot be

an anonymous

epistecalls

mological subject, but a unique singular

"ontological
is

self.

What Marcel

exigence,"

the

yearning for the plenitude of

being,

the ultimate face which participation presents to

my

thought.
into

My

"proof" of

God

is

my

translation of this experience

This insight as to the cognitive import of the exigence for being is, of course, fundamentally Augustinian and
language.
12 13

Op. cit., p. 167-168. Metaphysical Journal,

p. 64.

1*

Du

refus a I'invocation, p. 53.

246
Pascalian in character.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

We

have only to
will

recall Augustine's cry

I

"Show me one who

longs,

and he

understand what

mean,"

and the revelatory use which Pascal

made

of man's experience

of himself as an "infinite lack." It even goes back to Plato, for

whom
upward

the philosopher's quest

rising of the

whole

self,

was an elan to the absolute, an in which his need and poverty

were the dynamic principles of discovery.

FREE CERTITUDE
For some, the approach of Kierkegaard and Marcel will seem to be the substitution of an arbitrary emotionahsm for intelligibility,

a kind of usurpation by wishful thinking of the proper

place of reason.

On
is

the surface

it

may sound
the

like this,
it

and we
of
the

must always be on our guard against reducing

However,
criterion

to this in fact.

what

involved

is

precisely

question

for intelligibility.

Marcel does not regard mystery as

It is hyper-intelligible.
is

confused or unintelligible.

Participation

is

a source of meaning; mystery

participation.

the light which issues from

We

have so far spoken mostly of the mystery of

being,

but this

may be

particularized

further.

What

of

such

experiences as love, hope, admiration, despair, fideUty?

cognitive revelations?

Are they

The

logical

positivist,

and many others,

would

treat these as

merely psychologically significant and dis-

miss their role as revelation of reahty. But to do so presupposes

that they have a

norm

exterior to the experiences,

by which

to

measure the meaning of the experiences

and

this

can be denied.

Hope
hoper.

reveals something of the ultimate nature of

man

but only

to the hoper, or to one

whose thought
is

inhabits the realm of the

The

truth here discovered

a truth which a certain kind

of thought will refuse to acknowledge. Yet the issue always comes

back to whether
question.

this refusal

can be

justified

without begging the

The

objection

may be

raised that

if

mystery

is

not demononly an iUu-

strable that the

"knowledge" here gathered

may be

Existential Truth
sion.

247
is

Marcel's answer

indubitable

but only

that the metaproblematic

is

given as
in

to the participant.^^

There
its

is

no point

asking

it

to justify itself

by standards other than

to

own. Actually

any such process would turn out

asserts that nothing but
justification for hoping,

be regressive, since the stand-

ards would in turn require justification ad infinitum. If Marcel

hope can be the source of the cognitive

he
is

not taking such an extraordinary

intelligibihty is
its

position as might appear.

AU

own

justification;

he

is

only asserting that the sources of

realize. It

intelligibility

are

more

widespread than we usually

should be added that the

"knowledge" which
experiences
is

is

generated in the return of thought to these

not a securely possessed and transmittable theorem

it

of

some kind:

is

never something

have

at

my

disposal. It

is

something that

am

rather than something that I have.

The cog-

nitive value of love or

hope

is

sustained by a creative re-attachit

ment
ence.

of myself to these experiences. Since

it

does not bear on an

external datum,

shares the elusive character of

my own

exist-

Finally

we must

note that since the unique, singular subject

is

is

involved in the recognition of mystery, then freedom

involved.
self.

This
If

is

an extraordinary point. The singular

self is

a free

some evidence is only revealed to me as a singular being, then some evidence is only there for my freedom. Often the "evidence" is thought to be something which imposes itself on me
whether
I like it

or not.

It is as if I

am

hit

over the head by the

if

evidence and have no choice but to submit. But

Kierkegaard

and Marcel are

function of

right,

there

is is

one

sort of evidence

which

is

my

freedom. This
tells

not meant in an arbitrary sense,

is

of course. Marcel
neither
tic.^*^

us that in certain areas the subject

this

autonomous nor heteronomous;

is

division
it

is

simplis-

The evidence

indubitably there

but

is

there as ap-

peal.^^ It is sustained as there

15

by

my

response.

Being and Having,

173-174.
a.

p. 114.

16 Ibid., pp.
^"^

Du

refus

I'invocation, pp. 87-88.

248
To
designate this state of affairs,
starthng

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

we may employ

the

somewhat
is

term

"free

certitude."

StartHng,

because

certitude

often thought to be necessitated or else not really certitude. But

this

may

easily

be a consequence of the spatial schema which

we
is

usually frame for ourselves.

ligible

What Marcel

holds

is

that the intel-

evidence contained in the experiences of hope or joy

truly there, but not there for

an impersonal observer, a merely

self.

logico-sensory subject, but only for a singular

there for freedom. It
Shall
is

Then

it is

only

indubitably there

for

one who responds.

we

call this

"knowledge?"
to reality?

openness of thought

Why not, if knowledge is the Why not, if there is no other way

is

for this type of evidence to be present?

A
this

question which immediately ensues

as

to the range of

kind of "certitude," since Marcel's

own

explorations by no

means exhaust the wealth of revelations possible in the area of mystery. The full examination of the answer to this question is quite beyond the scope of this book, but the area most clearly indicated is in moral and aesthetic experience, which will be
briefly dealt with.

What Marcel's conception of mystery down to is that there is that in human

which
only

as

"knowledge" comes

experience in virtue of

man can
a

affirm himself as trans-phenomenal,

Man

is

not
In
this

being-in-a-situation,

but

being-beyond-a-situation.

fact the great philosophical questions

can be brought back to

one question: how does man affirm himself as a being-beyondhis-situation? Marcel's central point (and it is not unhke that of other existentiahsts) is that this affirmation cannot be made by
a

mere

subject-in-general.

perience cannot present

itself

The transcendent value of human exto a mere logico-sensory subject.

all

Thus, the issues of God, freedom, and immortahty, and

the

other questions they bring in their train, cannot be raised or

settled

a different countenance to this kind of

by an impersonal knower. Reality as evidential presents knower than to a knower

who

thinks out of the ontological exigence. This exigence, there-

fore, functions as a kind of

"bhnded

intuition" of plenitude

which

Existential Truth
is

249
not an object of vision but a principle of vision.
liken
is
it

a source of illumination and therefore a source of evidence.^^

is

This intuition

For the sake of explanation, we may

intuition" of the artist.
exists

to the "creative

The

artist's
its

idea

not something which

It

ready-made and pre-dates

is

embodiment.

comes
sits

to

be
to

in the artistic process. This

a strange and paradoxical truth,

the poet or artist

but

a'

truth nonetheless.

When

down

write or paint, he does not already have in his possession a

com-

pleted idea which he then simply transfers to paper.

first

He

does not

invent his idea and then

it.

embody
is
it

it:

he invents

it

by embody-

ing

Yet the strange thing

already

that his obscure intuition actually

guides the process in which

comes

into full being.

The poet may not

know
is

his idea prior to writing,

but

as he goes along he eliminates passages

which do not adequately

express this idea. Thus, he

judging his work relentlessly in

the light of an idea which does not even exist until the
reveals
print
itself.
it

work

to him.
is

The

creative idea

is

not like a recipe or blueit

which
It is

mechanically followed:

comes

to

be in the work
it

like a light

shed on the work from which

Marcel,

is

then

read back. Just

so, thinks

man

has a creative intuition

of being (of plenitude, of the transcendent dimensions of his

existence)
:

own

this

is

not an object of vision, but a hidden light

which

is

shed upon experience and then read back out of experiis

ence. Experience

the revelation of man, but

it is

also the revela-

tion of the transcendent to

Again, however,
sion, the
intuition.

if

which human existence opens. we ask which subject can affirm this dimenpresent to

answer must be the subject which belongs to the creative

The transcendent

is

human
is
is

experience preartist's

cisely as appeal. Just so, the artistic idea

present to the

consciousness as an appeal by which he

haunted: he can only

affirm the existence of the appeal freely, in so far as he responds

to

it.

He

could not, as pure sensory consciousness or impersonal

intellectual
is

knower, assure himself that his consciousness conand Having,

p. 118,

On

the "blinded intuition," see Being

I,

Mystery of

Being, vol.

p. 13.

250
tained this appeal: the only subject
the one which responds to
it.

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

who can

afl5rm the appeal is

is

This realm of subjectivity

called
it.

forth by the appeal and does not exist in separation

from

Here, too, participation founds subjectivity: the subjectivity of

the artist
is

not an autonomous ego, but exists only in the appeal

aesthetic process. Just so, the only thought
in

and response of the

which can affirm a transcendent dimension

man's existence

is

one which participates in that transcendence.

11 INTERSUBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE

"OTHER MINDS"
The
epistemological problem of the existence of other selves
is
is

both easier and harder to solve than

the

more general problem

is

of the existence of "objects" other than ourselves. It

at

once

apparent that our conviction that there are other selves asserts
considerably

more than does

the

mere conviction of an
exist,

objective

world in general. For in asserting that other selves

not merely asserting that objects
exist.

exist,

we

are

but that other subjects

at first experience in

When
is,

speaking of objects

we do not

any urgent way

an object

the need to conceive the "inside" of these objects;

all

so to speak,

"outside." This

is

especially true in

the case of an inanimate thing like a stone or a mountain;

we

do not proceed by conceiving

selves" in the

these things as there "for themis.^

way

a conscious subject

But the

assertion that

other selves exist does immediately entail the belief that there
is

more

to certain entities than the corporeal front

which they

present to perception. This being sitting across from

me on

the

subway

train

is

not only a rather complicated kind of bodily

object; he

is also, I

am

sure, a subject.

Maybe

am

only observ-

ing his "outside," his bodily behavior, but I

is

am
to

sure that there

an "inside," a conscious experience similar

my

own.

On
1

reflection,
is

however,

the justification for this

assurance

may

This

in respect to objects, since in

not to say that eventually a problem of this kind will not arise some analogous way they too must be con-

ceived as "subjects."

252
strike us as

The Philosophy of Knowledge

hard to come by. For
is

not subjectivity just what

is

most

private,

most intimate,

most

non-communicable

of

all

things? Surely I

know

that I exist as a subject, for I

my own experience: mine, my interior consciousness, is, one would think, available for me alone. No one is present to my consciousness in the way that I am. No one can read my mind my consciousness is that which is concealed from
privileged position with respect to

am in a I am my

own

"inside."

But

this "inside" of

the probing scrutiny of others.

My

body

is

observable by others,

but not
that
if

my

mental processes. In the same way, one might think

still

there really are other subjects,

their subjectivity
is
if

is

just as

concealed from
I

me

as

my

subjectivity

from them. Then

I

how can
besides

be sure that there are other selves

do not

directly

observe them?

Can I possibly directly experience any subjectivity my own? We would be inclined to say no. But then,
I derive the

whence do
jectivities?

assurance of the existence of such subis

From one

standpoint this problem

manifestly
it

more

perplexing than the problem of other "objects," since

adds a

completely
is

new dimension

to

my

claim to

make

contact with what

other than myself.

Yet from another standpoint

it

is

easier to get at than the

I

more general problem. Even though

may

be perplexed as to
I

how

can be certain that other selves

exist,

do not seem

to

experience

much
is,

difl&culty
I

with the meaning of the assertion that

it

they do. That

to exist as a

have a perfectly good notion of what

means

self,

and

experience no great barrier in conceiving

selves to exist. This
is

what

it

would mean for other

in sharp

contrast to the difiSculty I feel

when
leaf,

I try to

imagine the inde-

pendent existence of a cloud, a

of earth.
ently,
this
I

a stone, an atom, or a

lump

but

may I am

be convinced that these things do exist independvery confused as to what

is
it

"feels" like to exist in

way. There

no such obstacle
for

in grasping the

meaning of

the

existence of other selves,

is

the

mode

of existence here

asserted

the

mode

of existence which I myself actually experi-

Intersubjective
ence.

Knowledge

253
ambiguous condition of

We

stand, then, in a peculiarly

assurance and uncertainty in respect to this question.

The question
philosophy, and

is
it

not a particularly old one in the history of

may

first

be dealt with in the form of the

first

"problem of other minds," which was

Mill and which has

posed by John Stuart

called the traditional

become what might be

Let
it

form of
minds"

this question.
is significantly,

be noted that the problem of "other

conceived specifically as the interior
If

though subtly, different from the problem

is

of "other selves."

mind

psychic concomitant of a bodily process.

my

retina
if

is

stimulated

by a light-wave,
of

may
may

perceive the color red; or

the

tympanum
shrill

my

ear

is

set vibrating

by a sound-stimulus,

may

hear a

noise.
tions,

Any

witness

observe the stimuU and

my

outward reac-

and a physiologist may even observe and measure

no witness may observe That
is
is

my

neural

and

cortical reactions; but

shrill.

my

conscious

perception of red or

available to

me

alone.

What
fit

is

true in the case of sensations

apparently even

more

true in the

case of emotions or thoughts: I

may be

"observed" in a
is

of

pique or a brown

state,

but this observation

restricted to

my

grimaces and bodily postures, and does not extend to an awareness

of what I

am
we

feelmg and thinking.

if it is

This line of reflection led Mill to his problem of why,

true that

cannot directly observe the interior

life

of conscious-

ness of another,
really exist.

we

ever can be said to

is

"know"

that other

minds

His answer

the "analogy" argument, which

was

once standard but has

situation are this:
tion,

lately lost favor. ^

The circumstances

of the

and

it

Only outward behavior is available must therefore be that outward behavior

for observagives us the

2 For criticism of the analogy argument, see Max Scheler, The Nature of Sympathy, trans, by Peter Heath, intro. by Werner Stark (New Haven: Yale University Press), 1954, p. 239ss.; John Wisdom, Other Minds (Oxford: Blackwell), 1952, p. 68ss., p. 194ss.; Louis Arnauld Reid, Ways of

Knowledge and Experience (London: Allen & Unwin), 1961, p. 237ss.; W. Wylie Spencer, Our Knowledge of Other Minds (New Haven: Yale
University Press), 1930, p. 55ss.

254

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

basis for our inference in respect to the inner concomitant. This

is

possible because in one instance, our

own

life,

we have

a privi-

leged access to the inner concomitant.

reasoning: In

We

then proceed by this

my own

case I realize that certain bodily processes

(unified
I

are accompanied

by inner conscious processes

I

under the

term "mind") and therefore

bodily processes in others, I

decide that

when

observe these

may

infer that they are

accompanied

by mental processes not

that others exist
is

directly observable

by me.

My

certainty

a product of an analogical inference which sets

existence

out from

my own
spite of

and

its

known connection with my

view
is

bodily actions.^

Now in

an

initial plausibility, this

open

to various

objections which rather conclusively refute

it,

and which have more

will

or less led to

its

abandonment. Of these objections, we

all,

menit.*

tion only two. First of

there

is

what might be

called the "mirror

argument," which has been very frequently employed against

What

Mill has contended

is

that I argue to the consciousness of

others by supplying a missing link in a chain of analogy which

begins with

my own
this face
I

behavior, a patent fallacy. In order for

me
I

to

argue that behind the bared teeth and squinting eyes which
observe in
confronting

now

me

there

is

a feeling of kindness

and good humor,

would, on Mill's terms, have had to observe

my own
I

inner feelings as united to similar outward conduct: I

to observe myself smiling.

would have had

do not do.
I

But

that, of course,

don't

know how
If I

look when
case, I
to
I

I smile,

or

am

angry,

or embarrassed, or sad. In

my own

have

the inner feeling

but not the outer view.

wanted

have the outer view of

to observe

myself in the grip of these emotions,

facial

would have

and bodily contortions

I

in a mirror

hardly
it

my

a standard pro-

cedure. Therefore

do not comprehend

that certain bodily behavto

ior is the sign of another

3

mind by comparing

my own

bodily

John Stuart

Mill,

An

Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosop.

phy, Chapt. XII.

*

See Scheler, op.

cit.,

240; Reid, op.

cit.,

p. 238; Spencer, op.

cit.,

p.

67.

Intersubjective

Knowledge
is

255
a comparison
I

behavior, for the simple reason that this

could

not possibly make, never having observed

Secondly,
it

my own

behavior.

can be shown that

if I

did proceed by analogical

inference in this way, such an inference could never give

other,
this
lyiill

me

the

suggests that I derive

this is impossible.
I

my

knowledge of the other by

I

means, but

Unless

already had an aware-

ness of the other, then the best

could do by means of an analogy

would be

to argue that behind a certain bodily facade

is,

was

my own
this sort

consciousness. That

beginning with this proportion:

of bodily behavior

is

accompanied by

my

consciousness, then

whenever
is

met

this sort of bodily behavior, I

would

infer that

it

accompanied by

my

consciousness. For the analogy to be

strict,

there

would have to be some middle term that could serve

if

as a

sign of the presence of another; but

behavior

is

the middle term,

then I only
sign

know what

behavior

signifies in the

case

when both
it

the

and the

signified are present

my own conscious
consciousness, and

experience.

Therefore, behavior signifies

validate an inference to
that

my

could only

my

consciousness.

Nor could we claim

the behavior
self, is

we must

distinguish
is

between

my

behavior and the other's

behavior, for that

just

what

is

in question:

supposed to be the basis for

of another

my
I

awareness of another

and

cannot begin by assuming that

self.

already

know

it

to be the behavior

This reasoning seems to be

suflficient to

deprive the argument

from analogy of any claim

of other selves. This
is

to explain the origin of

our knowledge

not to say that analogical inference in a

in interpreting others'

broad sense may not be frequently used

conduct, but
since
it it

cannot explain our awareness of the other as such,

already presumes this awareness.

We

note aheady that the

this

approach to the problem of other selves taken by

argument

presumes that
of

this

knowledge

is

not primary, that

is

it is

the product

some

sort of inference.
its

There

no need

to take

much cognizance

of this belief in

most aggravated form, the contention that the

is

only things directly given to consciousness are bundles of discrete

sense data, and that everything else a matter of construction or

256
interpretation. This

The Philosophy
view
itself is

of

Knowledge

an assumption, and a very shaky

one.

It will

help to begin with the confidence that

much more can

be given to direct experience than the sense-datum theorist or the

phenomenalist wiU admit.
Actually, anyone beginning with the phenomenalist viewpoint

has a

literally

impossible task in reaching another

self.

On

the

phenomenahst's assumption, only transitory and discrete sensedata are available to consciousness. Given this assumption, even
the meaning of the assertion that other selves exist becomes doubtful. If,

on the phenomenalist's

basis,

an "object"

is is

simply a logical
a subject.

construction out of a set of sense data, then so

it

What
very

would mean

to reach another self as a logical construct

is

hard to imagine. Not only would

able
reality only in the

this construct be indistinguishit

from the object-construct, but

would have independent

all

meaningless Pickwickian sense of

phenome-

nahst "objects."
Yet, even
if

we

start

with the expectation that

much more can

be

directly given to us in experience than

is
still

impoverished sense data,

there

a very special diflQculty in wondering

how

another

mind can be directly given. Here we may and entertaining presentation of the problem which was made by John Wisdom.^ Wisdom's difiiculty comes down to this: Once we have made the plausible distinction between the inside and the outside of experience (mind and body), how can we ever be sure that
consult the exhaustive

any outside

is

the sign of any inside? That

state

is,

if

we

distinguish

between any emotional

that the second
split,
is

and

its

bodily expression, and say

first is

observable while the

not,

how, given

this

can the second ever be taken as a sure sign of the presence

first?

of the

For example,
I feel is

might hold as an obvious fact that the

pain which

not to be identified with the gnashing teeth,

fists

roUing eyes, and clenched

which manifest

this

pain outwardly.

What

mean by

saying that

am

in pain

is

my

excruciating, non-

outward feehng. So with

5

gaiety, delight, sorrow, disappointment,

Wisdom,

op.

cit., p.

84.

Intersubjective
anxiety, or

Knowledge
state

257

any psychic

we may

distinguish the mental state

from the bodily manifestation.

Then, says Wisdom, what possible guarantee do I have that this bodUy state in another corresponds in him to a mental state such as it would correspond to in me? I assume it does, but do I know
that
it

does? Since

don't observe his emotional state,

it

it

always

seems

at least logically conceivable that

it

is

very different from

would be in me, given similar bodily manifestations. Here I see someone rolling his eyes, clenching his fists and screaming, and I say he is in pain. But how do I know that this is not the way in which he expresses delight? I don't observe his felt pain, I only infer it. Similarly, a mother playing with her baby may
what
observe what she takes to be
ter,
all

the outward signs of joy: laughlogically certain that

waving

arms, gurgling.

Yet can she be

these particular gesticulations are not the

particular being expresses his grief? Isn't

manner
it

in

which

this

conceivable that the

mother
that

is

inflicting the tortures of the

he

is

expressing

it

in this

damned upon her baby and unfortunate manner which misleads

on

his doting parent? Obviously, this sort of question here bears

we can read the inner life of the other and not on the question of how we can know that there is another there. Yet it could be easily generalized, for we might think of the misreading being extended without limit, so that we could misread
the accuracy with which
as

conscious

responses

what were only the responses of an

automaton.

The

bizarre character of such reflection inevitably forces the

suspicion that there must be something fundamentally

wrong with
doubt the

posing the problem of other selves quite in

this

way.
is

No

mind-body
difference

distinction

is

valid,

and no doubt there

an irreducible

between mental and physical processes. Yet to treat the body as a kind of facade behind which the existence and nature of mind has to be verified seems to get things off on the wrong
foot.

We

might try to recover a certain balance even within

this

framework by suggesting a "king and three sages" type of inference

to other minds. Perhaps,

one might hold, we do not infer immedi-

258
ately to the inside of others, but

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
is,

go through our own. That

can infer that the other understands

happen somewhat

as follows:

Suppose

someone

is

causing

me

pain, let us

my inner life. This could I am in a position where say a dentist drilling my teeth.
I finally
if

Eyes tearing and blinking, knuckles white, face contorted,

complain that
it

hurts, I

may
I

reason as follows:

he understands
will

by the word "pain" what

understand by

it,

he

do what

would do
he told

if

understood what he meant by the word "pain" and

was hurting him. The dentist stops drilling. I then infer that he and I mean the same thing by the word pain. If he thought that by "pain" or "hurting" I meant pleasure or
that I
delight,

me

he would smile cheerfully and keep blasting away. The

he doesn't indicates that the word "pain"
I feel the

fact that
reality

signifies

about which he and

same. The example, of course,

could be extended to take in not only pain but pleasure, joy, sorrow, and so forth.
feels,

but that

What happens is infer how he would

still

not that
act
if

how another he knows how I feel."

I infer

Suppose, while

remaining within

this general

assumption of

an "indirect" knowledge of others, we try to

of "other minds" against a wider background.

situate the

problem

The

child certainly

becomes aware of the existence of others before he makes the

distinction

between mind and body: he knows himself as a member

of a class of which there are other members. Subsequently, one

may

suggest, he reahzes that

he has a "mind" and he wonders

might he assure himself of
this?^

whether his natural behef that the other members of the class
likewise do
is

well founded.

How

One
6

route to this assurance might be the responsive character

includes language, whose crucial importance But it might be proved without bringing in language at all. If I merely wish the dentist would stop, yet refrain from saying anything, while my physical symptoms are identical, and if he actually does stop, I infer that he understands my physical symptoms. He does what I would wish him to do if he understood my inner life. Does this prove that I can read his inner life? At least it shows a certain mutuality between us which, I might assume, could just as well run from my side to his. 7 The ensuing remarks owe much to the discussion of Spencer, op. cit., pp. 20-48, who makes many interesting and instructive points on this issue.

The example given here

is

clear.

Intersubjective

Knowledge

259

which distinguishes the behavior of certain objects of

ence from from him
others.
elicits

my

experi-

The

child crying for the rattle he has just hurled

his play-pen or

no response from the bars of

from the
between

carpet, but a
is

human
up

being nearby

may

retrieve

it

for

him. There

thus built

the realization of a close connivance

this

behavior and his wishes. His reaching out finds

is

response in one case and not in another. There

a reciprocity

which
are

is

missing elsewhere.

Some might
is

insist that these

I

responses

still

physical, that the other

if I

doing what

would do with

own body

could

and

my

that hence this

approach does not give

us another mind.

The

fact that this is a true response of the other

and not an extension of

Further,
there
are

my own

will is

brought forcibly

home

in

the instances where the response

cases

is

of rivalry or resistance.

where the response called for and

sometimes
I

elicited is not just another physical act;

require col-

laboration in a fully conscious process, and then the response

becomes evidence
call into

for a fully conscious respondent.

full

Some

activities

play our

nature as

human

beings,

and those who are

able to respond and co-operate in such acts evince thereby the

presence of other minds.

It is

into full self -consciousness.

the other who actually calls us forth The parents playing with the child are

not opaque "others" to an aheady conscious individual; they are

instruments by which the individual
is

brought to consciousness.

Their response

is

implicated in his consciousness.

it

As

this

conin

sciousness expands,
friendship, in

expands in reciprocity with the other:

entirety as a

responds to

common me in my
it

endeavors, in shared enthusiasms, the other

his entirety is present in his response.

human entity, and therefore We now approach the real-

ization that

is

not quite right to think of the

"mmd"
self

of the

other as concealed behind a bodily facade. If

our

comes-to-

consciousness, then the respondents in this process of coming-to-

consciousness are already present as minds. Mind, then,

is

at the

boundary

of the self
self.
is

and the other:

it is

a revelation of the other

this,

as well as the

The primary manifestation of

a perfectly "open" reahty.

of course,

is

language, which

Human

conscious-

260
ness finds
itself

The Philosophy of Knowledge

in language.

Then

in finding itself

it

does not find

only

itself.

The objection may be

individual selves, siace

raised that this awareness of others as

respondents does not explain our rich and detailed awareness of

it is

rather indiscriminate

and generalized.

The point is valid enough, but the question we know our own selves as individual and unique
easily

may

also be asked

how
too

beings. It

is

assumed that the meaning of "I"

is

is

clear,

but the meaning

of "thou"

obscure.
is

The

truth

may

rather be that the profound

is

meaning of "I"

equally hidden, that here, too, the revelation

I

a reciprocal one. Perhaps

only become "I" in the encounter

with "thou" and perhaps apart from that encounter the only
referent I have for "I"
states.
is
is

a tatterdemalion succession of psychic

Many modern

philosophers have
is

come

to

beHeve that
is

this

the case. If something of the sort

true,

then the problem

not

of "other minds" or even of "other selves" but just the problem of "persons."

Not even "other persons,"

for

if

these philosophers

are right, the category of person already includes a reference to the other, and for one

who knows

himself as a person, there can-

not be a problem of other persons.

DIRECT KNOWLEDGE OF THE OTHER

Before following up the suggestion contained in the preceding
sentence,
it

will

be interesting to inspect some views which make

it

the transition to
outlined above
as indirect.

easier.

The primary drawback

is

to the approaches

is

that they regard our awareness of "other

minds"

Even where an attempt

is

made

to avoid the errors of

the "analogy" explanation, the assumption continues to be that

the reality of other minds

not an immediate datum but

sort.

is

known

through an inference of some

this

Now

one way of undercutting

whole

difficulty is

obviously to
is

make

the opposite assumption

to

assume that the other

at
all.

given directly and does not have to be

argued to

This alternative

may

strike us as outlandish

if

we

are accustomed to conceiving experience in terms of "sense per-

Intersubjective

Knowledge

261
we

ception."

But

in equating experience with "sense experience"

tend to

forgej: that

we could be
if

led rather quickly to a reductio

is

ad absurdum. For
senses
is

only what

given immediately "to" the

a primary datum, then the only primary data are the

color, sound, scent,

discrete

and multiple snippets of

not only must

and so

forth.

On
I

this view,

selves directly, but also that

we say that we don't perceive other we don't even perceive tables, chairs,
all.

or trees directly:

we

don't perceive "things" at

is

With

this,

the

epistemological bark

once again stranded in the backwaters of

is

phenomenalism. Actually the plight of phenomenalism

grave, for
ate,
if

extremely

the only hard

datum

is

the discrete sensory immedi-

then

it

becomes extremely

difficult to see

how

the entire past

does not disappear from the catalog of the immediately known,

and with
the circle

it is

the continuing personal identity of the knower.

Once

broken and the suspicion dawns that

direct perception

may

include

much more
who

than "sense data"

it

will

not seem such

an implausible claim that we

may know

other selves directly.

One
as such

philosopher

pressed this claim was

Max
self.

Scheler.'*

Scheler's thesis
it

was

that expression

was a primary datum and

It is

that

was the

direct revelation of the other

non-

sense to say that

for the child

we infer the existence of the other analogically, who recognizes and responds to the warmth and
is

friendliness of his mother's face

completely incapable of such an

kindliness
as

inference.

Rather,
just

the

warmth and
directly
face.

are

expressive
of
the

phenomena,

as

much

given

the

color

mother's hair or the size of her

What we

perceive are not

"bodies" or "minds" but integral wholes: our distinction between the "body" and the "self" of the other post-dates this primary
perception.

Once we break out

is

of the bonds of an empiricism

which
there

is

essentially unfaithful to experience,

we

will see that

our

primary experience
is

that of configurational unities.

Therefore,

no problem

of
I

how

I infer

the reality of a

bodily facade, since

only arrive at calling

this thing

mind behind a a "body" by

Op.

cit.,

p. 239,

262

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
adopting

subtracting something from the origmal experience.

By

a certain

attitude, I

can see the bared teeth and squinting eyes as

I see

purely a physiological facade; but from a different posture, a smile.

I

cannot "compose" the smile out of "purely physiological"

is

features, for the smile

not accessible from the mental stance in

which

am
is

able to identify

something as a "purely physiological

it

feature." Neither

can

break

down

into physiological elements.

The

smile

an original phenomenon of expressiveness.

is

Scheler goes even further. His contention

that, far

from

it

being "self-evident" that I cannot experience another's experience,

it is

perfectly natural for

me
I

to

do

so.^

The apparent

impossibility

of

it is

assumed because

think too exclusively with reference to

thinking of his "experience.""
It is

another's bodily states

when

true that I

cannot feel his pain or experience his sensation of

seeing or hearing.

As

part of the bodily complex, these are tied to

the purely private nature of the bodily complex. But the situation

changes in regard to the higher spiritual

proper. There
grief or joy.
I
is

states,

the

emotions

no reason why

cannot experience another's

do not "argue"

to these or infer their presence

behind a corporeal facade. In some cases we

Scheler, of

may even

speak, says

one emotion shared by two

selves.

A father

and mother

standing together by the body of their dead child have their grief
in

common. There

are not here simply two consciousnesses, but

identical sorrow.

two consciousnesses sharing one

it

They experience
problem

as "our sorrow."^" In the face of such experiences, the

of "other minds" loses aU standing.

Similarly, Scheler adduces the nature of

sympathy
other.
grief,

as a patent

example of reaching the experience of the

Sympathy
for
I

is

somewhat
myself.

different

from the parents' shared

in

may

sympathize with another's grief without actually feehng that grief

My

sympathy

another's

grief

(or joy)

cannot be

^Ibid., pp. 261-262.

10 Ibid.,

11 Ibid., p.

pp. 244-247. 254.

^^ Ibid., pip.

12-13.

Intersubjective

Knowledge

263

regarded as 'an original revelation of the existence of the other, for

the act of sympathy already presupposes knowledge of the reality

of that with which I

am

in

sympathy." But sympathy

its

is

an

irre-

ducibly given experience and

those

existence

is

a standing rebuttal to
is

who

declare that the experience undergone by another

sealed off to me.

sibility

Sympathy

exists precisely

because of the accesit is

of the emotion of the other for

me; consequently,

testimony to that accessibihty.

grief or rejoicing in his joy
is

My
my

commiseration with another's

consequent upon the transparence of

own.^^
directly

his emotional consciousness for

Another philosopher who reaches the other

out any sort of inference
is

and with-

Jean-Paul Sartre. His views are

fashioned in a metaphysical context peculiar to himself, but possess

a value by no means restricted to that context.
concentrates

Where

Scheler

upon our experience

not too

of sympathy, Sartre finds the

presence of the other most piercingly revealed in the experience

of shame.
It is

much

to say that for

him our experience of

shame

is

the experience of the other. Actually Sartre begins his

analysis

by regarding consciousness as a hyper-isolated knower.

strict

Proceeding by a
arrives at his

act/object analysis of consciousness, he

now famous distinction between the en-soi and the pour-soi, into which we may follow him just far enough for our present purposes. ^^ Consciousness breaks down into awareness
(pour-soi)

and object of awareness

is
it

(en-soi).

about awareness
the object
is

that

it is

not

its

object.
is

The primary fact The primary fact about

that

excludes whatever

introduced by awareness.

We
The

then begin with a dichotomy between two different modes of

being: being as awareness and being as the object of awareness.

first

Sartre calls being-for-itself (pour-soi)

and the second

13 Ibid., p. 8. 14 this

To make

actually does have this intentional reference to the other and that

viewpoint stand up, Scheler must show that sympathy it is not

reducible to elements which

do not require

this interpretation.

This he does

on

pp. 37-50.
15

Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, pp. Ixiv-lxix, 21-24, 73-79,

passim.

264
being-in-itself (en-soi). All negation

The Philosophy of Knowledge

is its

introduced into reality by

object;
its

consciousness: consciousness
itself

is
is

not

pure being-fornegation.

and not-being-its-object
which
is is

the source of

all

The
all

in-itself

purely

other

than consciousness escapes

negations and

conceived by Sartre as a massive

self-identity, a

kind of solid block of being.

All this
is

mentioned in order to lead up to the revelation of the

it.

other, as Sartre conceives

Consciousness, the

for-itself,

exists

as a kind of pure spontaneity which faces the inert passivity of the

in-itself like

a god in splendid isolation. All the world

is

a stage

and
the

it

is

the sohtary player. In fact, as the solitary actor (the

in-itself is inert), it
in-itself.
It

confers the character of being a stage

it

makes a world wherein

it

can

act.

This
it

is

upon what

Sartre calls the "project" of consciousness,

by which

constitutes

the arena in which

disports.

But now,
as

in a typically flamboyant

manner, Sartre introduces the jarring presence of the other. The

other's presence
Sartre, I

announces

itself

my

shame. ^ Suppose, says

activity,

am

engaged in some reprehensible

say kneeling

down and
is

looking through a keyhole. In this situation, the for-itself

a pure spontaneous looking-at an object; at this

its

moment
Its
its

it

projects
is

world in an absolutely autonomous way.

fiat

frivohty

like the

extreme of a

which constitutes

its

world and

own

freedom. Suddenly, while

footsteps

am

in this ridiculous posture, I hear

to see

round the corner and look up

two contemptuous

eyes peering

down

at

me. At once,
I feel

my

world collapses.
at,

not viewer but viewed.

myself looked
I

and

Now I am my autonomy

and spontaneity ooze away.

another. I feel the muscles in

am no longer a for-itself, but formy jaws tighten, my mouth dry up,

my

body become a ludicrous and unwieldy bulk

in-itself.

I feel

myself

congealing to the rigidity of the

The other

is

the gorgon's

head which turns

Shorn of
all

me

to stone.

specifically

Sartrean trimmings,

this

is

still

powerful example of what would be meant by the direct experience

^^Ibid., pp. 221-222, 259-263.

Intersubjective

Knowledge
is

265
no argument by analogy. The
is

of the other. This

no

inference,

other

is

there as directly as

my

shame. His presence

so directly

felt that it

causes

his existence

my own to shrivel. Far from having to argue to from my own, I would give anything to be freed from
might gather up the pieces
occur to

this utterly obtrusive presence, so that I

of

my own

shattered existence.^^
as beginnings,
it

With these two examples

instances.

will

many

that this approach could be broadened to include various other

What sympathy and shame do

is

is

to distill into a very

pure form a quahty which

in experience.

widely, though

more weakly, present

states as admiration,

We

need only think of such

loyalty, expectation, or anxiety; or

such conditions as loneliness or

to the reality of the

boredom, which are testimonies in reverse

other.

Much

could be done to show that these experiences are

phenomenologically unintelligible except in relation to another

self.

Loneliness

is

an especially clear example of

is

this.

The

experi-

ence of loneliness

built

upon

the experience of the other, but

absent. Reference to the other
self that in the

the experience of the other as

is

now

to such a degree

an ontological dimension of the

complete absence of aU others,

absent. There
is

my

being

is still

turned towards the

or

no possibiUty of explaining

this inferentially

of reducing it to different terms. This consideration was in Scheler's mind when he declared that an imaginary Robinson Crusoe who had never in all his life perceived any beings of his own kind would still be said to know the thou and possess the notion of

community.^^

Scheler's

position

is

that

the

knowledge of the
is

nature of community and the existence of the thou in general

an a priori

factor,

given as an irreducible background to any

encounter with individual persons

given,

one might

say,

as

1" We need not follow Sartre into the consequences which he drew from such cases. He became so obsessed with the "look" as the revelation of the other that in his thought, human relations become a mutual "staring-down" process, the "other" is consistently regarded as either a threat or an oppor-

tunity for appropriation,

and the whole

positive side of intersubjectivity

is

largely lost.
18

Op.

cit.,

pp. 234-235.

266
structural
is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

component of the human person. The sphere of the thou

and irreducibly a sphere of the fundamental

just as essentially

being of
light,

man as is the sphere of the "external world." Seen in this the human person is a reference to a thou, and his coming
is

to self-consciousness

mediated by

this reference

and impossible

without

it.

AND THOU
The most promising
area of escape from the problem of "other
lie

selves" seems to

in the direction of suppressing the assumption

upon which
this is

it

rests.

This
is

is

the assumption that the intelligibility

contained in the "I"

anterior to that contained in the "thou." If

not so,

if

on

the contrary the

it

meaning of "I"

is

a function

of the "thou," then

is

clearly inconsistent for the I to raise the

question of the existence of the thou.

Among

the philosophers

who

press for this solution, the most prominent

name

in the last

century was that of Josiah Royce. According to Royce, the self

was through and through a content I have for the word

experience of relationship.

social entity:
"I," I build

whatever meaningful

up out of an

original

am

not

first

self-conscious

and then secondarily conscious of

and apart from

my

fellow.

On

the contrary, I

am

conscious of myself, on the whole, as in

relation to

some

real or ideal fellow,

my

consciousness

of

my

fellow, I

have only secondary and derived

states

and habits of

self-consciousness.^^

And

again:

Speaking in psychological terms, one can say that our

consciousness
19
is

finite

self-

no primitive possession

at all but

is

the hard-earned

p. 201.

Good and Evil (New York: Appleton), 1898, See also The World and the Individual, Second Series (New York: Macmillan), 1900, pp. 245-277.
Josiah Royce, Studies of

IntersubjectiVe

Knowledge

267

outcome of the contact between the being capable of becoming rational and the rationally disposed world in which he slowly learns to move.^o

know himself as a rational conscious being and then search about to discover whether, behind external
individual does not
first

The

appearances, there are other beings like him. Rather, his gradually

developing explicit consciousness of himself as a rational, conscious being

is

an interpretive awareness of himself

is

as

a focal

point in a social whole. Rational consciousness

essentially social;

aU philosophical questions are raised by rational consciousness, and it is therefore barren to raise as a rational issue the existence
of other selves. In this outlook,

Royce

is

true to

and inspired by

the earlier idealism of Hegel, from

whom

the whole conception of

the social nature of consciousness ultimately seems to derive.

his idealism finds

But

echoes in quite different sorts of thinkers, such

somewhat behavioristically oriented American philosopher, G. H. Mead, who was long preoccupied with this issue and sums
as the

up

his feelings in the declaration that "It

is

impossible to conceive

of a self arising outside of social experience."^^

Martin Buber and Gabriel Marcel speak a

stone of their thought.

different
is

idiom from
the corner-

that of Royce, but the conception of the self as social

Much

of the point of this thought wiU be

self as

missed unless

it is

understood that they do not treat the

an

already realized entity which remains identical throughout the

gamut of
it is

its

experiences.

The

self is essentially

a creative category:

something which

exists

and

is

achieved in the order of freefull

is

dom. Marcel and Buber locate the

its

potentiation of the self in

in their discovery

encounter with the thou, and

it

and ex-

ploration of the unique nature of this encounter that their contribution to the discussion consists. Others have emphasized the social
20 Ibid., p. 207.
21 George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society, edit, by Charles W. Morris (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 1934, p. 140. See the interesting comparative study of Mead and Buber done by Paul E. Pfuetze, The Social

Self

(New York: Bookman

Associates), 1954.

268
character of the self in

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

more general terms, but Marcel and Buber

its

put their stress upon the singular character of the thou.^^ Whatever
the "I"
is, it

is

as

unique; whatever establishes the "I" in

it

uniqueness establishes

in

its

authentic being. Whatever questions

are posed about the other are either posed

(say,

an epistemological subject-in-general,
in
all
its

by a generahzed "I" or a social self) or by

the

"I"

uniqueness.

Many

have had a tendency to

approach the problem of "other selves" from the side of a merely generalized "I." Marcel and Buber drive towards the unique and
unrepeatable "I" and attack the problem in terms of
they discover
itself
is
it.

But what

that the unique

and unrepeatable "I" only knows

Apart from

as such in the face of a "thou."

my

relation to

the "thou," I

am

not aware of myself as a unique

self at all

am

a mere bundle of sensations, series of experiences, or logical think-

Here is a paradoxical discovery: the unique is a catecommunion. If I want to say "I" in the most intense and gory of fully reahzed way, I must say "thou." The unique dimension of
ing subject.
existence represented

by the "I" only emerges to consciousness in

experience of selfhood does not have

so far as there

is

an encounter with a "thou."

This means that

my

full

priority over others, but is a

thing,
it is

co-emergent of communion.

If

any-

the other

who

has priority: the thou gives discovered

is

me

to myself.

What Marcel and Buber have

dimension of existence.

the thou as an original

distinction

They make a fundamental

and an "I-thou"
relation.

between an
this as

"I-it" relation

They make

and not merely a psychological one: that is, we cannot represent things as though there is one identical "I" variously related to others, but existing in the same ontological manner through the various relations. Rather the "I"
an ontological
distinction,
is

a relational category, and

its

status in

bemg

varies with

its

convenient place to meet Ruber's thought on this is / and Thou, by Ronald Smith (New York: Scribner's), 1958, asp. p. 3ss. This "I-thou" theme is scattered through Marcel's whole work, but special reference may be made to The Mystery of Being, vol. I, p. 176ss, Metaphysical Journal, p. 219ss, and Du refus a V invocation, pp. 50-52.
22

trans,

Intersubjective
relation:

Knowledge
is

269
ontologically different

the "I" of the "I-it" relation

from the "I" of the "I-thou" relation.^^ Certainly we may see what is meant by saying that an "I"
which was
reflexively conscious of itself in

an

"I-it" relation

would

not be conscious at the same ontological level as the "I" which was
reflexively conscious in the "I-thou" relation.
to, then, is that

What

this

amounts
of being.

the thou introduces us to a

new dimension
is

In

my

relation with another person, being

in

revealed to

me

in a

manner

which

it

is

not revealed in any relation with a non-

personal reaUty. "Things" or "objects" are not there for

me

in the

way
do
I

in

which a thou

is

there.

They

are always to a certain extent

"absent"

truncated, alien presences.

full

Only

in a personal encounter
is

undergo the

experience of presence; and this

a twofold

assertion:

only in a personal encounter

am

reaUy present to

myself, through the presence of a thou. Self-presence and the

presence of a thou are two sides of one coming-to-presence which

human communion. mean that wherever I am as a matter This must not be taken to of fact dealing with a human person, I actually do encounter a thou. The tragedy of the human condition is exactly that the
is

the creative achievement of

experience of the thou

is

so fugitive and tenuous. Clearly the

"presence" spoken of here does not refer to simply physical

presence.

The

table or chair

is

"with"

me

in that sense.

Other

human

beings

who

are occupying the

same region of space with

me do

not automatically become "thou's":

the office, the people sitting across from

my fellow workers me on the subway,

thirds."

in

or

standing shoulder to shoulder in the elevator, even those with

whom

am
is

ostensibly "talking" can be

is

mere "absent

The

genuine experience of the thou

one. That

a relatively rare and privileged

on such experiences as love, hope, or fideUty, which are thematically centered on the thou in the fullness of his presence. It is in experiences Hke these that
will concentrate

why Marcel

the full ontological originality of the thou can be appreciated.

23

Buber, op.

cit.,

p. 3, 12.

270
For the thou to
in the

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

whom
all

am

related in love cannot be grasped

I

manner of a thing "about which"

speak.

He

is

precisely

incommensurate with

descriptive language.
object.

on a "content" or a characterizable
the foundation for

Love does not bear The beloved being is

I

not a repository of certain predicates in which

can summarize

my

affection. ^^

Love bears on an uncharactermystery of the singular. Preis

izable presence. It opens

me
is

to the

cisely in so far as a being

beloved, he

beyond
is

all

inventory

which

could take of him to explain

why he

beloved. Objects

can be characterized; objects can be given predicates; in fact an

"object" (in the sense of Buber and Marcel) just
structure
is

the

presumed
But that
always

upon which

can hang

my
it

set of predicates.

which

I characterize, that to

which

I assign predicates, is
is

that "about which" I

am

speaking:

spoken of in the third

I

person.

A
I

"thou"
speak:

is it

not that about which

is

speak, but the one to

the

whom

addressable

only

in

second-person.

Presence, second-personness, cannot be approached from the side

of objectified structure. It therefore represents an original revelation of being, a revelation

which

is

inaccessible

by any other

route.
is

This

last

remark wiU help

in answering a question

which

bound

to

come up
little

at this point: in

what sense can the experience

It

of the thou be called "knowledge?"

may be

thought that

have

added very

to

my

store of expressible information through

the experience of love or fidelity, and there

may be

the

renewed

suspicion that these are only psychologically interesting states of an

individual subject.

Now

it

may be

allowed at the outset that

is

if

knowledge
taken.

is

identified with "information," this objection

well

For

all

information bears on "objects," and a thou

too, is

is

not

an object but a presence. All information,

properly equipped observer:

conceived as

transmittable through the ordinary channels of language to any

but the truth of the thou

all,

is is

not
co-

transmittable to an observer at

but to the "I" which

present with

it,

and which

is

a participant, not an observer.

^Hbid.,

p. 17.

Intersubjective

Knowledge
is

271
word
"knowledge" can be extended to
freighted with cognitional value.
:

Nevertheless there

a defense for continuing to use the

all,

"knowledge" here. First of

take in the ground of a propositional statement, and in this sense

any original source of evidence

is

Here, the I-thou experience clearly qualifies

another person in his singularity
cognitional.
is

the only

way

to

know
is

to love him,

and hence love

But

further, to the extent that this experience

can be

expressed at

all, its

expression can be said to acquire the status of

it

knowledge

in so

far as

is

an instrument by which thought

in
it.

regains the experience

and recognizes the revelation inherent

Not transmittability, but expressibility may be taken as mark of knowledge. With this proviso, it is not hard
various cognitional aspects to the I-thou relation.

the hallto assign

As has been

seen,

it is

a revelation of a

new dimension
is

of being,

inaccessible in any other way.

The "thou"

ontologically unique

and cannot be reduced

self.

either to

an object or to a projection of the

I

The

uncharacterizable presence which

fidelity,

discover in love,
re-

hope, or

reveals something to

me

which cannot be

vealed to sense perception, logical thought, or objectified knowledge.

To

the extent that I succeed in expressing this unique dimen-

sion of being, I

may be

said to

know what
is

could not otherwise

know and

therefore

this

expression

undoubtedly a sort of

knowledge of being.
In what sense can
it

be viewed as knowledge of the single one?^^

know of the thou whom I love which I would not otherwise know? Here we must tread carefully. In one sense, I don't know anything more. That is, since the thou is not known
That
is,

what do

as a characterizable object, I don't

add to

my

aggregate of "facts"

about him through love. The thou cannot be reached as a toting

and therefore reaching the thou does not increase my objective knowledge about him. Yet, this must be emended. For surely, let us say, a young man who loves a girl "knows" her in a

up of

traits,

way

that others

do

not.

Far from being

blind, love

is

rather a

25 Ibid., pp.

62-63.

2 72
principle of knowledge.
Still,

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

he does not "know her better" in

the sense that he has been impelled to study her personality

closely and observe features which others might

more
ob-

just as well

serve but don't bother to.

He knows
her.

her in a manner that only

one who loves her can know

is

For her "being" or her "person"

a creative

not an already-realized objective reality viewed by

perspective:
it is

more advantageous
love
is

him from a category. The boy's

a participation

the creative invocation of her being:

it is

in the mystery of her uniqueness.

traits

He

does not simply see better

calls forth perfections

which are already actually there: he

virtual in her

which are

and

virtual in the order of freedom.^

Her

beauty, her charm, her goodness are not for

him

the

same

traits available for others:

they are assimilated into the mystery of

her uniqueness and appeal to him as revelation of that mystery.

His response
declare
itself,

is

a hope, a summons. Naturally love

is

impelled to

for the declaration

makes more

in-stant the qualities

which

it

perceives.

Love

desires to call forth perpetually the beauty

which

its

privileged vision sees, to bring to birth

is

what

is

already

bom. This
Aristotle

true not only of the love between

man and woman,

but equally and perhaps more plainly true of other sorts of love.

made

the

same

point, albeit intermittently, in respect to

friendship. Consider, too, the love of parent for child,

where these

features are thematic.

the person of their child,

The mother and father, in going out towards know themselves to be going out towards
and
latent; they are

a being which
a singularity

is

largely virtual

enraptured by

which they are conspiring to bring into being. Nothing

illustrate the

could better

twofold character of love as both creation

and response.

My

love calls forth the being of the other; but I

love the other because I have found in

to call forth into the approval of

him a being which

I desire

my

love.

manner "know" his uniqueness? If this means, can enumerate what makes him unique, the answer must be "no."
I in this
2

Do

This

is

so even

if

his love is unrequited or unproclaimed.

Intersubjective

Knowledge

273

Enumeration cannot reach the unique; for enumeration adds up "properties," and properties are always multipliable. Objectified
thought,
singular.

or indeed conceptual thought, must

fall

short of the
it

But
his

reach his uniqueness in the only

reached
not

way

can be

in the

same way

that

he reaches

it.

For

this

person does
of being
traits;

know

own

uniqueness "objectively." His

way

present to himself cannot be reduced to an aggregate of

he
the

does not

know

himself as a "what," but as inexpressible presence.

this

But what quickens

presence and unfolds

its

fuUness

is

encounter with a thou. Thus the unique "I" stands at the boundary
of giving and receiving.

Love knows the unique because

is

it

is

creator of the unique.

As

a consequence, there
is

another

way

in

which the "I-thou"

relation

cognitional;

it

is

an instrument for
is

my

self-knowledge.

The encounter with

thou" relation
is

the thou

not only a revelation of the thou,

seen, the "I" of the "I-

but a revelation of myself.

As we have

met only within

this

this relation.
I

In relation to the

thou

know something about

does not
of myself.

myself that

could not otherwise

know. Obviously
attributes

mean

that I can

enumerate more

But the uncharacterizable presence of the

an abyss of existence within myself.
is,

thou

is

also a revelation of

The whole "I-thou" experience

occurs in a realm that
is

so to speak, bottomless. It

transcendent in relation to objectified

knowledge. In so far as

I
is

belong to

this experience, I

belong to a
is

realm of being which

specifically inexhaustible.

That

why

Marcel

will say

shalt not die.'

objective

"To love a person is to say to him, 'Thou at least "" This is not to be understood as some kind of information which I have come across; it is simply the
which
is

translation into language of the experience of presence with

communion
he
will

flooded. It will do

no good
to

to say that nevertheless

die since all things

is

come

an end, for the prophetic

affirmation of love

precisely a proclamation that the beloved

27

The Mystery of Being,

vol. II, p. 62.

2 74
as beloved
is

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
is

exempt from the penalties of thingness. The thou

is

not a thing. That

why

the "I-thou" relation can provide the

basis for a privileged kind of knowledge.

Only

to the extent that I

I

can affirm myself as

spirit,

as trans-

phenomenal, can

be said to have "knowledge" of the "immortality

is

of the soul" (which

a rather unsatisfactory objectified phrase).

Then

the experiences which enable

me

to grasp the unique

mean-

ing of non-thingified personal existence occupy a crucial position

for this sort of knowledge.
tality

The

traditional "proof" for the

immorif

of the soul

(as simple

and

spiritual)

proceeds as

we

could have an objective grasp of the soul as a special sort of

thing with attributes implying natural immortality. But once the
soul
is

approached

in the objectified
rest in

mode

of thought,

we

are in

danger of coming to

an implication of concepts. At best

is

we have proved
universal ideas

that the soul

a repository or an efficient cause of immaterial. But an "it" which

is

and

that thus

it is

not material
the formahst

is

a rather negative notion and rather vulnerable to

reduction of Kant.

The

positive
is

intelligibility

of

existing as a person, rather than a thing,

given in the experience

of

communion. Only a thought which

clings to

communion remains
is

attached to the meaning which makes the affirmation of immortality possible. It is

it is

not an object called the soul which

immortal;

"we" who are immortal. We, here together, bound in love, we grant and bestow the mutual tokens of immunity from death. Immortahty is not a consequence implicit in the concept of "immateriahty," it is a promise spoken to those existing in communion.
Love, in being a revelation of the thou,
self,
is

also a revelation of

my
I
is

and the trans-phenomenal character of

my

being.

How

do

affirm this?

Only so

far as I participate in
itself as

communion. Love
is

"the active refusal to treat

subjective." It

charged with
love.

cognitive potentiaUties to the precise extent that

reflection
tion,

it is

Only a

which plunges into communion can make

is

this affirma-

which

why communion
same reason,
is

is

a source of knowledge.

Finally, for the

in the opinion of both

Marcel and

Buber, the "I-thou" relation

cognitive in yet another way.

The

Intersubjective

Knowledge
is

275
is

abyss of existence
revealed to
I

revealed to subjectivity and subjectivity

to

move in some extent

communion. As a member of a spiritual communion a realm of an open presence. The finite thou is always
also a thing, but the aura of the inexhaustible
is

which surrounds communion

presence which sustains
across
it.

an intimation of an unfailing
Absolute Thou
is is is

The

light of the

shed

human communion. ^^ The

calls

transcendent

present to our

experience as intimation, and this intimation

made

to

com-

munion. The thou

us beyond our isolated egos, and in calling

summons us

to a presence

which founds a new being; but back of

selves fling out to us, there
is

the discrete appeals

which scattered

the absolute appeal to found ourselves in a realm where love and

fidelity

make

unassailable sense.
is

For both Marcel and Buber, the

I-thou relation

thus the avenue to the transcendent, and the

proper

name of God is Absolute Thou, Once again we may ask whether all this should be called "knowledge," assuming that we grant value to the description of
experience herein recounted.
to
It is

"anyone

at all"
It
is

but then

not knowledge that

is

accessible

this

may be
is

too narrow an idea of

if

knowledge.

knowledge which

available,

Marcel and

Buber are right, to one who belongs to the I-thou relation and whose thought rejoins that relation. To the extent that they succeed in expressing
this thought,

they have raised the experience

to a cognitive status; to the extent that this experience gives us a privileged access to an otherwise unavailable realm,
it is

a privi-

leged sort of knowledge.

28 Buber, op.

cit.,

p. 75;

Marcel,

Du

refus a I'invocation, pp. 179, 218.

12

REMAINDERS

Certain of the problems in epistemology which are very

much

to

the fore in contemporary speculation have not yet been touched

on, nor could very

much be done

with them in a book of a fairly

general character. Since they are so intrinsically interesting and

important, however, and since they will call for so

much

continuit

ing attention on the part of the philosophers of the future,

does

not seem

fitting to

pass them by unnoticed.

The

following brief

discussions are thereby appended, not in the behef that they

justice to their subjects, but

do
to

only as indicators of territory

still

be explored.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

It is

well

known

that

most of the important problems

in con-

temporary philosophy of science are epistemological in origin and

character.

Since

its

inception in the mechanical approach to nature of

Galileo, classical physics

had tended
set

to

proceed on the relatively

path by the growing exas-

uncritical acceptance of the categories natural to that approach.

Originally science

had been
futilities

on

this

peration with the

of Aristotleian physics, so forcefully

It

expressed by Francis Bacon at the end of the 16th century.

was

aU very well for

Aristotle's purely contemplative philosophical eye

to stress a teleological appreciation of nature, but this viewpoint

had not advanced the

interests of

humanity one

iota.

Really to

"know" nature ought

to confer

on man the power

to intervene

Remainders
effectively in nature
tage. In

277
and to wrest
its

processes to

keeping with a

now

familiar outlook,
it

human men began

advanto feel
ideals.

that to

know

nature and to control

were convergent

What good
alley?^ It

to assert, in Aristotle's
if this

manner, that the natures of

things acted for "ends"

led either

nowhere or up a blind

would be much
for the

better to seek out

to rest comfortable in the

events happen than presumed knowledge of why they hapled to a search for efficient causes,

how

pen.

The search

how

the actual agencies involved in the step

by step occurrence of

physical processes.

This gave modern science a strong analytical turn, the ambition

being to dissect a process into the serial
prised
it.

activities

which com-

Analysis once initiated must be pursued to the end, for

it

science could not feel natural processes until

was understanding the ultimate "how" of

could discover the ultimate physical comIt led, therefore, to

it

ponents

efficiently

causing activity.

a reinstate-

ment of the atomic theory

at the center of scientific operations.

The
only

ultimate efficient causes at

work

in physical processes

were

these smallest elements of matter, influencing each other in the

way they could be

it is

plausibly conceived as influencing each

other, as

chunks of matter

in other

words, through mechanical

forces.^ Since

apparently impossible to conceive of mechanical

forces acting otherwise than in a uniform

and necessary manner,

the outlook of classical physics inevitably

became deterministic. When Laplace delivered his famous pronouncement in the 18th century, that for a hypothetical mind in possession of information
as to the position

and velocity of every ultimate

particle in the

universe, the whole future

would be predictable, he was merely

epitomizing a belief inherent in classical physics as such.

1

The

blind alley, for instance, of the explanation that

its

fire

"tends" upward

because
2

"natural place"

is

"up," or the blind alley that the heavenly

is

bodies travel in circular motion because the sphere

the perfect figure.

The pre-eminence of mathematics

is

directly connected with both the

analytical search for measurable constancies of interaction

and with the only kind of unity possible in a mechanical system, the unity of laws which applied to integral sections of this system.

278
Objective reality

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

came

to be envisaged in the

image of the new

mechanics and

this vision

seemed

to

be

justified

by the unprece-

dented prosperity of theory and practice which it made possible for the burgeoning science. For classical physics, notions like mass, velocity, position, volume, pressure, force and the like were
ultimate characteristics of an independently existing matter, and

not simply abstract instruments by which

world.

man made

his

way

in the

On

the contrary, "the" world

was the world which cor-

responded to these categories, and whatever features could not be reduced to these were relegated to a subsidiary mental, and hence
subjective, status.

This,

we have

seen,

was the

fate of the "secondary qualities,"

and

it

was also the

fate of the notion of

"quahty" in general. The

new

science
it

was a science of quantity;

qualities could find a place

within

only to the extent that they had measurable correlates:

thus, red

and green

as experienced are qualitatively

and therefore

incommensurably
proach
these

different,

but their correlated light-waves are

measurable and therefore

is

scientifically admissible.
it

Once

this

ap-

followed generally,

is

a short step to the belief that

demoted

qualities are not as

"reaUy real" as their assumed

scientific

quantitative basis.

The

real

world becomes, by

consensus,

a system of geometrically conceived material particles in motion.

We
which

have already seen some of the epistemological

difficulties

arise out of this view, notably the difficulties inherent in the

is

representationahst theory of perception. There

no need

to

go

over these again. The present remarks

will

be

chiefly

concerned

not with philosophy's problems with the views of science but with
science's confusion about
its

own

views. For,

what has occurred

of the convictions

in

modem

science

is

that the advances within science itself have

forced a confused re-evaluation of

of classical physics.
indefinite

many

or

all

The

picture of the atomic universe as an

number
together

of

sub-microscopic billiard balls soundlessly

clicking

according to the rules of mechanics can no

longer be held to be the portrait of the "real" world.

the image of the atom as a solid

Not only has

chunk of matter been found

Remainders
inapplicable, but
it is

279
by no means
clear that the

newer notion of
around

the

atom

as a miniature solar system with electrons in orbit

more literally. In fact, there is such wealth problems of now up for discussion in the philosophy of a science that it would not even be possible to mention them all in
a nucleus, can be taken any

any brief compass. Some attempt might be made to divide them

into

problems about the nature of

scientific

laws and principles on

the one hand, and problems about the status of the objects with

which science deals on the other.

second sort of problem
to the role

We

will concentrate

on the

(but these divisions surely overlap, due

inquiry)
first

and

of theory in identifying the "objects" of scientific

in doing so necessarily omit
scientific

some problems

of the

rank.

Are

"laws" coercive edicts for the behavior of

nature as classical physics tended to assume? Are they merely

descriptive

generalizations

of the

sequences of sense data,

as

Mach's positivism held

in the last century?

Are

they tautologies, as

some now hold?

or
is it

Is science's deterministic

law of causality absoas

lutely valid, as classical physics

assumed and

some

still

hold

a mere methodological rule as the Vienna Circle feels?

Can

the laws of statistics

and probability which govern miscroscopic

behavior really be incorporated into macroscopic order without

philosophic anomaly? Should the Uncertainty Principle be construed as modifying the law of causality or
is it

simply a sign of a

weakness in our powers of observation, as Einstein maintained?

Such are some of the questions which we must pass over, but
which would have to
arise in

any fuU discussion of the

episte-

mology of

science.

Even

in selecting the

second type of problem for concentration,

the treatment must be sketchy.

We

will

simply resort to the expe-

dient of organizing several perplexities of contemporary philosophy

of science around one central question:

reality

"What

is

the

mode

of

which

belongs to the objects about which science speaks?"

Atoms,
are in

electrons, protons, nuclei,

components are now

practically household words,

is

and the other sub-microscopic and that they

some sense

"real"

hardly open to question. But the precise

280
manner
them
in

The Philosophy
which
their reality

of
is

Knowledge
a matter of

ought to be conceived

extreme perplexity. The natural thing to do would be to regard

as real in the

same way

that chairs, tables, rocks,

and other

familiar objects are real, only

on a smaller

scale.

This was the

older view, and the one which has

now run

into apparently insu-

perable

difficulties.

There has occurred in contemporary physics

"crisis of

what might be called a

itself

explanation." Physics has found

entities

called

upon

to

speak of the

with which

it

deals in a
its own may be

way that casts doubt both on their mode of mode of comprehending. Three sources for
briefly cited:

reahty and on
the confusion

1)

Most

familiarly, there is the Uncertainty Principle of Heisit

enberg,^ according to which

is

impossible to state at the same

this

time the position and velocity of an electron. Experimentally,

impossibility derives
cient to detect
versely,
its

from the
light

fact that

any quantity of
its

light suffi-

position

would modify

velocity,
its

and confar as the

any quantity of

which would leave

velocity unaf-

fected

would not be

sufficient to reveal its position.

it

As

factual part of this situation goes,

is

indisputable: our instru-

ments of detection

in this case thwart the discovery they seek to

make

possible.

But so

far forth, the impossibility might

be re-

garded as a hmitation on our instruments.

One might

continue to

claim that the electron has a position and velocity, even though

man

is

too clumsy to detect

it.

This

is

the view which Einstein

is

defended, but the weight of contemporary physical authority

against him. According to the interpretation held by Heisenberg

and the Copenhagen school,

in principle. It
is

this impossibility is

an impossibility

in principle impossible to assert that the electron

has a definite position and velocity at the same time. Briefly, their
reasons are as foflows: at the sub-microscopic level,

have a

right to attribute

any features to

entities

we do not unless we can

3 See Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy (New York: Harper Torchbooks), 1962, asp. chapters III and X. For a popular explanation, see J. W. N. Sullivan, The Limitations of Science (New York: Mentor Books),

1949, p. 69ss.

Remainders
verify

281
(since these entities are not items for

them experimentally
if

observation alone); but

we assume
this

that the electron does have

a definite velocity and position simultaneously, the results of an

experiment conducted on
pectations;
if,

assumption

will

not

tally

with ex-

on
into

the other hand,

we

introduce the concept of

(as

"probability"

position

and velocity
tally

quantum physics
In other

does),

our observations
if it is

will

with expectations.

words,

right to assert that

an electron has a simultaneous

position

and
is

velocity, then the validity of

quantum physics
to

itself

(which

firmly
it is

established)

would have

be relinquished.

Therefore

not possible to speak of the electron having simul-

taneously definite position and velocity.

Now,

to

some

ears such a statement

as to invite instant dismissal

everything,

may seem so outlandish we may insist, must be

any given time. Yet to

somewhere and moving

this is so
is

at

some speed

at

mitigate this kind of protest,

we need
is

only remind ourselves that

like familiar objects,

only

if

the electron

an object

and that do not have

in

exactly the question. Thoughts and ideas, for instance,

to

be confined

to

any
idea

definite point of place.

is

have the idea of writing,

my

effectively in

When I my hand and

we might
ask

my

head

at the

same

time.

Or more
is

pertinently,

ourselves at what position a "wave"

is

situated.

The wave as such

back
to the issue.

not localizable at a definite position. These elementary consider-

ations solve nothing, of course, but they bring us

//

we

conceive an electron to be real as macroscopic objects are

real,

then the uncertainty principle, as well as other statements in

physics,

quantum
sider

becomes altogether opaque; but should we conthis

an electron in

way?
the

2) Secondly, there
nature of
light,

is

famous paradox
the

in

regard to the
status in

which now assumes

physics that the grace and free-will

ogy. Until the contemporary era,
light
it

same unresolved controversy assumed

had been
if

in theol-

largely accepted that

was propagated

properties,
explicable.

was so could various including the phenomenon of interference, be at aU

in waves.

Only

this

But there

is

now

equally incontrovertible evidence in

282
another direction; the photoelectric

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge
only to

effect, for instance, is

is

be explained

if

light

does not travel in waves but

called "quanta."

emitted in

discrete energy-packets

There

is,

then,

appar-

ently conclusive evidence for the fact that light

as consisting both in

must be conceived
this

waves and

in quanta.

Yet how can

be

imagined?
crete.

wave

is

a continuous phenomenon, quanta are dis-

How

can the same entity be the subject of such contradic-

tory predicates? Certainly

no image

that

succeed in representing such an entity

saying that
objects.
its

which

we can form can

is

ever

tantamount to

reality

cannot be comparable to that of perceptual

discovery which began the whole

3) Finally,
trouble.

we may

cite the

Max
levels,

Planck's discovery of the fact that atoms existed only

in discrete energy-states.

An

atom may

exist at higher or

lower

energy

but these levels have discrete values, and the atom

does not occupy levels intermediate between them.*

the anomaly of this,

To

appreciate

we may

think by analogy of a pot of water

being heated which, instead of passing continuously through a

progression of temperature states, existed

now

at

30 C, now

at

50

C, and now
Not only
is title

at
is

80 C. without ever being

at the intervening

stages.

there discontinuity of energy, but

many
at

feel

that there
is

to talk of discontinuity of position; at least, there

no

title

to say that

an electron successively observed

two

different positions

had

to pass through intervening positions beif

tween the observations. Obviously,

applicable to the
real in

such remarks are genuinely

atom and

its

components, an atom cannot be

any way analogous to the reahty of everyday objects and

its

the question of

mode
them

of reality

is

very

much

open.

One way
foregoing
is

of understanding the basis of such difficulties as the

to see

as manifestations of the

breakdown of the

"spectator" view of nature within science. Classical physics had

regarded

itself

as a

pure witness of natural events, to which

its

4 To explain this peculiarity consistently with the constellation picture of the atom, the notion of a "quantum jump" of an electron to a new orbit is well known.

Remainders
witnessing

283
difference, relying

made no

on a

strict

dichotomy be-

tween the subjective and the objective. This rested on a pecuhar unacknowledged conception of the scientist as a sort of disembodied observer, but
it

raised

no

particular scientific difficulties as

all,

long as macroscopic objects were involved; after

the influence

of the light by which I viewed a falling body or a puUey and

weight was neghgible enough to be discounted altogether. But, as

the Uncertainty Principle shows, this
scopic level.
nature,
is

no longer true

at the

micro-

The

scientist is

not only observer but participant in

and

this participation

may

well set Mmits to the accuracy

and even
Yet

to the

mode

of the knowledge

open

to him.
It revives

this physical interaction is

only part of the story.

the philosophical view of the relational character of the whole

perceptual field from which science sets out.

led to a disposition to emphasize
tional interaction"

And

it

has further

what might be called the "cogni-

between theory and observation. That

questions like the ones

of observation alone.

is why we have reviewed cannot be settled in terms The "objects" with which science deals are

not items for observation alone: they are joint referents of theory

and observation. The

in order to find a

scientist

cannot prescind entirely from theory

given, for without theory he does

raw empirical

not even
cal

know how to begin to look. The notion of a raw empiridatum now has the appearance of a limit-concept rather than
for the notion of a "bare fact"

something with which science begins.

The apphcation

becomes increas-

ingly difficult to determine, for in science theory has a

hand

in

deciding what the "facts" are. Often

stating a brute fact

when we
it

feel ourselves to

be
are

about experience,

will turn

out that

we

expressing a consequence of our theory.

is

vivid

example of

this

given by Stephen Toulmin.^

The

familiar declaration that there

is

an absolute zero below which temperature cannot fall (273 C.) sounds like an expression of a rather pecuhar empirical fact
about nature
5

as

if

for

some strange reason nature had decided

(New York: Harper

Stephen Toulmin, The Philosophy of Science Torchbooks), 1960, pp. 129-133.

284
that
it

The Philosophy
would refuse
to

of

Knowledge

to get colder than that. Actually, the existence

is

of an absolute zero
heat,

a consequence of our decision to measure

it

and

measure

in a certain way.

The very conception

be a lower

of

an Ideal Gas scale

logically entails that there will

limit,

for in such a scale temperature-units are defined with reference

to the pressure of an ideal gas,

fall

and

it is

impossible that pressure

below zero; hence any temperature defined with reference to

not a descriptive statement about a brute

decreasing pressure must have a lower limit. Thus, the statement

about absolute zero

fact of nature, but
is

is

a consequence of our theory.

Most
the

scientists

would probably agree with Ryle's opinion

not an object of inspection which
classical

that scientific concepts

are "theory-laden" rather than descriptive,^

is

Even

"atom"

is

divergently interpreted

by

and contemporary physics, but an object into whose

significantly differ-

conception theory enters essentially: the atom of classical physics

and the atom of contemporary physics are two

ent objects.

In one obvious respect the changed attitude of science

healthy
sign.

is

For

it

bespeaks an end to the "imperialism of

scientist to

method" which had too long caused the

his sort of cognition.

dismiss as

unreal those features of reality which were not available through

There

is

much more

disposition

on the part

of contemporary philosophers of science to recognize the abstract

character of their

own method and

to refrain

from hypostasizing

the traits of reality with which this

pied.

method

is

exclusively preoccu-

As Eddington has pointed out,^ it would be a basic error for one who uses a fish net with two-inch holes to declare dogmatically that all fish in the

ocean are larger than two inches. Just

is

so,

the

scientist

whose method

abstractly quantitative

can only

"catch" those features in the ocean of reality which can be

caught by

this

method. Instruments have built-in limitations, and

is

the theory which

^
"^

the prime instrument of science allows

it

to

Dilemmas, Tpp. 90-91. The Philosophy of Physical Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press), 1949, pp. 16, 62.

Remainders
select out of the matrix of experience only certain aspects.

285
The
succumb
tendency

philosophically reflective scientist will not

to the

to project the abstract results of his quantitative

method

into inde-

pendent

reality,

nor to derogate the cognitional value of other

aspects of experience to which his method,

his access. It
is

by

definition, prevents

one of the achievements of contemporary philosto

ophy of science

have roused

itself

from a dogmatic rut and

progressed towards this acknowledgment.

MORAL AND AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE

If a brief

treatment of the problem of science

is

presumptuous,

so

is

a mere glance at the cognitive status of moral and aesthetic

experience. Yet not to glance at aU in this direction would be to

omit one of the important topics of current epistemological

est,

inter-

and so we
issue

will

once again be sketchy rather than

put thus
:

default.

The

may be

in

what sense do moral and

aesthetic
tell

experience give us knowledge?

Do

these experiences merely

us something about our individual selves in our individuality or

do they allow us
which
is

to stand in the presence of a facet of reality

really there

and otherwise inaccessible? Nobody and upon

is

in

the habit of claiming extra-individual value for his experiences of

pain, or disappointment, or fatigue, or anger,
sophisti-

cated reflection
are

it

might be

felt

that

moral and aesthetic feelings

no more revelatory of

reality

than these. Yet

we must beware
should not too

of proceeding too quickly here. Just because certain "feelings" are

non-cognitional does not

hastily dichotomize

mean

that

all

are.

We

knowledge and

feeling, for there is the clear

possibility that certain

feeling.

knowledge may only be obtainable through

Unfortunately even

common

sense has a tendency to do

just this

to

expand a concern

to eliminate emotion,

which may
a

be desirable in certain areas, to a

total rejection of the cognitive

all.

value of experiences in which emotion shares at

Louis Reid, Ways of Knowledge and Experience,

But

this is

p. 81.

286
false "objectivity." It

The Philosophy of Knowledge

assumes that
all facets

of reality are accessi-

ble

from the same mental vantage-point

and

there
if I

is

nothing
to get

self-evident about this assumption. It

may be

that

want

the scientific picture of the physical universe or to get the details

of an auto accident, I

must discount the prejudicial influence of

interests.

my own
that
I
if I

emotions or of others'

But that does not prove

is

want

to

know whether
all

justice or

beauty

extra-individual,

must eschew

emotional involvement and assume the attitude

of a neutral observer

for this

may

guarantee

my

inability to

observe what

is

really there.

Our

discussion

wiU

largely

content

itself

with making that

1|

distinction clear, without attempting the extremely difficult task

of deciding

how

can determine whether a particular picture

right or

is

beautiful, or

more

beautiful than another, or whether a specific

is

course of conduct

wrong. Questions like

this

are of

considerable everyday interest and even urgency, but they are

better left to the philosophy of art or to ethics.

Our question
and
ethics

is

more

like asking

whether the philosophy of

art

have

anything to argue about

status at
all. It is

whether

their disputes

have cognitional

a question of the realm of reality into which

aesthetic experience. Is there

we
any

are introduced

by moral and

conclusive objection to considering this as extra-individual?

logical positivist has a simple

The

answer to

this question, his

"emotive

theory" of value. Only statements which can be sensibly verified

are meaningful

and cognitional, according

to him; other statements

do

not, in spite of their propositional form,

make

assertions about

reahty but are equivalent to exclamations.^ "Promises ought to be

is beautiful" are, on this basis, no more revelatory of reality than is the exclamation "Ouch!" They are more refined expressions of approval or disapproval, but are

kept" or "Beethoven's Fifth

revelations of subjective individual reactions only.

Now
who
9

the obvious difficulty once this issue

it.

is

raised

is

in deciding

settles

Every answer

to a disputed question

must be given

Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, chapter VI.

Remainders
by an answering consciousness and the problem
is

287
in deciding

"who" responds. Certainly

the neutral observer cannot really claim

to settle the question, for the necessary data are not available to

him: surely no moral hero and no poet would suppose that the

him would be there if he looked as a "neutral observer" might look. Moral and aesthetic
exalted countenance which reality turns to

values are revealed only to one

who

experiences the exigence for

them;

if

we

deliberately set this exigence aside, there seems

way

of authenticating their reality

any

no

more than

the poet's

emotion could solve an equation or validate an

ment. But this in turn poses a problem.
function of an exigence, do
feel this exigence,

historical

docuis

If reality in this

realm
If

we not
if

again beg the question?

we
not

we

will subscribe to the ontological uniqueness

of the moral and aesthetic realm;

we do not

feel

it,

we

will

so subscribe. Between these positions there seems to be no effective

mediation possible.
travel in a circle.

One way

or the other,

we seem condemned

to

The

difficulty

probably stems from our spontaneous need to

as the hallmark of true cognition. Failing

establish universality

some kind of standard of universahty, we fear that we may be left at the mercy of subjectivism, everyone saying what he pleases and
taking refuge in the contention that he sees what others do not see.
If

one

is

really seeing something,

it

we

tend to expect that others

to

ought to be able to see

too.

Genuine awareness ought

be

at

least universahzable in principle,

like this

we would

think. Considerations
title

were what precluded Kant's conceding the

"knowl-

edge" to the moral and aesthetic realms, even though he was

perhaps the foremost contributor to their philosophical exploration:^'*

In the moral and aesthetic areas, the objective pole of

is

experience

not characterized by beiag coercively imposed, sublaws,

sumed under
tific

and pubUcly available

this in

in the

manner of

scien-

knowledge. With

mind, too, certain

modem

Kantians

have

tried to enlarge his conception of consciousness, so as to

10 The Critique of Practical Reason is devoted to moral experience, and Critique of Judgment in great part to aesthetics.

288

The Philosophy

of

Knowledge

grant cognition scope beyond his confines: Ernst Cassirer sought

to enlarge the Kantian notion of a synthesis, so that every symbolic

unification of experience

found a cognitive place, from science to

myth.^^ T.

M. Greene

tries to

show

that the

moral and aesthetic

realms possess the Kantian characteristics of objectivity in their

own way and

is

deserve the

title

of cognition.^-

Yet Greene admits

that the consciousness for

which these

characteristics are present

not the subject-in-general of phenomenal knowledge, but a

special "cultivated" consciousness

and

so again,

we tend

to be-

come

circular.

It is

not evident that there

is

any way out of

this circle.

The

universality

which we desire

to characterize

knowledge seems to

be an aspiration, an ideal to which the individual consciousness

refers itself

and from which

this

it

seeks to

draw sustenance.

If

we

were to confuse

aspiration to universality with either a real

or potential unanimity on the part of a factual

it

human community,
insisting

would be

difiicult to

grant cognitive status to moral and aesthetic

experience. Dietrich

von Hildebrand follows the path of

to

that the reahty of moral values in particular, but also of aesthetic

values,

must be viewed without reference

is

any consensus. For

von Hildebrand, a value

justifies itself

an autonomous datum, as irreducibly

it:
it

given as any in terms of which anyone would seek to justify

through

its

own luminous
its

presence, and no one

who

really stands in the presence of a value

would
to

feel

it

necessary

that others also acknowledge

presence."

Martin Heidegger, too, instead of trying

break the

circle,

jumps

into

it.

The

poet, Heidegger holds,

is

is

the voice of the holy.^*

Poetic experience

the revelation of the trans-phenomenal depth

11 See Ernst Cassirer, An Essay on Man (Garden City: Doubleday Anchor Books), 1956, pp. 15-41, 87-97. 12 Theodore Meyer Greene, Moral, Aesthetic, and Religious Insight (New

Brunswick: Rutgers University Press), 1957, esp. pp. 24-28, 59, 77. 13 Dietrich von Hildebrand, Christian Ethics (New York: David McKay), 1953, pp. 34-63, 169-281.
14

and Being,

See the essay on "Holderlin and the Essence of Poetry" in Existence trans, by Werner Brock (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co.), 1949.

Remainders
of Dasein, but
it is

289
a revelation accessible only to the poet and to

his genuine audience.

He who

has ears to hear, he hears

this, as

and
is

that
to

is

the end of

it.

We

might extend

Heidegger does not,

moral experience. Man's experience of himself as one who

is

called upon to actuaMze moral values

as a being transcendent in relation to
this call
is

the experience of himself

phenomenal experience. But

present as

call, as

appeal, and his affirmation of this

realm of being always has the character of a response. His assertion that he inhabits a unique moral realm
is

inseparable from his

is

decision to inhabit that realm. Experience in this realm

tional,

cogni-

but

it is

cognitional as appeal. Perhaps I

existence

may

affirm

some-

thing about

my
I

from within the moral and

aesthetic
this affir-

realm which

cannot affirm without that realm, and yet

It

mation

is

never "automatically imposed" on me.

shares with

existential

knowledge the character of being a "free certitude,"

freedom
is

and

it

gives us further reason to believe that man's

never absent from

his being.

the assertion of the transcendent dimension of

13 REPRISE
now
we have

Let us

briefly retrace the

steps

followed in this

philosophical exploration.

The

epistemological question,

mental ambivalence of the

not present to his
existence with
as
its

we found, arises from the fundahuman situation: man both is and is

of his finitude and temporahty, has

own

experience. This non-coincidence of man's

itself,

the

mark
is

cognitive counterpart the non-coincidence of his knowledge

itself:

with

just as

man

not what he

is,

so he does not

know
as

what he knows. This cognitional non-coincidence

as

may be
and

regarded

a fissure between thought and experience,

itself.

also

an

estrangement of thought from

is

an attempt
its

to permit thought to
it is

The philosophy of knowledge come into explicit recognition

Knowledge
is

of

own

essence;

thought's effort to express and exhibit to

tied

itself

the grounds

of steadfast certitude.
is

to

expression: to

"know"

not only to experience but to express

one's experience to oneself.

The judgment

is

a pivotal form of
is

expression, but the real preoccupation of epistemology

with the

ground of judgment: the nature, range, and origin of evidence.

While human thought
cannot consume
is

characterized by the appearance/reality

distinction, this distinction

its

cannot render aU thought

null, since

it

own

foundation: man's questioning existence.

With

this realization, subjectivism is

is

overcome. The subject which

the subject which exists out

raises the epistemological question

of the primordial question and thus already surpasses the isolated

Cartesian ego. There can be no irreducible problem of the exist-

Reprise

291
is

ence of the non-self, for questioning consciousness

bi-polar:
real
it is

essentially

the cognitional side of man's being-in-the-world.

is

The

problem

not of the reality of the other, but of

its

status.

The

status of the non-self

may

vary, but the

same

situational

existence which surmounts subjectivism conversely seems to pre-

clude the "pure objectivity" of the rationahst. Knowledge

a-letheia, always the revelation of being,

is

always

but

this un-veiling

cannot

be
to

totally

detached from the situational existence of the subject

which

it is

made.
of being

In the same vein, knowledge must have an analogical character.

The presence

is

not revealed in the same way, for examit is

ple, in sense perception as

to abstract thought, personal exist-

ence, or moral experience. In

no case

is

consciousness purely
is

"subjective," but the import of the reference to a non-self

clearer in

some

cases than in others.

is

The

precise assertion of

"objectivity"

which

underwritten by sense perception remains

especially obscure,

and while we reviewed the various opinions, we emphasized that in this area, the very meaning of "objectivity"
stands in need of

much
is

greater clarification.

The

fact remains that

sense experience

not inteUigible in terms of "private experi-

ence":

it

even has a certain primacy as the most immediate and

pervasive actualization of our being-in-the-world, the life-breath

of

human

existence.

In the search for a more unconditional assertion, caution must

be exercised. There

is

always a distance between the plenitude of

meaning contained
the issue of truth

in the primordial question

assertion. All assertion contracts the original question.

is

and the order of Yet since

specifically raised in the order of assertion,

what

I at least

to affirm.
assertion,

know is that I can a5rm Then there is a justice to the

is,"

unconditionally

my

right

claim that the primitive

"something

and the

first

principles issuing

from

it

are unconditionally

known. Even

this claim,

however,

is

subject to

the reservation that these principles are cognitional absolutes in a

being which

is

not an existential absolute: that

is,

even

this sort

292
of knowledge
itself
is

The Philosophy
affected

of

Knowledge

and the

fissure

by the non-coincidence of thought with between man's thought and his existence, and

they should not be regarded as "automatically self-validating" in

an abstract way. Kant's objection that these principles cannot have a transcendent use would only be valid if they were purely formal
rules,

empty of

content.

To

recognize that they are

more than

this

depends on recognizing that the idea of "being" really has content;

this recognition, in turn,

cannot be achieved except by the singular

subject in

all his

singularity

and contingence. Hence the recognition

first

of the concretely absolute character of the

principles

is

continual achievement of thought, a hved transmutation of exist-

ence into thought which

intelligibility
It

is

at the

same time an appropriation of

by my was not held

existence.

that the primitive assertion provides the sole

trans-temporal assurance possible for thought.

a total openness to the real.
arises
ity.

As

affirmer, I

am

The

content of affirmation, however,

from the side of

this

my

existence. I affirm the presence of real-

In

affirmation concepts play a key role. Nevertheless,

concepts cannot be satisfactorily looked upon as merely registering

what
ally.

is

already contained in experience considered pre-conceptu-

Ideas are creative apprehensions of presences.

They

are an

attempt to take up

my

total existence into the

is

order of expression.

Their universal character

also

an expression of presence: a

revelation of reality as specifically mind-ful, as answering to mind.

In this light the controversy between rationalist and empiricist as

to

whether there
it is

is

anything more in ideas than in experience

is

vain one:
bility

based upon

the error of thinking that the intelligi-

of a concept must be either "dependent

if

upon" or "indeexplicitly

pendent of" experience. But

sion,

a concept

is

a creative apprehen-

then, like the artist's creative idea,

its

meaning

emerges in a perpetual dialectical interplay with experience. Like

the
artists's idea, it
is

both transcends the temporality of processive

it.

experience and

only revealed in

Here seems

to reside the

relevance of such views as pragmatism, sociologism and histori-

Reprise
cism. The meaning of our we read them back out of

293
concepts explicitly emerges to view as
the very experiences which they

make

possible: the conviction of the

adequacy of

this explicit
it

meaning
plainly.

becomes firmer

as the canvas of existence reveals

more

This dialectical relation by no means eUminates the possibility

of trans-temporal insight or

makes every judgment

is

liable to future

reversal. Just as the artist, while not able to give

an exhaustive

account of his creative idea, can recognize what

it,

compatible with

so though

man

cannot give an exhaustive account of his con-

cepts (such as, "person," "liberty," "justice," etc.) he nevertheless

can,

when
is

his

consciousness

is

sufficiently developed, recognize

what

compatible with them. Thus the perspectival character of

its

thought, including

social

and

historical dimensions, does not

is

eliminate the possibility of truth but rather

the process of painting
idea.
is

integral to

it,

just as

integral to the recognition of the creative

is

concept (at least one which

not purely formal)

is

not a

brittle

thought-checker with clearly marked outlines, but a pleni-

tude of potential meaning.

To know

the meaning of a concept

it,

is

not equivalent to being able to define

set

and hence the dichotomy

a false

up by
if

logical positivism

between merely tautologous necessary

is

judgments and essentially corrigible empirical statements

one:
ideas are creative apprehensions,

we may have

genuine

trans-temporal insights into experience.

Since the content of affirmation arises from the side of our
existence, the character of
is

knowledge must be analogical. There

is

a range of presence, since presence

a function of

my mode

of

existing. Perceptual objects, scientific entities, persons,

moral val-

ues,

and the transcendent dimension of existence cannot be present

manner.
If,

in a univocal

for example, the I-thou experience

self is

is

unique way in which the

irreducible

open

to the non-self,

it

has an

and irreplaceable cognitional

manifold.

value.

The meaning of

evidence

is

Some
Hence

evidence

may be

in function of

my

singular subjectivity.

the search for certitude cannot be

construed as a search for rehef from the weight of singular exist-

294
ence.

The Philosophy of Knowledge

Such a search
is

a quest not for assurance but for re-assur-

ance, and

would

risk taking refuge either in

formahsm or

in a

social consensus.

Now
man

there

is

some

legitimate place even for this latter, since for

It is

"seeing"

is

"seeing together."

clear that

man

is

most

comfortable in dealing with "things," a thing being a triplex of

concept, sense, and action.
of a social convergence. It

As
is

such, a thing tends to be a correlate

no accident that

man

feels

most

at

home

in using the

word "knowledge"
practicality,

in the re-assuring realm of

science

and every day

is

where the appUcabihty of

is

"thing"
is

clear-cut.

But transcendence

not a "thing": hence

it

known only

analogously. For instance, even though a

is

man may
still

contend that he "knows" that the soul

to die. This fear

immortal, he
if

fears

would be

literally

insane

"knowing"

in the

realm of the transcendent meant exactly the same thing as "knowing" in the phenomenal realm: one

who was

afraid to enter a

room

in

which he knew a pleasant time awaited him would be

psychotic.

Even

the notion of a "proof" undergoes a modification

for every affirmation of the

in the region of the transcendent,

transcendent involves the response of

concrete of
all

my

freedom.

It is

the most
creative

affirmations,

and supremely requires

I

my

participation in the truth

which

pronounce. Perhaps as
in the

man
his

fashions his

human

existence

more and more

image of

creative intuition of transcendence, this social convergence will

bestow on knowledge of the transcendent something of the psychological security of our knowledge of "things";
if

so,

history

has a very positive contribution to

In conclusion,
it

make

to

knowledge.

should be emphasized that the view here

enunciated does not lead to arbitrariness. Just because there are

different types of things

which are sayable, we cannot conclude

that everyone has a right to say

instinct

what he

pleases. It

is

a correct
attribute

which leads us

to associate

knowledge with the

of universality.

What

is

always contrasted to knowledge, through-

out

its

range,

is

an assertion which has only intra-individual value.

is

In effect what

we have emphasized

that there

is

a universahty

Reprise

295
For example, we cannot check a

proper to different realms of experience, and that they are not

transferrable.
scientific

pronounce-

ment purely

in terms of poetic experience, nor evaluate

moral

experience purely in terms of perceptual data. But that does not

make any moral pronouncement or any scientific acceptable. The moral fanatic and the victim
For
this

assertion equally

of hallucination

cannot take refuge in the claim that they see what others miss.
claim
is

made

in respect to realms

which establish
to

their

own canons

of truth. Error

and confusion continue

be possible

within each realm, but only the moral consciousness can recognize moral error, only the aesthetic consciousness aesthetic error,

and so

forth.

One who demanded an

matically guarantee

extrinsic criterion

which would autoactually

him
as

against going

wrong would
I

be

guUty of arbitrariness; for he would be misconstruing what knowl-

edge
it

is.

He

treats

it

something which
into

"have," something, as

were, into which

is
is.

may come

"permanent possession." But

knowledge
experience

the reflective expression of what I

am

or what

my

Both

my

experience and

its

expression admit of

endless purification, but this does not eradicate their cognitional

value. In this purification,

an indispensable element
it

is

the dialog

between minds. In the long run,

is

"we" who

think,

and "we"
it is

who know.

True, knowledge
I

is

a supremely personal act, yet

know myself to participate in an order of universal meaning. The existing universal which is human communion, in which my thought is born, is the medium through which I
an act by which
belong to the cognitional universal, to
truth.

RELATED READING

The primary

sources and

many

of the secondary sources germane to

the subject matter of each chapter have been mentioned in the notes
to the chapters; for the

most

part, the following bibliography does not

duplicate books already mentioned, but adds further related material

and

is

meant

to be supplementary in

a limited and selective

vi'ay.

Numbers
I.

refer to the chapters.

An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. T. E. New York and London, Putnam, 1912. W. Macneile Dixon, The Human Situation, New York, Oxford
Henri Bergson,

Hulme,

University Press, 1958.

D. M. Harding, The Hierarchy of Heaven and Earth,

York, Harper, 1953.
Jose

New

Ortega y Gasset,

What

is

Philosophy?,

trans.

Mildred

L.

Adams, New M. Regis, O,

Byrne,

York, W. W. Norton
P.,

&

Co., 1960.

Epistemology

trans.

Imelda Choquette
Philosophy,

New

York, Macmillan, 1959.

II.

James

Collins,

History of

Modern European

Milwaukee, Bruce, 1954.

Etienne Gilson and
cartes to Kant,
III.

Thomas Langan, Modern

Existential

Philosophy, Des1963.

New York, Random House,

Press, 1960.
S. J.,

William A. Luijpen,
William
Richardson,

Phenomenology, Pittsburgh,
to Thought,

Duquesne University
J.

From Phenomenology

IV.

The Hague, John V. Canfield and Franklin H. Donnell, Jr., Readings in the Theory of Knowledge, New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts,
1964.

Martinus Nijhoff, 1964. (on Heidegger)

298
Maxwell
J.

Related Reading
Charles worth, Philosophy and Linguistic Analysis,

Pittsburgh,

Duquesne University

Press, 1959.

Thomas

E. Hill, Contemporary Theories of Knowledge,

New

York, Ronald Press, 1961.

John A. Passmore,
V.

A Hundred

Years of Philosophy, London,

Gerald Duckworth, 1957.

Peter Coffey, Epistemology,

London and New York, Longmans,

VL

Green and Co., 1917, 2 vols., vol. IL Harry R. Klocker, S. J., Thomism and Modern Thought,
York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962.
Jacques Maritain, Distinguish to
Unite,

New

or The Degrees of

Knowledge, newly
Phelan,

trans,

under supervision of Gerald B.

|

New
cit.,

York, Scribner, 1959.

vol.
I.

VIL

Coffey, op.

Etienne

Gilson,

The Christian Philosophy of

St.

Thomas

Aquinas, trans. L. K. Shook,

1956, pp. 187-248.

New

York,

Random House,
Paris,

Yves Simon, Introduction a VOntologie du Connattre,

Desclee de Brouwer, 1934.
St.

Thomas Aquinas, On Truth and

Falsity

and on Human
Theologiae,
I,

Knowledge, Chicago, Regnery, 1941.

VIII.

{Summa

qu. 16, 17, 84-88, prepared for the Great

Books Foundation.)

George Boas, The Limits of Reason,

Knowledge,
Springfield,

New

York, Harper, 1961.

Irving L. Horowitz, Philosophy, Science

111.,

and the Sociology of

Thomas, 1961.

William James, Pragmatism and four essays from The Meaning of Truth,

New

York, Meridian Books, 1955.

J.

Raymond Klibansky and H.

History,

Paton,

edit.,

Philosophy and

New

York, Harper Torchbook, 1963.

Jacques Maquet, The Sociology of Knowledge, trans. John F.

Locke, Boston, Beacon Press, 1951

(a critical analysis of

Karl

Mannheim and

Pitirim Sorokin).

Heinrich Rickert, Science and History; a Critique of Positivist Epistemology, trans., George Reisman, New York, Van Nostrand, 1962.

IX.

Frederick Copleston,

S.

J.,

Contemporary Philosophy, Studies

Existentialism, Westminster, Md.,

in Logical Positivism

and

Newman

Press, 1956.

Related Reading
Robert O. Johann,
S. J.,

299
"The Return
to Experience,"

The Re-

view of Metaphysics, XVII, 319-339 (March 1964).

X.

James

Collins,

The

Existentialists,

Chicago, Regnery, 1952.

of Knowing, trans., Walter

Jean Daniel ou,

Roberts,

God and

the

Ways

New York,

Meridian Books, 1957.

Karl Jaspers, The Perennial Scope of Philosophy, trans. Ralph

Manheim, New York, Philosophical Library, 1949. Kurt Reinhardt, The Existentialist Revolt, Milwaukee, Bruce,
1952.

XI.

R. C. Kwant, Encounter, Pittsburgh, Duquesne Univ. Press,

1960.

Gabriel Marcel, Royce's Metaphysics, trans. Virginia and Gor-

don Ringer, Chicago, Regnery, 1956.

Roger Troisfontaines,
Paris, J. Vrin, 1953.
S.
J.,

De
II,

I'existence

I'etre.

2 Vols.,

Tome

pp.

10-60 (on Marcel).

XII.

a)

Arthur

S.

Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World,

New York,

Macmillan, 1929.

Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy,

per Torchbooks, 1962.

New

York, Har-

Max

Planck,

The

New

Science, three complete works, trans.

James Murphy and W. H. Johnston,

Books, 1959.

New

York, Meridian

b) Ernst Cassirer, The Problem of Knowledge, trans.

W. H.

Woglom and
W.

Charles

W.

Hendel,

New

Haven, Yale Uniin Aesthetics,

versity Press, 1950.

E. Kennick, Art

and Philosophy, Readings

New

York,

St.

Martin's Press, 1964.

(readings).

Joseph Margolis, Philosophy Looks at the Arts

New York,

Scribner, 1962.

Jacques Maritain, Creative Intuition in Art and Poetry,

New

York, Pantheon Books, 1953.

Yves Simon, Critique de

gerie, 1934,

la

Connaissance morale, Paris, Laber-

Dietrich

von Hildebrand, Christian

Ethics,

New

York, David

McKay

Co., 1953, pp. 34-63, 169-281.

INDEX

Absolute, knowledge as open

to,

Causality
philosophical principle of, 135-

62, 128-131, 140, 146, 194

Abstraction, theory of, 167-168

136

Action, and knowledge, 151, 187-

and

science,

140-141

191

Certitude, 9,

Analogy
of being, 17

27 absolute, 129-130
"free,"

246-250

of knowledge, 15-19
Analytical propositions, 219

types of, 147-151

Childe, Vere, 16, 193
Circle, epistemological,

A
St.

priori, 116,

143-144, 199

59-61

Aristotle, 3, 156, 161,

216-111

Cogito, 27-33, 163

Augustine,
J.,

5, 32,

231, 246

Common
178

sense, 7-9,

68-69
171152-

Ayer, A.

91-95, 213-218, 286

as creative apprehensions,

distinguished

from

sense,

Bacon, Sir Francis, 276

157

Being
as absolute idea, 129, 146

and experience, 177-178, 190

Conceptualism, 160-163
Connaturality, knowledge by, 20

not an objectified notion, 238,

244-245
Bergson, Henri, 178, 217, 226
Berkeley, George Bishop, 76-83

Consciousness
bi-polarity of,

47-51
of,

diverse

realms

125-126,

Broad, C. D., 90-91, 97-98 Brunner, Auguste, 57-58

Buber, Martin, 267-275
Burtt, E. A.,

287
intentionality of,

49
perceptual,

judgmental

and

120

119-121
not a container, 44-47
not a thing, 67

Cassirer, Ernst,

288

302
Consciousness (Cont.)
of self, 49-50 structure of, 44
Existential

Index
aspects

of

knowing,

12-15
ss.

Existentialism,

226-250

Contradiction, principle of, 131-

132
Creative character of knowledge,

de Finance, Joseph, 224, 245

Finitude, 13

171-178, 183,204-205,249-

Forms, Plato's theory

163

of, 42, 160,

250
Criterion of truth, 24,

246-247

Foundations of knowledge, 61-62

Gilson, Etienne, 9-10, 11

Descartes, Rene, 7, 63, 148, and

all

"Given," 221

of Chapter 2

God
knowledge
Gorgias, 11
of,

Determinism, 140-141

242-246, 275
for,

Dewey, John,
Doubt, 152

69,

187-197

ontological argument

38

Dialog, 57-58, 65-66, 295

Greene, T. M., 288

critical, 25ss.

dream-doubt, 29-30, 40-43

Hartmann, Nicolai, 186

Hegel, G.

Dualism, Cartesian, 40
Eddington, Sir Arthur
97,

W.

F.,

51,

132,

197,

232, 267
S.,

84,

95-

Heidegger, Martin,
65,

5,

18,

53-55,

284 280

288-289
Werner,
118, 141,

Einstein, Albert,

Heisenberg,

Empiricism, sense, 71, 158-159,

280-281

222
Epistemology
def.,

12

von Hildebrand, Dietrich, 218225, 288 Hirst, R. J., 93-94

Historicity,

method, 19-23
Error
not in senses, 104-105

197-206

Hoenen, Peter, 138-139 Hume, David, 141-147, 209-213

Husserl,

paradox
Essence

of,

2426

Edmund,

49,

66,

123,

sources of, 27, 105-106

228-231
Idealism, epistemological, 35

knowledge
187

and existence, 130-131 of, 171-178, 179ontological

Ideas
as objects of

knowing, 72-75

and gnoseological,

Descartes'

clear

and
of,

distinct,

183
Evidence, 20, 147-148, 226-231

37-38
Identity,

principle

131-132

Index
Illusion, 8,

303
89-90
social
of,

Images, and distortion of thought,

and historical dimensions 197-206

201-202,
5

44-47, 172-173, 226-228

Induction, 207-218
Insight, 201,

through concepts, 153-157

as

trans-temporal,

219-222
167

219-221
variety in

Intentionality, 49,

meaning

of,

Interpersonal

experience,

266Language
and distortion of thought, 47
essentially social,

275
Intuition

Descartes on, 38
in

58

von Hildebrand, 218-221

"ordinary language," 100-102

"two-language" theory, 91-92,

James, William,

96, 99
1

Laplace, Pierre, 141, 277

Judgment, 19, 119, 168-170

primary, 130

"Laws of nature," 210, 279

Lean, Martin, 97-99
Lewis, C.
I.,

193, 201, 203

Kant,

Immanuel,

52,

116-117,

Locke, John, 70-75

Logical positivism, 246. See also

142-147, 203-204, 287-288

Kierkegaard, Soren, 14, 231-236

Ayer.

Knowledge
and
action,
of,

Love, 21, 270-275

187-191 15-19

analogy

Mannheim,
171-178
241,

Karl, 199-200

by connaturality, 20
creative character of,

Marcel, Gabriel, 21, 51-53, 236243,

245,

247,

248,

of essences, 171-187

249, 267-275

and existence, 12-15, 62 and expression, 19-20, 271

as identification,
indefinable, 15

Marechal, Joseph, 130, 176

Maritain, Jacques,

7-8,

12,

20,

46

183
Material objects, notion
95, 98
of,

91-

and love, 21, 271-274 Plato's theory of, 42 proper object of human, 223225 question as fundamental form of, 61-67
of
self,

Matter, 80

Mead, George H., 267 Mechanism, 277

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 56-57,

123
Mill,

50

John

Stuart, 93,

253-255

of the singular, 170

situational character of, 51ss.

Miller, Barry, 17

Moore, G.

E.,

88-89

304
Mystery

Index
Plato, 3, 4, 6, 42, 158, 160, 161,

Moral experience, 285-289 vs. problem, 236-241

"Natural view," 66

163, 164, 246

Polanyi, Michael, 205

Pragmatism, 187-197
Cardinal,
Principles,
first,

Newman, John Henry

150

131-140

Protagoras, 11
Proust, Marcel, 125

Nominalism, 157-160

Noumena, Kant
Objectivity,

on,

16-117

Psychology, distinct from episte-

mology, 22, 167-168

Pyrrho, 11
of,

ambiguity in meaning

119Qualities, sense,

127

69-70

and relativity 197-203

Objects,

of

knowledge,

primary and secondary, 73-75,

108-110, 123, 125, 195, 278
85-86, 195

of

science,

118-119,

tertiary,

279-285
Ortega y Gasset, Jose, 18, 55-56,

Question, as fundamental cognition, 63ss.

64
Ostensive signification, 97-100

Realism, 9-10, 35

Other minds, 251-260

immediate, 110
for,

argument by analogy 255

253-

moderate, 163
naive, 68-70, 103
virtual,

108-119

Paradigm argument, 95-97

Pascal, Blaise, 231,

Regis, L. M., 17, 22

246

Reid, Louis Arnauld, 285

Relativism, 11, 200
Relativity of knowledge, 197-203.

Perception, Chapters 5 and 6

objectivity of,

113-115

and science, 83-87, 112, 118119

See also Sensations, Concepts.

Representationalism, 75, 86-87

Phantasm, 174

van

Riet, Georges, 22,

183

Phenomena, Kant on, 116-117, 143-144

Phenomenalism, 91-95, 107

Rousselot, Pierre, 171, 177, 183,

231
Royce, Josiah, 266267
Russell, Bertrand, 16, 22, 36,

Phenomenology,

228-231.

See

88-

also Husserl, Heidegger,

Mer-

89
Ryle, Gilbert, 40, 101-102, 284

leau-Ponty, Marcel, von Hil-

debrand.
Pieper, Josef, 181
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 14,

263-265

Planck, Max, 282

Scepticism,

9-12

Index
Scheler,

305
Max,
69, 201, 254,

261-

Sympathy, 262-263
Tautology,
necessary

263
Science
truth
as,

and perception, 83-87 philosophy of, 276-285

world view
of, 8,

213-215
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 205

74-75, 276-

Testimony, 150-151
Theory, and
fact,

277
Scientism,
Self

283-284
of,

83-87

"Thing,"

notion

144,

203-

204, 294
St.

consciousness of, 49-50

social character of, 260,

Thomas Aquinas,

22, 48-49,

266-

167, 171-172, 174, 181,

222

267
Sensations
conditions for, 105
objectivity of, 86-87, 113
relational character of, 108, 123

Time, 13-14
Toulmin, Stephen, 283-284
Transcendence, 242-246, 275
Transcendental ego, 229-231

Truth
def.,

Sense-datum theory, 87-95

Sensibles,

19

proper

and common,

criterion of, 24,

246

106, 111-112

pragmatism and, 191-193

of the trans-phenomenal, 243-

Sextus Empiricus,

Shame, 264-265
Situation, being-in-a-,

248

51-58

trans-temporal

character

of,

Smith,

Norman Kemp, 37
233-234
233-234,

201-202, 219-221
Universality
as criterion for truth,

Sociology of knowledge, 197-206

Socrates, 3, 156,

Solipsism,

35-36

287-288,

Soul, immortality of,

294-295
not
equivalent
to

274
Spencer,

impersonal

W.
L.

Wylie, 258
Susan, 95-97, 99-

Stark, Werner, 199, 200, 201

244-245 Universals, 152-157, 164-166

validity,

Stebbing,

100

Verifiability, principle of,

215

van Steenberghen, Fernand, 22, 111-112, 114-115

Subjectivism,
Subjectivity,

Whitehead, Alfred North, 75

Wilhelmsen, Frederick, 22

33-36
231-236, 241, 244,
principle
of,

248-250
Sufficient

Wisdom, John, 256-257 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 100-102

Wonder, 3-7
World, being-in-a-, 51-58

reason,

132-135

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