Noise Measurement and Instrumentation

Topics: Introduction Sound Measurement Sound Intensity Mapping & source identification Instrumentation Sound Power Sound Power Measurement

Introduction
Sound is a sensation of acoustic waves (disturbance/pressure fluctuations setup in a medium).

Unpleasant, unwanted, disturbing sound is generally treated as Noise and is a highly subjective feeling.

Introduction

Noise Measurement and Instrumentation

Topics: Introduction Sound Measurement Sound Intensity Instrumentation Intensity Spectrum Level Sound Power Sound Power Measurement
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Sound Measurement Provides definite quantities that describe and rate sound. Permit precise, scientific analysis of annoying sound (objective means for comparison). Help estimate Damage to Hearing. Powerful diagnostic tool for noise reduction program: Airports, Factories, Homes, Recording studios, Highways, etc.
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Sound Measurement
Quantifying Sound

Acoustic Variables: Pressure and Particle Velocity Root Mean Square Value (RMS) of Sound Pressure Mean energy associated with sound waves is its fundamental feature energy is proportional to square of amplitude
1 2 p = [ p (t )] dt T 0
T 1 2

p = 0.707a

(for harmonic sound waves)

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Sound Measurement
Range of Pressure

Range of RMS pressure fluctuations that a human ear can detect extends from 0.00002 N/m2 (threshold of hearing) to 20 N/m2 (sensation of pain)
1000000 times larger

Atmospheric Pressure is 105N/m2 so the peak pressure associated with loudest sound is 5000 times smaller than atmospheric pressure The large range of associated pressure is one of the reasons we 7 need alternate scale

Noise Measurement and Instrumentation

Topics: Introduction Sound Measurement Sound Intensity Instrumentation Intensity Spectrum Level Sound Power Sound Power Measurement
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Sound Intensity

Sound Intensity

Sound Intensity
A plane progressive sound wave traveling in a medium (say along a tube) contains energy and Rate of transfer of energy per unit cross-sectional area is defined as Sound Intensity T 1 P2 Holds true also for spherical I = p u dt I= waves far away from source T 0 0c

p12 /(0c) p1 SPL = 20Log10 dB = 10Log10 dB 2 2e 5 (2e 5) /(0c)

I 1012 I 1012 SPL = 10Log10 12 dB = 10Log10 +10Log10 2 10 (2e 5) /(0c) Iref (2e 5)2 /(0c)
IL = 10Log10
For air, 0c

I Iref
415Ns/m3 so that

SPL = IL + 0.16 dB

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Sound Intensity Measurement

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Sound Intensity Measurement

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Noise Measurement and Instrumentation

Topics: Introduction Sound Measurement Sound Intensity Instrumentation Intensity Spectrum Level Sound Power Sound Power Measurement
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Instrumentation
Constant Bandwidth Devices

Instruments for analysing Noise

fU = 2n fL
n=1 for octave, n=1/3 for 1/3rd octave

Proportional Bandwidth Devices

fU =2 fL

fc

fU f L

Absolute Bandwidth = fU - fL = fL % Relative Bandwidth = (fU-fL / fc) = 70.7%

fU If we divide each octave into three = 21/ 3 geometrically equal subsections, i.e., fL These bands are thus called 1/3rd octave bands with % relative bandwidth of 23.1%

For

1/10th

fU = 21/10 5.1% relative bandwidth Octave filters, fL

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Octave Band Filters

Octave and 1/3rd Octave band filters mostly to analyse relatively smooth varying spectra

If tones are present, 1/10th Octave or Narrow-band filter be used

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Instrumentation- Microphones

Measurement transducer to measure noise

Condenser Microphone Dynamic Microphone Ceramic Microphone

Condenser Microphone
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Instrumentation- Condenser Microphone

Can be used in extreme condition Insensitive to vibrations

Very expensive Sensitive to humidity & moisture

Measurements range can be from 0.01 Hz to 140 KHz Dynamic range up to 140 dB

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Instrumentation- Dynamic Microphone

Generation of the electrical signal in a moving coil in a magnetic field. The moving coil is connected to the diaphragm that deflects under pressure fluctuations of the sound. Excellent sensitivity characteristics. Relatively insensitive to extreme variation in the humidity. Cheaper than condenser microphone.

But:Can not be used in places where strong magnetic fields are present. Lower frequency response than condenser microphone.

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Instrumentation- Ceramic Microphone

Ceramic Microphone is also called as Piezoelectric microphone
Sensing element is the piezoelectric crystal. High frequency response. High dynamic range. Very cheap & can often be custom built. Common for research application as size is also small. But:These are sensitive to the vibration and pressure fluctuation.

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Noise Measurement and Instrumentation

Topics: Introduction Sound Measurement Sound Intensity Instrumentation Intensity Spectrum Level Sound Power Sound Power Measurement
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Intensity Spectrum Level

DeciBel measure of is the Intensity Spectrum Level (ISL)
.1Hz ISL = 10 log I ref If the intensity is constant over the frequency bandwidth w (= f2- f1),

then total intensity is just

I= w and

w I = 1Hz. 1Hz

and Intensity Level for the band is

IL = ISL + 10 log w
If the ISL has variation within the frequency band (w), each band is subdivided into smaller bands so that in each band ISL changes by no more than 1-2dB
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Intensity Spectrum Level

IL is calculated and converted to Intensities Ii and then total intensity level ILtotal is

ILi = ISLi + 10 log wi

ILtotal

as SPL and IL are numerically same, SPL = PSL + 10 log w

ILtotal I i = 10 log i I ref
Can be written as

Ii = 10 log i I ref

ILtotal

ILi 10 = 10 log10 10 i

Thus, when intensity level in each band is known, total intensity level can be estimated PSL (Pressure Spectrum Level) is defined over a 1Hz interval so the SPL of a tone is same as its PSL
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Noise Measurement and Instrumentation

Topics: Introduction Sound Measurement Sound Intensity Instrumentation Intensity Spectrum Level Sound Power Sound Power Measurement
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Sound Power
Intensity : Average Rate of energy transfer per unit area
W I= 4 r 2 W/m
2
2 p W = 4 r 2 I = 4 r 2 Watt 0c

Sound Power Level:

W SWL = 10 log10 dB Wref

Reference Power Wref =10-12 Watt

Peak Power output: Female voice 0.002W, A soft whisper 10-9W, Large orchestra 10-70W, Male voice 0.004W, An average shout 0.001W Large Jet at takeoff 100,000W
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15,000,000 speakers speaking simultaneously generate 1HP

Noise Measurement and Instrumentation

Topics: Introduction Sound Measurement Sound Intensity Instrumentation Intensity Spectrum Level Sound Power Sound Power Measurement
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Estimation of sound power From pressure sound fields measurement for various

1.Free field technique 2.Reverberant field technique 3.Semi reverberant technique

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I=0 Uniform sound energy density Free Field Condition Diffuse Field

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Free Field techniques

Anechoic Chamber

Used for measuring the sound power of any m/c producing sound
o that contains prominent discreet frequency component or narrow band spectra.

Can also be used when directional nature of the sound 28 radiation are required. 28

Sound Power Measurement

Free field technique
Sound power of machines which is having discrete frequency spectrum Carried out in an anechoic chamber

Test procedure
Making no. of measurements on an imaginary surface of hemisphere/sphere with machine at centre. No. of microphone positions required depends upon degree of directionality of sound field Sound power once average sound pressure level is established then it is integrated over the surface area .

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Free Field techniques

The measurement can be made in a large anechoic chamber or can made in a free field above a reflecting plane.

Findingsoundpower(ISO3745)

Test procedure involves making number of SPL measurements on the surface of an imaginary average sphere/hemisphere distance from the source is found. Continues 30

Free Field techniques

continues

Sound power of the source is then computed using the following equations

= I 4 r 2
10 log 1012 = 10 log I 10
2 10 log 4 10 log r + 12

L = LI + 11 + 20 log r

L = LP + 20 log r + 11dB
For hemispherical surface

with _ LI LP

L = LI + 20 log r + 8dB

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Sound Power Measurement

Reverberant field technique
Carried out in a reverberation room Complete diffused sound field sound pressure is independent of distance from the source

Sound power can be calculated from

i) The acoustic characteristics of the room ii) The sound pressure level in the room

Applicability
Source which does not produce discrete frequencies And narrow spectrum

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Reverberant Field Techniques

In a completely reverberant (diffused) field, o sound waves are continuously being reflected from bounding surfaces. o sound pressure field is essentially independent of distance from source. o the flow of the energy is uniform in all directions and the sound energy density is uniform. Reverberant Chamber The sound power of a source is reverberant sound field can be obtained from o The acoustic characteristics of the room and o Sound pressure level in the room.
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Sound Power Measurement

Principle
Consider directional sound source of total power Sound intensity because of direct field

p 2 / 0 c = Q / 4 r 2

where Q = I / I s ; I = p 2 / 0 c and I s = / 4 r 2 Average sound absorption coefficient of the room is

avg

S11 + S 2 2 + ...... + S n n = S1 + S 2 + ...... + S n

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s are absorption coefficients of different materials

S are surface area of different absorbing materials in the chamber

Sound Power Measurement

The energy which is reflected back is

rev = (1 avg )
Upon making required substitutions
Sound power level is given by

Q 4 L = Lp 10 log10 { + } 2 R 4 r

Lp

Is the sound pressure level in chamber

R is room the constant given by

R = S avg /(1 avg )

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Reverberant Field Techniques

Considerations o the source does not produce any prominent discrete frequency component or narrow band spectra o If such sound field exits, a rotating diffuser should be used and o The lowest discrete frequency which can be reliably is measured about 200 Hz. The free field techniques is recommended for discrete noise source bellow 200 Hz . Consider a directional source (total sound power ) placed in the centre of the reverberation room. The contribution of the direct (un reflected) field to the sound intensity in the room is 2 p p2 Q I and _ I = = I = ; = ; Q Where s 2 4 r 2 0C 0C 4 r Is
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Reverberant Field Techniques

The sound field produced by the reflected sound has now got to be determined. For the purpose we needed to introduce the concept sound absorption IT = Sound Transmission Coeff Ii Ia = Sound Absorption Coeff Ii

i = R + T + D
Ia Ii
Where

Absorbed sound intensity Incident sound intensity Reflected sound energy Transmitted sound energy Dissipated within the surface.
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R T D

Reverberant Field Techniques

Now all the energy which is not reflected is absorbed. (its either transmitted through material or dissipated in the material as heat via flow constriction and vibrational motion of the fibers in the material. )

Hence the absorbed sound energy is given equation

A = D + T
Open Window has = ?
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Semi-Reverberant Field Techniques

When sound field is neither free nor complete diffuse. Use calibrated sound source with known power spectrum. No. of microphones position
Q 1 2 4 8 N 20 12 6 3

When sound field is neither free nor complete diffuse.

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Semi-Reverberant Field Techniques

o For semi reverberant field, small t of room, room size be large so that measurement are made in free field. o Make no. of measurements (Lpi) or spherical on hemi spherical area at radius r1.

Let Then
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Semi-Reverberant Field Techniques

o For reverberant field measurement b/g noise < 10dB of the sound source level. o No valid measurements if b/g noise difference < 4 dB o When large room size can not exist. Near field measurements may be necessary. o Test surface should be within 1m from radiating surface. o After averaging out SPL measurements
S : Surface area of measuring surface

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Semi-Reverberant Field Techniques

A correction factor to account for absorption and reflection from nearby areas.
Room type Room without highly reflecting surface Room with highly reflecting surface 20 - 50 50-100 3 V/S (m) 50 - 90 100 - 200 2 90 - 3000 200-600 1 >3000 >600 0

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Noise Metrics

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Sound level measurements

IEC International Standard 651 Sound Level Meters Tolerances per frequency band defined for 4 classes of accuracy
Type 0: precision laboratory use Type 1: general purpose Type 2: low price Type 3: not used in practice (too wide tolerances)

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Calibration of Sound Level meters

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Sound Pressure Level dB scale

The acoustic signal is a very small compared to the atmospheric pressure

And the pressure amplitude varies over a very wide range Sound Pressure Level dB scale.
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Sound Pressure Level dB scale

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SPL (dB scale) The acoustic pressure is very small compared to the atmospheric pressure
prms 1 2 = p t dt ( ) T 0
T

What sound level meter will do, pick up N samples over a period T
prms = 1 N
2 p i 1 N

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SPL (dB scale) How much this N should be ? Most of sound level meters offer two options
Fast averaging 125 m sec of averaging time (slow) Fast varying signals Impulse Averaging (I) 35 ms of averaging time, for impacts Slow Averaging Approx 1 second of time averaging Slow varying signals When we are interested in representative values
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Equivalent Level Leq

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Leq Value
Equivalent constant level that would give the same sound exposure
Leq ,T 1 = 10 Log T
T

p (t ) [dB ] dt 2 pref
2

Leq ,T

Lj 1 = 10 Log t j 10 10 [dB] T
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Why Integrating sound level meters?

Sound Intensity

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Sound Intensity
Instantaneous sound intensity

I (r, t ) = p(r, t )u(r, t )

We are normally interested in the time average of the intensity, which gives the active intensity, corresponding to a net transport of sound energy

1 I (r) = T

p(r, t )u(r, t )dt

0
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_ on the variable represents it a vector quantity

Measurement of sound intensity

The pressure is approximated by the average of the two pressure measurements

p A (t ) + p B (t ) p(t ) = 2

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Measurement of Sound Intensity

The zero mean flow momentum equation in the r direction

gives

u r p = 0 r t

p ur (t ) = d 0 r
1
t

approximated by

p 1 ur (t ) d = 0 r 0r 1
t

( p ( ) p ( ))d
B A
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The direct method

Ir = 1 ( p A (t ) + p B (t )) ( pB ( ) p A ( ))d dt 2 0 r T
0

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The indirect or FFT method

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Approximate measure of Sound Intensity

Intensity measured in dB with reference as 10-12 W/ m2 For a localized source general, intensity is a directional quantity In order to capture this directional effect, special intensity probes are used which measure the correlated signal from two microphones. Aligned in a directional line.

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I Decibel intensity level = 10 log10 I TOH

Common sounds with estimates of intensity and decibel level

where intensity I = power is measured in watts = W unit area meter 2 m 2

Source Threshold of Hearing (TOH) Rustling leaves Whisper Normal conversation Busy street traffic Vacuum cleaner Large orchestra iPod at maximum volume level Front rows of a rock concert Threshold of pain Military jet takeoff Instant perforation of eardrum

Intensity ( I ) I TOH = 1012 W/m2 1011 W/m2 1010 W/m2 106 W/m2 105 W/m2 104 W/m2 6.3*103 W/m2 102 W/m2 101 W/m2 101 W/m2 102 W/m2 104 W/m2

Decibel intensity level 0 dB 10 dB 20 dB 60 dB 70 dB 80 dB 98 dB 100 dB 110 dB 130 dB 140 dB 160 dB

Multiple of TOH intensity 100 101 102 106 107 108 109.8 1010 1011 1013 1014 1016
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<http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/Phys/Class/sound/u11l2b.html>

Filtering and Weighting Filters

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Frequency components present in a general noise source

Sum of 3 harmonics (based on http://zone.ni.com/cms/images/devzone/tut/a/8c34be30580.gif) Nice demo to listen to Fourier series harmonics: http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/listen-new/listen-newindex.htm 62

Filtering

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Weighting Filters

Source: Sound and Vibration Book, MWL, KTH, Sweden

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Weighting Filters

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Human hearing frequency response

A-weighting curve

For subjective responses in special cases there are B-, C- and D-weighting curves 66 very high or low level special noise, e.g., of aircraft

Octave Analysis

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Octave Analysis
Analysis performed through a parallel bank of bandpass filters One octave corresponds to the doubling of the frequency Reference frequency is 1 kHz (audio domain)
A A A

220 Hz

440 Hz

880 Hz

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Octave Analysis
Octave analysis gives log-spaced frequency information. Similar to human perception of sound 1/1, 1/3, 1/12, and 1/24 octave analysis FFT gives linearly-spaced frequency information. Applications noise emissions testing acoustic intensity measurement sound power measurement audio equalization
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Source Localizationn

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Localization: Beamforming

F1 ( ) F2 ( ) Y1 ( , ) Y2 ( , )
dm S ( )

Z (, )

Fm ( )

Ym ( , )

d m cos

FM ( )

YM ( , )

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64 Microphone Array

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Data model:
d m cos fs c

Beamforming

Microphone signals are delayed versions of S() Ym ( , ) = e j m ( ) .S ( ) y m [ k ] = s[ k m ( )]

m ( ) =

Stack all microphone signals in a vector

Y( , ) = d( , ).S ( ) d( , ) = [1 e j
d is `steering vector Output signal Z(,) is

2 ( )

K e j M ( )

* Z ( , ) = Fm ( )Ym ( , ) = F H ( ) Y( , ) m =1

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Beamforming
Spatial directivity pattern: `transfer function for source at angle

Z (, ) M * H (, ) = = Fm ()e jm ( ) = FH () d(, ) S() m=1

Fixed Beamforming Delay-and-sum beamforming Weighted-sum beamforming Near-field beamforming

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Delay-and-sum beamforming
M=5 microphones d=3 cm inter-microphone distance
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Spatial directivity pattern for f=5000 Hz

90 0

-10

-20 0

=60 steering angle

270

fs=5 kHz sampling frequency

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Weighted-Sum beamforming
Sensor-dependent complex weight + delay Weights added to allow for better beam shaping

z[k] = wm. ym[k + m ]

m=1

w1 w2

d d

2
m

wm

(m 1)d cos

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Noise Source Location in an Engine

Fillip et al (2007)

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