Zionist Movement

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THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
: ; :
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.
*
.
"Jewish Life in Modern Times (ist Edition, 1914;

2nd ]<itfv)ft> Revised, 1939).
The Ruhleben Prison Camp (1917)
The Journal of a Jewish Traveller (1925).
A Ghetto Gallery (1931)
Britain's Nameless Ally (1942).
The Jews in the War (ist Edition, 1942; 2nd Edition,

Revised, 1943).
History of the Jews in Vilna (Philadelphia, 1943).

The Progress of Zionism (8th Revised Edition, 1946. French
Edition, 1945. Italian Edition, 1946).
THE
ZIONIST MOVEMENT
by
ISRAEL COHEN
EDITED AND REVISED

with
Supplementary Chapter on
Zionism in the United States
BY
BERNARD G.RICHARDS
ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA

NEW YORK
COPYRIGHT, 1946 BY
ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA
NEW YORK; N, Y.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form without permission
in writing from the publishers; except by a

reviewer who may quote brief passages in a
review to be in a magazine or
printed
newspaper.
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1945 IN
GREAT BRITAIN BY FREDERICK MULLER LTD.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
BY MARSTIN PRESS, NEW YORK 17, N.Y.

PREFACE
years ago the only literature in English about Zionism

FORTY
consisted of a translation that I made of a pamphlet by
Dr. Max Nordau, which gave an account of the movement during
the first few years after the advent of Herzl. Since then, in con-
sequence of the enormous progress that has taken place, there has
grown up a vast and voluminous literature in various languages,
dealing with allthe multifarious aspects of the Jewish national
movement. There are many books that describe all the stages and
the different types of Jewish agricultural colonisation in Palestine,
there are many that depict the social and cultural features of the
new life in the country, there are many r that discuss Britain's
political relations with it, there are some devoted solely to the
question of the administration of the Mandate, and there are
others that concentrate on the Arab problem. There are also
countless reports and pamphlets detailing the manifold activities
of the Zionist Organisation and of its affiliated bodies both in
Palestine and in the rest of the world; there is quite a substantial
library of publications by the British and the Palestine Govern-
ments on the processes, methods, and results of the implementation
of the Mandate; and there are verbatim records of the proceedings
of theMandates Commission of the League of Nations, before
which the Mandatory had to appear every year for a searching
cross-examination. Few countries have given birth to so many
White Papers in so short a space of time as the Holy Land, and
few episodes of such a local character as the Arab revolt of
1936-39 have given occasion to the production of so many books.
literature on
But despite this great and growing accumulation of
the efforts of Zionism to realise its aspirations, there has been no
comprehensive history of the movement. Adolf Boehm's two stout
volumes (Die Zionistische Bewegung) carried the story only up to
the year 1925, and Sokolow's History of Zionism, also in two portly
tomes, did not go beyond 1919. Since then there have been no
a
attempts in English to present general
account of Zionist history,
for a couple of books (by Leonard Stein in 1925 and by
except
Lotta Levensohn in 1941), both possessed of unquestioned merits,
but rather small in compass.
It was thus to fill a want that has been keenly felt, especially at
the present juncture in the affairs of the Jewish people, that I have
1!#J.',!,\V FEB 211949

PREFACE
written this book The task has not been easy, and had I not been
favoured Wilh, the special knowledge gathered in the course of
a long and intimate connection with the Movement, I should
For I have
probably have found it impossible of accomplishment.
lived through much of the modern history that I have described.
I was fortunate to be present at the first public meeting in London
addressed by Herzl in July, 1896. I was a delegate at the Con-
ference in March, 1898, that led to the establishment of the
Zionist Con-
English Zionist Federation. I have attended every
gress since that of 1903, the last over which
Herzl presided, and
have taken an official part in every Congress since that of 1911.
For a period extending over thirty years, from the spring of
1910, I was in the secretariat of the Central Office of the Zionist
Organisation, and in the closest association with a long succession
of Executives, first in Cologne, next in Berlin, and longest of all
in London an experience shared by no other person. I have thus
had the privilege of observing the evolution of the movement
from a specially favoured vantage-point.
The composing this book has been due only partly
difficulty in
to theproblem of compressing a vast amount of multifarious and
important material within a reasonable space. It has been due
largely to the fact that the history of Zionism, from the beginning
of its modern phase, is not what might be described as a "single-
track" narrative. There are several tracks, which sometimes run
parallel, frequently meet, and then part again, but which must
always be closely followed to watch subsequent meetings and
partings. The scene of operations often shifts, and there are some-
times major operations in two places simultaneously. There are
the activities of the Zionist and Jewish Agency Executives in
London and Jerusalem, the manifold aspects of the colonising
work in Palestine, the relations between the Mandatory Govern-
ment and the Jewish Agency, the relations between the Govern-
ment and the Mandates Commission, the discussions and decisions
about all these things at the
Congresses and the Jewish Agency
Council, and the normal and occasionally abnormal programmes
of work carried out by the numerous constituent bodies of the
Zionist Organisation in all parts of the world, I have to
attempted
unfold kaleidoscope in logical and chronological se-
this political
quence, to provide both a history of the movement from the

earliest times as well as a
picture of the variegated conditions of
the present day. I have tried to reveal both the
continuity and the
PREFACE 7
fervour of the Jewish national aspiration and the extent to which

it has thus far been realised. I have not
suppressed the disappoint-
ments and the disillusionments that have occurred only too often,
and have set forth the reasoned justification of the complaints and
criticisms that have had to be made. I have sought to explain and
to stress thehope that throbs in the hearts of millions of Jews in
this criticaland fateful time concerning the national destinies of
their people. In short, the purpose of this book is to spread knowl-
edge and understanding of an age-long ideal battling for fulfil-

ment, for in that way the ideal can assuredly be helped forward
towards its goal.
I should like to express my warmest thanks to my friend,
Sir Leon Simon, C.B., who has kindly read through this book in
typescript, for many valuable suggestions, by which I have bene-

fited. I am also much indebted to Mr. Ephraim Broido for
reading the proofs and making additional useful suggestions.

I. C.
LONDON.
On the Eve of Hanukah^ 5705 December ioth, 1944,
Anniversary of the Victory of the Maccabean War of
Independence.
PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION
this book went

to press in London early in 1945, many
SINCE
important events have happened, the greatest being the ter-
mination of the Second World War. Among other developments
the most significant is the joint endeavor of the British and
United States Governments, through the appointment of the
Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, to find a satisfactory solu-
tion of the interconnected problems of European Jewry and
Palestine. I have therefore taken the opportunity presented by
the issue of this edition for America to make a number of factual
alterations and additions, and, as far as possible, to bring the
book up-to-date as regards both facts and figures. I am glad to
take this opportunity also of expressing my warmest thanks to
Mr. Bernard G. Richards for the ability, industry, and care that
he has devoted to the preparation of this edition for the American
public.
I, C.
London, February zznd, 1946.

NOTE TO AMERICAN EDITION
is a privilege to be associated with the publication program
IT of the Zionist Organization of America and especially with
this undertaking to present to the public, Jewish and general,
the comprehensive and all-inclusive history of the world
first
wide Zionist movement from the pen of one who has previously
made such important contributions to Jewish history and who
has himself played a significant part in the dramatic struggle for
the re-birth of people which he now so graphically depicts. It is
fitting that the Jews of America who have had a large share in the
development of the movement should participate in the presen-
tation of the story which during the last half a century has vitally
affected the course of Jewish life and thought.
It may be noted that the first attempt to survey the world-wide
Zionist movement was an American production, but "Zionism/'
by the late Professor Richard R. H. Gottheil, was a book of more
modest proportions and published as early as 1914, it came short
of the momentous historic events of later years. These changes
and developments of the movement were subsequently reflected
in a considerable number of biographical and historical volumes
which are listed in the ensuing bibliography. The completion
of the full history, however, waited for a riper and more auspicious
period. It now makes its appearance at the approach of the
climax of the fateful years which we may well believe will mark
the realization of the sacred ideal "in our own day." Thus time
and circumstances lend added significance to this epoch-making
chronicle.
The important role which American Jews played in the ad-
vancement of Zionism is here outlined in a supplementary chap-
ter by the editor on Zionism in the United States, though the
first plowing of untilled soil yielded but a meagre harvest of the
scattered and long-neglected historic material.
Changes and revisions made in the text by the present editor

relate mainly to American aspects of the development of the
movement or to steps taken abroad in which American Zionists
took a special interest. The republication of the book on our
shores gave the author an opportunity of making various impor-
tant changes and additions intended to bring the volume up to
10 PREFACE
the events of the present year. At the suggestion of the author

and in concurrence with the views of Judge Louis E. Levinthal,
who asChairman of the Z.O.A. Committee on Publications ar-
ranged with Mr. Cohen for the issuance of the volume in the
United States, a number of additional documents of an Ameri-
can character were included as appendixes to this volume. These
are "The Anglo-American Convention," "The Pittsburgh Pro-
gram," "The Biltmore Platform" and a list of American-Jewish
gifts to and investments in Palestine an imposing record attest-
ing to the unquenchable love of Zion and the matchless devotion

to the great ideal which has through the years animated American
Jewry.
B. G. R.
April 26, 1946

CONTENTS
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Definition of Zionism The
.......
resultant of a complex of forces A cardinal
PAGE
19
religious idealReform Judaism and the "Mission of Israel" Advocates

of realisation Founding of Political Zionism Grounds of
opposition-
Nation or religious community "Dual nationality" Political and eco-
nomic factors-Oppression in Eastern Europe-Anti-Semitism-Moral and
material considerations-Attitude of Ottoman Government Balfour Dec-
laration-Practical Developments in Palestine-The War and the Future.
PART 1
THE PERIOD OF ASPIRATION

CHAPTER I. PALESTINE SINCE THE DISPERSION . . . .31
Jews in Palestine throughout the centuries Struggles for independence-
Local autonomy under the Romans The "Wailing Wall" Promises to
restore independence Palestine in Jewish law Under Arabs and Siljuk
Turks Scholastic activity in ninth and tenth centuries The Crusaders
Judah Ha-Levi Benjamin of Tudela and other pilgrims Under Saladin
and the Mamelukes Nahmanides, Estori Farhi, and Obadiah of Bertinoro
Under Ottoman rule The Cabbalists at Safed Don Joseph Nasi, Duke
of Naxos Jerusalem in sixteenth century The Halukah Succession of
Pseudo-Messiahs Settlements of Hassidim and Mithnaggedim Under
Egyptian regime Renewal of Turkish rule Capitulations.
CHAPTER II. THE ADVOCACY OF RESTORATION ... 47
Early secular proposals for restoration Napoleon's appeal An anonymous

letter Appeals of writers and clergymen in England Sir Moses Monte-
fiore's visits to Palestine Lord Shaftesbury and Lord Palmerston Colonel
Charles Henry Churchill Colonel George Gawler Mordecai Manuel
Noah Arthur Hollingsworth Montefiore's pioneer work in Palestine-
Warren, Conder, and Cazalet Laurence OHphant Joseph Salvador-
Ernest Laharanne Jean Henri Dunant Zevi Hirsch Kalischer Founding
of Mikveh Israel Moses Hess -Rome and Jerusalem The Haskalah in
Russia David Gordon Peretz Smolenskin Moses Leib Lilienblum
Eliezer ben Yehudah Leon Pinsker's Auto-Emancipation.
PART II
THE PERIOD OF PREPARATION

CHAPTER III. THE "LOVE OF ZION" MOVEMENT ... 62
Persecution in Russia-Hot/o/e Zion societies-The Bilu The first settle-

ments in Palestine The Kattowitz Conference and after Activity in
Rumania, Austria, Germany, England, and the United States Nathan
Birnbaum Emma Lazarus Ahad Haam and Spiritual Zionism 'Sons of
Moses" The work of Baron Edmond de Rothschild Defects of adminis-
trationHandicaps of Hibbath Zion Movement,
12 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
PAGE
CHAPTER IV. HERZL: POLITICAL ZIONISM .... 71
The advent of Theodor Herzl-Literary career-The Dreyfus Affair-

The Jewish State Approach to Baron de Hirsch Opposition to Herzl's
ideasThe first supporters Founding of Die Welt-The First Zionist
Congress The Basle Programme Organisation and administration
Hatikvah-Sprezd of political Zionism-Jewish Colonial Trust Audiences
with German EmperorThe London Congress "Democratic Fraction"
Founding of Jewish National Fund Negotiations with Sultan of Turkey-
in London
Appearance before Aliens Immigration Commission
Altneuland-The Sinai Peninsula Project-British Government's East
African offer Visit to Russia Decision of Sixth Congress The Kharkov
Conference-Audiences with King of Italy and Pope Pius X-Death of
Herd Summary of his achievements.
CHAPTER V. POLITICAL AND PRACTICAL ZIONISM ... 87
Report on the East African offer The Zione Zion Decision of Seventh
Transition to
Congress Founding of Jewish Territorial Organisation
practical work in Palestine Mizrachi and
Poale Zion David Wolffsohn
as President Opposition in various countries Zionist Deputies in Russian
Duma and Austrian Parliament The Brussels Conference Wolffsohn's
visit to Russia The Young Turkish Revolution The struggle between the
"politicals" and the "practicals" Transfer of Zionist headquarters

to
Berlin Cultural questions at Eleventh Congress.
CHAPTER VI. THE BEGINNINGS OF ZIONIST COLONISATION . 98
Transfer of the Rothschild settlements to the "I.C.A." Colonising activity

of Hoveve Zion The Second Aliyah The Anglo-Palestine Bank Herzl
Gymnasium and Bezalel Work of Palestine Office Founding of Tel-Aviv
Palestine Land Development Company Training Farms Yemenites-
Character of Jewish agriculturists Ideology of Poale Zion and Hapoel
Hatzair Ber Borochov and Aaron D. Gordon Hashomer The first
co-operative farms The A huzoth Revival of Hebrew Jewish school
system Hebrew language conflict.
PART III
THE PERIOD OF RESTORATION

CHAPTER VII. PALESTINE AS BRITISH TRUST . . . .109
The First World War Suppression of Zionist institutions in Palestine
Zion Mule Corps and the "J u deans"Great Britain's interest Genesis and
evolution of Balfour Declaration Divided counsels in English Jewry-
Motives of the British Government Endorsements by Allied and Asso-
ciated Powers Statements by Central Powers
Interpretations of Balfour
Declaration Zionist Commission in Palestine Foundation of Hebrew
University Communal organisation Feisal-Weizmann Agreement Arab
delegations before Peace Conference Demands of Zionist delegation-
Attitude of Military Administration in Palestine Arab reactions
Trumpeldor's heroic fight Disorders of 1920 Conferment of Mandate on
Great Britain Sir Herbert Samuel appointed first High Commissioner.
CONTENTS 13
PAGE
CHAPTER VIII. EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF THE MOVE-
MENT 129
Post-war growth of Zionism The Conference of 1919 Establishment of

Central Office in LondonResolutions of Conference of 1920 Controversy
about funds and investments Founding of Keren Hayesod Reorganiza-
tion Commission Twelfth Congress Resolution on development of Pales-
tine Providing the budget Relations between Keren Hayesod and Keren
Kayemeth Revision of Constitution Election of new Executive Political
affairs The Geneva Bureau Zionist Press Relations with Federations-
Zionist parties Women's International Zionist Organisation Youth and
university societies.
CHAPTER IX. THE PALESTINE MANDATE . . . .142

Establishment of Civil Administration in Palestine Advisory Council-
Hebrew as an official language Communal Election of
reorganisation
the Mufti of Jerusalem and of President of Supreme Moslem Council
Transjordan made Arab Emirate Mr. Churchill rejects Arabs demands-
Disorders of 1921 Hay craft Commission of Enquiry Arab delegation in
London-Debate in House of Lords-White Paper of 1922 Defining t&ie
Jewish National Home House of Commons Debate Ratification of
Mandate Redrafting of Preamble and Article 2 Palestine Order-in-
Council Arabs reject new Advisory Council and Arab Agency Govern-
ment's reports to Mandates Commission of League of Nations American-
British Convention Inauguration of Hebrew University Balfour in Pal-
estineProgress under the Samuel Administration Lord Plumer as High
Commissioner Legislative measures and administrative changes Eco-
nomic developments Arab Congress's demands.
CHAPTER X. BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME 1919-29 . . 161
The Palestine Zionist Executive Immigration Ordinances Organisation

of immigration Halutzim Economic depression and relief measures-
General Federation of Jewish Labour: organisation activities Agricultural
developments Main types of settlement Kvutzah and Moshav Ovedim
Activities of Jewish National Fund Urban developments Census of
industries Electricity, cement, oil, and other industries Anglo-Palestine
Bank and other financial corporations Educational system Hebrew
University Organisation of health work Hadassah and Kupath Holim
Knesseth Israel and Vaad Leumi.
CHAPTER XI. EXTENSION OF THE JEWISH AGENCY . . .177

The Mandate and a "Jewish agency" Decision of Carlsbad Conference of
1922 First negotiations with Anglo- Jewish representatives Decision of
Carlsbad Congress of 1923 New Executive Non-partisan conferences in
New York Formation of Revisionist Party Resolutions of Vienna Con-
of Weizmann with Louis Marshall Joint Pales-
gress of 1925 Agreement
tine Survey Commission Basle Congress of 1927 Findings of Survey Com-
missionAgreement reached by conference of American Jews Zurich Con-
to extend Jewish Agency Inaugural session of Coun-
gress of 1929 resolves
cil of enlarged Agency Constitution of Agency British Government's
assurance to Zionist Organisation.
PAGE
CHAPTER XII. OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES . 190
Relations between Jews and Arabs Right of Worship at "Wailing

Wall" Arab agitation Anti-Jewish outrages of 1929 Shaw Commis-
sion of Enquiry Findings of Commission Reservations by Lord Snell
Criticism of Commission's Report Sir John Hope Simpson's mission-
Mandates Commission and Shaw Report Simpson's Report Passfield
White Paper Prime Minister's Letter of 1931 Enquiry by Mr. Lewis
FrenchDisplaced Arab's Proposed Palestine Lpan Reorganisation
of Mr. Strickland's Enquiry Investigation of Administration-
Police
International Commission on "Wailing Wall" Basle Congress of 1931
Sokolow elected President of Zionist Organisation and Jewish Agency-
Prague Congress of 1933 Assassination of Arlosoroff Revisionists and
discipline "New Zionist Organisation*' Lucerene Congress of 1935
German Jewry and HaavarahDi. Weizmann's re-election as President.
CHAPTER XIII. THE ARAB REVOLT .... 212
Arab demand for self-government Disorders of 1933 Proposed Legis-

lative Council Jewish Agency's objection Arab Higher Committee pro-
claims general strike Campaign of terror Appointment of Palestine
Royal Commission Findings on Arab and Jewish grievances "Pallia-
tives" recommended Question of cantons Proposed plan of partition-
British Governor's statement of policy Resolutions of Zurich Congress
of 1937 Decisions of Jewish Agency Council Conclusions of Mandates
Commission Resumption of Arab terriorism Counter-measures by Gov-
ernmentResults of three years' violence.
CHAPTER XIV. FROM PARTITION SCHEMES TO WHITE PAPER . 225
Government retreat from partition plan Partition Commission's Report

Jewish Agency's comment Government conferences with Jews and
Arabs White Paper of 1939 Statement by Jewish Agency Decision of
House of Commons Rejection by Mandates Commission Resolutions
of Geneva Congress of 1939 British Governor's letter to Secretary-
General of League Stoppage of Immigration into Palestine Land Trans-
fers Regulations Government reasons analyzed Violations of Mandate.
CHAPTER XV. PROGRESS IN THE NATIONAL HOME . . 238
Official obstructions toimmigration Illegality of "political high level"

Fluctuations of
immigration ^'Illegal" immigrants Immigration and
population Land in Jewish ownership Establishment of new settlements
Agricultural improvements Citrus plantations Dairy produce Manu-
facturing industries Electricity and potash Commercial developments-
Haifa and Tel-Aviv ports Marine affairs and fjsHing
Go-operative
movement Census of wage-earners Activities of Keren Hayesod, Na-
tional Fund, and other Zionist bodies-The W.I.Z.O.
Anglo-Palestine
Bank and other financial corporations Total amount of Jewish capital
Jishw/s expenditure on public services-Benefits to Government and
to Arabs.
CONTENTS 15
PAGE
CHAPTER
The
XVI. NATIONAL LIFE IN
Yishuv a highly organised national
EVOLUTION ... 254
community-Revival of Hebrew
School system Agricultural training Haifa Technical Institute Bez-
alel SchoolHebrew University Medical Centre Institute of
Jewish and
Oriental Studies National Library Museum of
Archaeocology Bialik
Foundation Kook Institute Literary activity Ben Yehuda and Imber
and teacher Tchernichowski's works Fichman,
Bialik as poet, publisher,
Lamdan, Rachel, Brenner, and others Journalism Hebrew dailies and
other periodicals Plastic arts Dramatic companies Palestine
Symphony
Orchestra Song and dance Organisation of Jewish health work
Sport
The "Maccabiad" Differences in Yishuv Eastern and Western Elements
Ally ah Had&s/w/z Diversity of political parties Differences in religious
observance Safeguarding tradition Sabbaths and festivals Social justice.
CHAPTER XVII. ZIONISM IN THE DIASPORA ...

Federations and Separate Unions Activities of societies Shekel campaign
271
Conditions in Eastern EuropeZionism in political and cultural life

Tarbuth Suppression in Soviet Russia Expansion in Austria and Ger-
many Fudische Rundschau Czechoslovakia and Hungary Position in
France, Italy and rest of Continent Progress in Great Britain: political
activity Activities in Canada, South Africa, and the Antipodes Impor-
tance of movement in United States Emergency Committee in New
York American Jewish Conference Argentina, Brazil, and other parts
of Congress Meetings of Jewish Agency organs and other bodies A vast
clearing-house.
CHAPTER XVIII. THE SECOND WORLD WAR ... 289
Varied upon Zionist world Dr. Weizmann's offer to Great Britain-

effects
Voluntary registration of Yishuv Economic effects Tragedies of refugee

ships Recruiting of Jewish volunteers Abortive negotiations for Jewish
FightingForce Jewish contribution to defence forces Military service in
Near and Middle East Transport and public works Services at sea-
Agricultural developments Industry in war service Scientific
and tech-
nical contributions Immigration of refugees Efforts on behalf of Hitler's
victims White Paper policy in Palestine-Trials for arms smuggling-
Aspersions upon Yishuv The Haganah Raid upon Ramath Hakovesh
The White Paper versus Balfour Declaration.
CHAPTER XIX, PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE ... 305
Policy of theWhite Paper Salvaging European Jewry Post-war solu-

tionsMinority rights and financial reparations The abortive Evian
Conference Failure of previous attempts to find lands of refuge Abro-
of Mandate White
gation of White Paper necessary Primary purpose
Paper contrary to Mandate and to declared British policy Position
fol-
lowing termination of Mandate Case for Arab State examined

Testi-
mony of Royal Commission A binational State a frustration of Jewish

to State Palestine's value to Jews and to
hopes Bases for Jewish claim
Arabs compared Official resolution on Jewish Commonwealth Question
of Palestine's absorptive capacity Durable settlement of Jewish ques-
tion by realisation of national aspirations.
CHAPTER XX. ZIONISM IN THE UNITED STATES . . 326

l6 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
APPENDICES PAGE
I. THE FEISAL-WEIZMANN AGREEMENT .... 347
II. MANDATE FOR PALESTINE 349
III. (a) JEWISH IMMIGRATION INTO PALESTINE, 1919-45 . 359
(&) JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1920-38 360
IV. THE JEWISH POPULATION OF PALESTINE . . . 361
V. ARAB TERRITORIES AND PALESTINE .... 364
VI. ZIONIST CONGRESSES AND PARTY REPRESENTATION . 365
VII. PRONOUNCEMENTS ON A JEWISH COMMONWEALTH . 367
(x)
GREAT BRITAIN 367
() UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 369
VIII. THE ANGLO-AMERICAN CONVENTION .... 372
IX.THE PITTSBURGH PROGRAM 374
X. THE BILTMORE PLATFORM 375
XL GIFTS TO AND INVESTMENTS IN PALESTINE . . 377
BIBLIOGRAPHY 378
INDEX . 387
aim of Zionism is to re-establish theJews as a nation in

Palestine. The movement was founded in the closing years of
the nineteenth century for the
purpose of realising an aspiration
that instinctively came into
being immediately after the destruc-
tion of Judaea by the Romans, for no sooner had the lost
Jews
their independence than they began to yearn and pray for its
restoration. The movement thus derives
fundamentally from the
fact that the Jews existed as a nation in Palestine, with but a brief
interruption, for over twelve hundred years. The spontaneous

yearning for the return was from the very beginning invested with
all the sanctity and solemnity of a religious creed; it was
preserved
and stimulated throughout the Middle Ages by the goad of per-
secution; and it was brought to fruition in modern times by the
social, political, and economic conditions in which the major
portion of the Jewish people had their lot. The movement is

accordingly the resultant of a complex of forces, all of which have
contributed at different times and in varied degrees to its
irresistible evolution. The part that their religion has
played in
conserving the national consciousness of the Jews is unique in the
history of nations, and that consciousness was repeatedly in-
vigorated by the oppression which they endured in every country
and every age. Religion and nationality were fused for them in
the crucible of suffering. Had they experienced a greater measure
of tolerance on the part of their Gentile rulers, and also on the
part of their Gentile neighbours, it is conceivable that the longing

for their national rehabilitation might have abated with the lapse
of time; but the intervals of peace and comfort that they were
allowed to enjoy were too few, and too brief and restricted, to
exercise anything but a local or transient influence.
The belief in the return to Zion acquired the position of
a cardinal principle of the Jewish religion and became an all-
pervasive element in Jewish life. The Jews based their faith upon
the Divine promise to Abraham that the Holy Land would belong
to his seed for ever; they patiently awaited the coming of the
Messiah, who would not only bring everlasting peace to the whole
universe, but would gather ,them together from their dispersion
and lead them back to their ancestral soil; and they found in that
hope, however often deferred, an unfailing balm for their affliction.
Their liturgy was full of prayers for the return,
which they offered
in the of their forefathers, with their faces towards
up language
the holy Mount Moriah. Not only in the three regular services of
the day, but also in the elaborate grace after every meal, they
uttered or chanted their supplications for the rebuilding of
live
Jerusalem and the sanctuary of Zion. Physically they might
within the walls of a European Ghetto, but spiritually they were
encircled by the hills of ancient Judaea. Their religious festivals
commemorated momentous events in their early history; their
fasts, which were real days of mourning, recalled the disasters that
had befallen their State. Their Scriptures, upon which they were
bidden to meditate day and night, filled their minds with scenes
of the land in which their kings had ruled, their prophets had
taught, and their Psalmists had sung. The Talmud and other
religious works which they studied, often at the peril of their lives,
gave them comforting glimpses of the land that their fathers had
tilled and of the Temple in which they had worshipped. No
preacher in their midst ever concluded his sermon without the

Hebrew invocation, "And may the Redeemer come unto Zion!"
1
to which the whole congregation responded with a fervid "Amen!'

Twice a year, at the domestic celebration of the Passover and at
the termination of the of Atonement, they declared with
Day
sincere emotion: "Next year in Jerusalem!" And it was a real
and physical Zion to which they looked forward, not the "new
Jerusalem" of the Christian mystic. That was why, throughout
the Middle Ages, there were Rabbis, poets, and other pietists, who
went on pilgrimages to the Holy Land, to spend their declining
years in religious study and to be buried there. The Jew who was
unable to undertake such a hazardous journey was deemed
fortunate if, when he died, a handful of earth from Mount Moriah
was placed under his head in the grave, so that he might rest on
sacred soil; and the liturgical formula of comfort for mourners is
to this day: "May the Lord comfort you amongst all those that
mourn for Zion and Jerusalem!" If any further proof were needed
of the intensity with which the Jews clung to the belief in their
restoration, it was provided repeatedly by their enthusiastic
response to the calls of the various false Messiahs, who appeared

at intervals during the first seventeen centuries after the fall of
Judaea, rending the gloom with a gjorious vision that was soon
dispelled.
Such was the faith that animated all Jews until the early part
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 21
of the nineteenth century, when certain Rabbis in

Germany,
influenced by the teaching of the philosopher, Moses Mendelssohn,
and his disciples, began to express a different view. They were
votaries of the doctrine of "enlightenment," as it was called, who
saw the salvation of their people solely in the adoption of the
language, culture and customs of their Christian neighbours.
They were anxious to further, not only the intellectual progress,
but also the 'political emancipation of their people by secular
education, and they also thought it necessary to reform the ritual
of the Synagogue and to revise its doctrines in accordance with
and environment. These founders of
the conditions of their time
Reform Judaism, notably Samuel Holdheim (1806-60) and
Abraham Geiger (1810-74), maintained that the belief in a per-
sonal Messiah who would conduct the scattered children of Israel
back to their ancestral land must be abandoned, and they
expunged from the liturgy all prayers for his coming and the
restoration of Zion. In place of these dethroned aspirations, the
German reformers conceived a new theory: that the reason for
the dispersion of the Jews was to discharge a mission among the
Gentiles the propagation of a universal Monotheism through
Judaism. But such a "mission of Israel," however laudable in
itself, is alien to Jewish tradition and contradicted by the facts of
Jewish history. The Rabbis from the earliest times were strongly
opposed to proselytisation, and insisted upon most exacting tests in
the case of any person who wished to adopt the Jewish faith.
The theory of such a mission was a complete innovation, and
was specifically devised to afford a justification for the continued
existence of the Jews as a religious community after denying them
the character of a nation. It was accepted by only a few congre-
gations in Germany, England, and the United States. The over-
whelming majority of Jewry regarded the dispersion, not as a
blessing, but as a punishment, and continued to declare,
in the
words of their ancient liturgy, "Because of our sins have we been
exiled from our land," and to pray for the rebuilding of Jerusalem
"speedily in our days." They

did not, indeed, deny that it was
the duty of the Jews, as "the people of the Book," to proclaim
the unity of God, to spread the principles of truth and justice,
and to act as exemplars of social righteousness, but they main-
tained that it was unnecessary for them to remain in dispersion
perform this civilising function. They had learned only
to too
well from their centuries of tribulation that they were power-
less to teach their persecutors, and that any deliberate attempt
to do would be resented with scorn and rejected with in-
so
to the
dignation. Besides, if their oppressors were unfaithful
teachings of Christianity, what prospect was there of their adopting
the more exacting discipline of Judaism? On the contrary, they
believed that only with their return to their ancient land and the
restoration of their national polity would they be able to develop
a scheme of life that would be a pattern to the nations.
was not until after the middle of the nineteenth century that
It
the first practical steps were taken to convert the ideal into reality,
for until then the Jews had been unable, owing to political
impotence and difficulties of organisation, to engage in any

concerted action. The mere fact that they bestirred themselves,
after so prolonged an interval, to organise their return, was
a testimony to the undiminished ardour with which they clung
td the idea and to their faith in the possibility of its realisation.
Their first attempts were preceded by more than seventy years of
recurring and insistent advocacy by a number of both Jews and
non-Jews of eminence. One of the earliest proposals was made by

Napoleon, who, in the course of his Near Eastern campaign at the
end of the eighteenth century, announced that he would help to
resettle the Jews in Palestine if they would rally to his banner, but
his proclamation was but a passing sensation. Thereafter there
was scarcely a decade in which some pamphlet or other on the
question or some project or other did not make its appearance.
In England the idea was urged by a succession of statesmen,
clergymen, and writers, most notably by Lord Shaftesbury; in
America it was advocated by the newspaper editor and politician,
Mordecai Manuel Noah, in France by the historian, Joseph Salva-
dor, and in Germany, independently, by the Socialist, Moses Hess,
and the Orthodox Rabbi, Hirsch Kalischer. But a more powerful
incentive to action came from the persecution of the Jews in
Russia, which became a regular feature of their unhappy lot under
Tsarist tyranny from the year 1881. Societies of "Lovers of Zion"
sprang up in many cities in that country, and later also in

Rumania, England, and the United States, to promote the resettle-
ment of Jews in Palestine, and their agitation was strongly rein-
forced by the writings of some Russian Jewish thinkers, who
contended that only settlement in a land of their own would assure
the Jews salvation from their sufferings. It was Leon Pinsker's
trenchant pamphlet, Auto-Emancipation, with its insistence upon
the need of the Jews to become a nation
again in fact as in name,
that yielded the most fruitful results, as it was followed
by a
Conference in 1884, which gave an to the creation of
impetus
Jewish agricultural villages in Palestine. These settlements had a
very arduous struggle owing to the inexperience of the pioneers,
the lack of money, and local difficulties, and they would probably
have been doomed to total failure but for the generous assistance
readily and repeatedly given by Baron Edmond de Rothschild, of
Paris. But however zealous and
self-sacrificing those early settlers
were, the total fruit of their labours after fifteen years, viewed in
relation to the traditional hope of Israel, seemed very meagre, and
the support that they received from sympathisers in other countries
was scanty and unpromising, when the advent of Theodor Herzl
brought about a complete transformation. What had hitherto been
in practice no more than a religious-philanthropic movement was
now to become an organised political movement.
The first Zionist Congress in 1897 constituted the real founda-
tion of Zionism as a political movement. It formulated the aim of
Zionism as consisting in creating for the Jewish people "a Home
in Palestine secured by public law," and outlined the practical and
political steps
to be taken for he achievement of this object. Its
decisions immediately aroused vehement antagonismlamong vari-
ous sections of Jewry, who either regarded the traditional aspira-
tion as an ideal whose beauty lay in its
apparent unattainability,
or who thought that the task must be reserved for the coming of
the Messiah. The new movement also met, at first, with the oppo-
sition of the "Lovers of Zion/' because it
pronounced against petty
colonisation or piecemeal penetration into Palestine, but after
a time the "Lovers of Zioii" became its most ardent and energetic
supporters and merged their activities into the greater

scheme.
The principal hostility came from those Jews who maintained that
the restoration of their people to their ancestral land could be
accomplished only by the Messiah, and by another section

who
contended that it should not be accomplished at all. The opposi-
tion was thus based, on the t>ne hand, on purely religious grounds,
and, on the other, on supposed political grounds.
The religious opponents were headed by a number of Rabbis
in Western Europe and America, who argued that the Jews must
await the coming of the Messiah before any move was made in the
direction of an organised resettlement in Palestine, and that any
attempt to anticipate him betrayed a lack of faith
and meant
of Eastern
forcing the hands of Providence. But most of the Rabbis
Europe saw no conflict between the aims of Zionism and the belief
in a personal Redeemer: they maintained that to lead back all the
must
Jews to their ancestral country was a herculean task that
indeed await the Messiah, since it could obviously not be accom-
plished by human effort, but that that was

no reason why every
endeavour should not be made to resettle as many as possible in
their own day. Indeed, traditional Judaism had always taught
that it was an act of religious merit to redeem as much as possible
of the Holy Land from its present owners. Those who opposed the
movement on political grounds included most of the lay leaders
of the principal Jewish communities and many writers in the
Western world. The policy that they urged was termed "assimi-
lation," a conception that varied in scope and import according
to its proponents, from complete identification of the Jews with
allphases of the life of the people in whose midst they dwelt, save
in the matter of religion, to complete absorption in their environ-
ment. Their principal motive consisted of the fear that they or
their fellow Jews might be suspected by their Christian neighbours
of half-hearted loyalty to the State of which they were citizens; but
their fear was unjustified, as no spokesman of the Christian world
ever uttered such a reproach. Indeed, believing Christians thought
itonly natural that the Children of Israel should wish to return
to their ancestral land.
For the time the Jews were plunged into a vehement
first
whether they were a nation or only a religious

controversy as to
community. The dispute raged on both sides of the Atlantic and
was carried on in the Press, in the pulpit, and on the platform, as
well as in homes, societies, and council chambers: it has, in truth,
not ceased to this day, although, in consequence of later
develop-
ments, it has long lost its original bitterness. Until the advent of
Herzl, the term "nation" had been used in regard to the Jews for
centuries both by themselves and by Christian divines and scholars
without provoking any doubts or contradiction, for it did not
convey any political connotation. But now the Jewish opponents
of Zionism, who had previously regarded the term as innocuous
or figurative, either sought to give it a purely
spiritual significance
or else denied its aptness altogether. They could not, however,
argue away the complexity of attributes and qualities that the
Jews possessed in common apart from their religiontheir descent
from a common stock, their ancient language, their literature,
their folklore, their centuries of suffering, their hopes and their
solidarity, all of which sufficed to constitute them a nation. There

was no need to prove racial purity, for no other nation could lay
claim to it, nor was such purity an essential quality of nation-
hood; neither did it affect the issue that many Jews were ignorant
of their literature, of which much was of a secular character, and
likewise of their ancestral tongue. Both literature and language
still lived, and flourished, binding together the scattered groups of
a historic people, and forming important factors in the preserva-
tion of the distinctive identity of the Jews. It was as a nation that
they had always regarded themselves from the first day of their
exile as a nation in exile; while, on the other hand, many Jews
who contended were only a religious community were not
that they
particularly distinguished by their observance of the rites and

precepts of their faith. The adherents of Zionism, however, while
maintaining that the Jews were a nation, naturally did not claim
that they formed a political nationality, for this implied State
1
sovereignty, which they did not possess. They likewise denied
that they claimed or were guilty of "dual nationality/' and
pointed out that those who advanced such a reproach were them-
selves guilty of a confusion of terminology.
The underlying the anti-Zionist standpoint consists in

fallacy
implying that the word "nationality" means the same thing in
Central and Eastern Europe as in the rest of the world, whereas
in fact it means two different things. In Central and Eastern
Europe it denotes a people or race, whereas in Western Europe

and the rest of the world it is used as synonymous with "State."
The Western connotation is essentially political; the Eastern is
only ethnical. Nationality in the West means citizenship, with all
the rights and duties that it entails, whereas in the East it means
community of stock, language, and historic development, without
necessarily involving an implication of political allegiance, since it
does not represent a political organism. The Western sense is of
wider import than the Eastern, for the State is seldom co-extensive
with one nation: it often contains many. In the old Russian Empire
were people belonging to dozens of nationalities,
of the Tsars there
but while they were Poles or Lithuanians, Finns or Ukrainians,
*
Professor R. Coupland, who was a member of the Palestine Royal Commission
of 1937, has given in his book, The Future of India, the following simple definition
of a nation: "If a people feels itself to be a nation, it is one."
Letts or Kalmucks, they were all Russian by citizenship. Similarly
in the Polish Republic between the two great wars there were not
only Polish citizens of Polish nationality, but also members of
the
Lithuanian, Ukrainian, and White Russian nationalities, who were
also citizens of the Polish State. And likewise in the United
Kingdom there are not only Englishmen, but also Welshmen,

Scotsmen, and (Ulster) Irishmen, who all bear allegiance to the
same Crown, an allegiance equally acknowledged by British
citizens ofJewish nationality. The Zionist can therefore not be
taunted with "dual nationality," for there is no such thing. He is
simply an French, or American citizen of Jewish
English,
nationality, and there
not the slightest degree of incompatibility
is
between his loyalty to the State of which he is a citizen and his

attachment to the nationality to which he belongs by descent.
Nor would be changed in any way by the possible
his position
creation at some future date of a Jewish State. If he continued to
live outside the Land of Israel his State allegiance would remain
entirely unaffected; only if he settled in that land and legally
assumed its
citizenship would he cease to be a citizen of the
country he had left and owe allegiance to the Jewish State. He
would then be Jewish by citizenship as well as by nationality.
The furtherance of the Zionist Movement, from the very outset,
derived a potent incentive from the conditions of oppression that
afflicted at least one-half of the Jews in the world at the time when
it was founded. There were
nearly six million Jews in Russia and
Rumania who were subjected to a vindictive system of intolerance
and ill-treatment. In Russia they were harassed by a multiplicity
of laws, which had been enacted over a period of two centuries.
They were confined within a Pale of Settlement, restricted in the
choice of occupation, thwarted in their quest of education, limited
in respect of property rights, barred from State and
municipal
service, exposed to galling burdens in connection with military
service,and the prey of official chicanery and recurring pogroms.
In Rumania the Jews had been cheated of the civil
rights which
that country's signature under the Berlin
Treaty of 1878 was
designed to secure them, and they were treated, not as foreigners,
who might enjoy the protection of some other State, but as outlaws.
Moreover, the large Jewish population in Galicia, although under
the comparatively tolerant rule of Austria, were in a chronic
condition of economic distress, from which, as from the persecution
in Russia and Rumania, there was no escape save in emigration.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 2?
In the greater
part of Central Europe the Jews, it is true, were not
exposed to violence or injustice, nor were they racked by poverty,
but they were the victims of
repeated outbursts of anti-Semitism,
which, in the form of the Dreyfus scandal, had even
disgraced
a country like France with its
century-old tradition o "liberty,
equality, fraternity." The political and civil rights exercised
by
the Jews in Central and Western
Europe were by no means always
accompanied by a spirit of tolerance on the part of their non-
Jewish neighbours: on the contrary, those rights were often
neutralised by bureaucratic
regulations or social discrimination.
There were, of course, many
Jews who hoped and believed that
the practice of justice and tolerance would
gradually spread
throughout Europe, and that they would all eventually enjoy
perfect equality politically and socially, just as there were many
who continued to believe in the coming of the Messiah. But the
prospect of such a fundamental improvement, at the time when
Herzl first appeared on the Jewish scene, seemed remote, and
hence the greatest response to his call
naturally came from the
Jews living in the regions of political bondage, economic depres-
sion, and social hostility.
Intimately interwoven with the main factors that influenced

Jews in favour of the Zionist ideal were other moral and material
considerations.There was the feeling of resentment against the
abuse, mockery, or ill-concealed contempt to which
Jews were
subjected even in Western countries, no matter how and
actively
usefully they took part in the national life. There was the just
anger against the mean envy aroused by instances of Jews who
achieved wealth or fame solely through their
industry or intellec-
tual gifts. There was the mental distress caused
by the collective
condemnation of the Jewish people because of the misdeeds of
There was the desire, since the Jews were
individuals.
repeatedly
called aliens even in countries where they had been domiciled
for centuries, to have a land where they could not be
exposed to
such a gibe, and where they would feel fully at home. There was
the longing to be free from all handicaps and restrictions in the
economic field, so that Jews could practise all trades, crafts, and
professions, and show that they could be just as efficient in tilling
the soil or building a town as in buying and selling. There was the
wish to show the world what the Jews could achieve in a land of
their own having suffered for centuries the reproach of being
after
only middlemen or parasites in other lands. Had they not worked

it not time now that
long enough in others' vineyards, and was
Had not a and a culture
they tended their own? they literature
which they could properly develop only by renewed and intimate

contact with their ancestral home? And did they not owe it to the
prestige of their nation,
and to the martyrdom of their forefathers,
that they should at last make an effort to restore its independence,
so that the name of Jew throughout the world should henceforth
be uttered with respect?
Owing to the opposition of the Ottoman Government to any
large-scale Jewish settlement in Palestine, the activity of the

Zionist Movement until the First World War was largely confined
to the fields ofpropaganda and organisation in many parts of the
globe, although some attempts were also made at practical work
in Palestine. It was not until the British Government had issued
the memorable Balfour Declaration in November, 1917, in favour
of the establishment of a National Home in Palestine for the Jew-
ish people and subsequently accepted the Mandate for the admin-
istration of the country, that an opportunity was given to the
Jews to carry out their long-cherished aspirations. The policy of

the British Government
resulted in a very considerable accession
to the Zionist Movement on the part of Jews who had previously
held aloof on so-called political grounds, and much larger funds
were provided by Jews throughout the world for the manifold
tasks of national resettlement. A further advance was made in the
practical sphere some years later by the extension of the Jewish

Agency for Palestine, which was originally identical with the
Zionist Organisation, by including non-Zionists who were in
sympathy with the establishment of the Jewish National Home
but who still declined to accept all the implications of Zionism.
This enlarged co-operation was prompted by a realisation of the
important contribution that Palestine made towards the solution
of the economic problem of the Jews of Eastern and Central
Europe, who were unable to secure anything but very limited
admission to oversea countries that formerly had a liberal immi-
gration policy.
The Jewish achievements in Palestine during the past quarter
of a century have certainly wrought a radical transformation
in the country, not only in the economic, but also in the social
and intellectual fields, for far greater progress has been made
there in that period than in the previous eighteen centuries. That
progress, which has benefited all sections of the population,
would have been much greater still but for the restrictionist policy
exercised by the Mandatory Government, which has been in-
fluenced by the antagonism of certain Arab leaders,
expressed
from time to time in violent disorders. This policy culminated,
a few months before the outbreak of the Second World War, in
the issue of a White Paper containing drastic proposals that
amounted to a nullification of the letter and the spirit of the
Balfour Declaration. It was a document born of the spirit of
appeasement that prevailed at the time, and although it was
rejected by the Mandates Commission as incompatible with the
terms of the Mandate, it has nevertheless been
upheld by the
Mandatory Government, with consequences that have been
disastrous to the Jewish people and detrimental to the interests
of Palesine itself.
Whatever part the founders of the Zionist Movement hoped that
Palestine would play in the destinies of Israel, that part has been
enormously enhanced in consequence of the events of the last
decade. The relentless persecution to which Hitler subjected the
Jews in Germany as soon as he rose to power, and the gradual
deterioration that followed in the position of the Jews in Central
and Eastern Europe, resulted in a growing tide of emigration, of
which a large portion found its way to Palestine owing to the
barriers raised by most of the countries in the west or overseas.
That tide of unhappy humanity is bound to swell still further in
consequence of the barbarous and devastating policy with which
Hitler has scourged the Jews in all the lands that have fallen under
his yoke. Since the beginning of the war Palestine could have
welcomed tens of thousands of Jewish refugees, who would have
ardently and energetically taken their share, either in the military
or the economic field, in the struggle for the overthrow of their
enemy; but the number admitted has been rigorously regulated.
When the war is over, Palestine will unquestionably have to make
a very substantial contribution towards the settlement of the
Jewish problem. The ill-starred White Paper of 1939, which

1
Mr. Winston Churchill called "another Munich/ should share

the fate of the Munich Agreement concerning Czechoslovakia,
which has been repudiated by the British Government. The
Balfour Declaration was inspired in no small degree by the desire
feltbyBritish statesmen during the First World War that Palestine
should play a leading part in the healing of the Jewish tragedy.
That tragedy has grown immeasurably in extent and gravity
during the Second World War, and it therefore calls not only
for the reaffirmation of the Declaration, but also for the practical
and liberal fulfilment, at the earliest opportune moment, of all its
manifold implications*
PART I
THE PERIOD OF ASPIRATION

CHAPTER I
PALESTINE SINCE THE DISPERSION
lapse of over eighteen hundred years from the downfall of

THE the Jewish State to the founding of the Zionist movement has
evoked from many a sympathiser with the Jewish national idea the
comment that it was remarkable that Jews should have determined
to return to their ancestral land after having been separated from
it for so long a period. It has also provided opponents of the move-
ment with the argument that such prolonged separation had made
the Jews utterly forfeit any right to their national restoration. Both
the sympathisers who have made such a comment and the oppo-
nents who have advanced such an argument are fundamentally
mistaken. The Jews never have been separated from Palestine.
From the day when it fell under the yoke of the Romans, until the
day when it was delivered by a British army, there were always Jew-
ish communities in the country. At times numerous and at others
greatly diminished, suffering nearly always from poverty or perse-

cution or both, yet upborne throughout by fortitude and faith,
both in the towns and in the
Jews were domiciled in Palestine,
rural districts, through all the violent changes of fortune that over-
took it. No governors, however ruthless, succeeded either in exter-
belief that they would
minating them or in stamping out their
survive their oppressors. Romans and Byzantines, Persians and
Arabs, Seljuk Turks and Crusaders, Saracens and Mamelukes,
all in turn lorded it over the
Mongols and Ottoman Turks, they
different ways. But, for the
Holy Land for different periods and in
most Palestine was ruled, or of tener misruled, as the outlying
part,
whose capital was far away. Throughout all
province of a Power
those eighteen hundred years and more after the conquest
of
was established to take the
Judaea, no other
national polity place
of the ancient Jewish State, and throughout that period the Jews
waited patiently and hopefully for the day when they would
be
able to restore their national estate.
The Jewsdid not give up their independence, embittered and
riven though it had been in its closing phase by internal strife,
gSJ THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
without a desperate and protracted struggle. In the five years of
fighting against the legions of Vespasian and Titus, which culmi-
nated in the year 70 C.E. in the sacking of Jerusalem and the burn-
ing of the Temple, they lost hundreds of thousands of lives. Vast
numbers were driven into 'exile by political repression and eco-
nomic distress, but the mass of the Jewish population remained
rooted to the soil, and the village of Pekiin, in Upper Galilee, has
contained a Jewish community to the present day. New spiritual
centres sprangup in provincial townlets, and Judaea and Galilee,
as well as numerous places in the south and Transjordania,
remained Jewish in population and manners. The seething resent-
ment against the Roman Procurators burst forth sixty years later
in the revolt headed by Bar Kochba, who reconquered Jerusalem
and conducted a valiant and stubborn resistance for three years
(132-5C.E.). The Romans laid waste the whole country, destroyed
fifty Jewish fortresses and 985 Jewish villages, and killed nearly
600,000 Jews, before they suppressed the rebellion. Resolved that
there should be no further trouble on the part of the Jews, they
ploughed up the site of Jerusalem, put to death all who were sus-
pected of having supported the revolt or who might assist in some
future rising, and carried off large numbers into slavery. The Holy
City was transformed into a Roman colony, called Aelia Capito-
lina, and Judaea became Palestine. A stream of exiles flowed to
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and various countries of Europe. The Jews

in Palestine, who had dwindled to a few thousands, were taxed
and forbidden to visit Jerusalem on pain of death
except once a
year, on the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple, when
they were permitted to contemplate and bewail its ruins. After
the pressure of the Romans relaxed,
Jewish life was restored in
various parts of the country and a number of smaller towns revived.
For nearly four hundred years the Jews were allowed the
by
Romans maintain a system of local national
to
autonomy. The
Sanhedrin, then the legislative and judicial organ, was transferred
from Jabneh in the south to Usha in Galilee, and thence to Tiber-
ias. became the political centre of the Jewish nation, and its
It
president was entitled Nasi (or Prince), an office held by members

of the family of Hillel, a
reputed descendant of the House of
David. The Nasi was recognised by the Romans as the head of the
Jewish community in Palestine and of all the Jews in the Roman
Empire. He supervised Jewish municipal and village self-govern-
ment, and was the recipient of the taxes regularly
paid both by the
PALESTINE SINCE THE DISPERSION 33
Jews of Palestine and by those abroad. During the late Roman and
early Byzantine periods a large and wealthy Jewish community
developed in Palestine, and the ruins of more than fif ty synagogues
dating from that era have been discovered (the most famous being
those of Capernaum, near Tiberias, and of Beth Alfa in the
Esdraelon Valley). The legal provisions concerning agriculture and
land tenure in the Palestinian Talmud, which was
complied at
that time, show that in the sixth century the greater
part of the
soil of Palestine was in
Jewish possession. Most of the Jews were
agriculturists and artisans: they lived in well-organised communi-
ties all over Galilee, Judaea, and
Transjordan, along the Mediter-
ranean coast, and even in the area between the Dead Sea and the
Gulf of Akaba.It was only in Jerusalem that they were not allowed
to live,
though not a few came there to pray at the Western Wall of
1
the Temple, the only remnant of that once imposing shrine.
During Jewish centres of Tiberias, Ludd, and
this period, in the
Caesarea, the great codifications of Jewish law the Mishnah and

the Palestinian Talmud were compiled, summarising the great
religious and cultural heritage of Judaism from previous ages,

and laying down the principles and precepts of the Jewish religion
as practised to-day. The office of Nasi was continued until the early
part of the fifth

century, when
it was abolished by Emperor
Theodosius IL
On two occasions in those early centuries the Jews were given
promises by powerful monarchs that their independence would
be restored, but the hopes and elation thereby aroused were
doomed to disappointment. The first promise was made by Em-
peror Julian the Apostate, who, before setting out in the year
361 to fight against the Persians, issued a declaration to the Jews
than he would rebuild their Temple and restore their independ-
ence, but he was killed in battle two years later. After the fall of
the Western Roman Empire, Palestine came under the domina-
tion of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, whose rulers
applied a policy of repression against the Jews. They expropriated
their lands, imposed taxes upon them, and attempted mass conver-
The Western Wall (sometimes called the "Wailing Wall'*) of the Temple, which
1
isregarded in tradition and accepted by archaeologists as of Solomonic origin, was,

according to statements in Rabbinical works of the third century, and according to
definite reports of travellers in the tenth century, the particular place before which
the Jews congregated for prayers and lamentations. Apart from services, held on
Friday evenings, on the New Moon, on
the 9th of Ab, and in later years more fre-
in existence since 1601 a book of over forty pages of special
quently, there has been
times and in various countries, indicating that the
prayers published at different
wall was a place of pilgrimage for Jews living abroad as well as for those in Palestine.
sions to Christianity. But, despite persecution and emigration, the
number of townlets and villages with a Jewish population men-
tioned in the Palestinian Talmud and the Midrashic literature of
the period amounted to about 400, scattered all over the country.
The Jews were generously supported by Jewish communities
throughout the Diaspora in maintaining themselves against the
oppressive measures of their rulers. Their numbers were increased
by the infiltration of Jews from other lands, and the Rabbinical

Academies of Palestine enjoyed the allegiance of the Diaspora in
matters of religious and ritual law. These fraternal relations also
found expression in a political form, for when, early in the seventh
century, the Persian King Chosroes II invaded Palestine and the
Jews of Galilee gave him active help, they were joined by thou-
sands of Jews from Syria and Babylon. They were encouraged to
throw in their lot with the invader because of his promise to re-
establish the Jewish State, but after they had assisted him to recon-
quer Jerusalem and reminded him of his pledge they were

rewarded with penalties and banishment. The Persians held the
city for fourteen years, until 628, when they were driven out by
the Byzantines, who took a brutal revenge
upon the Jews and
renewed their policy of expropriation and forcible conversion. But
nine years later the Byzantines themselves were defeated and
routed by an Arab army under Caliph Omar, who
occupied the
whole of Palestine (637).
Despite the political persecution and material distress which

sorely afflicted the Jews in Palestine century after century, the
country was regarded by the Jews in all other lands as their na-
tional center in the theory and
practice of Jewish law. The bond
that linked them together was manifested in their and in
liturgy
religious and ritual observance. In their morning service the Jews
in the Diaspora prayed: "O
bring us in peace from the four cor-
ners of the earth and make us go
upright to our land." Although
settled in regions where the climatic conditions
greatly differed
from those in their ancestral land,
they continued to pray for rain
and for dew at the seasons when the climate of Palestine demanded
but when such supplications were
it,
meaningless where they were
living themselves. Their spiritual subjection to their ancient
homeland, which has continued throughout the ages,
prompted
Benjamin Disraeli to write: "The vineyards of Israel have ceased
to exist, but the eternal Law
enjoins the children of Israel still to
celebrate the vintage. A race that persist in
celebrating their vint-
age, although they have no fruits to gather, will
regain their vine-
PALESTINE SINGE THE DISPERSION 5J5
yards." The provisions of Talmudical law that were elaborated

in the early centuries and are still in force regarding the priority
of Palestine in legal relations, both religious and secular, are sig-
nificant. A
Jew who leaves Palestine cannot compel his wife to go
with him, but if he goes to settle there and his wife refuses to
accompany him he can divorce her. (Kethuboth, io6b). So import-

ant was it considered to secure a domicile in the Holy Land that,
although strictly forbidden to transact any business on the
it is
Sabbath, was permissible to enter into a contract on that day

it
for the purchase of a house in Palestine (GzWtn, 8fe).

The primacy that Palestine enjoyed in the life and thought of
the Jewish people found expression in a number of striking sayings
in Rabbinical literature, of which the following are typical:
"He who has walked four yards in Palestine is assured of a

place in the world to come" (Kethuboth, ma).
"It is better to dwell in the deserts of Palestine than in pal-
aces abroad" (Bereshith Rabba, 39).
"The merit of living in Palestine equals that of the fulfilment
of all thecommandments of the Divine Law" (Sifre, Deut. 80).
"
Whoever lives in Palestine, lives sinless" (Kethubothj ioo&).
"God says: Dearer to me is a small group of students in Pales-
tine than a large Sanhedrin abroad" (Yerushalmij Nedarim,
vi, 15).
"The air of Palestine makes one wise" (Baba Bathra, 158-9).
These sayings explain how it was that, although the material

conditions in Palestine were often forbidding, Jews in the Dia-
spora felt an inescapable urge to settle there. When the country
was invaded by the Arabs, it contained a considerable Jewish com-
munity, estimated at between 300,000 and 400,000, of whom
20,000 were in Caesarea. Caliph Omar, who built the imposing
Mosque in Jerusalem, called the Dome of the Rock, the only
outstanding monument o Arab architecture in the country/ main-
tained the exclusion of the Jews from the Holy City; but his suc-
cessors allowed them to live there, entrusted them with the super-
vision of the Temple site and vicinity, and even permitted them
to build a synagogue on the Temple Mount near the Wailing
1
Tancred*
The Mosque was actually "the work of Greek architects and artificers" (Sir
Hinders Petrie, The Revival of Palestine, p. B).
&6 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
Wall. Moreover, lands confiscated by the Byzantine Government
were returned to the Arab conquerors. In the eighth century,
when Palestine became involved in the strife and wars between
rival Arabdynasties, the position of the Jewish community began
to deteriorate, especially after the capital of the Moslem
Empire
was transferred from Damascus to Baghdad, The country was
ruled by despotic governors, first Persians and then Turks, who
persecuted the non-Moslem communities, expropriated Jewish
land, and reduced the Jewish farming population to poverty.
Towards the end of the ninth century, Palestine- fell under a con-
dominium of the Baghdad Government and the Turkish rulers of
Egypt, followed a century later by its attachment to the Egyptian
Caliphate, Under Caliph Al-Hakim there was a wave of religious
persecution against both Christians and Jews, which wrought
havoc to the Jewish community. Conditions became still worse,
amounting to anarchy, in the eleventh century, in the latter half
of which the country was conquered by the Seljuk Turks, who
held it for some fifty years, until it was occupied by the Crusaders.
Despite the intolerance and disturbances that bore heavily upon

them during the greater part of the period from the seventh to the
eleventh century, the Jews in Palestine were able to devote them-
which they rivalled their brethren
selves to scholastic activity, in
in Babylon, The Karaites, who founded their sectarian movement
in Babylon in the eighth century, established themselves in
strong
numbers in Palestine and built a synagogue in Jerusalem, which
existed until the arrival of the Crusaders. Since
they based their
religious system upon the letter of the Scriptures alone and were
well versed in the Bible and Hebrew
grammar, they compelled
their Rabbanite opponents to engage in these studies too, and
hence there arose in Tiberias a school of Massoretes and
gram-
marians, whose rules were authoritative for all Jewry. The Mas-
sorah was the science of the exact determination and transmission
of the Biblical text and its grammatical elucidation, and the schol-
ars who founded it
devised the Tiberian system of
punctuation of
the Hebrew which is older than the Babylonian and was
Bible,
adopted throughout the Diaspora. Discoveries made in the Cairo
Genizah have brought to light the fact that
probably from the
ninth and certainly from the tenth century, there was in Palestine
a complete Talmudical college organisation, headed
by a "Gaon"
(or Rector), with students, scribes, and judges, who
collectively
formed a large and small Sanhedrin, such as
formerly existed in
Jabneh. Its seat was probably in Tiberias, where there was a sue-
PALESTINE SINGE THE DISPERSION 37
cession of "Geonim" for at least three centuries, towards the end
of which period the holders of the office seem to have had the title
conferred or confirmed by the Government. There was another
field of intellectual activity too in which the Jews in Palestine
were then pre-eminent namely, the composition of neo-Hebrew
or liturgical poetry (Piyut), which afterwards acquired a great
vogue in Spain and Babylon. The first of these synagogue poets
were Jose ben Jose and Jannai, who certainly belonged to Paletine.
Distressing as their situation had been in previous epochs, the
Jews in Palestine were exposed to a much graver calamity upon
the arrival of the Crusaders. These soldiers of the Cross had al-
ready horrible trail of plunder and massacre behind them

left a
in Europe, especially among the Jews in the Rhineland. Many
Jews in France and Germany believed that 1096 was the year of
Redemption, and therefore abandoned their homes to go to Pal-
estine; and at the same time seventeen communities of the Cha-
zars (a people of Turkish origin living in the south of Russia,
who embraced Judaism in the seventh century) also set out for
the same destination. The Jewish authorities in Palestine declared
that there was no evidence of the early coming of the Messiah, as
they had also done in reply to an inquiry from communities on
the Rhine in 960, but they were unable to damp down the ardour
for the return to Zion. A terrible fate befell the Jews in Palestine
after the invasion in 1099 of the Crusaders, who considered it
their mission not only to wrest the country from the Turks, but
also to slaughter both Moslems and Jews. The Jews defended
themselves bravely: they were the last on the walls of Jerusalem;
but when the Crusaders entered the city they drove all Jews whom
they could seize into a synagogue and put them to death by fire.
Tens of thousands of Jews in various parts of the country were
slain, large numbers were expelled, and many were sold into
slavery. All the Jewish communities of neighbouring lands

were
full of refugees, and it was only in remote villages of Galilee that
Jewish agricultural settlements survived. But despite the tales of

slaughter and persecution that reached the communities in the
West, the longing for the return was by no means lessened. It
formed the frequent theme of medieval poets, whose Hebrew
elegies were dolefully chanted
in the synagogue on the Fast of Ab,
which commemorated the destruction of Jerusalem. The sublimest
and most powerful expression of this yearning is found in the
poetical and philosophical
works of Judah Ha-Levi (1085-1141),
the greatest Hebrew poet since Bible times, who lived in Spain
until about a year before his death. He composed a number of
elegies on Zion, of which the most moving is the following:
"Zion,
Hast thou no greeting for thy prisoned sons,
That seek thy peace, the remnant of thy flock?
I would pour forth my soul upon each spot
Where once upon thy youth God's spirit breathed.
Prostrate upon thy soil now let me fall,
Embrace thy stones, and love thy very dust!
Shall food and drink delight me when I see
Thy loins torn by dogs? What joy to me
Shall daylight bring if with it behold
The ravens feasting on the eagle's fleshf
But where thy God Himself made choice to dwell.
Lasting abode thy children yet shall find.''
In his great philosophical work, the Kuzari, Judah Ha-Levi

expounded the view that Palestine was perpetually permeated
with a spirit of holiness which existed in no other place on earth:
it was by virtue of that quality that
prophets and psalmists had
been inspired of old, and whosoever betook himself thither would
be able to obtain close communion with his Maker. Not content
to meditate on this aspiration, he resolved to realise it and set out
on the hazardous journey, but what fate overtook him after he
left Egypt is unknown, and legend has filled the gap.
Less than thirty years later, in 1 169, the famous Jewish traveller,
Benjamin of Tudela, visited Palestine and found hardly more
than a thousand Jewish families. In Jerusalem there were 200
Jews, who lived in a corner of the city below the Tower of David,
and some of them leased the only dyeing works. In Beyrout there
were 50 Jews and in Sidon 20, but in Tyre there were 400, includ-
ing Talmudical scholars as well as some engaged in farming and
seafaring. During the later period of the Latin Kingdom some
communities were strengthened by new settlers from Europe, who
were admitted to promote the development of commercial rela-
tions with that Continent. In 1175 another traveller, Petahya of
Ratisbon, found in Jerusalem only one Jew, who paid a high tax
for the dye-works (all other Jews having been driven out). In
Bethlehem there were 12 Jewish dyers, and in Joppa (Jaffa) there
was only one Jew, also a dyer. But Ascalon contained 200 Jews,
including some Talmudical scholars, Tiberias 50, including Tal-
mudists and Cabbalists, Acre 100, and the newly established city
of Toron de los Caballeros (probably Shunem) about 300.
Theposition improved after the Latin Kingdom was brought
to an end in 1187 by the Kurdish Sultan Saladin, who drove out
the Crusaders and occupied all Palestine. He was far more toler-
ant and chivalrous than the soldiers of the Cross, and on the inter-
vention of Maimonides, who was his physician, he allowed Jews
to return to the country. There was consequently a substantial
influx during the thirteenth century from all parts of the Diaspo-
raeven England, France and Germany including scholars, mer-
chants, and professional men. The French scholar, Samuel ben
Simson, who travelled in Palestine in 1210 and compiled a list
of the pietists whose graves he visited, was probably the pioneer

of the migration in the following year of over 300 French and
English Rabbis, including Jonathan ha-Kohen (Lunel), Simson

ben Abraham (Sens), and other eminent scholars. These pilgrims
arrived in groups, one of which formed its own community in
Jerusalem, as recorded by the Hebrew poet, Al-Harizi, who visited
them in 1216, the first of many communities that were subse-
quently established on the basis of their country of origin. Pales-
tine was governed by Saladin's dynasty, the Ayubides, from
Damascus and Cairo, until the middle of the thirteenth century,
when it was invaded and ravaged by two wild peoples, first bands
of Korasmians, and then hordes of Mongols, who devastated Je-

rusalem in 1260. But three years later the Mongols were driven
out by the Mameluke Sulton of Egypt, Bibars, and from that time
(with a brief interruption in 1400, when Palestine was devastated
by the Mongols under Tamerlane) the country was ruled from
Egypt until 1517, when it was taken by the Turks.
Under the Mamelukes the Jewish population increased con-
siderably, and there were communities in Judaea, Galilee, the
coastal cities, and Transjordan. Many Jews devoted themselves
but the majority settled in the cities, which became
to agriculture,
important centres both of economic and of intellectual activity.

The Jewish community of Jerusalem was revived by the famous
philosopher and mystic, Nahmanides (R. Moses ben Nahman) of
Gerona, who, when he arrived here in 1267, found only two Jews,
brothers and both dyers, but in response to his fervent appeal a
new community was formed in less than a month, with its own
synagogue. Nahmanides may be said to have been the pioneer of
the Jewish resettlement in Palestine in the Middle Ages, for,
although he lived in Jerusalem only another three years, he at-
tracted manystudents to the college that he founded, and there
was an influx from Syria and other countries into the Holy City.
Many of the new settlers engaged in the study of the Talmud and
the Cabbalah and had to be maintained by the community, but
others were doctors, coypists of Hebrew books for sale in other
countries, tailors, shoemakers, dyers, weavers, cattle and sheep
rearers, and dealers in wine and oil. Conditions in the fourteenth
century have been described by a French Jewish traveller, Estori
Farhi (a contemporary of Maundeville), who, after the expulsion
of the Jews from France in 1306, set out on his wanderings and
reached Palestine in 1313. He journeyed through the country for
seven years, comparing his impressions with the observations of
older chroniclers, and wrote a most interesting compendium on
the laws, customs, and geography of Palestine, entitled Kaftor va-
Ferah. He states that Jews came from neighbouring lands to cele-
brate the festivals, as their forefathers had done when the Temple
existed. On the Mount of Olives, at Tabernacles, prayers were
offered for the Jews in the Diaspora, and there were solemn
assemblies and processions on other occasions. Here the New Moon
was announced, college rectors and judges were appointed, law-
suits were decided, sentences were pronounced and bans were
proclaimed in short, all the principal functions of a central

Sanhedrin.
Fromthe fifteenth century, however, the community was sorely
troubled by a combination of evils internal friction, heavy taxa-
tion, outbreaks of Moslem fanaticism, hunger, and disease. The
Jews in Jerusalem were burdened with the payment of an annual

tax of 400 ducats to the Sultan of Egypt, besides 50 ducats to the
governor of the city for a license for the manufacture of wine;
and as the richer members tried to escape their share of the col-
the executive of the
lective liabilities,
community had to sell
precious Hebrew books and scrolls of the Torah as well as to bor-
row money. The executive also enacted a law that the estate of
every Jew who died in Jerusalem without heirs should fall to the
community. Owing to the various troubles, many Jews left the
city, and the executive found themselves obliged, in 1487, to send
"messengers of Zion" to lands of the Diaspora to collect contribu-
tions for the relief of the
community. A gradual improvement was
brought about by the energetic efforts of Rabbi Obadiah of Berti-
noro, famed as commentator on the Mishnah, who, on his arrival
in Jerusalem in 1488, was
appointed Chief Rabbi. He succeeded
in reducing the hardships of
tax-gathering and raised the spirit of
his fellowJews by his daily lectures; and by the time of his death
in 1520 (or possibly later) the community had greatly increased
in numbers, to about 1570, through the arrival of refugees from
Spain and Portugal, including Marranos who had fled from the
terrors of the Inquisition. These exiles were largely distinguished
for their education, scholarship, and business enterprise; they soon
rose to leading positions in the community, and they continued
Rabbi Obadiah's work after his death. Thanks to their intellectual
superiority, these Sephardim were able to merge the older ele-

ments, the Arabic Jews, called "Moriscos," as well as those from
Morocco, called "Maghrebim," into a single communal organisa-
tion, upon which they impressed their own specific character. The
Jews from Germany and Poland, however, held aloof and retained
their own independent Ashkenazi organisation and rites. Such was
the main division of the Jewish population for some centuries, as
Jews from Bokhara, Persia, and the Yemen did not arrive until the
nineteenth century, and those from Central and Eastern Europe
1
joined the Ashkenazim.
In 1517 the Turkish Sultan, Selim I, conquered Palestine and
Syria, which remained under Ottoman rule for 400 years. The
principal features of this regime were taxation and neglect: little
or nothing was done to promote the security and welfare of Pales-
tine or to further its trade and commerce. The first rulers had no
objection to the country's development by the efforts of others,

and looked with favour on the steady expansion of the Jewish com-
munity, which was recruited mainly from Spanish refugees, who
brought with them knowledge, technical skill, and capital. Othei
welcome settlers were Jews expelled from Provence in 1550 and
1576, and also a number who came from Italy on the ships that
sailed regularly between Venice and the Levant. But despite the
general tolerance shown towards the Jews, they were not safe
from sudden outbursts of religious and racial hatred on the part ot
the populace, acts of violence by local officials, or devastating in-
cursions by Bedouin. On the other hand, owing to the wide extent
of the Ottoman Empire, the Jews in Palestine came into closer
contact with a larger number of their brethren, and they began to
display considerable scholastic and spiritual activity, especially in
Safed. This city, which had a Jewish population of 15,000 in the
middle of the sixteenth century, was a great centre of religious
study conducted in many colleges and schools under the most fa-
1
See "The Jewish Population of Palestine," by Dr. Lazar Griinhut, in Zionist
Work in Palestine, edited by Israel Cohen (FisherUnwin, London, 1911).
mous Jewish scholars of the time.
It was there that the distinguished
Talmudist, Rabbi Jacob Berab, who settled in Safed about 1533,

sought to revive the ordination of Rabbis according to ancient
procedure, so as "to accelerate the Redemption"; it was there that
Rabbi Joseph Karo (1488-1575), author of the authoritative reli-
gious code, the Shulhan Aruch, and the mystic Isaac Luria (1534-
72) and his chief disciple, Haim Vital (1543-162:0), established a
veritable citadel of the Cabbalah, whose cultivation throughout
the Holy Land was stimulated by anxious waiting for the Mes-
siah; and there too that the first Hebrew printing press was set up
in Palestine. There was an attempt at practical activity also, for
Don Joseph Nasi, Duke of Naxos, a fugitive from the Portuguese
Inquisition, who was a favourite of Sulaiman and Selim II,
received
permission to rebuild Tiberias for his fellow Jews with the help
of Government bodies and the local Arabs* Building was carried
on for one year (1570) in Tiberias and seven neighbouring vil-
lages; mulberry trees were planted for the production of silk that
would rival the wares of Venice, and wool was imported from
Spain for the weaving of cloth. But owing to the indifference of
the Jews, the opposition of the Arabs, revolts in the Lebanon and
North Palestine, and the change of attitude of the Government,
the ambitious project was abandoned.
The position of the Jews in Jerusalem in the sixteenth century
was often desperate: poverty and hunger were widespread, the
community was in debt, there was an epidemic in 1594, and a
famine fn e years later, so that there was an appreciable migra-
tion to Safed. Impressed by the gravity of the situation, Rabbi
Moses Alschech, who had left Venice to settle in Safed, addressed
an urgent appeal to his former community to raise and remit
money immediately; and similar appeals were soon made to the
Jews in Poland, Bohemia, Germany, and Hungary. Special col-
lecting boxes (kuppah) were placed in synagogues, and trustees
(Gabbaim) were appointed to look after them. The money re-
ceived was distributed among the needy, and hence this system of
relief was called Halukah ("distribution"). But however
generous
the Jews of the Diaspora, who were prompted by piety and the
desire at least to maintain others in the land where
they consid-
ered it their duty also to live themselves, there was no effective
protection from the spoliation of corrupt and greedy officials. In
1625 Mohammed ibn Faruch, who became Governor of Jerusa-
lem, and extorted money and goods from the Jews in Jerusalem,
and his two brothers-in-law, Ibrahim Aga and Othman Aga, in-
dulged in a similar practice. The leaders of the community were

seized in the Sephardic and Ashkenazic synagogues,
imprisoned,
and tortured, and a reign of persecution continued for two years,
until Ibn Faruch was compelled to flee from the forces sent
against
him by the Sultan. Among those who left Jerusalem to escape
ill-treatment was a former Chief Rabbi of Prague, R. Isaiah ha-
Levi Horowitz, a famous scholar and Cabbalist, who had arrived
there in 1622 and afterwards went to Safed. A kinsman of his,
author of a travel chronicle, Darche Zion ("Paths of Zion"), called
him a Nasi ("Prince") of Palestine and cited his learned opinion
that the poor of Palestine were everywhere to be regarded as
"the poor of thy town" -that is, they were to be treated on a
basis of equaliy with the poor in the communities of the Dia-
spora. The writer of this chronicle stated that every Jewish

householder in Jerusalem had to pay a poll-tax of three Lowen-
ihaler, and that conditions became very much worse in conse-
quence of the massacres of 1648 by Chmielnicki's hordes in Po-
land, whence a few thousand gulden used to be received each
year. So acute was the distress in Jerusalem that of 700 widows
400 died of hunger.
It was at this time of widespread affliction, when the masses of
Jewry were looking forward ardently and impatiently to the

coming of the Messiah to deliver them, that the most distinguished
and spectacular of the claimants to that dignity announced his
advent. Sabbatai Zevi (1626-76), who was born in Smyrna, had
been preceded by a succession of false Messiahs who appeared at
intervals in Asia and Europe throughout the centuries, and who
all evoked an enthusiastic response that bore eloquent testimony
to the faith in the national restoration. In the early part of the
second century Bar Kochba, who conducted a valiant but futile
struggle against the Romans in Palestine, was even hailed by the
great Rabbi Akiba as the Messiah. In the latter half of the fifth
century Moses of Crete proclaimed that he would lead his
followers through the sea to the land of their forefathers, but
lured them only to disaster. In the eighth century there were
Serenus of Syria and Abu Isa of Ispahan; in the twelfth there was
the ill-fated David Alroy, of Azerbaijan, whose claim to be the
Messiah gave comfort and courage to the Jewish communities that
suffered from the Crusades; in the thirteenth there was a pretender
in Spain, Abraham Abulafia; at the end of the fifteenth there was
an Ashkenazic claimant in Istria, Asher Lemmlein; and in the
sixteenth there appeared the romantic couple, David Reubeni and
Solomon Molcho, who, after enjoying the favour of the Pope and
the Portuguese Court, both met with a violent death. In Safed
the famous Cabbalist, Isaac Luria, a native of Jerusalem, gave
himself out in his mystical teachings as the incarnation of the
Messiah of the House of Joseph; after his death his disciple, Hayim
Vital, a native of Safed, declared that he was the Ephraimite
Messiah, whereupon Abraham Shalom claimed to be the Davidic
Messiah. But by far the greatest spiritual upheaval in Jewry was
produced by Sabbatai Zevi, who, although received with distrust
by Rabbis in Jerusalem, when he came there in 1663, cast such
a potent spell over countless Jewish communities from Constan-
tinople to Amsterdam when he openly proclaimed himself Mes-
siah in 1666, that many Jews set out for Palestine or prepared
to do so after selling their homes and businesses. The claims of all
these and other pseudo-Messiahs, whether they were adventurous

imposters or genuine mystics, and the credulity and elation they
all aroused in varying measure, were so many manifestations of
the unceasing and irrepressible yearning of Israel for the return to
his ancestral soil. Only a generation after the fiasco of Sabbatai
Zevi, when there was still a feeling of bitter disillusion, Jehuda
Hassid (that is "the pious"), of Siedlce, who lived for a time in
Germany, announced the advent of a new Messiah in Palestine
and conducted thither a large company of Jews in 1700, but died
six weeks after his arrival from the effects of the exhausting jour-
ney. Of the 1,300 who accompanied him, about 500 died on the
way, and of the others some went over to Islam or Christianity or
returned to Europe.
Early in the eighteenth century the Jewish community of Jeru-

salem was again in distress, and as there was a danger of the
leaders being thrown into jail, messengers were again sent to
Europe for financial help. There was a widespread response, in

which the Viennese banker, Wolf Wertheimer, distinguished him-
selfby collecting 22,000 gulden, to which Frankfort alone con-
tributed nearly one-half. Despite the reverses that befell the house
of Wertheimer, the total of 22,000 gulden remained intact for
many decades, and eventually Emperor Francis I of Austria signed
a letteron August 8th, 1808, authorizing the "Internuntius" at
Constantinople to hand over the yearly interest to the three Jewish
communities of Jerusalem, Hebron, and Safed, for distribution
among their poor in proportion to their numbers. From the mid-
dle of the eighteenth century there set in a considerable influx of
Hasidim from Poland, Russia, and Galicia, who mostly settled in
PALESTINE SINGE THE DISPERSION 45
Safed and Tiberias. There was an efficient governor in Galilee,
Omar ed-Dahr (1740-75, who furthered the development of
Tiberias and invited Jews to live there. His successor, Achmed
el-Djezzar, was notorious forhis cruelty, but maintained order
and security, and during his regime there arrived a body of
300 Russian Hasidim under the leadership of Rabbi Mendel of
Vitebsk, Rabbi Abraham ben Alexander of Kalisk, and Rabbi
Israel of Polotzk. They settled in Safed, and some of them later
moved to Tiberias and Pekiin. About the same time many Jews
from Tunis and other parts of North Africa also migrated to
Palestine.
The example set by the Hasidim was followed by their

oppo-
nents, the Mithnaggedim (called in Palestine Perushim, or "sep-
aratists"); they had an organised community from 1810 in Safed,
headed by Israel of Schklow, a disciple of the famous Gaon Rabbi
Elijah Vilna, and the number of Jews in that city grew despite
poverty and suffering. In Acre, in the early part of the nineteenth
century, Haim Farhi, member of an influential Jewish family of
Damascus, occupied the important position of Finance Minister
and State Secretary to the ruthless Djezzar, who requited his serv-
ices by mutilating him, and Djezzar's successor, the Pasha Abdalla,
who owed his promotion to Farhi, had his loyal minister put to
death and confiscated his property (1820). Farhi's brothers tried
to avenge his fate by having a ban decreed in Constantinople
against Abdalla and besieging Acre with the aid of other Syrian
Pashas, but all to no avail, as Abdulla bribed the Pashas to with-
draw. Thereupon Abdalla revenged himself upon the Jews in
Acre, Safed, and Tiberias, by imposing new taxes upon them. His
evil rule was brought to an end in 1832 by Mehemet Ali, founder
of Egyptian independence, who drove him out and also beat the
Turks. The Egyptians were masters of Palestine for the next eight
years and tried to introduce reforms, but
the taxation they levied
was as heavy Turks, with the result that there was
as that of the
a revolt of the Arabs, wh@
secured temporary control of Jerusalem
and Safed and pillaged the Jews mercilessly. After the suppression
of the revolt further misfortune overtook the community in Safed
in 1837, when an earthquake caused nearly 2,000 Jewish deaths.
Of the survivors the Perushim moved to Jerusalem, where the
Ashkenazi community has since then steadily grown, while a
section of the Hasidim went to Hebron at the bidding of their
Rabbi. There were many Jewish victims of the earthquake in
Tiberias too, but Jerusalem was entirely spared. In 1838 the
Druses rose against
Egyptian rule, Safed was again plundered,
and disorders spread to such an extent that the
European Powers
intervened in the
dispute between the Sultan Abdul Medjid and
the Pasha of
Egypt. England, Russia, and Austria sided with the
former, and France with the latter, but in 1840 a settlement was
concluded whereby the European Powers restored the whole of
Syria and
Palestine to Turkey, after she had promised to carry
out various reforms and to treat all her
subjects on a footing of
equality.
The subsequent improvement in the position o the Jews, so
far as order and security were concerned, was mainly due to the
establishment of the various
European ConsulatesBritish,
French, Russian, Austrian, and German which, by virtue of
spe-
cial
arrangements made with Turkey (Capitulations), were able
to exercise protection over their Not only
respective nationals.
but also native Jews of repute were able to
foreign, enjoy the
protection of the powerful Consuls, and, thanks to this also, there
was an increasing influx of Jews. Most of the new arrivals settled
in Jerusalem and Safed, and a few also in Tiberias and Hebron;
but settlement in rural districts or in
places where there were no
consulates was dangerous. The
congestion in the four Holy Cities,
as they werecalled, and the lack of adequate productive
activity
1
resulted in great distress, which the funds of the Halukah and the
other philanthropic efforts relieved only to a certain
;degree.
Improvement in the economic as well as in all other conditions
had to await the of a later generation, which was animated
coming
by equal idealism, but spurred on by a more practical and realistic
sense of Jewish national
aspiration.
1
The Sephardic community (including Jews from North Africa, the Orient, and
Greek-speaking Jews) had their own Halukah organisation, called Kolel ("group")
from the beginning of the seventeenth century, the money
being obtained by col-
lectors who were dispatched to Europe and North Africa
every year. The Polish
Hasidim who settled in Palestine in 1777 organised the first Ashkenazic Kolel, which
was followed thirty years later by that of the Mithnaggedim, and
subsequently by
many others formed by Jews from different parts of Europe. There were ultimately
twenty-seven different Kolelim, receiving (before the First World War) a total of
about 100,000 a year, which was distributed students of the Talmud
largely among
and the poor, while part was devoted -to the provision of
housing.
CHAPTER II
THE ADVOCACY OF RESTORATION

idea of the restoration of the Jews to Palestine was
by no
THE means confined to prayer or connected only with the various
pseudo-Messianic movements. It found

expression also in the
secular form of proposals and projects that were made from time
to time from the sixteenth century and that became
particularly
frequent from the beginning of the nineteenth. Such schemes were
propounded on both sides of the Atlantic, especially by Jews in
Central and Eastern Europe, and some were sponsored by eminent
non-Jews. Occasionally, indeed, there was a blending of the re-
ligious or Messianic element with the political, as in the project
of David Reubeni, who, in the early sixteenth century, disturbed
the communities of the West with an alleged appeal from Jewish
princes in Arabia for a joint conquest of Palestine by European
and Arabian Jews, and who was more concerned with the re-
establishment of a Jewish State in Palestine than with the setting
up of a Kingdom of God. Such also was the character of the
arguments used by the Christian millennarians in favour of the
re-admission of the Jews to England under Cromwell, for they
believed that the coming of the Messiah, who would lead the
Jews back to their ancestral home, and usher in the "Kingdom
of the Saints" that would endure a thousand years, would not
take place until the Jews were dispersed in all lands, and they
1
must therefore be found in England too. The earliest advocate
of the idea on a purely secular basis was probably the Danish
merchant, Oliger Paulli, who submitted elaborate schemes in 1695
to William III of England, Louis XIV of France, and other Euro-
pean monarchs. Similar proposals were made by the Marquis

de Langallerie, who, in 1714, began negotiations with the Turkish
Ambassador at The Hague; and by the Prince de Ligne, who, in
1797, published a lengthy memorandum,
in which he argued that
the re-establishment of a Jewish State in Palestine would not only
benefit that country and the Jews in it, but would also improve the
position of the Jews in the Diaspora.
By far the most notable proposal before the end of the eight-
1
The English writer to propound the doctrine that the restoration of the
first
Jews was dependent upon the millennium was Sir Henry Finch, whose treatise, The
World's Great Restauration, appeared in 1621. See article by Dr. Franz Kobler in
The Jewish National Home, edited by Paul Goodman (London, 1945).
eenth century was that made by Napoleon Bonaparte in the
course of his campaign against Egypt and Syria. According to his
the Moniteur Universe^ he issued a proclamation
official gazette,
on April soth, 1799, in which he invited "all the Jews of Asia and
Africa to rally under his banners, in order to re-establish ancient
Jerusalem." This proclamation was issued after Napoleon
had
begun the Siege of Acre, and until recently the text of it was
unknown. But, thanks to a fortunate discovery, a copy of the text
has been brought to light, which shows that Napoleon's appeal
was addressed not only to the Jews of Asia and Africa, but to all
1
Jews. He apostraphised them as ''unique nation"
and "rightful
heirs of Palestine," referred to the country as "your patrimony,"
and called upon them "to take over that which has been con-
quered, and ... to remain master of it to maintain it against all
comers." His appeal concluded:
"Hastenl Now is the moment, which may not return for

thousands of years, to claim the restoration of civic rights
among the population of the universe which had been shame-
fully withheld from you for thousands of years, your political
existence as a nation among the nations, and the unlimited
natural right to worship Jehovah in accordance with your faith,
publicly and most probably for ever (Joel iv. 20)."
This proclamation was accompanied by a letter from Aaron, son

of Levi, styled "first Rabbi and Priest of Jerusalem," who appealed
to his brethren "to rebuild the walls of the orphaned city and
a Temple to the Lord," and urged "let all men of Israel capable
of bearing arms gather and come up to us." A month after the
issue of the proclamation, Napoleon, without having entered
Jerusalem or even penetrated to Acre, set out on his return to

France, probably before his offer had reached any important
Jewish community. He gave up his dream of an Oriental empire,
the idea of rebuilding a Jewish Palestine disappeared from his
programme, and his disappointment found vent in the exclusion
of his magniloquent manifesto from his official gazette.
In all probability Napoleon had been prompted to make his
proposal by a letter addressed by a Jew to his brethren in the
previous year. In this letter the anonymous writer pointed out
that nine years after the issue of the Declaration of Human
Rights,
1
The
credit of the discovery is due to Dr. Franz Kobler, woh gave a full account
of it in four articles in The New Judaea (September,
October-November, and De-
cember, 1940, and February, 1941) .
THE ADVOCACY OF RESTORATION 49
the hatred of the Jews by the nations had not lessened, and argued
that the yoke resting upon them would not be removed until they
regained their rank as a nation among the other nations of the
world. He therefore exclaimed: "O my brethren! Let us rebuild
the Temple of Jerusalem," and invoked the "invincible nation"
of the French as the instrument for achieving the glorious aim.
The letter, which was published in Italian, French, and English,
found a wide circulation and made a profound impression both
1
in Jewish and non-Jewish circles, particularly in England.
The idea of the restoration found frequent championship in
England from the beginning of the nineteenth century in the most
varied circles theological, literary and political. Christian writers
based their advocacy upon the Biblical promises and were partly
moved by the hope that the Jews, on their return to Palestine,
would be converted to Christianity. They included James Bicheno
whose Restoration of the Jews The Crisis of All Nations first ap-
peared in 1800, Thomas Witherby, who pleaded in his Attempt to
Remove Prejudices concerning the Jewish Nation (1804) both for
the Jews' restoration to Palestine and for their civil equality else-
where, and L. Mayer, whose Restoration of the Jews reached a
third edition in 1806. In the literary sphere the idea was popular-
ized in the Hebrew Melodies of Lord Byron, who gave poignant
the Jews in the famous lines:
expression to the homelessness of
"The white dove hath her nest, the fox his cave,
Mankind their country, Israel but the grave."
In his romance, David Alroy (1853) Benjamin Disraeli, who had
travelled in the Near East in 1831, revealed his sympathy with
the ideal of Jewish national restoration by making his hero say:
"You ask me what I wish: my answer is a national existence,
which we have not. You asked me what I wish: my answer is,
the Land of Promise. You ask me what I wish: my answer is,
Jerusalem. You ask me what I wish: my answer is, The Temple,
all we have forfeited, all we have yearned after, all for which
we have fought, our beauteous country, our holy creed, our
simple manners, and our ancient customs."
Disraeli gave exuberant utterance in another novel, Tancred
(1847),to his conviction concerning an ultimate Jewish return to
*The text appeared in the Courier de Londres and in a special edition of that
it was published in The Monthly Visitor, Vol. IV, London, 1788, pp. 383-6;
journal;
and republished in 1806 in the second edition of James Bicheno's Restoration of the
Jews. In France an abstract of the letter and favourable comment appeared in the
magazine, Decade Philosophique et Litteraire, April 19th, 1798.
5
Palestine. A more comprehensive and analytical treatment
of the
later by George Eliot in her
subject was presented many years
famous novel Daniel Deronda^ which appeared in 1876. One of
her heroes, the spokesman of the Jewish national aspiration, says,
in the course of a speech:
"There is a store of wisdom among us to found a new Jewish

like the old a republic where there
polity, grand, simple, just,
is
equality of protection
Then our race shall have an organic
centre, a heart to watch and guide and execute; the
and a brain
have a defense in the court of nations.
outraged Jew shall
. . .
And the world will gain as Israel gains."
Of the various personalities who began to show practical interest

in the earlier half of the nineteenth century in the settlement of
the Jews in Palestine, the first and most distinguished was the great
humanitarian, Sir Moses Montefiore (1784-1885), who, in 1827,
made the first of his seven pilgrimages to that country. Eleven
years later he paid his second visit for the purpose of submitting
to the Viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, then in control of Palestine,
a scheme for Jewish colonisation, and to this cause he devoted zeal,
thought, and money throughout his life. In 1838 also, Lord
Shaftesbury pleaded for a Jewish settlement in Palestine under
the guarantee of the Great Powers, and he subsequently elaborated
his views in an anonymous article in the Quarterly Review (Janu-
ary, 1839). During
the London Conference of 1840, at which the
future of Palestine and Syria was discussed, Lord Shaftesbury ad-
dressed a memorandum on the subject to the Foreign Secretary,
Lord Palmerston. In an published in The Times of August
*
article
i7th, 1840, it was stated that "the proposition to plant the Jewish
people in the land of their fathers, under the protection of the Five
Powers, is no longer a mere matter of speculation, but of serious
political consideration/' and on August 26th The Times printed
an earlier memorandum to the Powers, together with encouraging
repliesfrom most of the sovereigns addressed. A further memoran-
dum on the subject appeared later in the year, expressing the
views of a group of statesmen that "the cause of the Restoration of
the Jews to Palestine is one essentially generous and noble/' that
the colonisation of Palestine by the Jews would be a remedy for
contemporary conflicts, and that "it would be a crowning point in
the glory of England to bring about such an event." Palmerston
was not unfavourable, but there was no Jewish organisation capable
of dealing with so stupendous a problem, and he therefore mani-
THE ADVOCACY OF RESTORATION 5!
i'ested his
sympathy by giving instructions to the British Consul
in Jerusalem to accord official protection to the
Jews in Pales-
tinea concession that may be regarded as the forerunner of the
Balfour Declaration of November, 1917. Support for the idea ol
the restoration was also expressed at a meeting held at Cariow,
near Dublin, on February 2 8th, 1841, under the chairmanship ot
the Dean of Leigh ton, and a memorial sent to Palmers ton asking
for intervention by the British Government elicited from him
a reply (March 8th) that the Government would limit their ef-
forts "to obtain for such Jews as may wish to settle in Palestine
full security for their persons and property."
After Mehemet Ali had been driven out of Palestine in 1841
and the country was restored to Turkish rule, the question was
taken up by Colonel Charles Henry Churchill (grandson of the
fifth Duke of Marlborough), a young officer on the staff of the
Allied Army, which had forced the Egyptian ruler's withdrawal.
Churchill, who was stationed in Damascus, conveyed to the Jews
in that city the firman that had been obtained by Sir Moses
Montefiore from the Sultan Abdul Medjid, granting them civil
equality and repudiating the ritual murder libel, and he evinced
the profoundest interest in the idea of the Jewish resettlement in
Palestine. He wrote a letter to Montefiore on June i4th, 1841, in
which he urged that the Jews should direct their energies "towards
the regeneration of Syria and Palestine," and said that there was
no doubt that they "would end by obtaining the sovereignty of
at least Palestine." He was anxious that the co-operation of the
Jews on the Continent should be secured and therefore sent Mtmte-
fiore an address, translated into German, on August i5th, 1842,
with the request that he should forward it to his friends in Ger-
many. But nothing practical resulted from this suggestion, as the
Jewish Board of Deputies, of which Montefiore was President,
instructed him to reply that the Board was "precluded from origi-
nating any measures for carrying out the benevolent views of
Colonel Churchill." Montefiore, however, availed himself of the
by entrusting him, in 1843, w^^ a
services of this zealous officer
fund for the granting of loans to Jews in Palestine.
Another British military officer who evinced a similar interest
in the matter was Colonel George Gawler, founder and second
Governor of South Australia, who wrote Tranquillisation of Syria
and the East, which was sub-titled "Observations and Practical
the Establishment of Jewish Colonies
Suggestions in furtherance of
in Palestine: the most sober and sensible remedy for the miseries
of Asiatic Turkey." In 1849 Gawler accompanied Montefiore on
a further visit to Palestine, and four years later renewed his pro-
posals that Jewish settlements should be promoted there by Eng-
land, which "does most urgently need the shortest and safest lines
of communications. .
Egypt and Syria stand in intimate con-
. .
nection. A foreign hostile Power mighty in either would soon en-
danger British trade/*

Although no political action was taken, public interest was sus-
tained in various ways. In 1844 there was formed in London the
"British and Foreign Society for promoting the restoration of the
Jewish nation to Palestine." A Tract for the Times was published

by a clergyman named Bradshaw, who asked Parliament to grant
4,000,000 for the restoration if the Churches collected 1,000,000.
In the following year E. L. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service,
wrote An Appeal on behalf of the Jewish Nation, in Connection
with British Policy in the Levant^ in which he urged the re-estab-
lishment of the Jews in Palestine "as a protected State, under the
guardianship of Great Britain" with a view to "their final estab-
lishment as an independent State."
The idea of Jewish colonisation was strongly supported at the
time by the Spectator whose interest was aroused by the report of
',
a speech delivered by the American Jew, Mordecai Manuel Noah

(1785-1851), in New York. Noah, who had occupied various posts
in the American Government service, originally proposed a Jewish
colony on Grand Island near Buffalo, but after realising the im-
practicability of the scheme, became an ardent advocate of the
restoration to Palestine. In his address, in October, 1844, he
urged
that it was the duty of Christians to help the Jews to
regain the
land of their fathers, and he received a letter from John Adams,
the second President of the United States, who wrote: "I
really
wish the Jews again in Judaea as an independent nation; once
. . .
restored to an independent government, and no longer

persecuted,
they would soon wear away some of the asperities and peculiarities
of their character." Another advocate was an Englishman, Arthur
Hollingsworth, who wrote a pamphlet in 1849 dealing with "the
prophetic evidence for the restitution of Palestine to the Jews",
and a second one in 1852, in which he urged the establishment of
a Jewish State on the ground that it would be of
great importance
to Great Britain for the purpose of
safeguarding the overland
route to India.
The most useful action at the time was taken
by Sir Moses
Montefiore, who, in 1854, together with Chief Rabbi Nathan
THE ADVOCACY OF RESTORATION
53
Adler, appealed to the Jews of
England for funds to relieve distress
in Palestine due to the failure of the harvest
and the crisis caused
by the Crimean War. A sum of 20,000 was to which
raised, was
added a legacy of 10,000 for the benefit of Palestine
Jews from
Judah Touro, of New Orleans, and thereupon Montefiore went
out again to Palestine in
May, 1855. The result of this visit was
that he obtained from the Sultan a.
firman permitting the purchase
of land, and that he bought land at
Jerusalem and Jaffa on which
he planted gardens, erected a windmill, and
opened a girls' school,
besides establishing
agricultural settlements at Safed and Tiberias,
In 1874 the Jewish Board of
Deputies published correspondence
between Montefiore, Colonel Gawler's son, the Haham Bashi
(Sephardic Chief Rabbi) of Jerusalem, and many of the local
Jews, "on the promotion of agricultural and other industrial pur-
suits/' and in that year, at the age of ninety, the venerable
philan-
thropist made his seventh and last visit to the Holy City. He
suggested sanitary improvements, dwellings for the working classes
in garden suburbs where vines, olive-trees, and
vegetables, should
be grown, and loan societies to enable Jews to
buy land. The Sir
Moses Montefiore Testimonial Committee, which was founded
in 1878 to commemorate his approaching centenary, adopted
some of these suggestions, and by 1887 a hundred and sixty houses
and buildings, the best of the kind in Palestine, had been erected
in Jerusalem, near the Jaffa Gate, one of the
many memorials to
an illustrious name.
There were several other Englishmen who displayed an en-
thusiastic interest in the idea of restoration. They included Gen-
eral Sir CharlesWarren, who, in 1879, proposed the formation of
a chartered company, which should obtain a concession from the
Sultan to permit a Jewish settlement with a view to self-govern-
ment; Colonel C, R. Conder, who spoke and wrote in support of
the idea indefatigably for some decades; and Sir Edward Cazalet
who in 1878 urged a large settlement of Jews under British pro-
tection and suggested the establishment of a Jewish University in
Jerusalem. Even more zealous than these was Laurence Oliphant
(1829-88), writer and traveller, who projected a lar$e Jewish set-
tlement in Transiordan in 1879, ^ ut failed to obtain the Sultan's
consent. He visited Palestine twice accompanied by Naphtali Herz
Imber, the Hebrew poet and author of the Zionist anthem, "Hatik-
vah," whom he and Mrs. Oliphant had befriended and who on
these journeys served as their Jewish secretary. He also went to
Eastern Europe to distribute the money of the Mansion House
Relief Fund among the Jewish victims of pogroms and discussed
Jewish questions with leaders of the Hibbath Zion ("Love of
Zion") movement in Russia, Austria, and Rumania. His last years
were spent at Haifa, where he was untiring in the help that he
gave to Jewish settlers in the neighbourhood.
In France, too, there were exponents of the idea. The historian,
Joseph Salvador (1796-1873), who was a profound believer in the
future of Judaism, and the undisputed intellectual leader of
French Jewry in the latter part of his life, published in 1860 a
work, Paris, Rome, Jerusalem, in which he urged the holding of a
Congress of the Powers for the reinstating of his people in their
ancient land. Twenty years earlier there had appeared a book, La
Nouvelle Question d'Orient, by private Secretary of Napoleon
III, Ernest Laharanne, who pleaded for the establishment of a
Jewish State in Palestine and emphasised the great cultural bene-

fitsthat the Jews would confer upon the Near East. And the
founder of the International Red Cross, Jean Henri Dunant, was
likewise an enthusiast who in 1876 created the first Palestine
Exploration Society.
While the idea of the resettlement of the Jews in their ancient
land had numerous adherents in the Western world, a movement
for its realisation began to develop among the Jews in Central and
Eastern Europe from about the middle of the nineteenth century.
These protagonists were more strongly moved than the advocates
in England or France, for they were impelled by a complex of
more powerful and varied motives: religious conviction, national
consciousness, and personal experience of the intolerance, hard-
ships, and dangers to which their people were exposed in the Dia-
spora. For them the restoration to Palestine was not a project for
the benefit of some remote group of people, but a matter of
vital concern to their own communities; they were less interested
in the political advantages that might thus accrue to some Power
than in the national and religious ideals of their own people; and
above they wished to see the beginning
all iof the realisation of
eighteen hundred years of prayer.
The and most distinguished of these advocates of practical
first
activity was an orthodox Rabbi, Zevi Hirsch Kalischer (1795-

1874), born at Lissa, who was a Talmudical authority of extensive
repute and author of commentaries on the Pentateuch and the
Shulchan Aruch. He enjoyed great influence owing not only to
his profound scholarship but also to the fact that he
occupied
the position of Rabbi at Thorn (in East Prussia) for forty years
without any salary, living on a shop kept by his wife. As early as
1830 he wrote to his former teacher, the famous Rabbi Akiba
Eger, on the and several years
necessity of the return to Palestine,
later entered intocorrespondence on the subject with Baron
Amschel Mayer Rothschild, Sir Moses Montefiore, and other nota-
the time. In 1843 he published his Emunah Yesharah
bilities of
("The Right Faith") in two parts, in which he expounded his sys-

tem of enlightened orthodoxy, and in 1861 he issued a third part,
Drishath Zion ("The Quest of Zion"). The views concerning Pal-
estine that Kalischer expressed in this book seemed so advanced
to his contemporaries that it required much learning and dialec-
tical argument to convince some Rabbis that his
position was
strictly orthodox. His three main theses, which were sustained by
a considerable array of Biblical texts and Talmudical dicta, were:
that the salvation of the Jews, as foretold by the prophets, can come
only in a natural way by self-help, and does not need the advent
of the Messiah; that the colonisation of Palestine should be advo-
cated and undertaken without delay; and that the revival of sacri-
fices in the Holy Land at the present day was admissible. He urged
that a society of rich Jews should be formed to undertake the col-
onisation of Palestine; that many Jews from Russia, Poland, and
Germany should be helped by the society to settle on the land;
that a guard of able-bodied young Jews should be trained to pro-
tect the settlers from attacks by Bedouin; and that an agricultural
school should be founded in Palestine to educate Jewish boys and
girls in farming as well as in various secular subjects.
Kalischer was ardently supported by a number of other eminent
orthodox Rabbis, among whom were Elijah Gutmacher (famous
in his later years as a Hasidic wonder-Rabbi), Israel Hildesheimer,
and Isaac Ruelf, author ofAruhath Bath Ammi ("Healing of My
People"). In 1860 he convened a conference at Thorn of Rabbis
and influential laymen, to whom he submitted his plan for practi-
cal work. One of its results was the establishment in the following
year of the first Zionist society, in Frankfort- on-the-Oder, by Dr.

Hayim Lourie, but as the society met with difficulties it was trans-
ferred in 1864 to Berlin, where it was organised, with Kalischer's
active co-operation, as the "Society for the Colonisation of the
Land of Israel." A more important and lasting result was the es-
tablishment in 1870, in response to the insistent requests of Ka-
lischer, of the first Jewish agricultural school in Palestine, Mikveh
Israel, near Jaffa, by the Alliance French
Israelite Universelle, the
which was founded in 1860.
Jewish* philanthropic organisation
The creation of this school owed much to Charles Netter (1826-
82), a leading member of the Central Committee o the Alliance,
who obtained the requisite permit from the Sultan in 1870, re-
mained at Mikveh Israel for another three years to
supervise its
organisation, revisited it several times, and died there. The school,
which exists to the present day, disappointed first expectations, as
most of its trained pupils emigrated to Egypt and America as
agronomists instead of remaining in the country to further the
Jewish settlement, but it has played a useful part in the agricul-
tural education of the youth.
Another outstanding protagonist in Germany, but of
quite a
different character, was Moses Hess (1812-75), who wrote the
first critical
exposition of the bases of Jewish nationalism. Born
at Bonn, and brought up in the
atmosphere of religious tradition,
he threw himself at an early age into the maelstrom of
political
life as a journalist and
speaker. From a National Liberal, he be-
came an advanced Socialist-Democrat and a fellow worker of Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels, but owing to disillusionment and the
attitude of the Prussian Government, he retired from the
political
fray after the Revolution of 1848 and lived in Paris for many
years. It was there, partly under the influence of the Damascus
blood accusation and of reflections aroused by the of
struggles
various European nations to attain
independence, that he de-
voted himself to a comprehensive examination of the
Jewish ques-
tion. The result was the production of his classic work, Rome and
Jerusalem, which he wrote, in 1862, in Cologne, to which he

returned for a couple of years. This book, which is
permeated
throughout by the spirit of an ardent Jewish nationalist, is all the
more remarkable as it was written twenty years after Hess had
been estranged from his people; but his Jewish consciousness re-
asserted itself so strongly that he even advised his fellow to Jews
give up their emancipation if they found it irreconcilable with
Jewish nationality. "No modern people straggling for its father-
land," he wrote in his Preface, "can deny the Jewish
people its
right to its own land without involving itself in the most fatal
inconsistency." He regarded the restoration of the Jewish State as
a necessity both for the and for
Jewish people humanity alike,
and believed it would bring about improved between
relations
capital and labour.
"With the Jews, more than with other nations, which,
though
oppressed, yet live on their own soil, all political and social
progress must necessarily be preceded by national
independence.
A common native soil is a primary condition if better and more
progressive relations between capital and labor are to be cre-
ated among Jews. The social man, just like the plant and ani-
mals, needs for his growth a wide, free soil; without it he sinks
to the status of a parasite, which feeds at the
expense of others/'
For the Jews such independence was attainable only in Palestine,
the cradle of their civilisation and the goal of their
age-long
yearnings. They would always remain strangers among the Euro-
pean nations, who might emancipate them for reasons of human-
ity and justice, but would never respect them so long as the Jews
placed their own great memories in the background and adhered
to the maxim: Ubi bene, ibi patria ("Where it is well with me,
there is my fatherland"). The Jewish type was indestructible and
the Jewish national consciousness could not be extinguished, al-
though the German Jews, for the sake of social and political eman-
cipation, persuaded themselves to the contrary. Hess referred for
confirmation of some of his views to the book by Laharanne and
to Kalischer's Drishath Zion, from both of which he quoted pas-
sages. He hoped that France, which was then engaged on the con-
struction of the Suez Canal, would help the Jews to found colo-
nies from Suez to Jerusalem and from the banks of the Jordan to
the shore of the Mediterranean. But his work, which was a spir-
itual autobiography, written in an engaging style and full of pro-
found thought and acute observations, made little or no impres-
sion upon the Jews of Germany, to whom it was primarily ad-
dressed, for they were bent upon achieving the blessings of eman-
cipation. It was only from the historian, Heinrich Graetz, to whom
he was linked by sincere friendships, that it elicited approving
comment.
The Jewish masses in Eastern Europein Russia, Poland, and
Rumania were quite unaffected by the various works and pam-
the Holy Land, which ap-
phlets urging the Jewish return to
peared west of the Vistula, probably because, with the exception
of Kalischer's book, they were written in languages that most of
them did not understand. But they did not need any external
stimulus: they produced their own champions of the same idea
independently and under the influence
of the oppressive condi-
tions under which they lived and suffered. From the middle of the
nineteenth century the Haskalah movement, which had begun to
develop in Russia spasmodically
even earlier, was cultivated by
a number of Jewish writers and thinkers as the means whereby
of their people. The Has-
they hoped to achieve the emancipation
kalah, which means "enlightenment," was the movement initiated

by Moses Mendelssohn in Germany in the latter half of the eight-
eenth century for the purpose of modernising Jewish life by
inducing the Jews to adopt the language, culture, customs, and
dress of the country in which they lived, and thus to make them
fit for
complete civil equality. The apostles of the Haskalah in
Russia believed that if they adopted the same methods the position
of the millions of their brethren under the Tsar would be im-
proved in the same way as that of the Jews in Germany, and in pur-
suance of their aim they waged war against the dominance of the
Talmud in Jewish life and the inflexible rigour of the Rabbinical
regime. They conducted their propaganda through the medium of
Hebrew, and to a lesser extent in Yiddish, since those were the
languages best understood at the time by the Jews in Russia; and
they exercised considerable influence through the literature they
produced and the periodicals they published. Their prominent
representatives included novelists like Mapu and Perez Smolen-
skin, poets like Jehuda Leib Gordon and Abraham Lebensohn,
and scholars, educational reformers, and popular historians like
Isaac Beer Levinsohn, Mordecai Aaron Ginsberg, and Caiman
Schulman. Although the earlier Maskilim, as the votaries of the
Haskalah were called, tried to reconcile their views with tradition,
the later ones were aggressive in their anti-Rabbinic attitude and
preached what was virtually assimilation, even though the medium
they used was the Hebrew tongue. They largely influenced intel-
lectual circles, and especially the students at the universities and
high schools, and their movement was in the ascendant when the
vision which it had propagated was suddenly and brutally shat-
tered by the pogroms of 1881-2. So far from the Jews in Russia
having achieved emancipation through their pursuit of Western-
isation, they had become the bleeding victims of Tsarist barbar-
ism. The Haskalah had proved a will-o'-the-wisp, and the bitter
reaction which resulted caused its followers to turn their thoughts
seriously to the Jewish national idea.
Not all the Maskilim, however, had to wait for massacres in
order to be disillusioned: there were some who had advocated the
return to Zion many years earlier. The first was David Gordon
(1826-86), who was attached to the Hebrew paper, Hamaggid
("The Preacher") published in Lyck, from 1857, an(* who wrote
a number of essays in it in 1860, in which he unfolded the basic
principles of Jewish nationalism in connection with the renais-

sance of Palestine. He became the owner of the paper in 1882 and
made it the principal organ of the Hibbath Zion ("Love of Zion")
movement. A more influential champion of Jewish nationalism in
the pre-pogrom days was Perez Smolenskin (1842-85), novelist
and journalist, who began his literary career in the columns of
Hamelitz ("The Interpreter"), edited by Alexander Zederbaum,
in Odessa. After settling in Vienna, he began to publish his
monthly journal, Hashahar ("The Dawn"), which attracted all
the leading Hebrew writers of the day and rendered epoch-making
services both to the Hebrew language and its literature. He corn-
batted traditional orthodoxy and assimilation with equal vigor,
assailed the Mendelssohnian view that the Jews were only a re-
ligious community and not a people, maintained that the princi-

pal means for preserving the Jewish people was the Hebrew
language, and then espoused the Palestinian idea with missionary
fervour. In 1873 Smolenskin wrote his Am Olam ("The Eternal
People"), a reasoned exposition of Jewish nationalism, which
produced a profound impression upon the Jews in Russia and
other countries of Eastern Europe. He reinforced his writing bv
practical efforts: he discussed plans with Laurence Oliphant,
helped to form the first Jewish students' nationalist society in
Vienna under the name of "Kadimah" (which means both "East-
ward" and "Forward"), and carried on a busy correspondence
until cut off by consumption at Meran. He was staunchly sup-
ported by another leading writer, Moses Leib Lilienblum (1843-
1910), who became a regular contributor to Hashahar from 1870,
and formed with Smolenskin the most notable representatives
of the transition from the Haskalah to the nationalist movement.
Observing the flight of Jews from Russia to America after the
pogroms of 1881, and realising that that was no proper solution
of the Jewish question, Lilienblum threw himself into the cam-
paign for the national idea with the utmost ardor, wrote a bro-
chure on "The Rebirth of the Jewish People in the Land of its
Ancestors," and continued an indefatigable fighter for the cause
to the end of his life. Another contributor to Hashahar was Eliezer
ben-Yehudah (originally Perlman, 1857-1922), who in articles
written in 1870 pleaded not only for the return of the Jews to
Palestine, but also for the revival of Hebrew as a living tongue,
and settled in Jerusalem two years later to become the pioneer
in the use of this lansnuage as the vernacular.
The most powerful and resounding plea that came from Russia
appeared in 1 882 in the form of an anonymous pamphlet in Ger-
man, entitled Autoemanzipation, which was sub-titled "An Admo-
6O THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
nition to his Brethren, by a Russian Jew." The author was an
Odessa physician, Dr. Leon Pinsker (1821-91). He was the son of
a Haskalah writer, Simha Pinsker, and had been one of the found-
ers of the "Society for the Dissemination of Culture among the
Russian Jews/' but the anti-Jewish policy of the Russian Govern-
ment, culminating in the pogroms, compelled him to abandon
the assimiliationist standpoint and radically to revise his view of
the Jewish future. His Auto-Emancipation provides the most
that had yet been writ-
searching analysis of the Jewish situation
ten, and by reason of its penetrating insight, breadth of outlook,
and style, it produced
a more deep and lasting impres-
pregnant
sion and influenced a far wider circle than any previous advocacy
of the same idea.
Pinsker summed up the helpless and humiliating position of
the Jews in some striking aphorisms:
"We do not count as a nation among the other nations, and
we have no voice in the council of the peoples, even in affairs
that concern ourselves. Our fatherland is an alien country, our
unity dispersion, our solidarity the general hostility to us, our
weapon humility, our defense flight, our originality adaptability,
our future tomorrow. What a contemptible role for a people
1
that once had its Maccabees!'
It was because the Jews were not a living nation, but everywhere
aliens, wrote Pinsker, that they were despised. Civil and political
emancipation was not sufficient to raise them in the estimation of
other peoples. The only proper remedy was the creation of a Jew-
ish nationality, of a people living on its own soil: that was the
auto-emancipation of the Jews, their emancipation as a nation

among nations by the acquisition of a home of their own. They
should not persuade themselves that humanity and enlightenment
would ever be radical remedies for the malady of their people.
The lack of national self-respect and self-confidence, of political
initiative and unity, were the enemies of their national renais-
sance. In order that they should not be obliged to wander from
one exile to another, they must have an extensive and productive
place of refuge, a gathering-centre of their own, which their ablest
representatives men of finance, science, and affairs, statesmen and
publicists should combine to create. The organisations already in
existence should convene a national congress or select a directo-
rate, which should decide which was the more suitable territory--
Palestine or America "to allow the settlement of some millions/'
THE ADVOCACY OF RESTORATION 6l
Pinsker had an open mind at first on the question of territory, but

soon became a convinced supporter of Palestine. He proposed that
the suggested directorate, in conjunction with a group of capi-
talists, should form a limited company, which should buy a large
tract of land. Part of this tractshould be sold to individual Jews
at a littleabove cost price, and the proceeds of the sales, together
with the yield of a national subscription, should be used by the
directorate as a fund for the settlement of poor immigrants. He
fully realised that the success of the plan would depend upon the
support of governments, but once that was secured, they would
many refuges, one single refuge politically assured.
have, instead of
His pamphlet made history, for, although it did not achieve its
ambitious purpose, it led to the first practical efforts to realise the
national idea.
PART II
THE PERIOD OF PREPARATION

CHAPTER III
THE "LOVE OF ZION" MOVEMENT

first practical response to the various appeals to the Jewish
/-|-AHE
JL people to return to Palestine was made by the Jews of Russia.
The hopes in which many had indulged, that they would achieve
and just treatment like their brethren in Western
civil equality
Europe, were blasted after the assassination of Alexander II in

1881, when a period of intensified reaction set in, accompanied
by the first pogroms that became a sinister feature of
blizzard of
the Tsarist tyranny. These massacres were instigated by the ruling
circles in an attempt to divert the discontent of the people from
the corrupt and negligent Government to the Jews, who were
accused of producing the general misery by their alleged exploita-
tion. The result was that the Jewish communities in many cities
in the south and south-west of Russia were exposed to slaughter
and pillage for three months in 1881, and the excesses were re-
peated in the two following years. This reign of terror, together
with a further crop of restrictive laws, compelled thousands of
Jews who had previously believed in the coming of better times to
abandon that hope and to look for salavation in other directions.
Large numbers hurriedly emigrated to the United States as a sure
and quick way to freedom and safety; and hosts of others speedily
exchanged their faith in assimilation for the Jewish national idea.
The enthusiasm for "enlightenment" collapsed, and its place was
taken by a new movement called Hibbath Zion> the "Love of Zion."
In a great number of Jewish centres societies were formed of
Hoveve Zion, or "Lovers of Zion/' who discussed the question of
settling in Palestine as an immediate and practical problem and
urged the study of Hebrew as a living language. These societies,
which met in secret and at the risk of arrest by the police, were
headed by resolute and influential personalities, mostly profes-
sional men, communal leaders and Rabbis, such as Leon Pinsker
in Odessa, the writers Joseph Finn and Judah Leo Levanda in
Vilna, the historian Saul Pinhas Rabinowitz ("Shefer") in War-
saw, Rabbi Samuel Mohilever in Bialystok, and Dr. Max Mandel-
stamm in Kiev. The youth and, above all, the students flocked to
the movement with particular ardour. A group of twenty-five Jew-
ish students of the Kharkov University toured through Russia and
THE "LOVE OF ZION" MOVEMENT 63
recruited five hundred enthusiasts, fellow-students and others,
wlio were eager to go out to Palestine at once as
pioneers on the
land, and to dedicate their lives to the realisation of the national
ideal. They aaoped as their motto the words from Isaiah, Beth
Jacob lechu ve-neLdia ("O house of Jacob, come ye, and let us go
forth"), and were called after the initial letters, "Bilu." They
transferred their committee from Kharkov to Odessa, and sent
delegates to Constantinople to negotiate for the purchase of land
in Palestine, but without any result. Efforts for the same purpose
made by Sir Edward Cazalet and by Laurence Oliphant, who had
met the would-be emigrants at Brody in the course of his relief
mission (on behalf of a London committee) to the victims of the
pogroms, were likewise of no avail. The Turkish Government,
tearing a Jewish invasion, issued a prohibition against immigra-
tion into Palestine, and the Russian Government forbade a con-
tinuance of emigration propaganda. The intended exodus was thus
quashed, and only a small band of twenty young men, after having
most of their money stolen on the way and other unpleasant ad-
ventures, succeeded in reaching Palestine.
The first settlement, or colony, as it was called, was founded in
1882, not far from Jaffa, by ten of the young "Biluim," headed by
David Levontin and Joseph. Feinberg, and was named Rishon le-
Zion ("First in Zion"); while other Russian Jews helped to restore
the settlement of Petah Tikvah ("Gate of Hope") in the same
district, which had been founded in 1878 by some Jews of Jeru-
salem, who had abandoned it owing to an outbreak of malaria
and afaterwards returned. In the same year two agricultural settle-
ments were established by Jews from Rumania, one at Rosh Pinah
("Head Corner-stone"), near Safed; the other at Samaria, on the
road to Haifa. They were followed the next year by some Polish
Jews, who created the settlement of Yesod Hamaalah ("Founda-
tion of Ascent") near Lake Huleh. Thus, within a very short time,
a footing was secured in the four districts of Judaea, Samaria, and
North and South Galilee, in which most of the Jewish settlements
were subsequently concentrated. But the pioneers were faced by
a more exacting and formidable problem than they had antici-
pated. Ignorant of agriculture, unused to the climate and to hard
the lack of proper housing and
physical labour, handicapped by
drinking water, and exposed to attack by the Bedouin, they found
themselves saddled with what seemed a Herculean task. In addi-
tion to all these difficulties they suffered from want of funds, which
formed a very serious obstacle. They would therefore have prob-
ably been forced to give up their venture in despair but for the
timely and ample help that came from a noble-hearted French
Jew, whose interest was aroused by Rabbi Mohilever, Joseph Fein-
berg,and Laurence Oliphant. Their savior was Baron Edmond de
Rothschild (1845-1934), of Paris, who, from the moment his en-
thusiasm was fired, continued to play the part of a princely bene-
factor to the Jewish resettlement for upwards of fifty years until
his death. He at once responded by providing generous subsidies
for the colonists, and by founding in 1884 a further settlement,
called Ekron, in Judaea, on which he installed Jews from the agri-
cultural colonies of Southern Russia. The settlers of Samarin
showed their gratitude by changing its name to Zichron Jacob
("Memorial of Jacob") in memory of Baron Edmond's father; and
in the same year nine members of Rishon-le-Zion left to found the
new settlement of Katra or Gederah ("Hurdle") in Judaea, which
they wished to make self-supporting.
The leaders of the Hoveve Zion societies did not wish to let the
practical developments in Palestine depend upon philanthropy,
and therefore resolved to combine their scattered forces in order
to be able to render more effective aid themselves. Leon Pinsker,
whose pamphlet and prestige made him the inevitable leader, with
the energetic co-operation of Rabbi Mohilever and Rabinowitz,
convened a Conference of representatives of the societies at Katto-
witz. It met from November 6 to isth, 1884, and was attended by
thirty-four delegates. The proceedings began on the hundredth

birthday of Sir Moses Montefiore, and in appreciation of his
services the Conference decided that the organisation in which all
the societies should be federated should be called the "Montefiore
Association for the Promotion of Agriculture among Jews and
especially for the Support of the Jewish Colonies in Palestine."
Pinsker, who presided, emphasised the need of the Jews for a
land in which they could live in freedom and till the soil, so as to
refute the charge that they were an unproductive element, and he
declared that the only land that would satisfy their purpose and
fulfil was Palestine. It was agreed to help the colo-
their aspirations
nists financially, and send delegates to Constantinople to
also to
secure permission for the work in Palestine to be conducted with-
out hindrance, but although the permission was not granted the
work was continued. Pinsker was elected President of the new
Association, and Lilienblum Secretary, and the central office was
established in Odessa, where Pinsker was also President of the
local Hoveve Zion society.
The
Association held a second conference in
1887 at Druskenik
for the purpose of and
improving expanding its
organisation, and
a third conference two years later in Vilna, at which
thirty-five
societies were represented. It was seriously hampered in its efforts
to carry on useful activity, and especially to raise funds,
by the
protracted delay in obtaining official
approval; but at last, in 1890,
its statuteswere legalised under the name of
"Society for the
Support of Jewish Agriculturalists and Artisans in Palestine and
Syria/' The first general meeting of the Society was attended by
182 delegates, who elected Pinsker as Chairman, and confirmed
the choice of Odessa as headquarters. Pinsker
spent the remaining
year of his life in conducting propaganda both in Russia and Ger-
many, and died in 1891. He was succeeded as Chairman of the
"Odessa Committee," as the Society was
popularly called, by Abra-
ham Gruenberg, who held office until 1906, and the next Chair-
man was Menahem Ussishkin (1863-1941), who had become one
of the leading figures in Russian Zionism and was destined to
play
a prominent part in the wider arena of world Zionism,
The Hibbath Zion movement soon spread to many parts of
Europe and also to America. One of the first countries in which
it secured a strong footing was Rumania, where the
position of
the Jews was no better than in Russia: the pledge that had been
made by the Rumanian Government at the Berlin Congress of
1878 to emancipate the Jews was cynically ignored, and their sta-
tus was that of outlaws. The founders of the first societies were
Dr, Nathan Karpel Lippe and Samuel Pineks in
Jassy, and Dr.
Moses Gaster (afterwards Chief Rabbi of the Sephardi community
in England) in Bucarest; and by the year 1882 thirty-two societies
were represented at a conference at Foscani. la Austria the move-
ment received a stimulus from the anti-Semitism of the German
nationalists, who adopted the racial program and excluded Jews
1
from the University students corps and gymnastic societies. The
Jewish students of the assimilationist camp formed their own
corps after the Austrian pattern; but another group, who origi-
nated mainly from Eastern Europe, and were headed by Perez
Smolenskin and Dr. Nathan Birnbaum (1864-1937), founded the
first Jewish nationalist students'
society, "Kadimah," in 1882, in
addition to which there was another society, "Admath
Jeshurun."
After the untimely death of Smolenskin the leading personality in
Jewish nationalist circles in Vienna was Birnbaum, who has the
credit of having coined the term "Zionism" and who was a man
of ardent but various convictions. Beginning his ca-
and variable
reer as a Marxist freethinker, he played a conspicuous part in the
earliest phase of political Zionism and in Austrian Jewish politics,
and ended a fervid adherent of the ultra-orthodox Agudath
as
Israel organisation. In 1885, at the early age of twenty-one, he
founded a paper, Selbst-Emanzipation, in Vienna, and eight years
later he published a pamphlet on The National Rebirth of the
Jewish People in Its Land and proposed the convening of a con-
gress for the purpose. In Berlin, apart from a society of Hoveve
Zion, called "Ezra," there was also a society of Russian Jewish
students, founded by Leo Motzkin and Joseph Lurie, and includ-
ing Chaim Weizmann, Shmarya Levin, and Victor Jacobson all
of whom
were destined to play important parts in the movement.
The leaders of the latter society, together with Heinrich Loewe,
formed another society, "J un S Israel," for German Jewish stu-
dents, whose manifesto issued in 1893, stressed the need of
first
holding a congress "to formulate the ultimate aims of political

pan-Jewish Zionism." There were also groups of Jewish national-
iststudents, mainly from Russia, in Switzerland, particularly in
Berne and Geneva.
In England there was not only a Hoveve Zion organisation,
under the leadship of Colonel Albert Goldsmid and Elim d'Avig-
dor, with branches called "tents," but also independent societies,
such as the "fine Zion" in London and the "Dorsh Zion" in Man-
chester. In France the movement had the warm support of the
Grand Rabbin Zadoc Kahn, but a Central Committee that was
formed in Paris in 1890 to serve as a link between Hoveve Zion
societies of all countries proved ineffectual, the real authority
remaining in the hands of the Odessa Committee. In the United
States the philo-Zionist movement was espoused from the
early
'eighties by two different sectionsimmigrants from Russia who
had received a traditional Jewish education and retained a strong
Jewish consciousness, and several eminent Rabbis, such as Pereira
Mendes, Benjamin Szold (father of Miss Henrietta Szold), Aaron
Wise (father of Dr. Stephen Wise), Gustav Gottheil (father of
Professor Richard Gottheil), and Marcus Jastrow. The first socie-
ties were established in New York,
Chicago, and Philadelphia:
there was a Hebrew paper, Hatzofeh Ba'aretz Ha-hadasha, pub-
lished by Zevi Hirsch Bernstein; and as
early as 1882 a public
lecture was given on the "Bilu" by Joseph Bluestone, who had ar-
rived in America three years before. The call of Zion also found
an inspired champion in the poetess, Emma Lazarus (1849-87),

who, deeply stirred by the Russian pogroms and the influx of ref-
soul in Songs of a Semite, By
ugees into America, poured out her
the Waters of Babylon, and The Banner of the Jew. She also
wrote An Epistle to the Hebrews in which she aroused the relig-
ious and national consciousness o American Jewry, and her name
is immortalized by her lines of welcome to the homeless refugees
inscribed on the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor-

In 1891, again under the influence of the Russian persecutions,
the Rev. William E. Blackstone, an influential clergynmtôllia-
tional repute, presented a memorial signed by several hundred no-
table Americans to President Benjamin Harrison and Secretary of
State James G. Blaine, petitioning that they use their good offices
and the influence of the United States "for the holding of an
International Conference to consider the Israelites' claim to Pal-
estine as their ancient home and to promote in all other just and
1
condition/
proper ways, the alleviation of tfreir suffering
The Hoveve Zion societies on both sides of the Atlantic sent
what money they could to the struggling settlements in Palestine
and followed their slow progress with deep concern. But there was
one member of the Odessa Committee who was more critically
to his views in
disposed than his colleagues and gave expression
a trenchant article that caused a sensation. The article, which
appeared in Hamelitz in 1889, was entitled Lo zeh Haderech

a pseudonym, "Ahad
('This is not the way"), and was signed by
Ha-am" ("One of the People"), which soon became famous. The
writer was Asher Ginsberg (1856-1927), born in a village near
Kiev, who, In addition to a Talmudical education
had studied
modern subjects in Berlin and Vienna. He settled in 1886 in
touch with the leaders of
Odessa, where he soon came into close
the Hibbath Zion movement. His first article was equally remark-
able for the individuality of its views and the lucid style
and
cogent phrasing in which they

were expressed: it signalised the ap-
a new thinker in Israel* Ahad Ha-am strongly criti-
pearance of
cised the methods adopted by the Hoveut Zion to realise the Jew-
ish national rebirth in Palestine on the ground
that they were
based upon a wrong conception of what was necessary. He denied

that Palestine was suitable for mass immigration
and that Jews
could become real farmers, and he maintained that even
if the
number could not have any deci-

country could absorb a large
it
sive influence upon the political position of the Jews, owing to the
fewness and impotence of the settlers. He attributed the lack of
success not to the Halukah system or the bad methods of the ad-
ministrators of the colonies, but to the attempt to force into rapid
growth what should be allowed to undergo gradual evolution.
which
Jewish nationalism was "a new and far-reaching idea,"
went backwards instead of forwards in Palestine, and progress
could be achieved only by a radical change of method. For Ahad
Ha-am the primary problem was not the saving of Jews by amelio-
rating their physical existence, but the preservation
and develop-
ment of the Jewish spirit. He was concerned, not with the material
needs of Jewry, but with the critical condition of Judaism, by
which he understood something more comprehensive than the
Jewish religion; but although anxious about the conservation of
the Jewish spirit, he was sarcastic about the so-called "mission of
Judaism," which was advanced by opponents of Zionism as a rea-
son for their antagonism. He deplored the spiritual disintegration
of Judaism which could not be healed in the Diaspora, since this
did not allow the free development of Jewish national life. The
only country where such development could take place was Pales-
tine, which should form a home not for Jewry but for Judaism.
There a cultural or spiritual centre should be created, from which
currents of influence should radiate throughout the Diaspora, and
thus all Jews would again be invigorated and unified. The full
realisation of the national ideal must wait until, through the in-
fluence of the spiritual centre, the national will became suffi-
ciently strong to bring it within the realm of possibility. This
spiritual centre should be built upon the basis of Hibbath Zion,
which must become the dominant factor in a select group of Jews.
Ahad Ha-am recognised that even a spiritual centre must have a
material or economic basis, but he attached more importance to
quality than quantity. His system of thought, which he developed
in succeeding years, was called Spiritual or Cultural Zionism.
In order to realise his ideas Ahad Ha-am founded an Order of
"Sons of Moses" ("B'ne Mosheh"), whose members were to rep-
resent a high standard of ethical integrity, and to work for the
national revival in a spirit of supreme disinterestedness. Most of
the members of the Order were leading Hovevd Zion. He visited
Palestine for the first time in 1891, on behalf of the Odessa Com-
mittee, and went there again in 1893. After these visits he wrote
critical reports, in which he made
proposals for the purchase of
land, the cessation of subsidies to the colonists, and concentration
on A Bialystok group o "Sons of Moses/' under the
cultural work.
leadership ofRabbi Mohilever, founded the settlement of Reho-

both in 1891. The Order also made important contributions to
Jewish national education by opening the first girls' Hebrew
school in Jaffa and many Hebrew schools in the agricultural vil-
lages; and it founded the first two publishing firms for the issue of
works of Hebrew literature in Russia, "Ahiasaf" and "Tushiyah."
Owing to the clash of opinions and personalities the Order was
dissolved in 1896. In that year Ahad Ha-am founded a Hebrew
monthly review, Hashiloah, which he edited until 1902. It was
devoted to Zionist and general Jewish questions, contained ar-
ticles by all the
leading Hebrew writers of the day, and exercised
a decisive influence upon the intellectual outlook of the Hebrew-
reading public.
Meanwhile, thanks largely to the benevolent patronage of Baron
Edmond de Rothschild, further progress was made in the sphere
of agricultural colonisation. In
1890 Mishmar Ha-Yarden ("The
Watch on the Jordon") was founded in North Galilee by some
Russian Jews, who soon needed the Baron's help. In 1891 began
the checkered history of Hedera, a swampy site in Samaria, where
the first settlers suffered severely and many died from malaria,
until the marshy land was drained and improved by the extensive
plantation of eucalyptus trees at the cost of the same benefactor.

Motza and Ein-Zethim were also established in 1891, and five years
later came Metula in the extreme "north and Artut, founded by
Bulgarian Jews off the railway line between Jerusalem and Jaffa.
In places where corn-growing was unprofitable, French vines were
planted under expert direction, and in Galilee horticulture and
silk-worm cultivation were introduced. Large wine-cellars were
built, the largest of all being at Rishon le-Zion, and as there was
no proper agency for the sale of the wine and the Baron sometimes
had to buy the entire yield himself, the Carmel Wine Company
was organized by the Hoveve Zion in 1896 and opened up markets
in Europe and America as well as the Orient. The Baron also
provided funds for the building, not only of houses, but also of
synagogues and schools, hospitals and asylums for the aged. To
supervise the settlements he appointed administrators, whose
au-
tocratic methods provoked irritation and criticism. They intro-
duced a system of discipline and tutelage, which deprived the
settlers of all spirit of independence and initiative; and instead of
regarding the farm-villages as the foundation of the Jewish national
TO THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
revival they treated them merely as a philanthropic undertaking.
wine-
Moreover, most of the settlements were based solely upon
so that if there was a failure o the vintage or of markets
growing,
the settlers required further relief; and the most
serious blemish,
from the Jewish point of view, was that the hired labor consisted
for low wages, and with whom it
entirely of Arabs, who worked
was impossible for Jewish workers to compete. The colonisation
thus suffered from both economic and moral drawbacks, but the
Hoveve Zion, who were unable to furnish more than 6,000 a
of francs, were powerless to
year as against the Baron's millions
was
any proper improvement. Such
effect a state of affairs cer-
arduous struggle and
fifteen years of
tainly discouraging after
had been conjured up by writers
after all the glowing visions that
and propagandists. Between 1880 and 1895 the Jewish population
in Palestine had risen, by immigration and natural increase, from
20,000 to 50,000, but of this number only 3,000 had come from
1
Eastern Europe to form the agricultural settlements.
There was therefore a feeling of despondency in the Odessa

Committee; but this feeling soon gave way to another, for a new
arresting figure now appeared upon
and the scene, whose advent
indicated that the days oiHibbath Zion were over. The "Love of
Zion" movement had played a very useful, and indeed, essential,
part in familiarising the Jewish world
with the idea of the return
to Zion and in recruiting the first bands of pioneers to begin con-
verting the idea into a reality. But its methods were too slow and
haphazard, organisation too small and unrepresentative, and
its
its resources too pitifully scanty, to be capable of achieving the

2
grand objective. The bulk of its work depended upon the be-
nevolence of a single man, and, no matter how bountiful his gen-
erosity, or how
self-sacrificing the toil of the pioneers, such a sys-
tem was unworthy of a national cause, and its results were depress-
ingly inadequate. Other methods and measures were needed, with
a much larger organisation representative of the Jewish people
as a whole, and these were now to be created by political Zionism.
*See article by Arthur Ruppin in Palastina, No. 67 Vienna, 1927. The Jewish
population at the beginning of the nineteenth century was 8,000 (8 per cent of the
total population) , which increased to 10,114 by the year 1855 (Ludwig August
Frankl, Nach Jerusalem, Leipzig, 1858) . Of the 50,000 Jews in 1895 there were
28,112 in Jerusalem, as follows: 15,074 Ashkenazim, 7,900 Sephardim, 2,420 Moroc-
cans, 670 Georgians (from the Caucasus), 530 Bokharans, 1,288 Yemenites, and 230
Persians (A. M. Luncz, Palestine Calendar [in Hebrew], Jerusalem, 1895).
2
The Odessa Committee continued in existence until it was dissolved by order
of the Bolshevik authorities in 1919.
CHAPTER IV
HERZL: POLITICAL ZIONISM
founder of Zionism was Thedor Herzl, a journal-

political
THE ist and playwright, who had no previous knowledge of any of.
the writings and strivings that had preceded him in the cause o the
national restoration of his people. Born in Budapest on May 2nd,
1860, the only son of a well-to-do merchant, and brought up in an
assimilationist milieu, he had only a superficial knowledge of Jew-
ish affairs and Jewish culture, but personal experience took the
place of a traditional education in quickening his Jewish con-

He studied law at the University of Vienna, where his
sciousness.
parents settled in 1878, but after graduating in 1884 and prac-

ticing at the bar for a year he decided to devote himself to a lit-
erary career. Gifted with a facile talent for the writing of charming
feuilletons and diverting plays, he soon attained a recognised rep-
utation, which won him the important position in 1891 of Paris
Correspondent of the Vienna newspaper, the Neue Freie Presse,
then the most influential organ in Central Europe.
Three years later began the trial of Captain Alfred Dreyfus on
a trumped-up charge of treason, and Herzl, who had to report the
affair for his paper, was suddenly jolted out of the carefree mood
in which he had hitherto enjoyed the social distractions and the
literary and political diversions of the French capital. He was a
witness of all the dramatic proceedings that led to the degradation
and banishment of the martyred Jew, and of the accompanying
outbursts of anti-Semitic hostility; and he was painfully moved by
the tragedy which had sundered the French people into two oppos-
ing camps and evoked the consternation of the civilised world. A
century after the French Revolution had given the Jews civil
equality as part of the ideal programme of "liberty, equality,
and
fraternity/' Herzl saw that the Jews were threatened with a move-
ment of reaction, and he was inevitably driven to cogitate on the
position.He first embodied his thoughts in a play,D&? Neue Ghetto,
which he wrote in the autumn of 1894, but had to wait over three
years before it was produced. The Dreyfus Affair, however,
was
not the first episode that had outraged his Jewish feelings. His
family had no sooner moved to Vienna than he
was stung by an
inflammatory anti-Jewish speech of the fanatical Burgomaster,
Karl Lueger; four years later he was perturbed by his reading of
Eugen Diihring's vitriolic work, Die Judenfrage; in 1883 he with-
drew from a university students' union because of its anti-Semitic
attitude; and on two occasions some years later, while traveling
in Germany, he heard after him the cry of the mediaeval Jew-
baiter, "Hepj hep!" But the drama enacted in Paris seared his soul
to the depths, as no previous experience had done: it threw the
grimmest light upon the Jewish problem and forced him to ad-
dress his mind to a solution.
Herzl set forth his views and proposals in a pamphlet entitled
Der Judenstaat, which he wrote in the summer of 1895, and which
held him in thrall throughout the weeks of its feverish composi-
tion. Somewhat similar ideas had already been expressed by Moses
Hess in his Rome and Jerusalem and by Pinsker in his Auto-Eman-
cipation^ but Herzl had not heard of them at the time and, when
he was told of them later, said that if he had known of them he
would never have written his own brochure. Seldom has a move-
ment owed more than did political Zionism to* the fact that its
founder was totally ignorant of his predecessors. He based his plea
for the creation of a Jewish State upon the conviction that no mat-
ter how useful, patriotic, and
self-sacrificing Jews might prove
wherever they were, they would never be left in peace. The Jewish
question existed wherever there were Jews in perceptible num-
bers, and since they naturally moved to places where they were
not persecuted they succeeded only in importing anti-Semitism
through their migration. They might perhaps be able to merge
themselves entirely among the nations surrounding them if they
could be left in peace for the space of two generations, but the
nations would not leave them in peace. It was neither a social nor
a religious question, but a "national question, which can be solved
only by making a political world question, to be discussed and set-
tled by the civilised nations of the world in council." The solution
that Herzl proposed was that the Jews should be "granted sover-
eignty over a portion of the globe large enough to satisfy the right-
ful requirements of a nation." The rest they would
manage for
themselves, and for this purpose he suggested two agencies, a "So-
ciety of Jews" and a "Jewish Company," significantly using these
English terms. The"Society" was to undertake all the preparatory
work of organisation and political negotiation, and the "Com-
pany" was to attend to the manifold financial and economic
ques-
tions. "The Jewish State is essential to the world," he wrote. "It
will therefore be created." Unlike Pinsker, he worked out his
plan
HERZL: POLITICAL ZIONISM 73
in elaborate detail; but, like him, he did not commit himself to a
particular territoy. He advanced Palestine and Argentina as the
two but left it to Jewish public opinion and the "So-
alternatives,
ciey" to decide which it was to be. He had not long to wait for
the answer. In the Introduction to his pamphlet he wrote that,
with its publication, his task was done and he would not take up
his pen again unless he were driven to it by the attacks of note-
worthy antagonists. The attacks came fast and furiously.

Herzl did not publish The Jewish State immediately. He first
submitted the manuscript to a journalistic friend, who returned it
with an expression of the deepest alarm, as he feared that Herzl
had gone out of his mind; but Herzl felt reassured when he cor-
rectly added up a column of telegram expenses which his col-
league had failed to get right. Herzl then showed the manuscript
to Dr. Max Nordau (1849-1923), who was an eminent psychia-
trist as well as a world-famed author; and Nordau not only vindi-
cated the sanity of Herzl, but declared himself willing to assist

him. Nevertheless, Herzl still refrained from publication before
attempting to secure influential support for his scheme. He first of
all approached Baron Maurice de Hirsch (1831-96), a multi-
millionaire who had made a vast fortune from the building of

railways in Russia and the Balkans, and founded the Jewish Colo-
nisation Association (commonly called the I.C.A.) in 1891 with
an initial sum of 2,000,000, later increased to 10,000,000, pri-
marily for the establishment of Russian Jews in agricultural set-
tlements in the Argentine and other parts of America. But Baron
de Hirsch believed in ameliorating the condition of persecuted
Jewry only by philanthropic methods; he was opposed to any
political solution of the Jewish question, and he died before Herzl
had a second opportunity of discussing his proposals with him. In
September, 1895, Herzl returned to Vienna to take up the position
of Literary Editor of the Neue Freie Presse, a post that he retained
until his death; but although fully employed by his newspaper
duties and the writing of plays, he felt impelled to go ahead with
his scheme. Armed with an introduction from Nordau to Israel
Zangwill (1864-1926), he went to London in the hope of securing

the interest of leading personalities in the Anglo-Jewish commu-
nity; but the response that
he received from the Maccabeans, a
club of professional men to whom he expounded his views, as
well as from important members of the community, both law and
clerical, although friendly to him personally, was anything but
encouraging. He therefore resolved to address himself to the Jew-

ish public. On February i4th, 1896, Der Judenstaat appeared in
Vienna, and English and French translations promptly followed.
The pamphlet aroused attention throughout the world and
immediately produced a general discussion of the Jewish problem
both in Jewish and in non-Jewish circles. It was debated in the
keenest and
Jewish Press for months and formed the subject of the
even bitterest controversy. Its critics and assailants were more
numerous and influential than its active supporters. They included
the leaders of the Western communities on both sides of the
Atlantic, who were wedded to the policy of assimilation, and saw
in Herzl's proposals a reflection upon their local patriotism; a host
of Rabbis (dubbed Protest-Rabbiner) who denounced them as a
violation of the "Mission of Israel" and a contradiction of the
Messianic doctrine; and a multitude of miscellaneous writers who
attacked Herzl on the ground that he was trying "to put the clock
back," or that he would increase strife among nations by creating
a new one, or that the Jews were totally unfit for agriculture and
that the scheme was utterly impracticable. The supporters of the
scheme were naturally far more numerous in Eastern Europe,
where the Jewish national consciousness was more alive and the
Hibbath Zion movement was active, but it also had vigorous
champions in Central Europe and the Western world, particularly
in academic circles. They rebutted the criticisms of the opponents
with cogent arguments: they pointed out that half of the Jews in
the worldthat is, those in Russia and Rumania were treated by
their Governments as outlaws and pariahs, and it was therefore
the sheerest irony to taunt them with lack of patriotism; that they
were enjoined always to pray for the immediate ending of their
exile, when the Messiah would appear; that the re-establishment
of the Jews as a nation would not increase international strife,
since they had not the least aggressive aim; that their fitness for
farming had already been proved in Russia; and that the scheme
could be rendered practicable if only it received adequate support.
The Hoveve Zion were at first divided in their attitude, partly
because Herzl, despite his nationalist standpoint, was the product
of an assimilationist milieu, but still more because they feared
that the Turkish Government would be alarmed and put a stop
to further colonising activity in Palestine; but the bulk of them
soon rallied to his side and many of the others followed.
Herzl found a band of eager supporters in the members of the
"Kadimah" and other Jewish student societies in Vienna, Czerno-
witz, and Graz, who called upon him to assume the leadership of
their movement; he was enthusiastically acclaimed at a
public
demonstration of Jews in the East End of London in the summer
of 1869; and he received messages of allegiance from individual
Jews and Jewish societies in various parts of the world, including
political support, he saw the Grand
Palestine. Anxious to obtain
Duke of Baden (thanks to the mediation of the Rev. William
Hechler, Chaplain to the British Embassy in Vienna), through
whom he hoped to be able to approach the German Emperor. He
then went to Constantinople, where he saw the Grand Vizier, but
was unable so soon to penetrate to the Sultan. A
visit to Baron
Edmond de Rothschild proved equally sterile, for despite the gen-
erous interest which that noble-hearted philanthropist displayed
in the Jewish resettlement of Palestine, he was apprehensive of
any sort of political scheme. Herzl therefore realised that the
only way in which he could hope to secure practical co-operation
was the democratic method of calling a congress of representatives
of the Jewish people. It was a bold and hazardous idea, for no such
gathering had ever been held in all the centuries of the Dispersion.
Munich was at first selected as a convenient meeting-place, but the
heads of the local Jewish community and the Executive of the
Union of German* Rabbis protested so vigorously against what
they regarded as a slur upon their loyalty, that the city of Basle
was chosen instead. As a medium of propaganda for the cause,
which was all the more necessary because of the hostility of so
many Jewish papers, Herzl, with his own money founded a weekly
journal, Die Welt, which was first published on June 4th 1897, ?
with a yellow cover the colour of the mediaeval badge of shame,

now elevated to a symbol of national pride. He took this step
despite the wishes of the Jewish proprietors and editor of the
Neue Freie Presse, who were hostile to the Zionist movement and
rigorously excluded any mention of it from their paper through-
out Herzl's life.
Itwas not until after he had overcome considerable obstacles

that Herzl succeeded in convening the first Zionist Congress,
which opened on August 27th, 1897, and lasted three days. It was
attended by 204 delegates from all parts of the world, constituting
a veritable microcosm of the Jewish people, and comprising all
shades of thought, all varieties of social strata, and a medley of
physical types. There were Ashkenazim and Sephardim, Orthodox

-g THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
and Reform Jews, Rabbis and freethinkers, veteran Hoveve
Ziorf
busi-
and newly converted nationalists, bourgeois and Socialists,
there was a
nessmen and intellectuals, artisans and students; and
necessi-
babel of languages which, in the subsequent proceedings,
tated the translation of resolutions from German into Russian,
Yiddish, English, and French. The Congress was an inspiring as-
in Jewish history, for it was the first

sembly and a turning-point
of
time after eighteen hundred years of exile, that representatives
the means
the Jewish people had come together to deliberate on
of achieving their national rehabilitation, Herzl not only domi-
nated the Congress, but adorned it, for his tall, distinguished
and
handsome with his
figure,
head, lofty brow, dark, pen-
well-shaped
etrating eyes, and flowing black beard, was reminiscent of an As-
his readiness
syrian monarch. Indeed, his commanding presence,
of speech, and his resonant voice helped in no little measure to
make him the ideal leader.
In his inaugural speech, Herzl made no reference to his pam-

phlet, nor
were its contents discussed either at that or at any
succeeding Congress. He declared that
Zionism had united the
scattered limbs of a national basis and thus brought
Jewry upon
about the return to Judaism even before the return to the Jewish
land. The Zionists formed no secret league, but strove to create
an organisation, which, in free and public discussion, would deal
with the Jewish question and solve it by converting it into the
Zionist question. The attempts at colonisation already made in
Palestine had proved the fitness of Jews for agriculture, but had
failed because they were based on the principle of philanthropy.
A people could only help itself.
The return of the Jews to their
ancestral land could and should take place only in a legal man-
ner, after the necessary guarantees had been provided. The reali-
sation of Zionism lay in the interest of Turkey as in that of all
civilised peoples. The Ottoman Empire would be
strengthened by
the Jewish influx, and the lands oE the Diaspora would be freed
of anti-Semitism by the exodus of surplus Jews. The Jewish people
had created for itself in the Congress an organ that it urgently
needed for and that would be of permanent duration.
its life
Herzl was followed by Nordau, who, in a masterly address, gave

a review of the general situation of the Jews, emphasising their
Ahad Ha-am was present, but owing to his opposition to political Zionism he
l
did not attend another Congress until 1911, when the control of the movement
passed from the "political" to the "practical" Zionists.
economic plight in the East and their moral distress in the West,
both of which the Congress would seek to remedy. Nordau was
a brilliant speaker, and his survey of the general position
critical
of Jewry was an attractive feature of the opening session of several
subsequent Congresses. There were also reports on the conditions

of the Jews in individual countries, and a series of addresses on
important aspects of Zionism its historical and economic bases,

the state of colonisation in Palestine, the cultural needs of Jewry
as well as proposals by Professor Hermann Schapira, of the Hei-
delberg University, to create a Jewish University and a National
Fund for the purchase of land in Palestine.
The two main achievements of the first Congress were the for-
mulation of the Zionist Programme and the esablishment of the
Zionist Organisation. The Basle Programme, as it was commonly
called (after its birthplace), was unanimously adopted in the fol-
lowing terms:
"The aim of Zionism is to create for the Jewish people a
1
home in Palestine secured by public law.
"In order to attain this object the Congress adopts the fol-
lowing means:
"i. The
systematic promotion of the settlement of Palestine
with Jewish agriculturists, artisans, and craftsmen.
"2. The organisation and federation of all Jewry by means of
local and general institutions in conformity with the local laws.
"3. The strengthening of Jewish sentiment and national con-

sciousness.
"4. Preparatory steps for the procuring of such Government

assents as are necessary for achieving the object of Zionism."
This Programme formed the basis upon which all future activity
was to be conducted, and in order to provide the apparatus for at-
taining its objects there was created an organisation of world-wide
compass ("the Jewish Society" of the pamphlet). The Zionists in
each country were to form local societies, which should be united
in a federation, and each federation should stand in direct com-
1
There was considerable discussion before agreement was reached on the original
German text, "offentlich-rechtlich gesicherte Heimstdtte." A
number of delegates
insisted upon the term "volkerrechtlich" ("according to international law") to sig-
nify the distinction between the new political
Zionism and the previous colonisa-
tion activity, but as that was thought to impinge upon the independence of the
Ottoman Empire, a compromise was reached in the term "offentlich-rechtlich"
to convey that the Jewish Home
("according to public law") , which was meant
should be guaranteed by the constitution of the Ottoman Empire.
munication with the Central Office in Vienna. The government
of the Organisation was entrusted to a General Council (Greater
1
"Actions Committee"), composed of representatives of different
countries, and to a Central Executive (Smaller "Actions Commit-
tee"), whose members
all lived in Vienna, the residence of Herzl,
who was elected President. Every person was to be regarded as a

Zionist who subscribed to the Basle Programme and paid the small
annual tax of a shekel (is. or its equivalent) to provide the Execu-
tive with their working fund. The payment of the shekel con-
ferred the right to vote for a delegate to Congress, which was to be
the supreme controlling organ of the movement, the ultimate
arbiterupon all questions of policy and all important measures
to be undertaken in the name of the Zionist Organisation. The
concluded with the singing of a Hebrew
historic deliberations
song Hatikvah ("The Hope"), by Naphtali Herz Imber, which

had been heard at intervals during the three days' proceedings,
3
and henceforth became the Jewish national anthem.
After he had returned to Vienna Herzl made the following
entry in his Diary, under the date, September grd, 1897:
."If Iwere to sum up the Basle Congress in one word which
I shall not do openly it would be this: at Basle I founded the
Jewish State. If I were to say this today, I would be met by

universal laughter. In five years, perhaps, and certainly in fifty,
every one will see it. The State is already founded, in essence,
in the will of the people of the State."
The Congress gave a powerful impetus to propaganda in all
parts of the world, and numerous adherents were won over to

the Basle Program. In almost every country in Europe in which
Jews lived in considerable numbers, in North and South America,
in South Africa, in the Far East, and even in Australia and New
Zealand, societies were formed which registered their affiliation to
the Zionist Organisation. Most of the Hovevd Zion societies that
had hitherto held aloof, especially those in England and the
term, though merely an Anglicisation of the German Actions-Gomitt (Ex-
ecutive Committee), is here retained as it has universally been embodied in the
Zionist terminology.
a
The common belief that the tune of "Hatikvah" written by Imber at Jassy in
1878, was taken from the musical poem Vltava by Smetana has been refuted by the
Rev. H. Mayerowitsch, who has shown that it was adapted from an ancient Se-
phardic tune used by the Spanish and Portuguese Jews for Psalm CXVII (Hallel)
and from other texts in their liturgy. The composer was a musician,
Sephardi
Henry Rusato (or Russotto) . See letter in the Jewish Chronicle, November 26th,
1943.
1
United States, now declared their adhesion. The opposition of the
anti-Zionists, especially in the press and the pulpit, continued, but
this merely stimulated the nationalists to redoubled energy. Zion-
ism became the leading question of the day: it infused new life
into Jewish communities; it instilled new hope into thousands of
cultured Jews in the West who had lost the faith of their fore-
fathers and were faced by absorpion in their environment; it
fortified the drooping spirits of Jewry in the East. It enkindled
a love for Jewish literature and a pride in Jewish history; it stim-
ulated the study of Hebrew as a living language; it quickened the
growth of Jewish dignity and self-respect. Its aspirations were
expounded in a gradually increasing number of Jewish news-
papers in various languages Hebrew and Yiddish, English and
French, Russian and Polish, Italian and Spanish, Hungarian and
Rumanian. Within the first year Zionist societies had multiplied
eightfold,and each succeeding Congress recorded a growth of
numbers or an extension into new and remote regions, such as
Singapore and Nairobi, Winnipeg and Wellington.
There were only five more Congresses in Herzl's lifetime, all of
which were also held in Basle, with the exception of the Fourth,
which took place in London. The Second Congress, in August,
1898, was attended by nearly twice as many delegates as the first:
they were actually elected by communities and societies and in-
cluded a large representation from Russia and Galicia, with many
Orthodox Rabbis. Its principal outcome was the decision to es-
tablish a bank, which was intended to serve as the financial instru-
ment of the Organisation (the "Jewish Company"). It was founded
as a joint stock company in London, under the name of the Jew-
ish Colonial Trust (for Herzl attached the highest importance to
creating Zionist institutions with firm foundations in England)/

Ithad a nominal capital of 2,000,000, but although the subscrip-
tion list for 1 shares was opened in-March, 1899, it was not until
the sumof 250,000 was subscribed by 140,000 shareholders in all
parts of the world that business operations could begin in 1902.

The laborious task of floating the bank was largely the work of
David Wolffsohn, a well-to-do merchant of Cologne, and Jacobus
lr
rhe Zionist Federation of Great Britain and the Zionist Organisations of the
United States and Canada were all founded in 1898,
2
In a message to the Zionist Conference in London, dated February 28th, 189&,
which led to the establishment of the English Zionist Federation, Herzl wrote:
"From the first moment I entered the movement my eyes were directed towards
England, because I saw that, by reason of the general situation of things there, it
was the Archimedean point where the lever could be applied."

go THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
friends of Herzl,
Kann, a banker of The Hague, both intimate
and the time they needed to accomplish it was largely due to the
concerted of the
opposition
wealthier section of Jewry, and espe-
cially of the financiers,
who did their utmost to decry the under-
taking. While this financial
instrument was being fashioned, Herzl
took an important step. He was radically opposed to any gradual
infiltration into Palestine and was bent from the outset upon
obtaining a Charter from the Sultan
Abdul Hamid of Turkey for
an autonomous settlement. He aimed at enlisting the support of
the German William II, for this project, and, thanks to

Emperor,
the friendly offices of the Grand Duke of Baden, he secured an
audience, on October i8th, 1898, in Constantinople, with the
to Palestine. But the hope
Emperor, who was then on the way
that emergedfrom that interview was dispelled at the following
one, a fortnight later, on November 2nd, in the vicinity of Jeru-
salem, when the Kaiser merely made an evasive reply.
At the Third Congress (August, 1899), which marked a further
Herzl formally announced that the
growth of the movement,
immediate aim of Zionist policy was to obtain a Charter for an
autonomous settlement in Palestine; but nearly two years elapsed
before he succeeded in opening negotiations with the Sultan on
the matter. There intervened the Fourth Congress (August, 1900),
the only one to be held in London, which served the purpose of
making the movement better known in the English-speaking
world, arousing the sympathy of the British public, and stimulat-
the great, England,
ing the interest of official circles. "England,
the free/' exclaimed Herzl in his inaugural speech, in an inspired
moment of prophecy, "England, with her eyes roaming over all
the seas, will understand us and our aims. From this place the
Zionist idea will take a further and higher flight: of this we
still
may be sure." The most exciting discussion was on cultural mat-

ters,which had also figured at previous Congresses, as some Rus-
sian Rabbis deprecated secularist tendencies that they feared might
militate against religious tradition. But the Congress served its
main purpose, and Herzl was brought into touch with Lord
Lansdowne, then Foreign Secretary.
Internal differences were rather pronounced at the Fifth Con-
gress (December, 1901),
where a compact group mainly of Rus-
sian Zionists, disciples of Ahad Ha-ain and styled the "Democratic
Zionist Fraction," insisted upon greater attention being devoted
to Jewish national culture, although they were expressly in favour
of a legally secured home as the basic condition for a

satisfactory
cultural development. Dr. Chaim Weizmann, as one of the leaders
of the group/ proposed the establishment of a Jewish
University,
and the Congress agreed to the appointment of a Cultural Com-
mission; but the "Democratic Zionist Fraction/' which published
a detailed program six months later, and was the first
party to
arise in the movement, soon dissolved, though its demand for
immediate practical work in Palestine was energetically advanced
at subsequent Congresses. A more notable outcome of this Fifth
Congress was the resolution to establish the Jewish National Fund

for the acquisition of land in Palestine as the inalienable
posses-
sion of the Jewish people, an institution destined to play a very
important and vital part in the future. A
new consitution of the
Organisation was adopted, and it was decided that future Con-
gresses should be held every two years instead of annually.
Herzl was little interested in questions of national culture and
was of the opinion that such matters, as well as colonising work,
should be deferred until after the requisite political guarantees
had been obtained for an autonomous settlement. It was not until
May i8th, 1901, that thanks to the friendly mediation of Arminius
Vambery, the famous Hungarian Jewish traveller, he succeeded in
having his first audience with the Sultan, to whom he made va-
rious financial proposals to secure a Charter. The Treasury of the
Ottoman Government was at that time in a tottering condition,
and Herzl proposed to buttress it by an annual tribute, which the
Sultan could use as interest for a loan that the Jewish Colonial
Trust would arrange on his behalf. The negotiations dragged on
over twelve months, in the course of which Herzl submitted other
proposals in subsequent interviews with Abdul Hamid and made
anxious soundings in London, Paris, and other financial centres,
as to the possibility of raising the large sums that would be needed.
But all his efforts were in vain, for although in the final interview,
on July 231*1,1902, he offered the Sultan 1,600,000, the only
concesHonTEaTthe impecunious potentate was willing to give was
for the Jews to colonise in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia, but
not in Palestine* "A Charter without Palestine! I refused at once/'
wrote Herzl in his diary.
Only a couple of weeks earlier Herzl had given evidence in
London before the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration,
which had been appointed in. consequence of the agitation against
1
Other leading members were Leo Motzkin, Rerthold Feiwel, and Victor Jacobson.
g^ THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
East End of that city.
the large influx of Russian Jews into the
He emphasised persecution as the cause of Jewish emigration from
Eastern Europe, pointed out that anti-Semitism was
thus carried
and maintained that Zionism
by the emigrants to another country,
was the only solution of the problem.
broached to Lord Rothschild, the
During this stay in London he
head of the Anglo-Jewish community, who was a power in the
financial world and a member of the Royal Commission, the idea
of creating a Jewish colony in British territory either in the Sinai
Peninsula or in Cyprus. The prospect of further negotiations with
the Sultan, which had not been formally broken off, seemed hope-
less, and he was concerned and perturbed by the need of finding
an immediate asylum for the Jewish victims of oppression. His
mind must have undergone a painful ordeal, for Zionism was
indissolubly bound to Zion,
and for the past three years, apart
from his endeavours, his imagination had in all his leisure
political
moments hopefully explored the future possible developments in
Palestine. Several months after he returned from his fruitless talk
with the Kaiser he began to write a romance, Altneuland, in which
he attempted to forecast the conditions in Palestine
twenty years
later. He
depicted a Jewish society that enjoyed many of the
improvements and amenities due to technological science,

that
was organised on the lines of progressive reform, and that lived
in idyllic peace with its non-Jewish neighbours. He aimed at
but when
achieving a propagandist rather than literary success,
the book appeared in October, 1902, he was bitterly disappointed
to find it assailed because it failed to portray a background of
as the national tongue. The
Jewish cultural life, with Hebrew
most scathing criticism came from Ahad Ha-am, who was there-
in a rather intemperate article, which
upon attacked by Nordau
provoked an indignant rejoinder from some of Adah Ha-am's
friends. this controversy did not prevent Altneulantf from
But
achieving a measure of popularity and being translated into sev-
eral languages, while the motto on its title-page, "If you wish it,
this is no fairy tale," became an oft-quoted maxim in the Zionist
world.
The continued impasse in Constantinpole at length impelled
1
In this novel several of HerzFs friends and colleagues are introduced under a
thin disguise, e.g. David Wolffssohn as David Litvak, Joseph Cowen as Joe Levy,
Professor Mandelstamm as Professor Eichenstamm,. Dr. Alexander Marmorek as
Professor Steineck, and the Rev. William Hechler (Chaplain to the British Em-
bassy in Vienna) as the preacher Hopkins.
Herzl, in his restless quest, to turn to London for a way out.
Through the mediation of Leopold J. Greenberg (1860-1931),
an English member of the Actions Committee, he had an inter-
view on October 22nd, 1922, with the British Colonial Secretary,
Joseph Chamberlain, who told him that a Jewish settlement in
Cyprus would be opposed by the local population and that the
question of the Sinai Peninsula must be discussed with the Foreign
Secretary. The next day Herzl was received in the Foreign Office
by Lord Lansdowne, who favoured the idea of a Jewish settlement
at Wadi El Arish in the Sinai Peninsula, and agreed to give Green-
berg a letter of introduction to Lord Cromer, the British Procon-

sul in Egypt, for the purpose of negotiation. A technical commission
was sent out to investigate the territory, but found that it would be
unsuitable unless adequately irrigated. Anxious to leave nothing
undone in the interest of the project, towards the financing of
which the I.C.A. was prepared to give 1,000,000, Herzl also went
out to Cairo, after Greenberg had left, to continue the negotia-
tions with Lord Cromer. But his efforts were in vain, as the Egyp-
tion Government rejected the scheme on the ground of the impos-
sibility of sparing sufficient water from the Nile for irrigation,
although it was known that was also opposed for political reasons.
it
The failure of the El Arish project was immediately followed

by an offer of territory by Chamberlain in British East Africa,
which he had recently visited and which had impressed him as
suitable for a Jewish settlement. Herzl at first hesitated to con-
sider this, as he still hoped that the El Arish scheme would ma-
terialize and even that the Sultan might become amenable, but
the news of the terrible pogroms in Kishinev and other cities in
Russia, which horrified the world in April, 1903, swiftly brought
about a change of attitude. The Guas Ngishu plateau, near Nai-
robi, lacked the redeeming feature of the Sinai Peninsula namely,
close proximity to Palestine but the offer was rendered attractive
by the promise of autonomy under a Jewish governor. Besides, as

Greenberg, who acted as HerzFs confidant in the negotiations
with Chamberlain, pointed out, it was of great political impor-
tance to receive a formal offer of territory from the British Gov-
ernment. The discussion as to details therefore continued in Lon-
don, while Herzl planned a visit to Russia. Information had
reached him of a secret order issued on June 24th, 1903, by the
Russian Minister of the Interior, to all provincial governors and
chiefs of police, that all Zionist meetings and collections must be
g^ THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
forbidden, and he wished to have this decree cancelled and also to
secure the Russian Government's friendly intervention with the
Sultan. Accordingly, in the following August he visited St. Peters-
the Interior, Von Plehve,
burg, where the all-powerful Minister of
as
promised that he would allow Zionist
activities as
long they
were concerned only with the creation of a Jewish centre in Pales-
tine and with mass emigration from Russia, but uttered a warning
that any attempt to carry on nationalist propaganda, which he con-
sidered harmful to Russia's policy of a homogeneous state, would
be suppressed. Von Plehve also promised to support HerzFs efforts
in Constantinople, and the Finance Minister, Witte, agreed to
1
the opening of branches of the Jewish Colonial Trust in Russia.
From Petersburg Herz went to Vilna, to become acquainted
St.
with the life of Russian Jewry, and it was while in that citadel of
Jewish culture and Jewish poverty, where he was welcomed with
the enthusiastic ovations worthy of a king, that he received a his-
toricdocument from the British government. It was the letter con-
taining the formal offer of territory in East Africa, in which the
Jews would enjoy autonomy under a Jewish governor, subject to a
commission of inquiry being sent out to investigate the land and
finding it suitable for settlement.
So far from Herzl's political efforts being greeted with general
approval, they caused an outburst of violent criticism at the Sixth
Congress (August, 1903), which was his last. He was upbraided
for having parleyed with Plehve, whom the Jews in Russia re-
garded as the instigator of the latest pogroms; but the reproaches

on account were mild in comparison with the passionate at-
this
tacks upon the East African project, which its opponents consis-
tently referred to disparagingly as Uganda. In anticipation of the
storm, Herzl declared that the venture must be regarded only as
an emergency undertaking, that the Jewish people could not have
any other objective but Palestine, and that his views on the land
of his fathers were unchangeable, but that the Congress could find
means of making use of the offer. For it was a matter of amelio-
rating and alleviating the condition of the Jewish people, without
in any way surrendering any of the great principles on which the
movement was founded. "This is certainly not Zionism and never
can be," he exclaimed. Nordau sought to influence the Congress
1
According to Dr. Adolf Friedemann, a confidant of Herzl, the Russian Govern-
ment afterwards took the promised steps in Constantinople, but
they were ren-
dered nugatory by Herzl's untimely death (Da& Leben Theodor Herds, 1914,
p. 78).
Witte's promise remained unfulfilled
owing to his fall.
by pointing out that East Africa was intended only as a Nachtasyl,

which the Jews could be trained as a nation for their
a shelter, in
future mission in Palestine. But all arguments failed to convince
or mollify the opponents, who largely belonged to the Russian
delegation, although was primarily in the interests of Russian
it
Jewry that the plan was conceived. The issue put to the Congress
was not that the offer should be accepted, but that a commission of
inquiry should be dispatched to investigate the territory, on the
definite condition that the cost should not be defrayed by the
1
Zionist Organisation or the Jewish Colonial Trust; and when the
2
resolution was adopted after a roll-call, by 295 votes to 178, the
Russian opponents immediately withdrew to a separate hall, where
many of them wept as if they had lost Palestine for ever. But
Herzl afterwards pleaded with them, assured them again of his
unalterable attachment to Zion, and they returned to the Congress
the following day.
The hostility to the scheme increased during the ensuing

months and came to a climax in December, 1903, when a number
ofprominent Russian Zionists, under the leadership of Menahem
Ussishkin (who had been in Palestine during the Sixth Congress),
assembled in Kharkov, and sent a delegation to Vienna to present
Herzl with an ultimatum. This was to the effect that unless he
undertook in writing to abandon the East African scheme and to
confine himself to Palestine, the Russian Zionists would cease to
remit their shekel contributions to Vienna and would convene an
opposition Congress at an early date. Herzl refused to comply with
the ultimatum and told the deputation that he had shown one of
the Kharkov dissidents in the previous month a letter written to
Plehve after the Sixth Congress, in which he dealt solely with his
Palestinian policy. After the deputation returned to Russia, Herzl
went to Rome, where he had an audience with the King of Italy,
who was sympathetic to the idea of Zionism, and also with Pope
Pius X, who expressed himself in unfriendly terms. The unrest
within the movement continued, and a special meeting of the
Greater "Actions Committee" was therefore held in Vienna on
April i ith, 1904, to allay the conflict. Herzl succeeded in convinc-
1
The cost of the expedition, amounting to 2,000, was defrayed by the Hon. Mrs.
E. A. Gordon, a Christian friend of the Zionist movement. See the author's Journal
of a Jewish Traveller, p. 153.
2
Each delegate answered either "Ja" or "Nein" and hence those in favour of the
expedition were called "Ja-Sager" ("Yes-sayers"), and the opponents "Nein-Sager"
("No-sayers").
gg THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
ing his opponents that

he was and would remain faithful to Pal-
estine, and the stormy proceedings concluded
after five
days^with
a resolution of conciliation and confidence. It was the last discus-
sion in which Herzl took part, for his end was approaching. He
had suffered at intervals for some years from a heart affection, on
account of which he went to Edlach, in North Austria, for a cure;
but there his condition became seriously aggravated by an attack
of pneumonia, from which he died, at the early age of forty-four,
on July 3rd, 1904. His death was mourned by Jews throughout
the world, and his funeral was attended by thousands.
Within the short space of eight years Thedor Herzl had wrought
a revolution in Jewish life and Jewish thought. He had created
the Zionist Organisation to enable the Jewish people to shape its
own destiny, instead of always being the sport of tyrannies and
catastrophes. He had brought into being
the Zionist Congress,
which gave his people the opportunity of debating its national
affairsin a parliamentary forum. He had founded Jewish the
Colonial Trust and the Jewish National Fund as essential finan-
cial instruments of the movement. He had secured recognition
for the Jewish question as a serious international problem. He

had negotiated with European sovereigns and Cabinet Ministers,
who acknowledged the competence of the Zionist Organisation to
establish a Jewish State. He was the first Jewish statesman pro-
duced by his people after eighteen hundred years of exile who
dedicated himself entirely to its national revival. Undaunted by
antagonists and undeterred by scoffers and sceptics, he had fulfilled
his historic task selflessly and self-sacrificingly, and left an imper-
ishable legacy of incalculable value to be developed by his fol-
lowers.
CHAPTER V
POLITICAL AND PRACTICAL ZIONISM
death of Herzl was a severe blow to the Zionist movement,

THE
not only because he was its founder and leader, but also be-
cause all hopes for the early achievement of its object had been
largely concentrated in his person. None of his colleagues in the
Executive possessed a fraction of his authority and driving power
or was endowed with the requisite capacity for succeeding him.
The only man whose position in the movement and whose fame
in the outside world seemed to make him the most fitting successor
was Dr. Max Nordau, but he declined to accept the burden on
grounds of health, although he was doubtless also influenced by
other considerations. The problem of the succession was aggra-
vated by the bitter conflict that raged within the movement regard-
ing the outcome of the British Government's offer of an autono-
mous territory in East Africa, for the opponents of the offer, -who
were called Zione Zion ("Zionists of Zion") were indefatigable in
their aggitation to ensure its rejection. The East African project
and the future leadership were thus the two main questions that
occupied the Seventh Congress, which met at Basle in 1905 from
July 27th to August 2nd.
The scientific commission that explored the proffered territory
was divided in its views, for while the two Jewish members (Alfred
Kaiser and N. Wilbuschewitz) reported that it was quite unsuit-
able for a Jewish settlement, the non-Jewish leader (Major Gib-
bons, an English colonial expert) was of opinion that, with per-
severance and in time, the land could be developed to accom-
modate 20,000 agriculturists. The opponents, not content with
the unsatisfactory report, were resolved not to leave anything to
chance, for, on the eve of the Congress, they held a conference,
under the leadership of Menahem Ussishkin and Dr. Chaim
Weizmann, at Freiburg (in Southern Germany), in order to
organise their plan of action and to ensure that the Congress
would decide that practical work should be undertaken in Pales-
tine without further delay. The debate at the Congress was pro-
longed and passionate, for there was a party headed by Israel
Zangwill, who was just as keen that the British offer should be
accepted, in the interest of Jews in urgent need of an asylum, as
its opponents were that it should be rejected- The resolution
adopted by the majority of the Congress was a dignified rejection,

Zionism. It de-
and likewise a reaffirmation of the principles o
the fundamental
clared that the Zionist Organisation adhered to
Basle Programme and rejected any colonising
principle of the
activity outside Palestine
and its neighbouring lands. It expressed
its sincerest thanks to the British Government
for the offer of an
autonomous territory and stated that the Zionist Organisation, after

could not concern itself with
receiving the commission's report,
the project any longer. It also warmly acknowledged the
desire
British Government to in bring-
that had been evinced by the help
and voiced the hope
ing about a solution of the Jewish question,
that the Zionist movement would be likewise favoured by its good
offices in some future project that would be in accordance with
the Basle Programme. That event came twelve

years later.
The delegates who were in favour of the British offer immedi-
ately withdrew from
the Congress and seceded from the Organi-
sation. the leadership of Zangwill, who was actively sup-
Under
and the Zionist Socialist leader, Dr.
ported by Dr. Mandelstamm
Nachman Syrkin, they at once created the Jewish Territorial
the establishment
Organisation, which adopted as its programme
of a Jewish autonomous settlement in any part of the world. This
new body was commonly called (after its initials) the "I.T.O.,"
1
and its adherents were known as "Territorialists" or "Itoists."
The East African question and the absence of
liquidation of the
with the Ottoman Gov-
any early prospect of fruitful negotiation
ernment inevitably led, under the pressure of the Zione Zion> to
the adoption of a policy which would both satisfy their demand
for work in Palestine and also further the political aim
practical
of the movement. The Seventh
Congress accordingly resolved
that, while unsystematic or philanthropic colonisation should be
avoided, suitable measures should be taken for the furtherance
of agriculture and industry and for the intellectual improvement
of the Jews in the country. But it was at the same time laid down
that no land should be bought on account of the Jewish National
Fund as long such purchase could not be effected on a sure legal
as
basis. Even Herzl, although firmly opposed to any colonisation in
Palestine being undertaken before the coveted Charter was se~
1
The had its office in London and was under the presidency of
"I.T.O.," which
Israel Zangwill,conducted negotiations with various governments and carried out
explorations of Cyrenaica and Angola with negative results. It also regulated part
of the Jewish emigration to the United States via Galveston. It lingered on until
the end of the FirstWorld War, when some of its representatives (notably Dr. M.
D. Eder) joined the Zionist Organisation, and it was formally dissolved in 1925 by
Zangwill himself.
POLITICAL AND PRACTICAL ZIONISM 80
y
cured, had agreed, at the Sixth Congress, to the
appointment of
a Palestine Commission to conduct a scientific
investigation of the
economic resources of the country; and the
report presented by
the members of this Commission, Professor Otto
Warburg, Dr.
Franz Oppenheimer, and Dr. S. E. Soskin, showed
encouraging
results despite the small fund allocated for the
purpose. The deci-
sion of the Seventh Congress was thus both a
logical and practical
sequence. It xvas but the initial stage of a protracted be-
struggle
tween those who urged immediate work in Palestine, and those
who advocated deferment until "the great moment" when
politi-
cal guarantees were secured, a
struggle that ended some later years
in the victory of the former.
The problem of the leadership was solved

by the election of
a new Executive ofseven members, which involved the removal
of the Central Office from Vienna. The Executive consisted
of
David Wolffsohn of Cologne,
Leopold Greenberg of London,
Alexander Marmorek of Paris,
Jacobus Kahn of The Hague,
Menahem Ussishkin of Odessa, Dr.
J. Rohan-Bernstein of Kishi-
neff, and Professor Otto Warburg of Berlin. The first four be-
longed to the so-called "political" Zionists and the other three to
the "practical" ones, for,
although all alike were adherents of
political Zionism, the emphasis that the Zione Zion
insistently
placed upon the need of beginning work in Palestine without wait-
ing for any political guarantees caused them to be designated the
"practicals/' while those who consistently stressed the
prior need
for such
guarantees were known as the ''politicals." David Wolff-
sohn (1856-1914), the most intimate friend of Herzl and an old
Hovev Zion, who was born in a Lithuanian townlet and had be-
come a prosperous timber-merchant in
Cologne, was elected Presi-
dent, and the headquarters of the movement were
accordingly
transferred to that city. The
Congress was immediately followed
by a general meeting of the shareholders of the Jewish Colonial
Trust, at which it was decided that the statutes of this bank, which
allowed it to conduct operations in
any part of the world, should
amended as to limit its
sphere of activity to Palestine and
be^so
neighbouring countries. This change was insisted upon by the
"practical" Zionists, who feared that the funds of the bank might be
used on some future occasion for a "territorialist" but the
project;
application for this purpose made in the High Court in London,
which entailed protracted proceedings, was
strongly opposed by
Israel Zangwill and failed.
go THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
Before the controversy over the question of general policy had
and "practicals," two
given rise to the division into "politicals"
had already been formed in the movement. A group of
parties
orthodox adherents in Russia, who wished to emphasise that
Zionism should be realised on the basis of Jewish religious law
and tradition, founded the "Mizrachi" (abbreviated from the
Hebrew words, Merkaz Ruhani, "spiritual centre") in Vilna, in
1902. This party immediately gained
an appreciable following in
other countries and held its first general conference in 1904 at
at which Rabbi Isaac Reines, of Lida, was
Pressburg (Bratislava),
elected President. The other party, "Poale Zion" (Workers of
Zion), which consisted of those who wished
to combine the Zionist
was formed in Austria
programme with the principles of Socialism,
in 1903, in the United States in 1904, and in Russia, Palestine, and
in The
England in 1906, and held its first general conference
Hague in 1907. These two parties, constituting the Right and Left
wings of the movement, always endeavoured to assert their par-

ticular standpoint at Congresses.
David Wolffsohn was the President of the Zionist Organisation

for six years (1905-11), and devoted himself to its development
and consolidation with great zeal and energy. Although lacking
the brilliant qualities of his predecessor, he displayed unsuspected
gifts of leadership and force of character,
which were stimulated
by the opposition that continued to be waged against the move-
ment. He enjoyed the valuable support of Nahum Sokolow (1861-
of the War-
1936), a polyglot scholar and Editor for many years
saw Hebrew daily, Hatzefirah, who was appointed General Secre-
tary, and of Dr. Berthold Feiwel, who became
Editor of Die Welt,
and director of the Jiidischer Verlag, the publication department
of the Central Office. His friend, Dr. Max Bodenheimer, a promi-
nent lawyer in Cologne, took charge of the Jewish National Fund,
which had been directed in Vienna by Johann Kremenetzky. The
antagonism that the movement had to suffer became all the more
serious as it was no longer confined to the assiinilationists and the
ultra-orthodox, but was supplemented by the "Itoists," who for
several years conducted a sort of vendetta against the parent organi-
sation. In Germany Professor Ludwig Geiger, who occupied a
leading position in the Jewish community and enjoyed some repu-

tation in the non-Jewish world, declared that German Zionists
should be deprived of their citizenship. In Russia, Maximilian
Winaver, a prominent Jewish figure among the Constitutional
POLITICAL AND PRACTICAL ZIONISM gi
Democrats (commonly known as the "Cadets"), complained, with-
out justification, that the political activity of the Zionists was
endangering the Jewish position. An ultra-orthodox section of
Jews in Russia were particularly fanatical in their opposition and
were dubbed Ha-Lishkah Ha-Shehomh ("The Black Cabinet"):
they carried on their compaign through the medium of a journal,
Ha-Peless, which appeared in Berlin, and caused the temporary
closure of a Zionist library in Vilna. In Great Britain the hostility
was waged by the Chief Rabbi, Dr. Hermann Adler, who had
less
stigmatised Zionism as "an egregious blunder/' than by the com-

munal leaders and by influential writers like Claude Montefiore
and Lucien Wolf. In France the "Consistoire" and the Alliance
Israelite were antagonistic and contemptuous. In America, too,
there was powerful opposition on the part of distinguished lay-
men and many Reform Rabbis.
Nevertheless, the Zionist movement, after recovering from the
double shock of HerzFs death and the secession of the "Terri-
torialists," made steady progress, furthered by an increasing con-
sciousness of the hopelessness of the situation in Central and
Eastern Europe. It gained its largest following in Russia, which
then contained about six million Jews, and provided a separate
political platform in the desperate struggle against the tyranny of
the Tsardom for constitutional liberties. At a Conference held in
Helsingfors in December, 1905, the Russian Zionists adopted a
programme, in which they demanded not only complete civil
equality for the Jewish population, but also the recognition of the
Jewish nationality as an entity with rights of autonomy in all
affairs of Jewish national life. The Zionists put up their own can-
didates in the elections for the first Duma in 1905 and succeeded
in having five returned among the fourteen Jews who were elected.
But Russia's first Parliament was soon dissolved1 as it proved too
progressive for the Tsar and his reactionary advisers, and when
the elections to the second Duma took place in 1907 only six Jews
were returned, of whom only one was a Zionist. In Austria the
Zionistsformed a separate organisation for political purposes, as
they wished to avoid the criticism that Zionism, an inter-territorial
movement, interferred in the internal political affairs of the coun-
*The forcible dissolution of the first Duma called for an organised demonstra-
tion in the form of famous
Viborg Manifesto (1906) , the signatories of which were
liable to legal prosecution.
Among them was Dr. Shmarya Levin, whose parlia-
mentary career was thus cut short, and who went abroad to become a popular
Zionist propagandist in many countries.
gg THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
try,In the general election of 1907 four Zionists were returned as

three for constituencies in
deputies to the Austrian Parliament,
Galicia and one for Czernowitz: they fought not only for Jewish
rights, but also for general social

and cultural progress, and owing
to the multiplicity of political parties in the old Empire their
support was often convassed by some of these, and

even by the
Government itself, when the turning of the scale in favour of some
important decision depended upon a few votes. But in
the next
general election, in 1911, only the Jewish national member for

Czernowitz was returned, while in Galicia the Polish authorities,
energetically supported by the Social Democrats and the Jewish
prevented the re-election of any Jewish nationalist.
assimilationists,
Although Wolffsohn did not engage in the diplomatic activity

that had absorbed the energies of the founder of the movement,
he had to concern himself from time to time with matters that
called for action of a political or quasi-political nature. Soon after
he was first elected to the Presidency, the world was again shocked
by an outbreak of pogroms in Russia, which lasted from October,
1905, until the following July. The Zionist Executive considered
this calamity of sufficient importance to be recorded in detail, and
commissioned Leo Motzkin (1867-1933) to write an official history,

which was published in two large volumes in 1910, under the title
of Die Judenpogrome in Russland, by the Judischer Verlag. The
massacres gave a fresh impetus to a flood of Jewish emigration
from Russia, and the Zionist Executive accordingly decided to
invite the leading Jewish philanthropic organisations to a con-
ference in order to organise joint measures for regulating emigra-
tion and caring for the refugees, tasks which had hitherto been
done separately by different bodies. But the Zionist Organisation
was still too weak to meet with a favourable response from the heads
of the Alliance Israelite, who were among its bitterest
opponents,
or from the wealthy "LC.A.," and the only bodies that sent dele-
gates to the conference, which was held in Brussels in January
1906,, were the Anglo-Jewish Association, the "I.T.O.," and the
"Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden" (which was formed in 1901 for
the purpose of supervising Jewish emigration from Eastern
Europe
and befriending the emigrants). The Conference, over which
Wolffsohn presided, adopted resolutions affirming the need of the
permanent co-operation of all Jewish relief organisations, and
urged the appointment of a commission to investigate the immi-
gration and colonisation possibilities of various countries, espe-
daily in the Orient, but its deliberations achieved no lasting

Not only did the Tsarist regime cause an unceasing exodus
results.
of Jews, but it also hampered and repressed various forms of
Zionist activity. Zionist workers were occasionally arrested for
conducting propaganda on behalf of the Jewish National Fund,

and editors of Zionist papers for publishing nothing more revolu-
tionary than an appeal to buy the Shekel; and it was in order to
be entirely immune from police interruption that the Russian
Zionists usually arranged to hold their general conference at the
time when and in the city where the Congress took place. The
position became particularly serious in the summer of 1908, when
Wolffsohn found it necessary to pay a visit to St. Petersburg, to
have an interview with the Premier, Stolypin; but although the
latter repeated the assurance that had been given by Plehve to
Herzl, that there would be no interference with the Zionists as

long as they confined themselves to the Palestine programme, the
Russian authorities continued their policy of repression.
^The establishment of a constitutional government in
Turkey in
1908 was welcomed by Zionists, who hoped that their
at first
aspirations would receive more sympathetic consideration from

the Young Turks than they had from the old Sultan; but it was
not long before they realised that the new regime was just as
jealous of the sovereignty and integrity of the Ottoman Empire
as Abdul Hamid himself. The Young Turks were uncompromis-
ingly opposed to the fostering of separate nationalisms within the

confines of the Empire, and their antipathy to Jewish nationalism
was stirred up by a small clique of assimilationists, who misrepre-
sented and maligned the aims of Zionism, not only in their own
Judaeo-Spanish papers, but also in the Turkish Press. It thus be-
came necessary to take effective measures for dispelling the mis-
understandings and misrepresentations prevailing in political

circle in Constantinople, as well as for enlightening the public in
general. Since the appointment of a political representative

in the
Ottoman capital might have aroused suspicion
instead of dissi-
pating it, a branch of the Jewish Colonial Trust was opened there
in October, 1908, under the name of the Anglo-Levantine Bank-
ing Company, and Dr. Victor Jacobson (1869-1934), a leading
Russian Zionist (previously in charge of the Beyrout branch of the
Anglo-Palestine Company), was entrusted with its management, so
that he could at the same time discharge the functions of a diplo-
matic emissary. Dr. Jacobson devoted particular attention to the
Press and, with funds provided by the Zionist Executive, he
founded two French papers Le Jeune Turc, a daily for the gen-
eral public, which advocated autonomy for the nations in the
Ottoman Empire, and L'Aurore, a Zionist weekly. Efforts to win
the local Jewish community over to the Zionist cause met with
the hostile resistance of the Hahani Bashi (Chief Rabbi) in Con-
in the more
stantinople, but they were much more successful
Jewish milieu of Salonika, where they were ardently and elo-
quently championed by the Chief Rabbi, Jacob Meir.
At the Ninth Congress, which was held in Hamburg in Decem-
ber (26th-gist), 1909 (the first Congress attended by delegates
from Turkey, whose red fezzes made them an object of attraction),
President Wolffsohn proclaimed the absolute compatibility of
Zionism with loyalty to the Ottoman Empire. He declared that
the objects of the movement would be pursued in complete har-
mony with the spirit of the Ottoman Constitution and with the
fullest regard for the laws and institutions of the Empire. But
there was one point in Herd's policy which had now become ques-
tionablenamely, the need for a Charter. Dr. Nordau, President
of the Congress, stated that the Charter idea had outlived its day
and would be relegated to the archives of the movement. There
was no need, however, he said, to alter the Basle Programme, since
this made no mention of a Charter; and as for the reference to
"government assents" which it contained, and which might have

been interpreted as "the assents of government," it meant solely
the assents of the Ottoman Government But despite these
itself.
explanations and asseverations of loyalty, there was no change of

attitude on the part of the Turkish Government, which failed to
appreciate the enormous services that could be rendered by a

large and organised Jewish settlement in Palestine.
Throughout Wolffsohn's six years of office the dominant theme
of contention was the question of pressing forward with develop-
ments in Palestine, and the Zionist camp was divided into "prac-
ticals" and "politicals/' At the Eighth Congress, which was held
in 1907 (August i4th-2ist) at The Hague (chosen because an
International Peace Conference was meeting there at the same
time), there was a particularly notable debate on the question
after hearing the report of the Palestine Commission submitted by
Professor Warburg. The principal spokesmen of the political
school were Leo Motzkin and Dr. Alexander Marmorek, while the
views of the "practicals" were pursuasively expounded by Dr.
Weizmann. The discussion revealed a narrowing of the
gap be-
tween the two sides, since the political protagonists
were not in
principle opposed to work in Palestine, but only wished that it
should not be allowed to obscure the great political aim to be
striven after; and, on the other hand, Dr. Weizmann, who (as a
chemist) coined the term "Synthetic Zionism," urged the political
value of practical work. The outcome of the discussion was the
decision to form a Palestine Department of the Executive, which
was allocated 25 per cent of the revenue of the Central Office, 1
and to create a Palestine Office in Jaffa. Dr. Arthur Ruppin (1876-
1
943)> an economist who had specialised in questions of Jewish
sociology, was appointed Director of this Office in 1908, and the
first
steps taken in accordance with his proposals were the estab-
lishment of the Palestine Land Development Company and the
grant of a loan by the Jewish National Fund for the building of
a modern residential quarter near Jaffa. The Congress also re-
solved that Hebrew should be recognised as the official
language
of the movement and be gradually introduced into its
controlling
organs, and that the President of future Congresses should not be
identical with the President of the Organisation or a member
of the Executive.
The Executive elected at the Eighth Congress consisted only of

Wolffsohn, Kann, and Warburg, as Wolffsohn maintained that an
Executive of seven persons scattered over Europe could not act
effectively, whereas three members could meet and correspond
more frequently and act more
unitedly. Since Warburg was the
only representative in this triumvirate of the "practicals," the
latter were discontented, and at the Ninth Congress they made an
effort to secure the election of an Executive composed entirely of
members of, their own camp. The effort failed: the triumvirate
had to be re-elected at the eleventh hour; and Sokolow, whose
sympathies were with the "practical," resigned the position of
General Secretary. The "practicals" derived some solace at least
from the unanimous decision to found a co-operative settlement
in Palestine in accordance with the proposals submitted by Dr.
Franz Oppenheimer, an economist of progressive views, who had
1
The annual income of the Central Office (apart from the Jewish National Fund)
derived from the Shekel payments, never exceeded 8,600 before the First World
War. It was therefore found necessary in 1911 to supplement this by a "Central
Fund" of voluntary contributions, which in 1913 yielded 4,300. The total amount
collected by the Jewish National Fund up to the middle of 1914 was 170,000.
gg
first been introduced to the Zionist world by Herzl at the Sixth
Congress.
At the Tenth Congress, however, which was held at Basle in
at last achieved their
1911 (August gth-i5th), the "practical"
goal by the election of an
Executive consisting solely of adherents
o their school The new leadership was composed of Pro-
own
Dr. Victor
fessorWarburg, Dr. Arthur Hantke (a Berlin lawyer),
and Nahum Sokolow. The Con-
Jacobson, Dr. Shimarya Levin,
did not elect a President, but left it to the Executive to
gress
choose its chairman, a position to which Professor Warburg was
appointed. This Congress was also notable for the fact that for
the first time an entire session, devoted to cultural matters, was
conducted in Hebrew. In consequence of the change of Executive
the Central Office was transferred to Berlin, together with the
organ, Die Welt, and the Judischer Verlag (the
official head office
of the Jewish National Fund remaining in Cologne). The new
Executive devoted themselves to the expansion of the movement
and the furtherance of propaganda, one of its members, Sokolow,
being the first official emissary toAmerica; and the Palestine De-
partment did what it could with Its limited resources to advance
various undertakings in Palestine.
The Executive were re-elected at the Eleventh Congress, which
was held in Vienna in 1913 (September snd-gth), with the addi-
tion of Dr. Yehiel Tschlenow, a Moscow physician, also of the
"practical" school, who shared with Ussishkin in the leadership

of the Russian Zionists. It was the first Congress from which Nor-
dau, whose brilliant surveys of the general position of Jewry had
formed the most attractive feature of the opening session of all
previous gatherings, absented himself., He sent a message, in
which he wrote that "the financial instruments of our movement,
which have been forged with arduous toil, are not strong enough
to withstand imprudent or reckless handling/' His letter implied
support for the "politicals," who still retained control of the Jew-
ish Colonial Trust and successfully resisted the efforts of the
"practicals" to oust them from that key position. There was again
a lengthy debate between the spokesmen of the two rival schools,
in which an important speech was made by Ruppin, who reported
on the results achieved already in Palestine and pointed out that
they afforded valuable guidance in the work of national renais-

sance and should not be appraised by a commercial criterion.
Cultural questions also occupied a prominent place, for not only
POLITICAL AND PRACTICAL ZIONISM Q7
was the Congress preceded by a World Conference of Hebraists,

but an entire session was again conducted in Hebrew; and after
an address by Dr. Weizmann on the founding of a Hebrew Uni-
versity in Jerusalem,
the Congress enthusiastically agreed to the
of a commission to make the preliminary investi-
appointment
gations for this purpose.
The proceedings closed with a valedictory
the President of the Congress, who ended
speech by Wolffsohn,
with the words: "Auf Wiedersehen at the Twelfth Congress/'
Little did would be eight years before the Zionist
he dream that it
Parliament met again and that he himself had only one more
year to live.
CHAPTER VI
THE BEGINNINGS OF ZIONIST COLONISATION

the twelve years that elapsed between the publication
DURINGof The Jewish State and the beginning of colonisation in
Palestine by the Zionist Organisation, comparatively little pro-
gress was made by the first groups
of Jewish settlers in the country.
The repeated appeals that were made to Baron Edmond de Roth-
schild either to intervene in the conflicts between the settlers and
his "administrators" or to help in solving economic difficulties, led
in 1900 to his transferring the control and management of all his
settlements in Palestine to the Jewish Colonisation Association,
although he continued to take an interest in them and to provide
further support whenever necessary. The I.C.A. established a new
regime designed to enable the settlements gradually to become
independent. It simplified the general system of administration,
allowed the settlers a measure of self-government, and introduced
rational methods of cultivation as well as new cultures. It created
a training-farm at Sedjera, near Nazareth, and helped those who
there acquired the requisite qualifications with a sufficient loan,
repayable on easy terms, to buy land and cultivate it on their own
account. Most of these farmers obtained holdings in Galilee,
where they engaged first in corn-growing, and afterwards also in
cattle-raising and horticulture; but although this system was in-
tended to produce some profit, its success was often frustrated
by
the Government tax, which usually amounted to much more than
the statutory tithe of the crops. The
principal factors that favoured
the Jewish farmer were the gradual rise in the
price of land and
the opportunity he had of employing Arab labor; but while
cheap
these factors benefited him individually they militated against
the development of a Jewish national
community, as he preferred
the labour of Arabs to that of Jews, who needed
higher wages for
their higher standard of
living, and was sometimes tempted to
dispose of his farm at a profit.
The Hoveve Zion, under the general direction of the Odessa
Committee, continued their modest efforts and also endeavoured
to replace the old
philanthropic system by one that would help
agricultural workers to become independent. They established
these workers on the outskirts of the
large settlements, and pro-
vided them with a cottage and small
plot of land, so that they
99
could supplement their earnings from seasonal labor in the settle-,
meats with the produce from their own
plantations and vegetable-
gardens. They also founded two new settlements on a small scale,
the first called Beer Jacob, near Rehovoth, in
1907, and the other
Ein Ganim, near Petah Tikvah, in the
following year. In both
cases the settlers had to have some
money of their own, but as the
means of the latter were limited the Hoveve Zion
supported the
schools and other social institutions. The "Ezra"
Society of Berlin
laid out a workers' settlement on similar lines at Kiar Saba, near
Petah Tikvah, But all the efforts of the I.C.A. and the Odessa
Committee to improve the conditions of colonisation or to im-
part to it a
renewal of the impetus with which it was
begun were
in vain. The spirit of heroism and self-sacrifice that had distin-
guished the Biluirn seemed to have evaporated; men who had once
been ardent idealists found it difficult, owing to the stress of eco-
nomic circumstances, to avoid the use of Arab labour; no further
large colonies were established; and many sons o the pioneers left
the country owing to the
apparently unpromising prospects.
A graphic account of the conditions at the time was given by
Dr. Arthur Ruppin in a report to the Eleventh
Congress (in 1913):
"When I travelled
through Palestine as a
simple tourist for
several months in 1907, what depressed me most was the lack of
energy and courage that I found among the Jews, especially in
the colonies in Judaea, Samaria, and
Upper Galilee. I tried to
diagnose the condition, and it seemed to me to be best described
as premature age. The colonies were on an
average twenty years
old. Those who had once, as
young men, founded the colonies,
either out of enthusiasm, or with the
hope of material gain, had
become worn out and old in hard and often futile labour, and the
second generation was missing. The youth had not inherited
either their parents' enthusiasm or
hope of gain, and had there-
fore left the colonies to seek their fortune in the towns or out-
side Palestine. Many colonies looked just like homes of the
aged . , , What was the result of twenty-five years' work? How
puny was in comparison with the original dream! ... I was
it
convinced that there was only one thing that could

improve
matters: a rejuvenation o the colonies by
attracting new, young
enthusiastic people from Europe. And it was just our good
. . .
fortune that, although indeed poor in means, we were still rich

in people with a
spirit of self-sacrifice."
This new element arrived in Palestine in 1905, and was called the
Second Ally ah* It consisted of young Jewish workers from Russia
pogroms in that year and the suppression
who, after the of the
Revolution, had abandoned all hope of freedom under the Tsar-

dom, and resolved to devote themselves to the revival of their
ancestral country. They were regarded with some suspicion by the
Turkish authorities, who had no sympathy with their Socialist
dreams, and, as they found only limited opportunities of employ-
ment, some of them left the country. Those who remained made
the utmost efforts to secure work in the settlements, a policy for
which they coined the slogan Kibbush Avodah ("conquest of
labour'*). They tried at first to work
at the low wage paid to the
Arabs and had to kinds of hardships, such as the lack of
bear all
proper housing and the problems of finding cheap food as well

as employment out of season. The result of a few years of such
trying experiences was that they sought after new forms of coloni-
sation, and the Zionist Organisation came to their help.
The Zionist Organisation first began practical work in Palestine
in 1903 by establishing a subsidiary of the Jewish Colonial Trust,
the Anglo-Palestine Company (a name subsequently changed to
the Anglo-Palestine Bank) in Jaffa. This was the first bank to
introduce Western conceptions of credit into the Holy Land, thus
conferring a boon upon all classes of society and all kinds of
economic enterprise. It granted short-term loans at moderate
interest to merchants and manufacturers, and loans for longer
periods to farmers and building societies, the repayment of which

was guaranteed respectively by the harvest or rent. It rendered
a particularly valuable service by promoting the formation of
co-operative loan societies among artisans, small traders, and agri-
cultural workers; and the success with which it conducted its
various operations was evidenced by the fact that within a few
years it opened branches in Jerusalem, Haifa, Hebron, Safed,
Tiberias, and even as far as Beyrout.
The next step taken by the Organisation was in the field of
education. The Jewish National Fund provided a site on the
border of Jaffa (afterwards incorporated in Tel-Aviv), on which
a modern secondary school was built in 1905 by an English
Zionist, Alderman Jacob Moser. It was called the "Herzl Gymna-
*AHyah f which literally means "ascent," is the Hebrew word used for "immigra-
tion," as it was always used after the destruction of the Second Temple to denote
the religious duty of migrating to Palestine. The Hebrew verb ala, "to ascend," was
used in Biblical times for the journey to the elevated land of Judaea.
THE BEGINNINGS OF ZIONIST COLONISATION 101
sium" (used in the German sense of higher-grade school) and was

the first modern school in which all subjects were taught in
Hebrew. In the following year the Organisation brought into
being an institution for applied arts and crafts, the Bezalel, In
Jerusalem which was a contribution to solving the problem of
poverty among those dependent upon the Halukah. The various
crafts taught were carpet-weaving, basket-making, filigree orna-
ments, lace manufacture, carpentry, Damascus metal-work, and

ivory-carving. The Bezalel also acted later as a pioneer in estab-
lishing a domestic industry in a rural area. It settled a group of
Yemenite Jews (who first began to arrive in Palestine in 1909)
at Ben-Shemen, near Lydda, and provided them with cottages,
gardens, and a work-shop, so that while mainly engaged in filigree
work and carpet-weaving, they were also able to devote time to
market-gardening and poultry-rearing.
The systematic development of colonisation in Palestine by the
Zionist Organisation began in 1908, when Dr. Ruppin established
the Palestine Office in Jaffa. It was from this Office that all kinds
and all sorts of proposals and
of practical activities were directed,
plans were worked out; and it was from there that Zionist institu-
tions and the properties of the Jewish National Fund were admin-
istered and negotiations with the authorities were conducted. As
the work of the Office expanded, its staff was increased by the
appointment of agricultural, technical, and legal experts. The first

two projects that were carried out were in connection with urban
housing and agricultural development. An estate company,
"Ahuzath Bayith," was given a loan of 10,000 by the Jewish
National Fund for eighteen years, guaranteed by the Anglo-
PalestineCompany, to build a modern Jewish quarter on the
border of Jaffa; that little suburb, in which were situated the
Palestine Office, the bank, and the Herzl Gymnasium, was named
Tel-Aviv ("Hill of Spring") and grew into the most populous city
in the country. The Palestine Land Development Company was
established in 1908 by Ruppin to facilitate the purchase, sale, and
development of land. It acquired large tracts, prepared them for
cultivation, and divided them into small holdings suitable for
farmers of moderate means, while it also constructed ways of
communication and provided a water supply. It prevented the
rise of land values due to competitive buying by arranging with
the I.C.A., the Anglo-Palestine Company, and the "Geulah" (a
small Russo-Jewish Company) that all purchases they wished to
1O2 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
make should be carried out solely through its agency. The
P.L.D.C. also took over the management of two plots of the Jewish
National Fund on the Sea of Tiberias, Kinnereth (1908) and
Degania (1909), where farmsteads were established for the train-
ing of Jewish workers under expert direction. It was intended that
the workers should earn sufficient on these estates to enable them,
with their savings and experience, to be established as independent
farmers by the LC.A. or the Jewish National Fund. The first
training farm for girls devoted to poultry-rearing and market-
gardening was also established at Kinnereth. Of the few hundred
workers who were trained on the J.N.F. farms, some found em-
ployment in the old settlements and others formed workers' co-
operatives. To enable them to secure work in the large settlements,
cheap cottages were built on the outskirts (as by the "Ezra"

Society near Rehovoth), and the J.N.F. provided small family
houses with gardens as well as lodging quarters for single men.
An impetus to the employment of workers in the settlements
was given by the immigration of Jews from the Yemen, who were
accustomed to a hot climate, rough work, and plain living, and
who also had the advantage of knowing Arabic as well as Hebrew,
besides being Ottoman subjects. These Yemenites, who were
capable market-gardeners and skilled artisans, seemed calculated

to replace the Arab workers as hired labourers, and by the year
1914 there were 1,500 of them in the colonies, where their wives
did domestic service. The Odessa Committee helped by founding
a settlement for thirty Yemenite families as cottagers at Nahlath
Yehuda, near Rishon le-Zion (1913). But this system, owing to
its rather small
range and the fact that the cottagers had to have
some means of their own, could benefit only a comparatively small
number; besides, the workers themselves, animated by a strong
spirit of independence, were mostly opposed to it. There was
therefore a groping after a new form of colonisation.
The Jewish agricultural labourers in Palestine were utterly dif-
ferent from land workers in all other parts of the world. They
were neither clodhoppers nor illiterates, for they had mostly
received a good education; they were not children of the soil, for
their forefathers had been separated from it for
nearly two thou-
sand years; and they adopted one of the hardest and most
poorly
paid occupations, not for lack of intelligence, but from a spirit of
social and national idealism. They
belonged to two different par-
ties, the Poale Zion ("Workers of Zion") and
Hapoel Hatzair
("The Young Workers"), each with its own ideology. They were
both Socialist in principle, but while the Poale Zion were Marx-
ists, Hapoel Hatzair was opposed to striving after the renaissance
of Israel by class conflict or by anything but creative work and

the solidarity of all sections of the Jewish people. Both
parties
were agreed on the principles of the nationalisation of land, "self-
labour" (that is, cultivating the soil with one's own hands and not
by hired labour), and the use of Hebrew as the national language.
They had a joint agricultural workers' union, which held periodi-
cal conferences, and they
equally sought to master technical prob-
lems of agriculture and to effect improvements.
The creator of the Poale Zion system of thought was Ber Boro-
chow (1881-1917), a Russian Jew, who evolved a synthesis of
Zionism and Socialism. He pointed out that the Jews, without
a land of their own, depended for their economic structure upon
the nations who gave them hospitality and who expelled them
when they did not need them any longer; that they had a pre-
ponderance of intellectual over manual labourers and were alien-
ated from "primary production" (agriculture, heavy industry,
etc.); and that only a territory of their own could bring about a
normalisation of Jewish economic life. The first members of the
Poale Zion arrived in Palestine in 1904 and 1905, their ideas soon
found many adherents, and they had their own organ, Ahduth
("Unity"), Hapoel Hatzair, whose organ had the same name as
the party, came into existence in Palestine itself. Its fundamental
principle, that the prerequisite of the national revival in the
ancestral land was the increase of the Jewish working class and its
penetration into all branches of economic life, led to its placing

the idea of labour and the concept of "conquest of labour" in the
very forefront of its programme* Indeed, the idea of labour acquired
an almost religious significance in the system of Hapoel Hatzair,
and was probably on that account that the party was opposed to
it
a definite formulation of its programme. Its

spiritual leader was
Aaron David Gordon (1856-1922), a naive of Podolia, who was
already a man of fifty when he went to settle in Palestine to devote
the rest of his life to working on the land, although he had always
been a townsman. He evolved a complete philosophy on the basis
of work on the land, somewhat reminiscent of Rousseau's "Back
to Nature," and expounded it in many articles and essays in
Hebrew, of which a few volumes have been published. He had no
faith in politics and maintained that "the redemption of the peo-
pie can come only through the redemption of the individual/' a
process that can be brought about only by the "renewal of man/'
by his spiritual and moral rebirth, which depended primarily
upon giving up a "parasitic" existence and going over to work
on the soil.
The animating the members of the Second Ally ah was
spirit
strikingly exemplified by the measures they took for the defence
of the Jewish settlements against attacks
by Bedouin marauders.
Until 1908 the protection of the settlements was entrusted to Arab
and Circassian watchmen, who did not always
display the neces-
sary courage and reliabiliy. The Jewish workers, moved by a sense
of national honour, took over the task themselves:
they began by
exercising control over the Arab watchmen, in addition to work-
ing all and then assumed complete charge of the protection
day,
service. They founded a watchmen's organisation, Hashomer, a
body of mounted men, many of whom died heroic deaths in
1
lonely patrols at night.
The new form of colonisation that was created to suit the ideals
and desiresof the Jewish workers was the
co-operative farm, which
was called Kvutzah (lit.,
"group"). It was first attempted at Sed-
jera, where the workers leased the land from the I.C.A. and
cultivated It on the
basis of collective
ownership and profit-sharing.
In 1909 the first farm on
co-operative Jewish National Fund land
was established at Degania and
yielded good results, and It was
soon followed by the formation of other
co-operatives in other
parts of the country. The co-operatives carried out the "occupa-
tion," or preliminary development, of all tracts of land
bought by
Jews from 1908, but they had a difficulty in taking over the culti-
vation of such estates under their collective
control, except in
the case of those on J.N.F. land. The
Jewish workers were natur-
ally the most ardent champions of the
principle that colonisation
should take place only on such land, not
only because of their
Socialist outlook, but also because knew that private settlers,
they
even against their will, found themselves
obliged to take cheap
Arab labour. They therefore introduced the collectivist
system, in
which all members of the group shared in the
ownership of the
estate and drew the same
compensation; any profit produced be-
longed to all in common and was devoted to the improvement and
*A book dealing with this heroic
chapter of Jewish colonisation was published
under the title of Yizkor in Jaffa in 1912; an
enlarged edition in German and Yid-
dish appeared in 1918.
further development of the farm for the
equal benefit of all. The
co-operative settlement at Merhavia, which was founded in the
fertile Vale of Jezreel by Dr. Franz
Oppenheimer, in pursuance of
a decision of the Congress of 1909, had a somewhat different his-
tory from the other Kvutzoth. It was established on a tract of land

near Afule, in Samaria, belonging to the Jewish National Fund,
which also provided the houses and the requisite
equipment and
buildings. It began under the direction of an agronomist, and
each worker received a wage according to his capacity, but as the
director alsoemployed Arabs he was compelled to withdraw, and
the settlement was then taken over by the workers. It was unable,
however, to yield a profit, and after the First World War it was
divided between two groups of settlers.
The progress made in the field of agricultural development in
Palestine after the Zionist Organisation be
began its activity may
seen from the following figures:
Number of
Period Area in Hectares Agricultural Settlements Population
1882-99 25,000 j 21 4*500
'
7 33>oo 27 7,000
*
1908-14 40,000 43 12,000*
Jewish colonisation was furthered by the Palestine Office, not only

by the creation of co-operative settlements, but also by the forma-
tion of plantation societies, called Ahuzoth. The members of
these societies, which were established mainly in Russia and
America, were persons of moderate capital, whose shares (paid in
instalments) entitled them to a plot; and as the laying-out of the
plantations progressed the shareholders assumed occupation in
succession. The projects of all these Ahuzoth were carried out on
J.N.F. land, one of the most notable being that of an American

Company, "Poriah" ("Fruitful"), whose estate was situated near
Kinnereth (1911). The most southerly point chosen was near
Gaza, where a company of Moscow Jews established the plantation
of Ruhama in the same year. The Zionist Organisation also con-
tributed to the agricultural development of the country in other
directions. It raised a special fund for afforestation, which was
carried out by planting olive-trees at Hulda and Ben-Shemen (on
a tract devoted to the Herzl Forest). It took steps to solve the
a
The total number of Jews in Palestine in 1914 was about 90,000 (half in
Jerusalem), the total population being about 690,000.
credits by arranging that the
problem of providing agrarian
Anglo-Palestine Company should be lent 10,000 by the Jewish
National Fund, to be used for long-term loans to co-operative
societies. It carried out the preliminary stages of the establishment
of the Jewish Agricultural Experiment Station (financed by
American Jews) at Athlit, near Haifa, whose director, Aaron
Aaronson, of Zichron Jacob, discovered primitive wild wheat. Its
efforts and achievements in these various directions were limited
its available resources, and these at a time when the
solely by
greater part of the Jewish
world was either indifferent or opposed
to the resettlement in Palestine were pitifully meagre.
played an active part in the

Zionism also intellectual develop-
ment of the Jews in Palestine, particularly in promoting the use
of Hebrew as a living language. The pioneer of this movement
was a Russian Jew, Eliezer ben Yehuda (formerly Perlman), who,
after settling in the country with his wife in 1881, resolved to
speak nothing but Hebrew and thus to compel others to answer

him in the same tongue. This innovation provoked the anger and
opposition of the Orthodox element, who considered it a desecra-
tion to use the language of the Scriptures for everyday purposes,
but they could not prevent a development which was dictated by
both national idealism and practical convenience. The battle for
living Hebrew was fought out primarily in the schools, which were
much divided in regard to language. In those that were founded
and maintained by the Alliance Israelite the medium of instruc-
tion was French; in the Evelina de Rothschild School is was Eng-
lish and in the Lamel Teachers' Seminary and boys' school (which
were Austrian foundations) it was German. On the other hand,
Hebrew was the language of instruction for all subjects in the
settlement schools, as well as in a few institutions in the towns,
such as the Herzl Gymnasium and the girls' secondary school in
Jaffa, a secondary school in Jerusalem, and some kindergarten
schools. There was at first a lack of qualified teachers to impart
education in Hebrew and no uniform outlook among them, but
at the instigation of Ussishkin a Teachers' Union was founded,
which tried to effect some uniformity as regards both syllabus and
the character of the schools. When the German Hilfsverein began
to take part in the educational work in Palestine, it adopted
Hebrew as a medium of instruction in most of its* schools. It was
influenced by the necessities of the situation, for as the children
spoke different tongues according to their land of origin Yiddish,
Ladino (Spaniolish), Arabic, Bokharian, Persian and Georgian-
the only way in which they could be taught together and made to
understand one another was through their national language. But
the enthusiasm of the German organisation for a Hebraic spirit
in its establishments began to wane about 1911, and the tendency
to displace Hebrew by German became sufficiently marked to be
criticized in August, 1913, at a conference of the Teachers' Union
at Jaffa, at which the Hilfsverein employees formed one-third of
those present.
The dissatisfaction of the teachers came to a head in connection
with the Jewish Technical Institute, which it was proposed to
erect at Haifa for the purpose of training Jews as civil and me-
chanical engineers, surveyors, and architects. A site was provided
by the Jewish National Fund, and a number of wealthy Jews of
Europe and America, Zionists and non-Zionists, as well as organi-
sations, combined to raise funds for the building and equipment
of the Institute and an intermediate school attached to it. The
Board of Governors consisted of representatives of the different
contributors, among whom the Hilfsverein played a leading part,
while the Zionist element was represented by Ahad Ha-am,
Shmarya Levin, and Dr. Tschlenow. The Zionist members pro-
be
posed that the teaching in the intermediate school should
in Hebrew, and that in the Technical Institute Hebrew
solely
should be used from the outset at least in one department. The
of the Board, who, under the
proposal was rejected by a majority
lead of the German members, decided that all subjects should be
instruction should be given
taught in German and that Hebrew
to read Hebrew literature.
only so far as to enable the students
The only grounds advanced by the German members for their
attitude were pedagogical arguments, but these were refuted by
the Hilfsverein's own teachers; and it was therefore generally pre-
sumed that the change was due to secret pressure exercised by
the German Government, which had ambitions in the Near East
and wished to make the schools nurseries of German Kultur.
The was a veritable upheaval. A strike broke
effect in Palestine
out at all the Hilfsverein schools, which the great majority of

the teachers and scholars left to enter a number of new institutions
that were promptly opened with the support of the Zionist Organi-
sation and the Jews of Palestine and in which Hebrew
was the
sole medium of instruction. It was an impressive demonstration
of attachment to the Jewish national tongue, which had a respon-
sive echo in Jewish communities throughout the world. Under
all
the influence of public opinion and the pressure directly applied

by the Zionist and American members of the Board of the Insti-
tute, a compromise was reached in 1914 whereby physics and
mathematics were to be taught in Hebrew as soon as the building
was opened, and other subjects were also to be taught in that
medium after four years. But this compromise was destined to
prove unnecessary, as the conflict which it solved was soon fol-
lowed by a far more grim and formidable contest, which ended in
a manner that facilitated the advancement of Jewish national aspi-
rations on a scale undreamt of even by the most optimistic Zionist.
PART III
THE PERIOD OF RESTORATION

CHAPTER VII
PALESTINE AS BRITISH TRUST
outbreak of the First World War in August, 1914, which

THE
was destined to bring about a fundamental change in the for-
tunes of Zionism, seemed likely at first to involve the destruction
in Palestine of all that Jewish effort and self-sacrifice had
laboriously built up in the course of thirty years. The prospect
was all the more alarming in view of the steady growth of Jewish
colonisation which had taken place during the twelve months
after the Vienna Congress of 1913. The programme of practical
work decided upon by had induced over 6,000 Jews
the Congress
to migrate to Palestine,and although some of them drifted away
again, a large number, including a goodly proportion of young
men, remained and took root. Many of them found work on the
farms of the Jewish National Fund; others engaged in business or
professions in the towns, particularly Tel-Aviv, which in a few
years had attained a population of 2,000. The plantation com-
panies (Ahuzoth) had multiplied; the Palestine Office was negoti-
ating for the purchase of 35,000 acres of the best land in the fertile
Valley of Jezreel, the money for which was guaranteed by Baron
Edmond de Rothschild and some Russian Jews; the agricultural
settlements in Judaea had organised an association to look after
their common interests; and the Hebrew school system founded
by the Zionist Organisation was making good progress. It was on
the eve of what seemed to be a new and promising era that the
storm-clouds broke.
As soon as Turkey threw in her lot with the Central Powers,
the Jews in Palestine began to be subject to a reign of oppression
that did not cease until the land was delivered by the army of
General Allenby. The Turkish Generalissimo in Syria and
Palestine, Djemal Pasha, was a cruel despot, who persecuted
Jewish and Arab nationalists alike. He not only determined to
all Zionist institutions, but for a time seemed also bent
suppress
as he
upon destroying the entire Yishuv (Jewish settlement)
the of on behalf of the Allied Powers.
suspected Jews espionage
He issued a manifesto in January, 1915, against "the subversive
element aiming at the creation of a Jewish government in the
Palestinian part of the Ottoman Empire." He ordered the closing
of the Anglo-Palestine Bank and the dissolution of the watchmen's
the use of Hebrew for
organisation, "Hashomer"; he prohibited
street names and shop signs in Tel-Aviv, and even threatened with
National Fund
capital punishment those who affixed Jewish
stamps to their letters. He deprived the Jewish settlements of the
arms that they had for self-defense, so that they became a prey
to marauders and looters. All Jews who were subjects of any of
the Allied Powers were offered the alternative either of becoming
Ottoman citizens and serving in the Ottoman Army or of leaving
the country. Many accepted naturalisation, for which they paid
a high fee, and then submitted to the rigours and risks of military
service. Some thousands got away safely to Egypt, but hundreds
were deported to Syria amid great hardships that caused many
deaths. Dr. Ruppin was expelled from and Dr. Jacobson
Jaffa,
had to leave Constantinople. Many Jews, officials and others, were
arrested and put on trial on charges of espionage or siding with
the enemy, some were tortured, and others languished in jail for
months. Two Jews, Belkind and Leszansky, were hanged at
Damascus, and two others, committed suicide in prison, one of
whom, Sara Aaronson, of Zichron Jacob, had bravely refused
under torture to divulge anything about the intelligence she con-
veyed at night to a British submarine that called near Athlit. As
soon began their offensive against the south of
as the Allied forces
the Jews of Tel-Aviv and the neighbouring area
Palestine, all
about 5,000 in all were evacuated to the northern district, and
many died from exposure. In addition to this persistent persecu-
tion, the Jewish population also suffered from hunger and disease,
aggravated by a locust plague in 1917, and death would have

made even more extensive ravages but for the material relief that
came from the Jews of America.
Dr. Schmarya Levin, a member of the Zionist Executive, was in

New York when the war broke out and realising the disruption
with which the Organisation was threatened and the consequent*
danger that faced the Yishuv, he joined the Federation of Ameri-
can Zionists in an effort to create an emergency body made up of
all groups in the movement, to meet the crisis. The Provisional
Executive Committee fox General Zionist Affairs which was then
established, performed a vital service in dispatching
money, food
PALESTINE AS BRITISH TRUST 111
and medical supplies to Palestine and maintaining contacts with

and advancing Zionist interests in all Allied and neutral countries.
This activity marked the advent of Louis D. Brandeis, a distin-
in the leadership of American Zion-
guished attorney of Boston
ism. The work of relief was organised by the Palestine Office
which was transferred
(under the direction of Dr. Jacob Thon),
from Tel-Aviv to Jerusalem, where it also maintained relations
with the Turkish authorities and with representatives of other
Governments still in Palestine*
The war sundered the Zionist world into three parts the
countries of the Allied Powers, those of the Central Powers, and
the neutral countries. The headquarters were then in Berlin, and
in order to maintain relations between the constituent bodies of
Organisation a special Bureau was established
the Zionist at
which was at first under the control of Dr. Tschlenow
Copenhagen,
and afterwards under and Leo Motzkin. The
that of Dr. Jacobson
Head Office of the Jewish National Fund was removed from
Cologneto The Hague, where it was directed by Jacobus Kami*
The Organisation, as an international body whose

Zionist
members were to be found in the armed forces on both sides,
observed an official neutrality, but among the Palestinian refugees
in there soon arose the desire to fight on behalf of the Allied
Egypt
Powers. Captain Joseph Trumpeldor (1880-1920), who had lost
an arm while fighting in the Russian Army against the Japanese
at Port Arthur, was the leading spirit of the movement, which
was promptedby the thought that such action would strengthen
the Jewish claim to Palestine after the war. He raised a contingent
of 900 men which was called the Zion Mule Corps, and under the
command of Colonel J. H, Patterson it rendered valuable services
it was dis-
in' the campaign at Gallipoli from April, 1915, until
solved in March, 1916. The agitation for the formation of a Jewish
was then conducted in London with great energy
regiment by^
Vladimir Jabotinsky, and although Anglo-Jewish officialdom was
circles were divided, two battalions of Jewish
opposed and Zionist
volunteers were organised, which were designated the gSth and
ggth Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers*
These Jewish units,
commonly styled "The Judaeans," were recruited from young
Russian Jews in England as well as from Jews in the United States,
Canada, and the Argentine, in addition to the remnant of the
1'
they wore the "Shield fo David on

Zion Mule their uni-
Corps:
forms and had their own flag. General Allenby made his victorious
lu THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
foot into Jerusalem on December 8th, 1917,
amid the
entry on
the and after the arrival
of all sections of population;
jubilation
in the
of the Jewish battalions in February, 1918, many Jews
third the
south of Palestine eagerly enlisted to form a battalion,
the Jewish strength to
4 oth of the Royal Fusiliers, bringing up
of this total took part in the pursuit of the
5,000. About one-third
Turkish troops in the final drive into Transjordan, and acquitted
themselves with such distinction in the crossing of the Jordan at
Um esch-Schert that they were mentioned in dispatches.
The
of Turkish troops by General
country was completely cleared
in the and thus was brought to an
following September,
Allenby
enA the Ottoman regime that had lasted just a little over 400 years.
^The fate of Palestine was decided not only on the battlefield,
but also in the political sphere. Long before the military offensive
was opened a group of Zionists in England, besides many other
to envisage the defeat of the Central powers as an
people, began
event that would at last lead to the possibility of the realisation
of the age-long yearnings of the Jewish people. There was no
member of the Zionist Executive in England at the outbreak of
the war. The initiative was therefore taken by Dr. Chaim
Weizmann, a member of the Greater "Actions Committee/' who
1
had held the post of lecturer in chemistry at the Manchester Uni-

7
versity since 1903. The former exponent of "Synthetic Zionism*

(at the Congress of 1907) was now to become the spokesman of
political Zionism. Through the friendly offices of C. P. Scott, the

Editor of the Manchester Guardian, who was a convinced believer
in Zionism, Dr Weizmann was introduced, at the end of 1914, to
two leading members of the British Cabinet, Mr, Lloyd George
and Mr. Herbert (now Viscount) Samuel, from both of whom
he received a sympathetic hearing. Dr. Weizmann first met Mr.
Lloyd George at a time when there was a serious shortage of
acetone, a vital ingredient in the manufacture of cordite, which
was essential for the production of shells. Mr. Lloyd George, who
was Chairman of the War Munitions Committee, explained the
situation, and shortly afterwards Dr. Weizmann was able as
a result of his work to elaborate a process for the production of
acetone. The following conversation in Mr, Lloyd George's own
words then took place:
"I said to him: Tou rendered great Services to the State, and
1
Dr. Weizmann was born on November 27th, 1874, at Motol (Province of Grodno,
in Russia) , received his early education at Pinsk, studied at the Universities of Ber-
PALESTINE AS BRITISH TRUSt
I should like to ask the Prime Minister to recommend you to
His Majesty for some honour.' He said: 'There is nothing I want
for myself.' 'But is there nothing we can do as a recognition of
your valuable assistance to the country?' I asked. He replied:
Tes, I would like you to do something for my people/ He then
explained his aspirations as to the repatriation of the Jews to
the sacred land they had made famous. That was the fount and
origin of the famous declaration about the National Home for
Jews in Palestine.
"So that Dr. Weizmann, with his discovery, not only helped
us to win the war, but made a permanent mark upon the map
1
of the world."
Early in 1915 Mr. Samuel submitted to the Cabinet what Lord

Oxford, then Prime Minister, described in his diary as a "dithy-
rambic memorandum, urging that in the carving up of the Turks'
Asiatic dominions we should take Palestine, into which the
scattered Jews would in time swarm back from all quarters of the
globe, and in due course obtain Home Rule/' The matter was
also mentioned in the diary of Lord Bertie, then British Ambassa-
dor in Paris, who wrote on January 25th, 1915: "Edmond de
Rothschild . . . sent a Russian co-religionist established in
Manchester to 'talk' about what I think an absurd scheme, though
they say it has the aproval of Grey, Lloyd George, Samuel, and
Crewe; they did not mention Lord Reading. It contemplates the
formation of Palestine into an Israelite State, under the protecto-
2
rate of England, France, or Russia, preferably England/' As early
as the spring of 1916 the British Government showed evidence of
there is an aide-
giving the question serious consideration, for
memoire dated March igth, 1916, among other State Papers
published by the Soviet Government,* in which the British

Ambassador in Petrograd informed the Foreign Minister, M.
Sazanoff, that "the attention of His Majesty's Government has
recently been drawn to the question of Jewish colonisation in

object of His Majesty's Government
Palestine. . . . The only is to
devise some agreement which will be sufficiently attractive to the

the conclusion of a transaction
majority of Jews to facilitate
Sir Edward Grey instructs Sir George
securing Jewish support
lin and Freiburg (graduating at the latter), and held the post of lecturer in
chemistry at the Geneva University from 1901
to 1903.
1
War Memories of David Lloyd George, Vol. I, pp. 348-50.
2
The Diary of Lord Bertie (London, 1924), Vol. I, pp. 105-6.
*
The Partition of Asiatic Turkey (Moscow, 1924) , pp. 161-2.
Buchanan to solicit from the Russian Government a serious con-
sideration o this question."
Dr. Weizmann was joined at an early stage by two members o
the Zionist Executive, Dr. Tschlenow and Mr. Nahum Sokolow,
1
of whom the latter played an important part in the developments

that followed. In 1916 Dr. Weizmann received an appointment
in
London as Director of the Admiralty Laboratories, and in that

with Mr. Arthur
capacity again came (later Lord)
into contact
Balfour, at that time First Lord of the Admiralty,
whom he had
first sought to interest in Zionism in Manchester
ten years pre-
viously. He now found Mr, Balfour a more attentive listener, as

the Zionist question was coming nearer to the realm of practical
with these various political soundings,
politics. Simultaneously
were taken the newly formed British Palestine Committee,
by
steps
consisting of both Jews and non-Jews (and prominent among
whom was the journalist, Herbert Sidebotham),* to enlighten the
British public, through the medium of a weekly paper, Palestine,
on the advantages that would accrue to Great Britain from the
realisation of Zionist aspirations, and to win general sympathy.
was not, however, until October, 1916, that the Zionist
It
leaders first put forward a "programme for a new administration
of Palestine and for a Jewish resettlement of Palestine in accord-
ance with the aspirations of the Zionist movement." The principal
features of this programme, which was rather detailed, were "the
or national unit in
recognition of a separate Jewish nationality
Palestine," "autonomy in exclusively Jewish matters/' and "the
establishment of a Jewish chartered company for the resettlement
of Palestine by Jewish settlers." Whether this programme elicited
is unknown, but it was
any response in the British Government
natural that, as the war progressed, they should become increas-
in the aims of Zionism. Great Britain had a long
ingly interested
tradition of sympathy with the Jewish people, which had been
in the of Lord Palmerston and Lord
strikingly manifested days
in the offer of
Shaftesbury, and found practical expression
a territory In British East Africa; and, on the other hand, the
matter indifference to
future of Palestine could not remain a of
a so interested in the security of the Suez Canal

country closely
and of Egypt. The informal conversations with individual states-
1
Died in London, January 31st, 1918.
3
Herbert Sidebotham (1872-1940) who was a political leader writer on the
,
Manchester Guardian and afterwards on The Times, was "Scrutator" on the Sunday
Times for many years, published England and Palestine in 1918, and continued to
render inestimable services to the Zionist cause by various writings until his death.
PALESTINE AS BRITISH TRUST 115
men gave place to discussions of a more formal character after
Mr. Lloyd George had become Prime Minister and Mr. Balfour
Foreign Secretary. The turning point came on February 7th,
1917, when a number of representative Zionists first met Sir Mari
Sykes, who was in charge of the Middle Eastern Department of
the Foreign Office, at the house of Dr. Moses Caster. Weizmann
and Sokolow had been introduced to Sykes some months earliel
by Mr. James A. Malcolm, a British Armenian and a member of
the Armenian National Delegation to the Peace Conference. 1
Sykes had already negotiated on behalf of Great Britain in May,
1916, the Anglo-French agreement known as the Sykes-Picot
Agreement/ which did not become known to the Zionist leaders
until some time afterwards, and he discussed the Zionist pro-
gramme in all its aspects with the sympathy of one anxious to see
the Jews play their proper part in the revival of the Middle East.
Since the matter entailed negotiations with the French and Italian
Governments, Mr. Sokolow was selected for the purpose, and his
visits to Paris and Rome resulted in obtaining expressions of sym-
pathy with Zionism from them both as well as from the Pope,
Benedict XIV, who said that Jews and Catholics would be good
neighbours in Palestine. The Zionists both in Russia and in the
United States were kept informed of the course of the negotiations,
and when Mr. Balfour in the Spring of 1917 visited America, he
discussed the question with President Wilson and also with Asso-
ciate Justice Louis D. Brandeis, of the Supreme Court, who had
previously served as Chairman of the Provisional Executive Com-

mittee for General Zionist Affairs.
After the discussions had made some
progress, the Presidents of
the Board of Deputies of British Jews and the Anglo-Jewish
Association published a letter in The Times of May 24th, 1917, in
which they publicly dissociated themselves from the Zionist pro-
posals. They took exception to what they considered was "a claim
that Jewish settlements in Palestine shall be recognised as possess-
1
In the course of a letter in the Manchester Guardian of December 4th, 1943, Mr.
James A. Malcolm wrote: "In the course of the negotiations which conducted
I with
Sir Mark Sykes (acting on behalf of the War Cabinet), I had talks, at his request,
in 1916 and 1917, with the Arab leaders in London on this very question [the neces-
sity of promising the whole
of Palestine to the Jews in consideration of the help
the most important, because he
they were able to give]. Of these, Hadad Pasha was
represented King Hussein and the Emir Feisal. I can, therefor, speak from my own
knowledge in affirming Arab concurrence in the agreement [between the British
Government and the Zionist leaders in London]."
a
According to this agreement, Palestine was to be divided into three parts: the
northern part to go to France, Haifa and Acre to Britain, while the southern part
and the Holy Places were to be under the control of an international regime.
in a purely political sense" and to what
ing a national character
they regarded as a demand for special rights for the Jews in excess
of those enjoyed by the rest of the population. Their letter was in
effect an attack by the assimilationist school upon the fundamental
principles of Zionism and an attempt to discredit the Zionist

in the Anglo-Jewish
leaders. It provoked a storm of indigation
intended to frustrate the efforts
community, as it was obviously
to obtain a declaration of sympathy with Zionist aspirations from
the British Government. The result was a revolt on the part of the
majority of the Board of Deputies, who brought about the election

of a new President and other honorary officers of pro-Zionist
sympathies.
In July, 1917, the Zionist leaders submitted to the Government
a formula embodying "the principle of recognising Palestine as
the National of the Jewish people" and postulating "as
Home
essential for the realisation of the principle the grant of internal
autonomy to the nationality in Palestine, freedom of immi-

Jewish
gration for Jews, and the
establishment of a Jewish National
Colonising Corporation for the resettlement and economic devel-
of the country/' As the need was now felt for discussion
opment
and consultation with other representative Zionists and machinery
was required for the growing political work, a Political Commit-
tee was formed in the following month (which included Ahad Ha-
am and varied in composition from time to time) and a Zionist
Bureau was opened at Empire House in Piccadilly. The Cabinet,
which had received representations antagonistic to Zionism from
certain prominent English Jews, modified the Zionist draft and
submitted their own version to representatives of both sides with a
it was stated that "in view of the diver-
covering letter, in which
gence of opinion expressed on the subject by the Jews themselves,
they would like to receive in writing the views of representative
1
Jewish leaders, both Zionist and non-Zionist." Mr. Sokolow

and
Dr. Weizmann accepted the revised version, which contained the
a National Home/'
phrase, "the establishment in Palestine of
would have as being in stricter consonance
though they preferred,
with the traditional hope of Israel, "the reconstitution of Palestine
as the National Home." The Chief Rabbi of British Jewry,
Dr. J. H. Hertz, and Sir Stuart Samuel, the new President of the
Board of Deputies of British Jews, were fundamentally in agree-
ment with the Zionist point of view. But Mr. Claude Montefiore,
1
Report of the Executive of the Zionist Organisation to the Xllth Zionist Con-
gress: L Political Report (London, 1921) p. 12.
,
President o the Anglo-Jewish Association, Sir Leonard L. Cohen,
Chairman of the Jewish Board of Guardians, and Sir Philip
Magnus, M.P., who were anti-Zionists rather than non-Zionists,
raised objection to the formula, particularly to the word "na-
tional." After considering these various views, the Cabinet made
some further modifications of the formula, Lord Milner, a mem-
ber of the Cabinet, and Mr. L. S. Amery, a member of the Cabinet
Secretariat, being specially engaged on the task. There was some
delay, however, in giving official approval to the final text, partly,
no doubt, because the Government had other important matters
to consider, and partly because there was some opposition within
their own circle, especially from Edwin S. Monagu, the Jewish
Secretary of State for India. It was therefore deemed advisable to

try to strengthen the hands of the friends of Zionism in the
Government by obtaining support from America. Accordingly,
Justice Brandeis approached President Wilson, who sent a per-
sonal message to the British Government, intimating his agree-
ment with the idea of a pro-Zionist pronouncement. At last, after
had been overcome, the following letter was addressed
all obstacles
on November sjnd, 1917, by Mr. Balfour to Lord Rothschild:

"FOREIGN OFFICE,
"November 2nd, 1917.
"DEAR LORD ROTHSCHILD, I have much pleasure in convey-
ing to you, on behalf of His Majesty *s Government, the follow-
ing declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations,
which has been submitted to and approved by the Cabinet:
"
'His Majesty's Government view with favour the establish-
ment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and
will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of
this object, itbeing clearly understood that nothing shall be
done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of
existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights
and
political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country/
"I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to
the knowledge of the Zionist Federation.
"Yours sincerely,
"AUTHUR JAMES BALFOUR^
In promulgating this historic statement, henceforth known as
the Balfour Declaration, the British Government were clearly
animated by a blend of ideal and material considerations: whilst
their national
genuinely willing to help the Jews to achieve
and to exercise the self-determination which was
aspirations
of
emblazoned on the banners of the Allied Powers as the right
the small nations, they certainly also took into
account the effect
in other
which such a Declaration must produce upon the Jews
at a critical stage
countries, especially America, where sympathy
value. Indeed, no less an authority
in the war was of considerable
than Mr. Lloyd George, who was Prime Minister at the time, told
that the launching of
the Palestine Royal Commission in 1937
In
the Balfour Declaration was "due to propagandist reasons."
the critical situation in which the Allied
and Associated Powers
that Jewish sym-
were in the autumn of 1917, "it was believed
reverse would make a substantial difference one way
pathies or the
or the other to the Allied cause. In particular Jewish sympathy
make
would confirm the support of American Jewry, and would
it more difficult for Germany to reduce
her military commitments
and improve her economic on the eastern front." Mr.
position
Lloyd George also said to the Royal Commission:
"TheZionist leaders gave us a definite promise that, if the
Allies committed themselves to give facilities for the establish-
ment of a national home for the Jews in Palestine, they would
do their best to rally Jewish sentiment and support throughout
1
the world to the Allied cause. They kept their word."
TheDeclaration was hailed by Jews all over the world with

a jubilant and almost frenzied enthusiasm as though it betokened
the imminent end of their exile and the veritable fulfilment of
Biblical prophecies. It was read during the Sabbath service in
countless synagogues and formed the text of many a perfervid
sermon. Its terms and phrases, which seemed pregnant with
promise, were variously
commented upon, but all agreed that it
marked a turning-ponit in the destinies of Jewry. The expression
"National Home" was unknown, in political terminology, but it
had been taken from the Basle Programme and there needed
no definition. As for the two provisos, they were designed to silence
the objections in two possible quarters among the Arabs in
Palestine, who might fear a curtailment of their rights, and among
the Jews outside Palestine, who might be apprehensive about their
own political status in the future. The proviso in regard to the
Jews clearly implied that the National Home would be invested
with specific political rights of its own, for if it were merely in-
tended that Jews should settle on the same footing as immigrants
1
Report of Palestine Royal Commission (London, 1937), p. 23.
PALESTINE AS BRITISH TRUST I in
of any other nation, such a
proviso was unnecessary. The Govern-
men lost no time in
making the Declaration known far and wide
and deriving from it the maximum benefit.
They carried out a
most extensive propaganda
campaign through a specially created
Jewish Department of the Ministry of Information, which cabled
news items to friendly or neutral centres, whence were imme- they
diately transmitted to the capitals of the Central Powers. The De-
partment also published a weekly bulletin of Jewish news, giving
to Zionist matters, as well as
prominence pamphlets and leaflets In
various languages on Jewish questions of current interest. Mil-
lions of leaflets "were from the air on German and
dropped
Austrian towns and widely distributed
through the Jewish belt
from Poland to the Black Sea." 1
The
Balfour Declaration was not issued until the
approval o
the French and Italian Governments was assured, and written
forthcoming. On February i4th, 1918,
confirmation was soon
M. Pichon, then Foreign Minister, sent Mr. Sokolow an official
communique to the effect that there was a complete understanding
between the French and British Governments as
regards "la ques-
tion d'un Jtablissement juif en Palestine" On
May gth the Italian
Ambassador in London conveyed to the Zionist leaders the
assurance of his Government's desire to facilitate the establishment
in Palestine of "a Jewish national centre/' The endorsement of
other Allied Governments followed later: China
(December, 1918),
Japan (January, 1919), Greece, and Siam. As the United States
was not at war with Turkey, the American Government could not
formally endorse the Declaration, but President Wilson was
naturally pleased with the publication of a
pronouncement with
whose purpose he had previously expressed agreement* He con-
veyed his satisfaction later in a letter dated August gist, 1918, to
Rabbi Dr. Stephen Wise, in which he welcomed "the progress
made by the Zionist Movement in the United States and in the
Allied countries since the Declaration by Mr. Balfour, on behalf
of the British Government, of Great Britain's approval of the
establishment in Palestine of a national home for the
Jewish
people." American endorsement was again expressed, nearly four
years later, when the Palestine Mandate was about to be sub-
mitted for approval to the Council of the League of Nations, in.
a resolution, unanimously adopted by both Houses of the United
States Congress, in favour of "the establishment in Palestine of
1
Royal Commission Report, p, 23. See also the author's article in The
Judaea, October,
a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood
that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil
and
religious rights of the Christian
and all other non-Jewish com-
munities in Palestine, and that the Holy Places and religious 51
buildings and sites in Palestine shall be adequately protected/

Theimpression by made the Declaration upon the Central
Powers, who could not fail to be aware of the deep feeling it
had
aroused among their moved them to counter-action in
subjects,
the hope of modifying its effect. a
Only fortnight after the issue
of the Declaration, the Austrian Foreign Minister, Count Czernin,

found it politic to give an interview to a German Zionist leader,
Dr. Arthur Hantke, and to promise him that his Government
would use its influence with the Turks when the war was over.
Six weeks later the Turkish Government itself made a statement.
The Grand Vizier, Talaat Pasha, gave a long and friendly inter-
view to a Jewish journalist, in which he promised free immigration
for Jews into Palestine, liberty of economic opportunity, the possi-
bility of local self-administration,
and free development of Jewish
culture.
3
He
took the precaution, however, of observing that "all
natural limits of
immigration must, of course, be kept within the
the absorptive capacity of the country for the time being," prom-
ised to consider all questions after the war with benevolence, and
Declaration as "une blague"*
disparagingly referred to the Balfour
This Turkish declaration was officially endorsed on January 5th
the medium of the
1918, by the German Government, through
Deputy-Secretary of its Foreign Office, who received a small
deputation of German and discreetly confined himself to

Zionists,
a statement welcoming the Turkish assurances, the main points
of which he briefly recapitulated. But by that time half of Palestine
was in General Allenby's hands, and nobody doubted that the
other half would follow.
Now, what was the meaning of the Balfour Declaration?
According to the Palestine Royal Commission, who were permitted
to examine the records bearing upon the question, "the words 'the
establishment in Palestine of a National Home' were the outcome
Joint Resolution of the 67th Congress, adopted by the Senate on May 3rd and
1
by the House of Representatives on June 30th, 1922, and approved by President

Harding on September 21st, 1922.
3
Vossische Zeitung, December 31st, 1917, and Judische Rundschau, January 4th,
1918.
3
The
expression "absorptive capacity" curiously anticipated similar phraseology
in the White Paper
of 1922, which first formulated the restriction of Jewish immi-
gration into Palestine,
PALESTINE AS BRITISH TRUST IS1
of a compromise between those Ministers who contemplated the

1
establishment of a Jewish State and those who did not." The
British Government could not commit itself to the establishment
of a Jewish State and could only undertake to facilitate the growth
of a Home. "It would depend mainly on the zeal and enterprise
of the whether the Home could grow big enough to become
Jews
a State." Mr, Lloyd George stated in evidence:
"The idea was, and this was the interpretation put upon it
at the time, that a Jewish State was not to be set up immedi-
atelybythe Peace without reference to the wishes of the

Treaty
majority of the inhabitants. On
the other hand, it was contem-
plated that when the time arrived for according representative

if the
institutions to Palestine, Jews had meanwhile responded
to the opportunity afforded them by the idea of a national home
and had become a definite majority of the inhabitants, then
3
Palestine would thus become a Jewish Commonwealth.
The Royal Commission "the Zionist leaders, for
pointed out that
their part, recognised that an ultimate Jewish State was not pre-
cluded by the terms of the Declaration/' and referred to state-
ments by several statesmen in support of this interpretation. "I am
persuaded," said President Wilson
on March grd, 1919, "that the
Allied nations, with the fullest concurrence of our Government
and are agreed that in Palestine shall be laid the founda-
people,
Commonwealth/ General Smuts, who had been
18
tions of a Jewish
a member of the Imperial War Cabinet when the Declaration was
on November
published, speaking at Johannesburg prd, 1919,
foretold an increasing stream of Jewish immigration into Pales-
tine and "in generations to come a great Jewish State rising there
once more." Mr. Winston Churchill envisaged "in our own life-
4
time the banks of the a State under the protec-

Jewish
by Jordan
Crown which might comprise three or four
tion of the British
5
millions of Jews." Lord Robert (now Viscount) Cecil, a member
o the Cabinet at the time, speaking at a great demonstration^ in
London on December 2nd, 1917, said: "Our wish is that Arabian

and
countries shall be for the Arabs, Armenia for the Armenians,
ludaea for the Jews." And Mr. Herbert Samuel, in a speech in
outlined the
London two years later, on November 2nd, 1919,
before the Peace Conference as "the promo-
policy propounded
*
Report, 1937, p. 24.
about the Peace Treaties, Vol. II, p. 1140.

David^Lloyd George, The Truth
3
*
Zionist Bulletin? December 10th, 1919.
6
Illustrated Sunday Herald, February 8th, 1920.
tion ... of Jewish immigration and o Jewish land settlement, . . .
the active promotion of Jewish cultural development, and the

fullest measure of local self-government, in order that with the
minimum of delay the country may become a purely self-govern-
the auspices of an established Jewish
ing Commonwealth under
newspapers were equally explicit in
1
British
majority/' Leading 2
their comments on the Declaration.
issue of the
The first by the Zionist leaders after the
step taken
Balfour Declaration was to obtain the authorisation of the Govern-
ment for a Commission to proceed to Palestine. This Zion-
special
istCommission, which was headed by Dr. Weizmann, consisted of
the Jews of Great Britain, France, and Italy, and
representatives of
in order to mark its official character it was accompanied by
Colonial Secretary and now
Major W. Ormsby-Gore, M.P. (later
Lord Harlech) as Political Officer on behalf of the Government,
who was assisted by Major James de Rothschild, M.P. The inclu-
sion of American representatives at that time was impossible, as
America was not at war with Turkey, but the dispatch of the
American Zionist Medical Unit, in*ihe organising of which Amer-
ican Zionists were then actively engaged, was regarded as a sort of
substitute for such inclusion. At a later stage, however, both Amer-
ican and Russian members joined the Commission, whose per-
sonnel changed from time to time. Its status was that of "an
authorities in Palestine in all matters
advisory body to the British
affect the establishment of a Na-
relating to Jews, or which may
tional Home for the Jewish people." Its objects were to form a
link between the British authorities and the Jewish population,
to organise and administer the relief work, to assist in the repatri-
ation of exiled and evacuated persons and in restoring the Jewish
colonies, to thehelp organisations and institutions to re-
Jewish
sume their former activities, to aid in establishing friendly rela-
tions with the Arabs and other non-Jews, to investigate the
of the further development of the Jewish settlements
possibilities
and of the country in general, and to enquire into the possibility
of founding a Jewish University.
1
Zionist Bulletin, November 5th, 1919.
*
The Manchester Guardian, which has always distinguished itself by its staunch
it means is that ... on the conclusion
support of the Zionist cause, wrote: "What
of peace our deliberate policy will be to encourage in every way in our power
Jewish immigration, to give full security, and no doubt a large measure of local
autonomy, to the Jewish immigrants, with a view to the ultimate establishment of
a Jewish State/' Similarly, The Spectator wrote of "a little Jewish State in Pales-
tine," and The Observer said: "It is no idle dream, which anticipates that by the
close of another generation the new Zion may become a State/*
The which reached Palestine on April 4th,
Zionist Commission,
had
faced by a formidable task, for the Jews
1918, found itself
suffered severely from hunger and disease, and epidemics were

still prevalent. The settlements in the south had had their crops
and cattle requisitioned, the local currency had greatly depreci-

ated, and business was at a standstill. The northern districts were
still cut and the Jewish community was not reunited until the
off,
Turks had been completely driven out six months later. It was
then found that the Jewish population of the whole country had
been reduced to about 55,000, The Commission lost no time in
getting to work, and
was actively assisted by the Palestine Office,
which became amalgamated with it in the following October.
Thenceforth the Zionist Commission, of which Mr. Ussishkin
became the head in the autumn of 1919, was the sole representa-
tive in Palestine of the Zionist Organisation in all matters until
it was succeeded in September, 1921, by the Zionist Executive
elected at the Twelfth Congress. During the first period ofits
ac-
Commission was able to do little more than administer

tivity, the
relief to the Jewish population, maintain relations with
the Occu-
Territory Administration,
Enemy and co-operate in the re-
pied
cruiting of volunteers
for the third Jewish battalion. OJ5.T.A.
tool no official note of the Balfour Declaration and made no secret
of antipathy to the Zionist
its Commission, which consequently
found itself hampered in various directions. O JE.TA. was opposed
to the recruiting of Palestine Jews for another battalion,
and the
to extort its
Commission had to exercise considerable pressure
of the
consent. It was even more strongly opposed to the laying
Hebrew
University of Jerusalem,
and
foundation- stones of the
Office
did not yield until a special instruction from the Foreign
was received. The simple yet impressive ceremony, presided over
on July 24th, 1918, on Mount Sco-
by Dr. Weizmann, took place
the
of General Allenby, representatives of
pus, in the presence
and the
French and Italian contingents in the army of liberation,
religious heads
of the Moslem, Anglican, Greek, and Armenian
but
communities. It was a symbolic act of inspiring significance,
was for the inauguration of
seven years elapsed before it possible
the University to take place.
Even before the arrival of the Zionist Commission, the Jews of

themselves on
Palestine took the first steps towards organising
a representative basis. Soon after the British entered
Jerusalem
the Tews of the city elected a communal council (Vaad Hair). On
wider character was held
December gist, 1917, a conference of a
at which a Provisional Committee (Ha-Vaad Hazmani) was elected
to prepare the way for a Jewish Constituent Assembly, and that
Committee was re-elected at a further conference held in July,
1918, at which Dr. Weizmann

and Major Ormsby-Gore made
on the situation. After the northern districts
speeches political
had also been liberated, a conference of Jewish representatives of
the whole country took place, at which Dr. Weizmann and Mr.
Sokolow were appointed to represent the Yishuv at the Peace
was chosen to go to London
Conference, and a special delegation
for the purpose of conferring with the Zionist Executive on politi-
cal matters. But, owing to the attitude of O.E.T.A.,
it was impos-
sible to convene a Jewish constituent assembly until after the
establishment of the civil administration, and thus Ha-Vaad Haz-
mani, of which Dr. Jacob Thon was the Chairman, continued
to
act as the representative organ of Palestinian Jewry for nearly

three years. For it was not until October 7th, 1920, that the meet-
ing took place of the constituent assembly (Asefath Hanivharim),
attended by 300 deputies, at which the Vaad Leumi (National
of Palestinian
Council) was elected as the official representative
Jewry.
As one of the objects of the Zionist Commission was to help in
establishing friendly relations with

the Arabs, Dr. Weizmann,
accompanied by Major Ormsby-Gore, went to Akaba in June,

the Sherif of Mecca.
1918, to meet Emir Feisal, a son of Hussein,
The latter had revolted against the Turks after a correspondence
in 1915 with Sir Henry McMahon, the British High Commission-
er in Egypt, who, on behalf of the British Government, had prom-
ised independence after the war to those Arab territories that gave
active assistance to the Allies. The area within which indepen-
dence was to be recognised was geographically defined and did not
1
include Palestine, apart from which the Arabs of that country
2
neither revolted nor assisted the Allies. Feisal fully understood
1
This was first explicitly stated by the British Government in the Churchill
White Paper of 1922, and the statement was repeated on numerous occasions sub-
Sir Henry McMahon him-
sequently. The exclusion of Palestine was confirmed by
self in a letter to The Times, July 23rd, 1937, and was also borne out by T. E.
Lawrence in his Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1935 edition, footnote to p. 276).
2
See Report of Palestine Royal Commission, p. 22, and Ernest Main, Palestine at
the Crossroads^ p. 82. Astudy of The Seven Pillars of Wisdom shows that Colonel
T. .E Lawrence's Arabs were desert tribesmen and did not include any Palestine
Arabs. According to Bertram Thomas, in his book, The Arabs (pp. 302-3), the
effective force that toolc part in the Arab revolt did not exceed 2,600 men, and
the total cost to the British Exchequer "is thought to have been in the neighbour-
hood of 4,000,000 in gold, of which rather more than half came back in purchases
of food and clothing."
PALESTINE AS A BRITISH TRUST 125
that Palestine was excluded from the promise, for when he came
to in the following winter he signed an agreement on
London
January grd, 1919, as the representative of "The Arab State," with
Dr. Weizmann as representing Palestine, clearly showing that he
regarded this country as reserved for Jewish settlement,
and
for the help of the Zionist Organisation in the eco-
stipulating
nomic development of "the Arab State." Nearly five weeks later,
on February 6th, Feisal appeared as the head of a Hedjaz Delega-
tion before the Peace Conference, at which he is officially reported
to have referred to Palestine as follows:
"Palestine, for its universal character, he left on one side for

the mutual consideration of all parties interested. With this
of the Arabic areas
exception, he asked for the independence 1
enumerated in his memorandum."
A week later, on February igth, the Peace Conference received

a Syrian Delegation, the head of which, Chekri Ganem, made a
constitution
long statement, in which he pleaded for the separate
of Syria as a democratic State and made the following reference
to Palestine.
"Palestine is incontestably the southern portion of our country.
The Zionists claim it. We
have suffered too much from sufferings
resembling theirs not to throw wide to them the doors
open
of Palestine. All those among them who are oppressed in certain
retrograde countries are welcome.

Let them settle in Palestine,
but in an autonomous Palestine, connected with Syria by the
sole bond of federation. Will not a Palestine enjoying
wide
internal autonomy be for them
a sufficient guarantee? If they
form the majority there, they will be the rulers. If they are in
the minority, they will be represented in the Government
in
8
numbers."
proportion to their
The Zionist leaders submitted their demands to the Peace Con-
ference in a detailed statement, dated February grd, 1919. The
main proposals document were that
of this (i) "the historic title
of the Jewish people to Palestine and the right of the Jews to

reconstitute in Palestine their National Home" be
recognised,
(2)
the sovereignty of the country be vested in the League of Na-
David Hunter Miller, My Diary of the Peace Conference, Vol. XIV, p. 230
1
the Peace Treaties, by D. Lloyd George, Vol. II,

(quoted in The Truth about
p. 1042),
a
/fctU, Vol. XIV, pp. 289-415 (quoted in The Truth about the Peace Treaties,
Vol. II, p. 1057) .
tions and the government entrusted to Great' Britain as Manda-
ory of the League, (3) "Palestine shall be placed under such polit-
ical, administrative, and economic conditions as will secure the
establishment there of the Jewish National Home, and ultimately
render possible the creation of an autonomous Commonwealth,"
(4) in promoting Jewish immigration
and settlement the Manda-
tory shall "accept the co-operation of a Council representative
of the Jews in Palestine and of the world/' and (5) there shall be
"the fullest freedom of religious worship for all creeds in" Pales-
tine" and "no discrimination among the inhabitants with regard
to citizenship and civil rights on the grounds of religion or race,"
This document was signed not only by Mr. Sokolow and Dr.
Weizmann, heads of the Zionist Organisation, but also by
as
representatives of the Zionists of America and Russia, as well as

of the Jewish population of Palestine; and it was reinforced by the
speeches made by and by Mr. Ussisshkin
the two Zionist leaders,
on behalf of the Jews of Russia,on February 27th, before the
Peace Conference, at which Mr. Balfour and Lord Milner were
the British representatives. Thereupon Fiesal wrote a letter to
Professor Felix Frankfurter (now associate Justice of the United
States Supreme Court of Justice), a member of the Zionist Delega-
tion, in the course of which he said: "Our deputation here in Paris
is fully acquainted with the proposal submitted yesterday by the
Zionist Organisation to the Peace Conference, and we regard them

as moderate and proper. We
will do our best, in so far as we are
concerned, to help them through: we will wish the Jews a most
hearty welcome home." But Palestine was only one of a multitude
of questions with which the victorious Powers had to deal, and
more than a year was allowed to elapse before its future was
decided upon.
The delay was the most unfortunate from the Zionist point of
view, as the Military Administration in Palestine adopted an atti-
tude diametrically opposed to that of the Government in London.
Throughout the years 1918 and 1919, the Balfour Declaration was
neither officially published nor even referred to at any public
function. The Military Administration strictly adhered to the
and their hostility to Jewish
status quo, aspirations became so
marked and produced such a prejudicial effect upon the Arabs
that Mr. Balfour dispatched a detailed instruction on August 4th,
1919, to remind them of the Government's policy and of their
duty. The instruction stated that "the American and French
Governments were equally pledged to support the establishment
PALESTINE AS A BRITISH TRUST
In Palestine of the Jewish National Home, that this should be
that the
emphasised to the Arabs' leaders at every opportunity,
matter was a chose fugee, and that continued agitation would be
1
useless and detrimental." Mr. Balfoufs note produced a little
mischief had already
improvement, bunt was only temporary: the
gone too far. There was an Arab National Committee in
Damascus, which was equally opposed to Syria coming under
a French mandate and Palestine under a British one, and at its
Bedouin made an armed attack on March ist,
instigation a gang of
in the extreme north
1920, upon some isolated Jewish settlements
of Palestine, from which French troops had been withdrawn
without being replaced by any British force, A heroic fight was
put by up Captain Joseph Trumpeldor
and his little band o com-,
rades in defense o Metulla and Tel Hai; but after the leader and
six others had been killed both pkces had to be temporarily
abandoned. Six days later the Damascus Committee proclaimed
Feisal, who was in the city, King of Syria and Palestine/
and
demonstrations in and
thereupon followed anti-Jewish Jerusalem
Jaffa. At the approach of Easter,
when thousands of Arabs from
all
parts of the country
assembled in Jerusalem for the traditional
Nebi-Musa procession, the unrest increased, but although the
of the probability of an outbreak
military authorities were warned
no effective measures were taken to prevent it. The result was
a three days' attack (April 4th-6th) by the Arabs upon the Jews
in Jerusalem, in which six Jews and six Arabs were killed; the
indignation and discomfiture of the Jews

were further increased
when the organisers and members of the Jewish self-defense corps
were arrested and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment
(which, however,
were subsequently quashed by the Army
Council.)
VThese events precipitated the eagerly awaited decision. OB
24th* 1920, the Supreme
Council of the Peace Conference
April
(on which Great Britain
was represented by Mr. Lloyd George,
Mr. Balfour and Lord Curzon) met at San Remo, and resolved
that the Balfour Declaration should be incorporated in the Treaty
of Peace with Turkey, and that the Mandate for Palestine should
be allotted to Great Britain. The way was thus cleared for the
termination of military rule in Palestine, and its replacement by
1 the Zionist Organisation to the 12th
Political Report of the Executive of
Zionist Congress, 192L
*
Feisal was driven out of Syria by the Irencb. in July, 1920, and was made King
of Iraq on August 23rd, 1921, by Great Britain, who exercised a mandate over
converted into a Treaty of Alliance.
Iraq until 1932. The Mandate was then
a Civil Administration. "What you want in Palestine/' said Mr.
Lloyd George to Dr. Weizmann and Mr. Sokolow, who were
awaiting the decision, "is men who really care for the National
Home policy." They were joined by Mr. Herbert Samuel, who
was on his way back from Palestine, where he had spent some
time at the invitation of General Allenby for tKe purpose of advis-
ing on matters sof administration and finance in connection with
the future of the country.
An understanding was soon reached that Mr. Samuel, who had
shown a keen interest in the Zionist question for some years and
had taken part in the framing of the Zionist proposals, should be
appointed as the first High Commission in Palestine. His appoint-
ment was announced shortly afterwards, and on July ist, 1920, as
Sir Herbert Samuel, he landed at Jaffa from a British
warship to
inaugurate what the Jewish people hoped would be not only a
new, but a better era.
CHAPTER VIII
EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF

THE MOVEMENT
First World War, which had resulted in giving the Jewish
THE
people the right to re-establish itself as a nation in Palestine,
unfortunately rendered large sections of it unable to avail them-

selves of that right or unable to help in its realisation, owing either
to political changes or economic conditions. The Jews of Russia,
who had previously formed the mainstay of the Zionist movement,
were now sundered in two. Those who remained under the rule
of Soviet Russia, numbering nearly three millions, were com-
pletely severed from any association with the Jews in the rest of
the world; at least 100,000 were massacred in the programs that
raged throughout the Ukraine for two years after the war; and
Zionism was proscribed, under penalties of imprisonment and
deportation, as a counter-revolutionary movement. On the other
hand, those who found themselves within the frontiers of the
Polish Republic and who also numbered nearly three millions,
were able to engage in Zionist activities with a freedom entirely
unknown under the Tsarist regime; but their material plight
made it impossible for them for some years to render any appreci-
able contribution, except in the important respect of man-power,
to the establishment of the Jewish National Home. Such was the
case also of the much smaller Jewish communities liberated from
the Tsarist yoke, those in the newly created States of Lithuania,
Latvia, and Estonia, as well as in the province of Besssarabia an-
nexed by Rumania. Moreover, Jews in Germany and other parts
of Central Europe had likewise suffered too seriously from the
effects of war to be able to afford any effective service to the na-
tional cause. The brunt
of the task was thus inevitably shouldered
by the Jews of the West, particularly by those in the English-

speaking countries.
The Balfour Declaration gave a powerful incentive to the
growth of Zionist societies and the creation of new ones in all
parts of the world in which Jews were free to profess their adhe-
sion to the Zionist idea. The progress of the movement was natu-
rallymost marked in Great Britain and the British Dominions,
because Great Britain had accepted the Mandate for Palestine and
the imputation of "dual loyalty/' which was unfounded and false
in regard to Jews anywhere, had also become manifestly absurd in
relation to the Jews in the British Empire. The movement likewise
underwent immediate expansion in the United States and other
parts of America, as well as in the lands o the Orient and North
Africa, in some of which Zionist societies were formed for the first
time. In all these different parts of the globe Jews began to look
upon the Zionist ideal as capable of achievement in greater or less

measure, although many still remained indifferent or opposed.
The only countries in which, apart from Soviet Russia, the move-
ment was actually forbidden were Turkey, because Palestine had
formerly belonged to the Ottoman Empire, and Iraq, owing to
local sympathy with the Palestine Arabs.
Soon after the conclusion of the war, the Zionist leaders took
steps to convene a Conference in London for a discussion of the
position. It was held in February, 1919, and was attended by
delegates from all Allied and neutral countries. Dr. Weizmann,
who was elected on the Executive to fill the gap caused by the
death of Dr. Tschlenow, as well as in virtue of the leadership to
which his services entitled him, and Mr. Nahum Sokolow delivered
reports on the political situation in Palestine and on the proposals
that had been submitted to the Peace Conference. The delegates
thanked them for what they had already achieved and empowered
them to continue their efforts. They considered the principal
aspects of the formidable tasks to be undertaken in Palestine, and
devised plans for such action as had to be taken without delay.
They decided upon the establishment of the Central Office of the
Organisation in London to take the place of the Zionist Bureau
that had existed since July, 1917, and planned it to comprise
departments for political matters, organisation, and Palestine, with
special sections for agricultural colonisation, financial institutions,
1
immigration, education, and other affairs. They increased the
representative character of the Zionist Commission in Palestine,
and improved its efficacy by additional appointments. Although
delegates from the countries of the Central Powers were unable
to attend, the Zionists of those countries took no exception to the
decisions adopted.
The Conference also discussed the position of the Jews in the
various countries of Central and Eastern Europe, whether newly
created, enlarged, or reduced, and the need of measures to be
taken to ensure that they would enjoy civil equality. It adopted
a resolution urging that the constitutions of these States should
not only assure their Jewish inhabitants all the rights of citizen-
1
The Central Office was established in March, 1919, in three contiguous houses
in Great Russell Street, 75, 76, and 77, the main entrance
being at 77.
EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF MOVEMENT
ship, but also recognize them as members of a nationality and
grant them the rights of a national minority. In most o these
countries Jewish National Councils had been formed
immediately
after the war to safeguard the civil status o the
Jewish population,
and delegations were sent to Paris for the
purpose of formulating
proposals to the Peace Conference. The Zionist Conference ac-
cordingly resolved to send a delegation to Paris in order to take
part in the work of these delegations and to help create a single
body; and there was thus set up, under the leadership of Sokolow
and Leo Motzkin, the Committee of Jewish
Delegations, which
co-operated with the Jewish representative organisations of West-
ern Europe and America in securing
minority rights for millions
of Jews. These rights (which were also
granted to other racial,
religious, and linguistic minorities) provided for the Jews to be
free to use their language in
private or public, including the law-
courts; to establish and control at their own expense charitable,
religious, and social institutions, schools and other educational
establishments; and, in towns where they formed a considerable
proportion, to give instruction in their primary schools in their
own language and to receive an equitable share of the public
funds devoted to educational, religious, or charitable
purposes,
These and other kindred rights were declared to be obligations
of international concern, over the fulfilment of which the
League
of Nations was expected to watch; but, with the
exception of
Czechoslovakia and Estonia, they were honoured in most countries
more in the breach than in the observance, and owing to the
cumbersome procedure of the League it was impossible to make
the offending States comply with their undertakings. Thus, the
hopes that the Jews had reposed in the Minorities Treaties were
1
largely doomed to frustration.
The Conference of 1919 was followed some time later by
meetings in London of the old "Actions Committee," but these
gatherings were only a prelude to a more important Conference
held in London in July, 1920, This was the most
representative
Zionist gathering since the Congress of 1913, it was attended by
over 250 delegates from all parts of the world, and
it afforded the
first
opportunity of a free and full exchange of views on the multi-
farious questions of policy and method that called for settlement.
Mr. Justice Brandeis, who headed a large delegation from the
United States, was elected Honorary President of the Zionist
*For further details, see the author's Jewish in Modem Times (1929 edi-
Life
Book HI, Cap. &
tion),
jog THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
Organisation, Dr. Weizmann was made President, and Mr.
Sokolow Chairman o the Executive. Three additions were made
to the Executive Mr. Ussishkin, who became head of the Zionist
Commission in Palestine, and Mr. Julius Simon (New York) and
Mr. Nehemiah de Lieme (The Hague), who were placed in
charge of the Central Office, with the exception of the Political
the control of Dr. Weizmann and
Department, which was under
Mr. Sokolow.
The Conference, of which Dr. Max Nordau was the Honorary
President, adopted a great number of resolutions both on ques-
tions of policy and on the measures necessary for the translation
of policy into practice. Of cardinal significance was the resolution
which stated that "at the moment when the Jewish people is pre-
paring to concentrate its energies on the reconstruction of.
its his-
torical home, it solemnly declares its determination to live in
peace and friendship with the non-Jewish population.'

On the'
a basic factor of
subject of agricultural settlement in Palestine,
the National Home, the Conference declared that "the fundamen-
tal principle of Zionist land policy is that all land on which Jewish
colonisation takes place should eventually become the common
property of the Jewish people." It designated the Jewish National
Fund as the organ for carrying out Jewish land policy in town
and country, defining its objects as follows: "To use the voluntary
contributions received from the Jewish people as a means for

making the land of Palestine the common property of the Jewish
people; to let the land exclusively on hereditary leasehold and on
hereditary building-right; to assist the settlement on their own
farms of Jewish agricultural workers; to see that the ground is
worked and to combat speculation; and to safeguard Jewish
labour." The aim of national colonisation was the settlement of
Jewish farmers cultivating the land themselves; only those who
had gained experience as agricultural workers in the Diaspora
should be assisted to settle; large contiguous areas of cultivation
should as far as possible be secured by the Zionist Organisation,
even if they required improvement and sanitation; and some
settlements should be established as soon as possible, both on irri-
gated and on non-irrigated soil.
The Conference decided that the urgent question of the regu-
lation of immigration to Palestine should be entrusted to the
Central Immigration Office to be established there without delay,
and that Palestine Offices should be opened in all countries ex-
pected to furnish contingents of young emigrants, who were called
EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF MOVEMENT 133
Halutzim (pioneers). These Offices were to be controlled by local
committees representative of the various Zionist parties (and
composed in proportion to their numbers), and they were to
ensure that those selected had received adequate training either
as agriculturists or as artisans, that they were able to speak
Hebrew, and were physically fit.
A question that provoked considerable controversy between the
Executive and a group of the American Zionists concerned the
nature of the fund by means of which the great work of colonisa-
tion, apart from the acquisition of land, was to be financed. Be-
sides the Jewish National Fund, which was for land-purchase,
another fund, called the Preparation Fund, had been created in
July, 1917, and its name was subsequently changed to the Pales-
tine Restoration Fund (Keren Geulah). The purpose of this fund
was to finance the work in London and in Paris (where an office
was maintained in connection with the affairs of the Peace Con-
ference), and particularly to defray the activities of the Zionist
Commission in Palestine. It had yielded during the first three
years of its existence over 600,000, entirely raised by voluntary
contributions from Jews in many countries. It was now consid-
ered necessary to replace the Restoration Fund, which was re-
garded as only a temporary system, by a much more substantial
and permanent fund, entailing some sacrifice on the part of the
contributors. This "immigration and colonisation fund" was
named Keren Hayesod, or Foundation Fund, and was to be incor-
porated as an English limited company. The amount to be aimed
at, as proposed by the Conference, was 25,000,000, which was to
be raised within one year from Jews contributing on the basis of
a tithe of their capital and also of their income. At least 20 per
cent, of the money collected by the Keren Hayesod was to be
given to the Jewish National Fund, and of the remainder not

more than a third was to be spent on current expenditure for edu-
cation, social welfare, immigration, and kindred purposes in
Palestine, while at least two-thirds were to be "invested in perma-
nent national institutions or economic undertakings.^ The
Administration of the Zionist Organisation of America, under
the leadership of Justice Brandeis, Honorary President, and
Judge Julian W. Mack, President, was strongly opposed to this
proposed application of the funds. They insisted that the dona-
tions received should be devoted solely to the communal or public
services (such as education, health, and immigration), and that
the financing of commercial undertakings should be left to private
investors.They objected to what they termed a "commingling of
funds" on the ground that the economic enterprises, if dependent
on donation funds, might suffer in the interests of the communal
services and would not be directed efficiently. The conference,
however, decided that the Keren Hayesod be established and
devoted to both categories. Justice Brandeis and his supporters
persisted in refusing to co-operate on this basis
and to be repre-
sented on the Executive of the Zionist Organisation. majority A
of the members of the American Organisation, however, dis-
approved of their attitude, and consequently a new Administration
was elected at the Cleveland Convention in June, 1921, which
was pledged to support the Executive and the Keren Hayesod.
The London Conference also resolved to appoint a Commission
to investigate the financial administration both in London and
Jerusalem, and to convene the next Congress not later than in the
summer of 1921. The Reorganisation Commission, as it was called,
which was intended to placate the American critics, was charged
with the task of adjusting the administrative apparatus in London
to the Organisation's income and also of overhauling the machinery
of the Zionist Commission. It consisted of Messrs. Julius Simon,
Nehemiah de Lieme, and Robert Szold (New York), who effected
various economies in the Central Office, principally by closing the
Palestine Department, whose affairs were transferred to the Zion-
ist Commission. The Central Office was then divided into three
main departments: for Political Affairs, Organisation, and Finance,

in addition to which there were also the Immigration and the
Publicity Departments. The Reorganisation Commission sub-

sequently spent a few months in Palestine, where they revised the
Budget of the Zionist Commission, but as differences of opinion
on matters of principle arose between its members and the
Executive, Messrs. Simon and de Lieme resigned from the Execu-
tive and Messrs. Joseph Cowen, Vladimir
Jabotinsky, and Richard
Lichtheim were co-opted to serve until the Congress.
The Twelfth Zionist Congress, which met at Carlsbad in
September, 1921, was much larger, more imposing, and more
animated than any that had preceded it. The British Ambassador
in Prague, Sir George Clerk, attended the festive
inaugural session
to convey a message of good wishes from his Government and to
repeat the terms of the Balfour Declaration, which were received

with enthusiasm and prolonged applause. 1 The deliberations were
1
All subsequent Congresses Têre greeted at the
opening session by a diplomatic
representative of the British Government until 1937. The White Paper of May, 1939,
EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF MOVEMENT
rendered all the more difficult by the
great concourse of delegates
present and the limited time within which the business had to be
completed, but by transferring the discussion of all technical
problems and business details, as well as
1
the drafting of all reso-

lutions, to a number of committees consisting of representatives of
all parties, and by continuing some debates until the small hours
of the moitiing, the Congress
completed its stupendous labours in
a fortnight. There were present 445 elected delegates (besides
67 ex-officio delegates), representing 770,000 Shekel-payers (com-

pared with 129400 Shekel-payers in 1913). The delegates were
divided into threee main groups: 306 General Zionists, 97 of the
Mizrachi, and 38 of the Labour Parties. The General Zionists
occupied the centre of the hall, the Mizrachi sat facing the right
of the President, and the Labour delegates were on his left an
arrangement observed at all subsequent Congresses, although

from 1923 there were additions to the "wings/* as the parties on
1
either side of the centre were called.
After prolonged debates in committees and plenary sessions, at
which most of the decisions of the London -Conference were re-
affirmed and amplified, the Congress adopted an elaborate pro-
gramme of work embracing all phases of the new life in Eretz
Israel (the Land of Israel) as well as the related activities in the
Diaspora. It declared the economic revival of Palestine the most
urgent task of the Zionist Organisation and formulated the meth-
ods for achieving it. It designated the Jewish National Fund as the
organ of Jewish land policy, approved of the large land purchases
(62,000 dunams) that had recently been made in the Vale of
that the Head Office
Jezreel at a cost of 282,000, and decided
of the Fund should be transferred from The Hague to Jerusalem
without delay. It resolved that all recently acquired areas be
brought under cultivation forthwith, that incipient settlements
be completed, that all necessary steps be taken for the intensifica-
tion of Jewish agriculture, and that a special Colonisation Depart-
ment be set up under the direction of a member of the Executive.
It endorsed and elaborated the decisions of the London Confer-
ence regarding the Central Immigration Office, to be established
in Palestine and its relations with the Palestine Offices to be set up
in the principal lands of emigration as well as in the chief ports of
would have made such a formality at the Congress of that year embarrassing for
even the most accomplished diplomatist.
1
The Radicals first appeared at the Congress of 1923 and the Revisionists at that
of 1925.
embarkation (Trieste and Constanza); and it undertook to sub-
sidise the occupational training o Halutzim, towards which the
local Zionist bodies were also requited to contribute. It assumed
the obligation of maintaining and developing all schools in
Palestine that accepted the authority of the Zionist Organisation,
as well as of disseminating culture and knowledge of Hebrew
among the Jewish population. It passed a resolution
all sections of
for the observance of Jewish religious law in all institutions sub-

ventioned by the Organisation. It decided to encourage private
enterprise in commerce and industry, and authorised the increase

of the capital of the Anglo-Palestine Company to 1,000,000 and
the change of its name Bank. It called upon
to the Anglo-Palestine
all Jewish and
scholars, teachers, writers in the Diaspora to dedi-
cate their energies to the advancement of Hebrew literature and
the furtherance of Hebrew as a spoken language, and decided that
an official organ be published in Hebrew,
In order to finance all these and other activities for the ensuing
year the Congress adopted a budget of 1,506,000, of which
656,000 was to cover the regular Palestine budget (comprising
primarily agricultural colonisation, education, sanitation, and
immigration), 550,000 was put down for commercial investments
(principally credits for house-building and for commercial and
industrial undertakings), and 300,000 was to go to the Jewish
National Fund. It was an ambitious budget, based upon the
estimated income of the Keren Hayesod, the general principles of
which, as decided by the London Conference, were approved by
the Congress (from which the Mack-Brandeis group was absent),
though with some modification. The idea of aiming at 25,000,000
within a year, or even five years, was abandoned as impracticable
(though confiscations and depredations made later by Hitler
among the Jewish communities in Europe showed that it would
not have been unattainable). The fixing of contributions to the
Keren Hayesod on the basis of the traditional tithe (maaser) was
retained as an ideal, but the "self- taxation" of most contributors
fell short of this. The Keren Hayesod had
already been legally in-
corporated in London on March 23rd, 1921, under the name of
"The Erez Israel (Palestine) Foundation Fund Keren Hayesod,
Limited," its
primary object being described as:
"To do all such acts and things as shall appear to be necessary

or expedient for the purpose of carrying out the declaration of
His Majesty's Government (commonly known as 'the Balfour
Declaration'), in corporated in the Treaty of Sevres, dated 2nd

day of November, 1917, as to the establishment of a Jewish
National Home in Palestine."
An agreement had been concluded in October, 1920, between the

Keren Hayesod and the Keren Kayemeth (Jewish National Fund)
as to their respective methods of collection: the latter was to con-
tinue raising funds by its customary methods, such as general
donations, box collections, gifts of trees, inscriptions in the Golden
Book, and bazaars, while the Keren Hayesod agreed not to accept
annual contributions below a minimum level fixed for each
country. At first the Keren Hayesod undertook to allocate
20 per cent, of its net income to the Keren Kayemeth, but after
some time, as its collections did not reach expectations, while
those of the Keren Kayemeth increased, this allocation ceased.
The total amount by the Keren Hayesod in the year Octo-
raised
ber, igsi-September, 1922, was 387,580, and it had also received
227,000 in the six months before then. Consequently, the
budgetary arrangements had later to be scaled down.
There were three other important mattejs that engaged the
attention of Congress the political situation, the constitution of
the Zionist Organisation, and the election of a new Executive.
The Congress expressed the hope that the Palestine Mandate
would soon be confirmed by the League of Nations and that
political, administrative, and economic conditions would be
speedily created that would secure the establishment of the Jewish
National Home. It voiced a solemn protest against the Arab riots
that had taken place in Palestine in the preceding May, and
formulated its views on the subject of relations with the Arabs in
the following resolution:
"With sorrow and indignation, the Jewish people have lived
through the recent events in Palestine. The hostile attitude of

the Arab population in Palestine, incited by unscrupulous ele-
ments to commit deeds of violence, can neither weaken our re-
solve for the establishment of the Jewish National Home nor
our determination to live with the Arab people on terms of con-
cord and mutual respect, and together with them to make the
common home into a flourishing commonwealth, the upbuild-
ing of which may assure to each of its peoples an undisturbed
national development. The two great Semitic peoples, united of
yore by the bonds of common creative civilisation, will not fail
in their hour of national regeneration to comprehend the need
of combining their vital interests in a common endeavour.
"The Congress calls upon the Executive to redouble its ef-
forts to secure an honourable entente with the Arab people on
the basis of this declaration and in strict accordance with the
Balfour Declaration. The Congress emphatically declares that
the progress of Jewish colonisation will not affect the rights and
needs of the working Arab nation."
The new constitution, which was necessitated by the numerical

growth of the Organisation, contained many changes.
The name
of the executive organ was altered from "Smaller Actions Com-
mittee" to Executive, and its membership increased from a maxi-
mum of seven to one of fifteen, part of whom must be resident in
Palestine.The number of Shekel-payers necessary for the election
of a delegate to Congress was raised from 200 to 2,500, although
small countries containing at least 1,000 could also return a dele-
gate, and Palestine could elect one
for every 1,000 Shekel-payers.
The number of membersnecessary for the recognition of a Sepa-
rate Union, a body of Zionists subscribing to a definite social,
religious, or political principle within the movement (such as

the
Mizrachi and Poale Zion) was raised from 3,000 to 20,000. The
"Actions Committee" was in future to consist of twenty-five mem-
bers (together with the Executive and one representative each of
the Jewish Colonial Trust, the Keren Hayesod, and the Jewish
National Fund) and to meet every three months; and in the years
in which no Congress was held, there was to be a meeting of the
Central Council (formerly termed "Annual Conference") con-
sisting of the "Actions Committee" and representatives of the
1
Federations, the Separate Unions, and the financial institutions.
Other members of the Central Council were the Chairman of the
Congress Court small panel of lawyers for settling disputes
(a
between Zionist bodies and between Zionist bodies and individ-
uals, as well as for deciding on the validity of elections to Congress),
the Chairman of the Court of Honour (which dealt with disputes
between individual Zionists), and the Congress Attorney, who
represented the Organisation in the proceedings of these Courts.
J
The members of the "Actions Committee" were the statutory holders of the
founder shares of the Jewish Colonial Trust. The Central Council was abolished in
1927, after which the "Actions Committee/' whose numbers increased and fluctu-
ated, and met every six months, fixed the budget in non-Congress years. The "Ac-
tions Committee" was later called "General Council/'
The concluding act of the Congress was the election of an
Executive of thirteen, headed by Dr. Weizmann as President of
the Organisation and Nahum Sokolow as President of the
Executive. It was a "coalition" Executive, as it included
repre-
sentatives of all parties. Six of the members (including Ussishkin)
were to constitute the Executive in Jerusalem (thus replacing the
Zionist Commission) and to take charge of affairs in Palestine.
In order to advise on financial matters, there was also elected
1
a Financial and Economic Committee of seven, three of whom
had seats, with voting power, on the Executive, and usually
attended the meetings in London.
The Organisation was now equipped with all the principal in-
stitutions and offices essential for the new era of important and
widely ramified activity. The Central Office in London had two
main functions to look after political affairs by keeping in contact
with the Colonial and to watch over Zionist activities in
Office,
all parts of the worldand
it was also in constant communication
with the Office in Jerusalem for the purpose of mutual informa-

tion and co-ordinated action. In view of the need of safeguarding
Zionist interests in connection with the work of the Mandates
Commission of the League of Nations, to which the British Gov-
ernment was answerable as the Mandatory for Palestine, the Exec-
utive later established a special bureau in Geneva, in 1925^ The
organ in English, from July, 1919, was a weekly journal,
official
The Zionist Bulletin, which was discontinued after November,
1920; but from September, 1924, the Executive began to issue
The New Judaea first as a fortnightly and later as a monthly. The
Hebrew organ of the Executive, Haolam, which first appeared in
Cologne in 1907, and was published from 1908 to 1914 in Vilna
(the headquarters of the Russian Zionists,
was revived in London
in 1919. After two years it was transferred to Berlin, where it was
published for sixteen months, but from May, 1924, it again ap-
peared in London, until 1935, when it was transferred to Jerusa-
lem. In addition to these official organs, there were, during the
period between the two World Wars, at least one hundred Zionist
or pro-Zionist newspapers published in different parts of the
world, from New York to Cairo, from Buenos Ayres to Bombay,
and from Paris to Johannesburg. Parallel with the expansion of
the Organisation, there was an increase of the paid-up capital of
1
This Committee was discontinued from 1927.
3
The first diplomatic representative in Geneva was Dr. Victor Jacobson, who
died in 1934. He was succeeded by Dr. Nahum Goldmann,
the Jewish Colonial Trust, which, within a year after the Twelfth
Congress, amounted to 385,000. The share-capital of the Anglo-
Palestine Bank amounted to 300,000, almost all of which be-
longed to the Jewish Colonial Trust.
The Organisation comprised some thousands of societies
throughout the world, which were either united in federations in
countries with a large Jewish population or existed as active
units in isolated outposts like Shanghai or Singapore. Relations
between the Central Office and this multitude of affiliated con-
stituents were maintained by an ever-growing correspondence in
various languages, and also by periodical visits of members of the
Executive and officials, who travelled, not only all over Europe,
but to all parts of the globe to South Africa, Australia, and the
Far East, to Canada, the United States, and the republics of South
America enlightening all Jewish communities on the aims and
ideals of the movement and collecting funds for their realisation.
There were developments, not only among the ranks of the
Zionists in general, or the General Zionists, but also
among those
devoted to some distinguishing principle in the movement, such
as the orthodox Mizrachi or the adherents of different shades of
Socialism. The underwent a variety of changes in their
latter
mutual relations. Before 1914 the two main Socialist
parties in
Palestine (as already described) were the Poale Zion and
Hapoel
Hatzair. But soon after the creation of the Poale Zion there began
to be formed in Eastern Europe another Socialist
7
party, Zeir
Zion ("Youths of Zion' ), who based themselves rather upon the
lower middle class than the proletariat, and were
particularly
active in advocating the
principle of Halutziut training for pio-
neering work in Palestine. In 1920 the majority of the Zeire Zion
and Hapoel Hatzair groups in Central and Eastern Europe be-
came amalgamated with the Palestine Hapoel Hatzair under the
name of Hitahduth ("Union," i.e. of Jewish Social Workers),
representing the evolutionary school of Socialism as distinguished
from the more radical party of the Poale Zion. Five years later the
minority of the Zeire Zion became amalgamated with the Poale
Zion, and in August, 1932, the two amalgamations, the Hitahduth
and the Poale Zion-Zeire Zion, became united in one single body,
designated at the time Ihud ("Unity"), but since commonly
known as the Poale Zion. In 1934 there was formed another So-
cialist party, Hashomer Hatzair
("The Young Watchman"),
which differs from the Poale Zion in more strongly emphasising
1
Marxism and favouring a bi-national State in Palestine. Its views
are largely shared by the Left Poale Zion.
Zionism, as a democratic movement, knows no sex distinction,

and women can be elected to all positions. Nevertheless, in 1920
there was established the Women's International Zionist Organi-
sation (commonly called the W.LZ.O.) for the purpose of making
a specific contribution to the National Home the maintenance of
infant welfare centres, girls' training farms, and domestic econ-
omy schools. Although not under the authority of the Zionist

Executive, the W.LZ.O. co-operates harmoniously and most use-
fully in the work in Palestine. Before the Second World War it
had a membership of over 80,000 in forty-four countries. In the
United States, the women Zionists have their own organisation,
Hadassah, which is part of the General Zionist movement in
America. It has 152,000 senior members and 18,000 in Junior
Hadassah, making a total of 170,000. It is thus the largest shekel
paying Zionist unit in the world.
There is an extensive Zionist Youth movement on both
also
sides of the Atlantic, embracing different schools of thought, and
including many societies of university students. The leading posi-
tion before the war was maintained by "Hehalutz" ("The Pio-
neer"), an organisation (with headquarters in Warsaw) whose

members, numbering over 100,000 and distributed over many
countries, devoted themselves to technical and cultural prepara-
tion for settlement in Palestine.
1
The other parties Radicals, Revisionists, and the Jewish State Party are dealt
with later in connection with the events that brought them into being.
CHAPTER IX
THE PALESTINE MANDATE
appointment of a Jew as the first High Commissioner for

THE
Palestine was welcomed symbol of greater developments
as a
to come. It inspired the hope that the hostility to Jewish national

aspirations that had
marked the Military Administration would
be utterly banished, and that there would no longer be any ob-
stacle to their eventual fulfilment. At an assembly of officials and
of the population, held
leading representatives of all sections
within a week of his arrival, Sir Herbert Samuel declared the pur-
pose of British policy. He read a message
from King George V, in
which he announced that the Allied and Associated Powers had
decided that measures should be adopted "to secure the gradual
establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish
people," and gave
an assurance that those measures would not in
any way affect the civil and religious rights or diminish the pros-
of the country. The gratification
perity of the general population
felt by the Jews at this official promulgation of their national
charter was enhanced soon afterwards by an impressive act in a
1
religious setting. On the

Sabbath following the Fast of Ab, which
commemorates the destruction of the two Temples, the High Com-
missioner attended the synagogue in the Old City of Jerusalem,
and in the presence of the hushed congregation read from the
Book of Isaiah the portion traditionally chosen for the day, begin-
ning wth the heartening words: "Comfort ye, comfort ye, my peo-
ple." A passed through the worshipping throng,
thrill as though
the Messianic era were about to dawn. But the enthusiasm of those
the of suc-
days was soon sobered by disillusionising effects
early
ceeding events.
The High Commissioner immediately applied himself to the
task of organising the Civil Administration and introducing the
a land that had suffered from sloth
sorely-needed improvements in
and stagnation for centuries. He chose as his Chief Secretary
Brigadier-General Sir Wyndham Deedes, who was known to be
in perfect sympathy with Zionism.
2
He appointed several other
high officials of recognised ability, but retained a good proportion
1
The first official mention of the Balfour Declaration in Palestine was made in
a speech at Nablus on May 1st, 1920, by General Bols, head of the Military Ad-
ministration.
3 in 1923 and was succeeded by Sir Gilbert
Sir Wyndham Deedes left Palestine
Clayton.
THE PALESTINE MANDATE
of those who had filled positions in the Military Administration.
Unfortunately many of the lattercategory had had little previous

administrative experience and had little or no understanding of
or sympathy with the policy that they were required to serve. Some
of them made no secret of their views, and their attitude inevitably
exercised a prejudicial influence both in their particular spheres of
activity and upon the Arabs with whom they came into contact.
1
The few Jews appointed to senior offices were incapable of neutral-

ising that influence, and their number dwindled as time went
on. An Advisory Council was established, over which the High
Commissioner presided, composed of twelve official and ten non-
official members, the latter consisting of four Moslems, three
Christians and three Jews. This Council afforded the opportunity

of consultations between the Government officials and repre-
sentatives of the three religious communities, who were able to
criticise the drafts of any Ordinances the Government intended
enacting and to raise questions to which they desired attention to
be directed. There was a spate of legislation relating to transfers
of land, immigration, town-planning, road-building, education,
public health, co-operative societies, and other matters.

Two important decisions bearing upon the status of the Jews
asa nation were taken at an early stage. Hebrew was recognised
asan official language as well as English and Arabic. All Govern-
ment ordinances and official notices were to be published in the
three languages; in areas containing a considerable Jewish popu-
lation the three languages would be used in the local offices and
municipalities as well as in Government departments; in Courts

of Law and Land Registries of trilingual areas any process and
official document would be issued in the language of the person
to whom it was addressed; and written and oral pleadings might
1
Several of these anti-Zionist officials, from 1922 onwards, betrayed their attitude
after they left Palestine, in articles contributed to English periodicals in which they
scathingly attacked the Balfour Declaration and the ideals and activities of Zionism.
A typically pernicious outburst appeared in the Nineteenth Century
of July, 1925,
in which the writer stated: "International Jewry and British crankiness are the
forces, which, combining together, were able to impose upon the League of Nations
outward responsibility for that iniquitous document known as the Mandate for
Palestine." But this diatribe did not prevent the writer, E. T. Richmond, who had
left the Secretariat of the Palestine Government ,from afterwards receiving a more
important post in Palestine as Director of Antiquities. After leaving the Govern-

ment service, he wrote another article attacking the Mandate policy in the Nine-
teenth Century of February, 1938. See also articles by Colonel Vivian Gabriel in
Edinburgh Review, January, 1922; Captain C. D. Brunton in the Fortnightly Re-
view, May, 1923, and January, 1924; H. St, John Philby, in the Nineteenth Century,
July, 1925; Thomas Hodgkin, in the Labour Monthly, July and November, 1936;
and Professor J. Garstang in the Observer, September 20th, 1936.
be conducted in any of the three languages. The other decision
concerned the Hebrew equivalent for the name of the country.
The Jewish members of the Council objected to the Hebrew
transliteration of the world "Palestine" on the ground that in
Hebrew literature the country was always called "Eretz Israel"
(Land of Israel); but the Arab members would not agree to this
nomenclature, which, in their view, possessed political significance.

The Commissioner, therefore, decided, as a compromise,
High
that the Hebrew be used, followed always
transliteration should
and this
by the two initial letters of "Eretz Israel," Aleph Yod,
combination has always been used on the coinage and stamps of
Palestine and in all references in official documents.
The Government was concerned not only to promote the
economic, social,cultural progress of the country, but also to
and
establish a certain order in the affairs of the principal religious
communities. The required no external incentive to organise
Jews
themselves, for they had elected a Provisional Committee (Ha-
Vaad Hazmani) soon after the liberation of Jerusalem, but were
prevented by the Military Administration
from convening a Con-
stituent Assembly. This gathering, Asefath Hanivkarim, took place
on October 7th, 1920, and was attended by 300 delegates, who
elected a Vaad Leumi (National Council), which was recognised
as the official representation of Palestinian Jewry. An important
change was now effected in the spiritual leadership.
Under the
Turkish regime the Chief Rabbi (styled Haham Bashi) was always
elected by the Sephardic section of the community, which had
alone been recognised by the Ottoman Government; but as the
Ashkenazim were now more numerous and also becoming more
1
important, it was agreed that they too should have a Chief Rabbi.
The two Chief Rabbis were assisted by six associate Rabbis, who
formed with them a Rabbinical Council.
The appointment of a head of the Moslem community proved
to be of as much concern to the Jews as to the Moslems themselves,
for the person elected, although intended to confine himself to
the ambitious leader of Palestinian Arab
religious affairs, became
nationalism and the most aggressive enemy of Zionism. Early in
1921 Kemal Effendi Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem, who had
been accepted by the Administration as the head of the Moslem
Ulema (wise men), died; and as the position of Mayor of Jerusa-
lem was held by a member of the rival family of Nashashibi, it
1
The Sephardic Chief Rabbi usually styles himself Rtshon le-Zion ("First in Zion") .
THE PALESTINE MANDATE 145
was considered desirable that the vacancy should be filled by
a Husseini. The candidate was Haj Amin el-Husseine, a half-
brother of the late Mufti, who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca,
studied at the Azhar University in Cairo, and fought as an
artillery officer of the Turkish Army. After the British occupation
of Palestine, he held various subordinate positions in
Jerusalem
and Damascus, and then turned his energies to anti-Zionist
agitation. He delivered an inflammatory speech at the time of
the Jerusalem riots in 1920, fled to Transjordan, and was sen-
tenced to fifteen years' imprisonment in absentia; but after
receiving an amnesty from the High Commissioner he returned to
Jerusalem. A list of three candidates for the office of Mufti had to
be submitted to the Government for the selection of a successor,
but as Haj Amin el-Husseini, owing to opposition, was the fourth
on the list, one of the first three (Nashashibi nominees) was in-
duced by the Government to resign so as to enable him to be
included. "Haj Amin was then appointed, but no letter informing
him of his nomination as Mufti of Jerusalem was despatched to
1
him, nor was his appointment even gazetted/' In the following
year the Mufti was elected President of the Supreme Moslem
Council "by a mere remnant of the secondary electors of the last
electoral college of the Ottoman Parliament,'* and thus acquired
control over large charitable endowments exceeding 100,000 a
year and of the Moslem religious courts, as well as the authority to
2
appoint preachers in all the mosques of Palestine. He steadily
consolidated his power, was allowed to continue indefinitely in
office unchallenged, and systematically wielded what was virtually
an imperium in impero for the purpose of sabotaging the policy
of the Mandate.
Another important event in the early part of 192 1 that seriously

affected the Jewish National Home
was the detachment of the
territory east of the Jordan from the region within which that
Home was to be established. The High Commissioner had been in
office only a few days when Feisal was driven from Syria by the
French. The land east of the Jordan, which had formerly been
governed from Damascus, was consequently left in an undefined
state, and the High Commissioner therefore had a few local Arab
councils appointed, which were assisted in the task of admini-
stration by British officers. Early in 1921 Abdullah, another son
of Hussein, King of the Hedjaz, moved into Transjordan with
1
Report of Palestine Royal Commission, pp. 177-81. *Ibid., p. 177.
1
a band of guerrilla Arabs, declaring that he intended to recover
Syria, from which his brother
had been evicted. Palestine, from
the of the year, had been transferred from the care of
beginning
the Foreign Office to that of the Colonial Office, on the ground
that the latter had more experience in the ruling of Eastern coun-
tries; and in March Mr. Winston Churchill, as Colonial Secretary,
went to Cairo, accompanied by T. E. Lawrence, to deal with
Sir Herbert Samuel
Transjordan and other affairs of the Near East.
also attended the conference at Cairo, after which all three went
1
to Jerusalem. Abdullah was then invited to meet Mr. Churchill,
who told him that he would be recognised as Emir of Transjordan,
provided he did not violate the frontier of Syria,
and that he would
receive a British advisor and a subvention from Britain. Abdullah
accepted the Emirate under these conditions,

with the result that
the articles in the Mandate relating to the Jewish National Home
were subsequently declared to be inapplicable to Transjordan.
It was officially explained that this separation of Transjordan was
in accordance with the terms of the McMahon pledge, but it is
curious that this revelation was first made after Abdullah's in-
cursion and that no intimation to this effect was made at the time
of the Balfour Declaration or in the years immediately following.
The Jews had believed that their National Home was to be
established in the whole of historic Palestine, and this severance of
two-thirds of the country caused a rankling sense of disappoint-
ment/
While in Jerusalem Mr. Churchill received an Arab deputation,
who demanded ihe abolition of the principle of the Jewish Na-
tional Home, the stoppage of Jewish immigration, and the creation
of a National Government responsible to a Parliament elected by
those who were inhabitants before 1914. The deputation repre-
sented an Executive elected by an Arab Congress of Moslem and
1
"Mr. Winston Churchill was entrusted by our harassed Cabinet with the settle-
ment of the Middle East; and in a few weeks, at his Conference in Cairo, he made
straight all the tangle, finding solutions fulfilling (I think) our promises in letter
and spirit (where humanly possible) without sacrificing any interest of our Empire
or any interest of the people concerned. So we were quit of the wartime Eastern
adventure, with clean hands, but three years too late to earn the gratitude which
peoples, if not states, can pay." Footnote to p. 276 of Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1935
edition).
a
Report of Palestine Royal Commission, p. 38. In his evidence before the Anglo-
American Committee of Inquiry on European Jewry and Palestine on January 30,
1946, in London, Mr. Leopold S. Amery, who was Assistant Secretary to the British
Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, frankly admitted that at the time of the formulation
of the Balfour Declaration, with which he was officially and closely concerned, it
was definitely intended that Transjordan should be included within the area of
Palestine in which the Jewish National Home was to be established.
Christian societies, which had met at Haifa on December igth,
1920. Mr. Churchill rejected their demands. He declared that it
was right that the Jews should have a National Home, reminded
the Arabs that they had been liberated from the Turks by the
armies of Britain, and said that if the Jews succeeded their success
would be of benefit to all the people in the country. He also
received a Jewish deputation, who expressed thanks for Britain's
acceptance of the Mandate and stressed their desire to promote
cordial relations with the Arab nation. But this desire was un-
fortunately not reciprocated. On May ist and following days there
were violent attacks by Arabs upon Jews in Jaffa and neighbour-
ing Jewish colonies, in which the total casualties amounted to 95
killed -48 Arabs and 47 Jewsand 219 wounded, of whom 73
were Arabs and 146 Jews (most of the Arab casualties being due to
action by the British troops). Many of the culprits were sentenced
to imprisonment, a few to long terms. The immediate result of
this second outbreak of savagery was a temporary
suspension of
Jewish immigration, which dealt a further blow at Jewish hopes.
The Commission of Inquiry, under the chairmanship of the Chief
Justice of Palestine, Sir Thomas Haycraft, which was appointed
to investigate the disorders, found that the fundamental cause
was a feeling among the Arabs of discontent and hostility to the
Jews, "due to political and economic causes, and connected with
Jewish immigration, and with their conception of Zionist policy
as derived from Jewish exponents.'* The Commission also stated
that "the racial strife was begun by Arabs/' and that "the police
were, with few exceptions, half-trained and inefficient, in many
cases indifferent, and in some cases leaders of or participators in
violence/' A fine of 6,000 was imposed upon the Arab ring-
leaders, and improvements were made in the maintenance of law
and order. A Palestine Gendarmerie was created, a semi-military,
semi-police force, to which
was added a third civil force of British
recruited in England, largely from the Royal Irish
gendarmes,
Constabulary. After the arrival of this force there was no further
disorder in the country for some years, and the military garrison
was gradually reduced from 4,000 men to one battalion.
In order to reassure the Arabs, the High Commissioner ad-
dressed a meeting of leading citizens on June grd, to explain that
the policy of the Jewish National Home did not mean that Britain
proposed to set up a Jewish government over an Arab majority.

But the Arabs were not satisfied. They sent a delegation to
London the first of several during the next eighteen years for
the purpose of a direct approach to the British Government. The
delegates conducted protracted conversations with the heads of
the Colonial Office, in which they reiterated their demands, and
they were encouraged by certain London newspapers, which
clamoured for Britain's abandonment of all interest in Palestine
and Iraq on the alleged ground that these countries formed
a burden on the British taxpayer. The Government rejected the
Arab demands and offered to replace the Advisory Council by
a Legislative Council composed of an elected majority of twelve
members, including two Jews, and ten official members. But the
Arabs refused this proposal because, as they said, the two Jewish
members would vote with the Government members on all
matters concerning the Jewish National Home, and Jewish policy
would thus be imposed upon them. They also rejected the basis of
the Mandate as far as it involved recognition of a Jewish National
Home, and as their efforts proved fruitless they returned to
Palestine for further consultation with their committee. They
were back in England, however, in the autumn to resume their
siege of the Colonial Office, and developed their propaganda dur-
ing the first half of 1922 with the aid of a section of the Press to
such effect that the question of abandoning the Mandate was
raised in both Houses of Parliament.
The first debate took place on June sist, 1922, in the House of
Lords, several members of which were among the most prominent
opponents of the Government's policy. Lord Balfour, who had
just passed to the Upper House, made an eloquent and forceful
speech in favour of the cause with which his name was perma-
nently identified. He refuted the suggestion that the conception of
the Jewish National Home was contrary to the principles of the
Covenant of the League of Nations, or that it involved domination
over the Arabs or spoliation of their lands. He dwelt on the age-
long persecution of the Jews by Christendom, lauded their in-
tellectual achievements in the centuries of dispersion, urged that
a message be sent "to every land where the Jewish race has been
scattered that Christendom is not oblivious to their fate and is
not unmindful of the service they have rendered to the great
religions of the world," and pleaded that they be given "every
opportunity to develop in peace and quietness under British rule
those great gifts which hitherto they have been compelled
only to
bring to fruition in countries which know not their language, and
belong not to their race." But his eloquence was wasted upon
most of his hearers. The House of Lords adopted the motion for
postponing acceptance of the Mandate by 60 to 29, but fortu-
nately its decision was of no practical effect.
Immediately after this debate, the British Government pub-
lishedits
"Correspondence with the Palestine Arab Delegation
and the Zionist Organisation" concerning the proposed constitu-
tion of Palestineand the interpretation of the Balfour Declaration.
The between the Colonial Office and the Arab Delegation
letters
consisted mainly of an argumentation about the McMahon pledges
and the respective claims of the Arabs and the Jews. The Colonial
Office rejected the Arab demands for an abandonment of its
policy, but, on the other hand, its letter to the Zionist Organi-
sation, and above all, the statement accompanying it, showed that
the persistent agitation of the Arabs and their friends had not
been without effect. For the statement contained a detailed exposi-
tion and definition of British policy in Palestine, which was very
1
far removed from the early glosses on the Balfour Declaration.
The Interim Report of the Palestine Administration for July ist,
ig2O-June goth, 1921, had contained the following passages:

*
"The policy of His Majesty's Government contemplates the

satisfaction of the legitimate aspirations of the Jewish race
throughout the world in relation to Palestine, combined with

a full protection of the rights of the existing population: . . .
The Zionism that is practicable is the Zionism that fulfils this

essential condition. There must be satisfaction of that sentiment
regarding Palesine a worthy and ennobling sentiment which,
in increasing degree, animates the Jewries of the world. The
aspirations of these fourteen millions of people also have a
right to be considered."
But the language used in the Churchill White Paper, as the new
document was called (because it was under the authority of Mr.
Churchill as Colonial Secretary), was quite different. It dismissed
any expectation that Palestine was to become "as Jewish as
2
England is English" as impracticable. It dispelled the fear of the

According to Mr. Norman Bentwich, Attorney-General of Palestine, 1922-31, the
1
statement "was compiled in close consultation with Sir Herbert Samuel." It was
commonly reported in well-informed circles in London at the time that the state-
ment was drafted by Sir Herbert Samuel.
2
The expression used by Dr. Weizinann in reply to a question put to him by Mr.
Lansing, the American representative, at the meeting of the Peace Conference on
February 27th, 1919.
Arabs regarding "the disappearance or the subordination of the
Arabic population, language or culture in Palestine." It drew
attention to the fact that the Balfour Declaration did not "con-
template that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a
Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded
in Palestine." It pointed out that the Zionist Executive "has not
desired to possess, and does not possess, any share in the general
administration of the country," and that its special position under
the draft Mandate "relates to the measures to be taken in Palestine
affecting the Jewish population, and contemplates that the Or-
ganisation may assist in the general development of the country,
but does not entitle it to share in any degree in its government."
Then came the crucial paragraph about the Jews in Palestine:
"This community has its own political organs; an elected

assembly for the direction of its domestic concerns; elected
councils in the towns; and an organisation for the control of its
schools. It has its elected Chief Rabbinate and Rabbinical
Council for the direction of its religious affairs. Its business is
conducted in Hebrew as a vernacular language, and a Hebrew
Press serves its needs. It has its distinctive intellectual life and
displays considerable economic activity. This community, then,
with its town and country population, its
political, religious and
social organisations, its own language, its own customs, its own
life, has in face 'national' characteristics. When it is asked what
is meant by the development of the Jewish National Home in
Palestine, it may be answered that not the imposition of a
it is
Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of Palestine as a whole,

but the further development of the existing Jewish community
with the assistance of Jews in other parts of the world, in order
that it may become a centre in which the Jewish
people as a
whole may take, on grounds of religion and race, an interest
and a pride. But in order that this community should have the
best prospect of free development and provide a full
opportu-
nity for the Jewish people to display its capacities, it is essential
that it should know that it is in Palestine as of right and not on
sufferance. That is the reason why it is necessary that the exist-
ence of a Jewish National Home in Palestine should be inter-
nationally guaranteed, and that it should be formally recognised
to rest upon ancient historic connection."
For the fulfilment of this policy Jewish immigration must con-

tinue, but "this immigration cannot be so great in volume as to
exceed whatever may be the economic capacity of the country at

the time to absorb new arrivals," and "the immigrants should not
be a burden upon the people of Palestine as a whole." It was the
intention of the Government to foster by gradual stages the
establishment of a full measure of self-government in Palestine;
and it was pointed out that the Administration had already trans-
ferred to a Supreme Council elected by the Moslem community
of Palestine the entire control of Moslem religious endowments
and of the Moslem religious courts. The White Paper also con-
tained a letter from the Colonial Office to the Zionist Organisation,
requesting it to give "a formal assurance" that it
accepted the
policy set out in the statement and was prepared to conduct its
own actiivties in conformity therewith, and a reply from Dr.
Weizmann embodying a resolution of the Zionist executive that
contained the required assurance. The Executive gave this assur-
ance with no little reluctance, and, indeed, after much deliberation
and under a feeling of constaint, as they considered the inter-
pretation of the Balfour Declaration to be an abridgement of the
aspirations which they had believed the Jewish people would be
allowed to achieve. They were not alone in their views, for no
sooner was the White Paper published than it was assailed by the
severest criticism throughout the Jewish world as a whittling-down
of the promise of November 2nd, 1917. The Government, how-
ever, were glad to have the Organisation's reply, especially after
the barren talks with the Arabs, and in the debate on the Colonial
Vote that took place in the House of Commons on July 6th they
were able to defeat the opponents of their Palestinian policy by
292 votes to 35.
The White Paper and the parliamentary debates served as a pre-
lude to the passing of the Mandate instrument by the Council of
the League of Nations which took place at a meeting in London
on July 24th, 1922. The delay was due* to a number of causes:
discussionsbetween the Government and the Zionist Organisation
on various articles of the Mandate, removing certain apprehen-
sions of the Vatican regarding the rights in the Holy Places, nego-
tiations on the matter with the United States Government, delay
in concluding the peace treaty with Turkey, and difficulties in con-
nection with the French Mandate for Syria. At the meeting of the
Council a representative of Italy required some modification in the
text of the Mandate for Syria, and as the British Government did
not desire any further postponement in regard to the Palestine
Mandate, the Council agreed to pass the two Mandates on condi-
tion that they should come into full operation simultaneously only
after the outstanding questions between France and Italy were set-
tled. It took more than a year before this settlement was reached,
and the two Mandates came into force on September 2 gth, 1923.
The Mandate, as approved by the Council of the League, was
the result of three years' discussion between the Government and
the Zionist Organisation, during which various drafts were made,
amended, and revised. In its final form the Mandate, in a pream-
ble, recites (a) the decision of the principal Allied Powers, in
order to give effect to Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of
Nations, to entrust the Administration of Palestine to a Manda-
tory selected by the Powers, (6) the terms of the Balfour Declara-
tion and a statement that "recognition has thereby been given to
the historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine, and
to the grounds for reconstituting their National Home in that
country," and (c) the selection of His Britannic Majesty as the

Mandatory and his acceptance of the Mandate on behalf of the
League of Nations. The body of the Mandate consists of twenty-
eight articles/ of which those relating to the establishment of the
Jewish National Home are as follows:
Art. "The Mandatory shall be responsible for placing the
2.
country under such political, administrative and economic con-

ditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish National
Home and the development of self-governing institutions, and
also for safeguarding the civil and religious rights of all the
inhabitants of Palestine irrespective of race and religion/'
Art. 4. "The
Zionist Organisation shall be recognised as an
appropriate Jewish Agency for the purpose of advising and co-
operating with the Administration in matters affecting the
Jewish National Horpe and the interests of the Jewish popula-
tion in Palestine, and to assist and take part in the development
of the country, and shall take steps to secure the co-operation of
all Jews who are willing to assist in the establishment of the
National Home/'
Art. "The Administration of Palestine, while ensuring that
6.
the rights and position of other sections of the population are

not prejudiced, shall facilitate Jewish immigration under suit-
able conditions and shall encourage, in co-operation with the
1
Articles 7, 11, 22, and 23, are summarised or abridged. For complete text of the
Mandate, see Appendix II.
Jewish Agency referred to in Article 4, close settlement by

Jews on the land, including State lands and waste lands not
required for public purposes."
Art. 7. A nationality law shall be enacted, including pro-
visions to facilitate the acquisition of Palestinian citizenship
by
Jews who take up permanent residence in the country.
Art. n. The Administration may arrange with the Jewish
Agency to construct or operate upon equitable terms any pub-

lic works or services and to
develop any natural resources of the
country, the profits to be distributed by such Agency not to
exceed a reasonable rate of interest on the capital.
Art. 22. "English, Arabic, and Hebrew shall be the official
languages of Palestine. ." . .
Art. 23. "The holy days of the respective communities in

Palestine shall be recognised as legal holidays of rest for the
members of such communities/'
The two passages in the text of the Mandate that had formed
the subject of the most frequent discussion were the part of the
preamble dealing with the connection of the Jewish people with
Palestine and the middle part of Article 2. There were at least
six successive drafts of the former, in the first of which the expres-
sion "historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine"
was used, only to disappear and then reappear in the following
versions, and to be retained in the final draft. The changes that
were made in Article 2 were far more important and eventually
proved of fateful significance. That article was originally com-
posed as an amplification of the Balfour Declaration, and the
previous alternative drafts of the middle part read as follows: (a)
"secure the establishment there of the Jewish National Home and
ultimately render possible the creation of an autonomous Com-
monwealth"; and (6) "secure the establishment of the Jewish
National Home and the development of a self-governing Common-
wealth." Draft (b) was provisionally agreed upon between the
Zionist Organisation and the Political Section of the British Peace
Delegation at the beginning of 1919. It was obviously intended to
mean that the Jewish National Home was to develop into a self-
governing commonwealth, even though the1 term "commonwealth"
was not qualified by the word "Jewish." But over three years
*$ee Political Report of the Executive of the Zionist Organisation to the 12th
Zionist Congress, 1921.
elapsed before the final text of the Mandate was fixed, and by
then the promise held out concerning the ultimate status of the
Jewish National Home was down to "the development of
whittled
self-governing institutions/' This phrase was subsequently ad-
vanced in support of the Arab demand for an independent
Palestine, to which the British Government gave way in the White
Paper of 1939.
The Mandate was implemented by means of the Palestine
Order-in-Council, which was signed by King George V on
August loth, 1922, and brought into operation on September ist.
This document, which incorporates the obligation of the Man-
datory to put the Balfour Declaration into effect, contains the
Constitution of Palestine and defines the different parts of the
Government, the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary.
It enacted the replacement of the Advisory Council by a Legis-
lative Council, which was to consist of twenty-two members, in
addition to the High Commissioner, of whom ten should be
official and twelve unofficial members. Of the unofficial members
there were to be eight Moslems, two Jews, and two Christians.
The Palestine Administration issued regulations for the election
of the unofficial members, but, while the Jews complied with
them, the great majority of the Arabs abstained, and the election
was therefore abandoned. Anxious to secure the co-operation of
the Arabs, the Government proposed the creation of a new Advis-
ory Council, but with a majority of non-official members, the com-
position to be the High Commissioner, ten official members, and
eight Moslems, two Christian Arabs, and two Jews. But only four
of the Arabs invited to serve were willing to act, and the scheme
had therefore to be dropped. The Government then made a third
attempt to enlist Arab co-operation in the administration of pub-
lic affairs by offering to establish an Arab Agency which should
occupy a position analogous to that accorded to the Jewish

Agency, but the Arabs rejected this proposal too. The legislative
as well as the executive functions had therefore to be exercised
entirely by the High Commissioner and officers of the Administra-

tion; but public citicism of the measures proposed could be made
by representations after the publication of Bills in the Govern-
ment Gazette.
The Mandatory was required by the Mandate to make an

annual report to the Council of the League of Nations as to the
measures taken to carry outs its provisions. The Permanent
Mandates Commission (consisting of representatives of a number
of Governments) was appointed to examine this report and first
dealt with Palestine at its meeting in October, 1924. From that
year the British Government has rendered an annual report to

the League on the progress in Palestine and the steps it has taken
to carry out its obligations, and representatives of the Government
(from London and Jerusalem) have attended the meeting of the

Mandates Commission in Geneva to give any verbal explanations
that were necessary and often been subjected to severe cross-
examination. The Zionist Organisation (from 1930 the Jewish
Agency) has made an annual report upon the development of the
Jewish National Home, which has been transmitted by the British
Government to theMandates Commission, and the report was
usually accompanied by a covering letter from the President,
containing observations on any acts of omission or commission on
the part of the Mandatory that called for criticism. As the pro-
cedure of the Mandates Commission allowed any section of the
population in Palestine to present complaints to the League
through the Mandatory against the Administration, advantage
was taken of this opportunity on various occasions both by the
Arab Executive Committee and by the super-orthodox Agudath
Israel Organisation, which was anti-Zionist in outlook.
The close interest takenby both the people and the Govern-
ment of Holy Land found
the United States in the fortunes of the
public and official expression. In September, 1922, the American
Congress passed a joint resolution of the Senate and the House of
Representatives in favour of the establishment of the Jewish Na-
tional Home. Although not a party to the grant of the Mandate,
the United States gave formal assent to the administration of Pales-
tine by Great Britain in a Convention with the British Govern-
ment, which was ratified in 1925. This instrument provided for
the application to American subjects of the rights accorded to
other foreigners in the mandated territory and also permitted
them freely to establish and maintain there educational, philan-
thropic and religious institutions.
The most notable event in Sir Herbert Samuel's last year of
officewas the inauguration of the Hebrew University by Lord
Balfour on April ist, 1925. The impressive and picturesque cere-
mony was held in an open-air amphitheatre in the grounds of the
University, in the presence of an assembly of 7,000, and was
attended by a numerous array of distinguished scholars and
scientists who had come to represent many leading universities
in different parts of the world. The veteran statesman, who was
the occasion marked
already in the evening of his days, said that
a notable epoch in the history of the people who had made the
little land of Palestine a seed-ground of religions, paid a tribute
to the originality of eminent Jewish thinkers, and dwelt on the

fact that the establishment of the Jewish National Home involved
and national development.
great questions of human, intellectual,
After the conclusion of the ceremony, which sent a thrill through-
out the Jewish world, Lord Balfour visited the principal cities and
made a journey through the Jewish agricultural settlements of the
coastal plain, the Valley of Esdraelon, and the district of Galilee.
He delivered several remarkable addresses and was everywhere
acclaimed with joyous enthusiasm by the settlers, especially at
Balfouria, the village founded in his name in
the Valley of
Esdraelon by an American Jewish corporation. He then passed

into Syria, but owing to a hostile demonstration of Arabs in
Damascus he had to be taken to a ship that was waiting in
Beyrout Harbour.
When Sir Herbert Samuel terminated his period of office at the
end of June, 1925, he issued a report on his five years* admini-
stration, in which he was able to survey with satisfaction
the
progress that had taken place. There had been a gradual

Public security had improved, and
pacification of the country.
the courts of law had won the confidence of the people. The
Government not only showed a surplus in its finances, but had
of the Jaffa-Jerusalem Railway, as well as
paid for the purchase
the first instalment of the annuity due in respect of the pre-war
Ottoman Debt. There had been considerable improvements in
communications, and telephone
as well as in the port, telegraph,
services. Much work had been done commerce

in afforestration;
had grown; public health had advanced; and the Arabs had been
provided with nearly 200 schools.
Of great benefit to the country
in general had been the supply of electric power by Mr. Pinhas
Rutenberg, a Russo-Jewish electrical engineer,
who had been
granted two concessions.
The smaller one was for the utilisation
of the water of the River Auja near Jaffa, for which a company
had been formed with a capital of 100,000: a power-station had
been constructed at Tel-Aviv, which began working in June 1923.
The larger concession, which was for harnessing the waters of the
upper Jordan and its tributary, the Yarmuk, needed a company
with a capital of not less than 1,000,000. The
necessary initial
subscription of 200,000 had already been made, and the first
hydro-electric power-station was soon to be erected.
With regard to the Jewish National Home, Sir Herbert Samuel
was able to point to the extensive
progress it had made. The
Jewish population had doubled from 55,000 at the end of 1918,
to 103,000, mainly by immigration, and the area of
agricultural
land owned by Jews had likewise been doubled. Urban
develop-
ments had also been striking, for the Jews In Tel-Aviv had in-
creased from 2,000 to 30,000, and those in Haifa from 2,000 to
8,000. The Zionist Executive, in paying tribute to the first
High
Commissioner, referred to "occasional differences of opinion"
between them "on various practical
questions relative to the
establishment o the Jewish National Home."
Perhaps the most
serious was in connection with the article of the Mandate that
requires the Administration to "encourage . . close settlement

.
by Jews on the land, including State lands and waste lands not
required for public purposes.*' There was a large area (over
100,000 acres) of such State lands be ween the southern end of the
Sea of Galilee and Beisan, a considerable
part of which, it was
hoped, would be made available for Jewish settlement. But it was
allotted in such generous measure to a number of Arabs who were
squatters on a part of it, and who preferred claims that could not
be checked, that there was no land left after the demarcation. The
disappointment of the Jews was profound, and they were by no

means silent about a justified grievance. Their only consolation was
that they were afterwards able to
acquire some of this land at en-
hanced prices, as the Arabs had been given more than
they needed
and were unable to pay the requisite fees. But
despite the differ-
ences due to this and other matters, the Zionist Executive
placed
on record "their deep appreciation of the
patience and courtesy
with which their representations were invariably received
by Sir
Herbert Samuel, and the serious and sympathetic consideration
which he never failed to accord them, and, above all, of his un-
1
flagging devotion to the welfare of Palestine and its people/'
The appointment of Field-Marshal Lord Plumer as the next
High Commissioner caused a certain disillusionment among the
Jews, as many of them had believed that the position would again
be given to one of their own people. It produced a temporary
1
Report of the Executive of the Zionist Organisation to the 14th Zionist Congress,
elation among the Arabs, who thought that it betokened a change
of policy for their particular benefit. But it was not long before
they both revised their views: the Arabs, when they found that
there was to be no change, and the Jews, when they began to
experience the sympathy, concern, and sense of justice that Lord
Pluraer invariably applied to all his tasks. He made it clear from
the very outset that he was bent upon developing the economic
resources of the country and that its interests could best be served
by security of life and property and by confidence in the integrity
of the Administration. He also made it clear that he would not
tolerate any flouting of his authority. When some Arab leaders,
resentful of French policy in Syria, asked for permission to hold
a demonstration in Jerusalem, they were told that they could go
to Syria and demonstrate there. And on another occasion when
some Arabs complained that the flag of the Jewish regiment
(which had fought in Palestine in 1918) was to be borne in cere-
mony to the Hurva Synagogue and deposited there, and said that
they could not be responsible for public order if this took place,
the martial High Commissioner curtly informed them that he did
not expect them to be responsible, since he was responsible.
The three years' administration of Lord Plumer was marked by
a number of important legislative measures and administrative
changes. The Citizenship Order-in-Council, which made provision
for Palestinian nationality (and which had been drafted under his
predecessor), was at last issued in the autumn of 1925. It enacted
that any person could acquire citizenship who had lived in the
country for two years, had a knowledge of one of the official

languages, and intended to remain there permanently; but no
compulsion was brought to bear upon Jews to avail themselves
1
of this law. As a logical development, a law for municipal elec-
tions was made in 1926, which prescribed that only Palestinian
citizens could vote or be elected, subject to their paying a certain
amount of Government land-tax or municipal rates; and that in
municipalities of mixed population a fair proportion of members
of the different sections should be elected. The first elections for
municipal councils were held early in 1927, and from that time
the Government exercised a large measure of financial supervision
to prevent municipal bodies falling into debt.
The most important administrative change was in connection
*
The number of Jews in Palestine with Palestinian nationality in January, 1944,
was 242,000,
with the police and defence forces in Palestine and Transjordan.
Impressed by the tranquillity of the country, which was mainly
due to his own presence, Lord Plumer decided to achieve greater
unity and simplicity in the organisation of the forces of security,
and thus relieve the British tax-payer of the greater part of the
small contribution that he still made to the cost of defence In
Palestine. The
Palestinian Police was reconstructed as the sole
Civil Force, the British and the Palestinian Gendarmerie were
disbanded, and a regular military force, called the Transjordan
Frontier Force, entirely independent of the Palestinian Police, was
created for service along the eastern frontiers. This reduction of
the forces, although welcomed as a good sign, was a serious mis-
take, as was proved by the troubles in 1929.
The Interests of the agricultural population were furthered,
not only by the steady development of agricultural productivity,
particularly in regard to citrus cultivation. A law was passed for
the protection of agricultural tenants from summary eviction by
landlords. Such tenants had previously been liable to be turned
out at any time, but the new ordinance required that they should
be given a full year's notice before they could be removed from
the land; and if they were removed they might secure compensa-
tion for improvements, and, in the case of long tenure, additional
compensation for eviction. Various reliefs were granted in respect

both of tithes and of taxes on house and land property in urban
areas. Both Jews and Arabs benefited by a request of 100,000
from Sir Ellis Kadoorie, a Jewish philanthropist of Hong Kong,
as the money was devoted in equal parts to the establishment of
an agricultural school for each of them. Lord Plumer showed
concern for the economic welfare of the population in many ways.
He both issued ordinances for giving workmen compensation for
accidents, for the protection of women and children employed in
industry, and for the fencing of dangerous machinery; and he

relievedunemployment in 1927 by ordering the construction of
roads and the drainage of the Kishon marshes near Haifa. He also
evinced much solicitude at the time of the earthquakes in July,
192*7, which caused considerable

destruction and loss of life, by
giving aid to the sufferers, who were mainly Arabs, The country
quickly recovered from the disasters, and it was a sign of economic
progress that the Palestine Loan of 4,500,000 was floated in

the
following autumn. Over 1,500,000 had to be repaid immediately

on account of the railway, roads, and other works left in Palestine
l6o THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
by the British Army; but so healthy were the finances of the
country that a sum of 800,000 was available to pay off Palestine's
share of the Ottoman Debt. A further evidence of progress was
the introduction at the same time of the Palestinian coinage,
which at last replaced the Egyptian currency.
Throughout Lord Plumer's term of office the Arabs manifested
commendable restraint and indulged in little concerted political
action. But in the summer of 1928 there was held a Palestinian
Arab Congress, in which all parties were represented; and the
Executive Committee handed the retiring High Commissioner as
a parting gift a memorandum embodying the unanimous resolu-
tion of the Congress, demanding the establishment of parliamen-
tary government in Palestine. He took only formal note of this
demand, which was repeated at intervals, and with increasing
insistence, during the following decade.
CHAPTER X
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME, 1919-29
/-J-AHE
Mandate requires that the Mandatory shall place Palestine
JL under such conditions "as will secure the establishment of
the Jewish^ National Home/' but the actual establishment is the
work of the Jewish people. To this task the Zionist Organisation
has devoted itself with all its energies and resources, on an ever-
increasing scale, and with the material aid provided by supporters
and sympathisers in all parts of the world. The work has been and
is being carried out
primarily under the guidance and direction
of the Palestine Zionist Executive (merged, from 1929, into the
Executive of the Jewish Agency) by means of an elaborate ad-
ministrative apparatus. This consists of separate departments for
political affairs, immigration, labour, agricultural colonisation,
and trade and industry. There were also departments for education
and public health until 1932, when these services were transferred
to the Jurisdiction of the Vaad Leumi. In accordance with Article
4 of the Mandate, members of the Executive have consultations
from time to time with the High Commissioner and other high
officials of the Palestine Administration on current
questions of
importance; and there is always a regular interchange of corre-
spondence between the Executive in Jerusalem and their col-
leagues in London, in addition to exchange of visits from one city
to the other, in order to ensure co-ordination of policy and har-
monious co-operation in all activities.
The two basic factors in the creation of the Jewish National
Home are immigration and land. According to Article 6 of the
Mandate, the Administration Is required to "facilitate Jewish
immigration under suitable conditions," and to "encourage . . .
close settlement by Jews on the land, including State lands and

waste lands not required for public purposes." The Administra-
tion has interpreted the former obligation by enacting various
ordinances from time to time for the strict regulation of immigra-
tion in accordance with what it deems to be the economic require-
ments of the country. As for the land factor, the total cultivable
area of State domain that it has given to the Jews, during a period
1
of twenty-three years, only 17,400 dunams (or 4,350 acres), and
is
this land cannot be used for close settlement, as it consists of small

1
Four dunams equal 1 acre.
and scattered tracts. In glaring contrast to this is the area of
dunams received by the Arabs/ All land has, therefore,
350,000
to be bought by the Jewish National Fund.
Shortly after the Civil Administration

was instituted, an Immi-
Ordinance was issued in September, 1920, authorising the
gration
Zionist Organisation to introduce into the country 16,500 immi-
grants per annum, on
condition that it was responsible for their
maintenance for one About 10,000 Jews were admitted in
year.
the twelve months, but as the ordinance was found un-
first
issued new regulations on
satisfactory the High Commissioner
for the admission of a number of categories, the
June 3rd, 1921,
chief of which were persons of independent means who intended
to settle in the country permanently, professional men who in-
tended following their vocations, persons with definite prospects
of employment, persons of religious occupation with assured means
of maintenance, and small tradesmen and artisans with a capital
of 500. Apart from tourists and returning residents, all other
applications for admission
were referred by the local British con-
suls to the Immigration Department of the Palestine Government,
which decided in each case. After the publication of the White
must
Paper of 1922, which laid down the rule that immigration
not exceed the economic capacity of the country to absorb new
arrivals, the Government adopted the system of granting permits
to groups of artisans and labourers selected by the various Pales-
tine Offices. The number of permits was fixed every three months
by the Government after negotiations with the Zionist Executive,

who then distributed them among As ex-
the Palestine Offices.
perience showed that these regulations were unsatisfactory, a new

Immigration Ordinance was issued in 1925, which contained
a number of improvements* The
special position of the Zionist
Organisation was recognised by clauses defining the rights and
functions of the Zionist Executive in regard to the labour sched-
ule, which was drawn up for a six-monthly instead of a three-
monthly period, and was based upon an estimate of the different
kinds of labour required for new works to be undertaken. The
ordinance of 1925 prescribed that persons of independent means
must have at least 500, and the Government officials administered
their regulations so rigorously that even in cases where this sum
was forthcoming, the intervention of the Executive was often
1
The Jewish National Fund: Its History f Functionsf and Activity, by Adolf Boehm
and Adolf Pollak (Jerusalem, 1939), p. 37.
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME.,
necessary. The ordinance was supplemented by further regulations

in 1926 and again amended in 1927, since when it has
provided
for the admission of the following categories:
A. (I)
Persons in possession of not less than 1,000, and their
families.
(ii)
Professional men in possession of not less than 500.
(iii) Skilled artisans in possession of not less than 250.
(iv) Persons with an assured income of 4 per month.
B. (i) Orphans destined for institutions in Palestine.
(ii)
Persons of religious occupation whose maintenance is
assured,
(iii)
Students whose maintenance is assured.
C. Persons who have a definite prospect of employment.
D. Dependent relatives of residents in Palestine who are
in a position to maintain them.
This ordinance has substantially governed the admission of

Jews to the present time, while the regulations regarding the cate-
gories A. (ii) and A. (iii) have been applied with particular rigour
and occasionally suspended for periods of varying length. The
category that has formed the subject of the most frequent discus-
sions and most serious differences between the Administration
and the Zionist Executive is that of the workers with a definite
prospect of employment, drawn up by the Execu-

as the estimates
tive, no matter how detailed and carefully compiled and factually
justified, have invariably been greatly reduced by the Administra-
tion. This niggardly policy of the Government has often produced
a shortage of Jewish labour, which has seriously hampered eco-
nomic development and caused a drift of Jewish workers from
rural settlements to the towns in search of better-paid em-
ployment.
The Jews who have settled in Palestine have come from all
parts of the world. They have been drawn in the largest number,
naturally enough, from regions of political intolerance or eco-
nomic depression, such as Eastern and Central Europe and the
Yemen, but they have also migrated from lands as varied and as
remote from one another as Siberia and South Africa, Canada and
Argentina, Morocco and Persia, England and the United States.
Indeed, it would be difficult to name a single country that is not
represented in the variegated Jewry of Palestine. The younger
element predominated in the so-called Third Ally ah (wave of
immigration) of 1920-2, Soon after the First
World War societies
of Halutzim (Pioneers) sprang up in Poland and other parts of
Eastern and Central Europe for the purpose of giving their
members, young men and women, a training either in agriculture
or in some manual craft and a knowledge of Hebrew as a spoken
1
in response
tongue. The movement had begun in Russia, largely
to the infectious enthusiasm of Trumpeldor, and hundreds of
young Jews from that country braved all kinds of perils in their
adventurous journeys to Palestine. Many were university students,
who broke off their academic career in order to engage in the
laborious toil of rebuilding their ancestral home; and all were
medically examined to ensure their physical fitness before receiv-
permits from the local Palestine Office.
Such
ing immigration
offices, whose business was to help and advise emigrants from
it
the time of their selection, existed, not only in most of the capitals
of the European continent, the largest being those in Warsaw,
Vienna, Berlin, and Bucharest, but also in many provincial cities,
such as Cracow, Lwow, Czeraowitz, and Galatz, and the embarka-
tion ports of Constanza and Trieste. Upon their arrival in Pales-
tine, the newcomers were welcomed by officials of the Zionist Im-
migration Department, lodged and fed in hostels, and looked

after
until they could be directed to an agricultural settlement or found
employment in their respective trades. The Immigration Depart-

ment paid the fees demanded by the Government in respect of
each arrival, f i for landing and IQS. for quarantine, and also
granted loans for the payment of rent during the initial period, as
well as for the purchase of tools and goods and for travelling
expenses to the settler's destination.
The number of Jewish immigrants rose steadily during the first
five years of the Civil Administration from 8,223 i n 1 9^ to 34,386
in 1925. The first marked rise, to 13,892, was in 1924, when the
fourth^f liyah began, containing a large proportion of persons from

Poland, some with capital, who were forced to emigrate by the
Finance Minister Grabski's anti-Jewish policy. This influx gave
a strong impetus to the economic development of Palestine, caused
land values to rise, and resulted in extensive building activity,
particularly in Tel-Aviv. But after reaching
the record total of
1925, not only did the number of immigrants sink to 13,855 in

1926, but more than half of that number left the country. In 1927
1
These societies were united in a federation, Hehalutz, which at one time included
over 100,000 members. The headquarters were at first in Berlin and afterwards in
Warsaw.
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME, 1919-29 165
there was a further and more serious decline of immigration to
3,034, while the volume of emigration was nearly twice that figure.
Not until 1928 was there an improvement, when, although there
were only ,175 new arrivals, the number of departures was about
the same; and in 1929 there was an appreciable change for the
better, as immigration rose to 5,249, while emigration fell to one-
third of that number.
Thereason for the decline of immigration in the years 1926
to 1928 was a labour depression due to a variety of causes, the
chief of which were delays in the arrival of new settlers and the
economic crisis in Poland, the country which provided about
40 per cent, of the immigrants. Unfortunately, the half-yearly
labour schedules were not issued early enough to enable the
recipients of the certificates to reach Palestine in time for the
beginning of the working season, and consequently many of them
fell a burden
upon the labour market. The crisis in Poland an
aftermath of the war was dominated by a state of inflation, which
seriously hit a great number of Jews from that country who had
embarked upon building activities in Palestineand found them-
selves short of the additional capital necessary for the completion
of their undertakings. There was a decrease in the immigration
of persons with means and an increase in the proportion of those
without means, the latter being mainly workmen or dependents
of relatives already settled in Palestine. The sudden slump in the
building industry also affected many allied trades and the general
economic life of Palestinian Jewry. The depression was first no-
ticeable in 1925, and by the following summer it became so serious
that the Zionist Executive were obliged to relieve the unemployed
by the payment of "doles" and to continue doing so for over
a year. By the end of August, 1927, the number of unemployed
reached its peak 8,400. The depression was relieved to some
extent by a transfer of workers to the agricultural colonies, but
it was not until the Government and various municipalities had
initiated some public works, principally road-building and drain-
age,and the Zionist Executive, with special funds provided mainly
by Jews in America and England, promoted an extensive pro-
gramme of works in the spring of 1928, that the "dole" system was
abolished and unemployment was reduced to a minimum. From
May, 1928, the number of unemployed was below 2,000, and the
economic position gradually improved.
The interests of the Jewish workers are looked after mainly by
the Labour Department of the Zionist Executive and the Hista-
druth Ha-Ovedim (The General Federation of Jewish Labour),
usually called the Histadruth. The Labour Department not only
devotes itself to finding employment for the workers in their re-
spective trades, but has also organised industrial training (e.g. in
stone quarrying and fishing), furnishes loans for house-building,
watches over labour legislation (e.g. compensation for accidents),
subsidises labour exchanges, and takes the initiative in settling
1
strikes. The
Histadruth, which was founded at a workers' confer-
ence in Haifa, in 1920, is a Federation of labour unions and has a
very wide range of activities. It was formed by the union of the
two parties Ahduth Ha-Avodah andHapoel Hatzair, as well as of
a number of parallel institutions belonging to them. Its declared
purpose was to make Palestine the home of the Jewish people on
the basis of Jewish labour, and to further the political, economic,
2
social, and cultural interests of all its members. Beginning with a
membership of 4,500, the Histadruth, whose headquarters were

established in Tel-Aviv, gradually acquired an ever-increasing
influence in the development of Jewish national life and attained
a membership within twenty years of 120,000. It comprises not
only a number of trade unions, of which the most important are
those of the agricultural and the building workers, but also a very
large number of co-operative settlements, several co-operative so-
cieties, a workers' sick benefit fund
(Kupath Holirri), a special
travelling theatre, Ohel ("The Tent"), a youth organisation, and
a sports association, Hapoel ("The Worker"). Its principal co-
operatives are Hamashbir^ the central wholesale consumers'
society, Tnuvah, the central marketing co-operative (which con-
trols the sale of the products of the workers' settlements), Solel
Boneh, the building guild contracting for large-scale works, Nir,
which owns the property of the labour settlements and helps to
found new ones, and Yakhin, the co-operative contracting society
for agricultural work. It also has its own "Workers' Bank," be-
sides a chain of loan and saving societies, a Labour Fund, an
insurance society, an immigration bureau, and labour exchanges.
Its cultural activities, to which it also attaches high importance,
are under the direction of separate Commissions, which control
1
The full title is Histadruth Hakelalith Shel Ha-Ovedim Ha-Ivrim be-Eretz Israel
(General Federation of the Jewish Workers in Palestine). Its membership now
amounts to over 150,000.
3
See article by Berl Locker, "Twenty Years of Histadruth/' in The New Judaea,
January, 1941.
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME, igig-Sg 167
the schools belonging to its particular system and foster adult edu-
cation. Recognising the importance of co-operation between Jew-
ish and Arab workers, the Histadruth has helped in the creation
of Arab unions as well as of joint unions in undertakings where
Jews and Arabs worked together (as in Government and munici-
1
pal services, and in enterprises controlled by foreign non-Jewish

capital). There is also a separate organisation of orthodox workers,
called Hapoel Hamizrachi.
The branch
of labour to which Jewish workers primarily de-
voted themselves was agriculture, since cultivation of the soil was
from the very beginning regarded as a fundamental basis of the
National Home. The two leading agencies for the establishment
of agricultural settlements are the Zionist Organisation and the
P.LG.A. (Palestine Jewish Colonisation Association), a company
formed in 1925 to administer the estates of the LC.A. in Palestine,
mainly acquired by Baron Edmond de Rothschild,* The principal
districts in which Zionist settlements have been created are the
Valley of Jezreel, the Maritime Plain, Upper and Lower Galilee,

and Judaea, and the number of Jews settled over a total area of
3
130,000 dunams within the first ten years of the British Admini-
stration was 6,700, forming over one-fifth of the entire Jewish
rural population. By far the most important district is the Valley
of Jezreel, commonly called the "Emek" ("Valley"), which ex-
tends from the foot of Mount Carmel to the hills of Lower
Galilee. Owing to the extensive marshes that existed there and the
prevalence of malaria, systematic drainage operations had to
be
carried out in order to render the land fit for cultivation; and
thanks to the labours and perseverance of the Halutzim, what was
once a barren wilderness was transformed into a fertile and flour-
ishing centre of colonisation. Unlike the privately owned colonies,
which, actuated by the profit motive, were mainly devoted to
plantations, particularly vines and oranges, the Zionist settlements,
concerned with the general interests of the Jewish population,
went in largely for mixed farming. This included not only the
growing 'of
crops and vegetables, dairy-farming, and the rearing of
poultry and cattle, but also fruit plantations, all of which were
1
For example, the Railway, Post and Telegraph Workers' Union.
2
The Chairman of P.I.C.A. since its establishment has been Mr. James de Roth-
schild, son of Baron Edmond de Rothschild.
'The total area held by the Jewish National Fund in 1929 was 270,000 dunams.
The 130,000 dunams included 15,000 occupied by settlements belonging to other
agencies, but supported by the Zionist Organisation. There
was thus an area of
155,000 dunams held in reserve.
conducted In accordance with the most advanced methods and
yielded results greatly surpassing
even the "best achieved by Arab
farmers. By far the most extensive development took place in the
cultivation of citrus fruit (oranges,lemons, and grape-fruit),
which increased to large proportions and soon provided the coun-
in all branches of agriculture
try's most Important export. Progress
was furthered by the advice and information disseminated by the
at Tel-Aviv.
Agricultural Experiment Station
There are three main types of agricultural
settlement the
so-called "colony," the communal or collective settlement, and
the smallholders* settlement. The distinguishing feature of the
"colonies/' which were largely the foundations of Baron de
Rothschild and are situated mostly in the coastal plain and
Galilee, is that the land is the private property of the settlers. As
the early immigrants differed in ability and enjoyed varying
fortune, some of them became the owners of larger estates than
they and their families could cultivate, while others could barely
earn a living; and as the prosperous farmers had a need for hired
labour and the number of Jews willing to supply it was quite
inadequate, they engaged cheap
Arab labour. The
consequence
of this system, based on the pursuit of profit, was the growth of
considerable social disparities in the village community, which
were quite out of harmony with the idealism that had originally
Inspired its founders. A radical change
was brought about under
the Influence of the Zionist Organisation and the Jewish National
Fund, for the Jews whom they settled on the soil were primarily
actuated by the desire that the land should remain permanently
In Jewish possession, and they considered it essential to this end
that it should always be cultivated by Jewish labour. They formed
to the Histadruth, and each
groups whose members all belonged
group was allotted by the Jewish National Fund, on a forty-nine
years' lease
and at a very moderate rental, only as much land as
it could itself cultivate. The settlement was based oil four cardinal
Jewish national ownership of the soil, (2)

"self-
principles: (i)
labour," which meant the rigorous exclusion of hired labour,
(3) mutual assistance,
and (4) co-operative buying and selling.
These settlements, many of which were provided by the Keren
and general
Hayesod with the money for their buildings, cattle,
consist of two main types the Kvutzah or
farming equipment,
collective settlement, and the Moshav Ovedim or small-holders'
settlement.
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME,, 1
9 1
Q-S 9 169
The Kvutzah is the collective property of the group and is con-
ducted on strictly co-operative principles. All its members share
alike in both the work and its proceeds, but they receive no wages.
They eat in a communal hall; sleep either in a family room or in

dormitories, according to whether they are married or single;
obtain their clothing from the communal store; and receive
a limited weekly allowance for such amenities as cigarettes or
profits are made go into

a visit to the nearest cinema. Whatever
the communal treasury for the maintenance and improvement of
the settlement. The young children sleep in a communal dormi-
tory,although in many kvutzoth the elder children have a room
adjoining that of their parents. The larger kvutzoth have their
own schools, while the smaller ones build joint schools. They all
have a recreation room (which is often the dining-hall) for lec-
tures and most of the members
concerts; they have a library, for
have intellectual and they meet very frequently to dis-
interests;
cuss the allocation of tasks and other matters. Only those able to
discipline themselves, to deny themselves privacy and personal

convenience, and to exercise mutual forbearance, can live
amicably in such a form of society; and indeed, only those are
admittedwho have previously undergone at least a year's training
1
mode of life and work in Europe before going to Palestine.
in this
Owing to the difficulty experienced by many settlers in accom-
modating themselves to the rigid discipline of the Kvutzah,
a modified form of settlement, the Moshav Ovedim, was devised,
combining the advantages of the colony with those of the co-
operative settlement. The first Moshav was established in 1921 in
Nahalal, in the Vale of Jezreel, and was soon followed by others.
In the Moshav the settlers have each a small-holding, which is just
large enough to be cultivated by one family; they have each a
cottage and farm and enjoy the privacy of family life; and, as in
1
The collective settlements, whose membership ranges from a few score to a few
hundred, are combined in four different associations, each of which has its distinc-
tive features. They are Kibbutz Hameuchad ("United Collective"), Kibbutz Artzi
Hashomer Hatzair ("All-Palestine Collective") , Hever Hakvutzoth ("League of
Communal Groups") , and Hakibbutz Hadati ("Religious Collective'*). The Kibbutz
Artzi is the strictest in insisting
upon the previous training of its members before
admission; those who join one of its constituents come from the same country,
where they had worked together, and must all be members of the Hashomer Hatzair
party. The Kibbutz Hameuchad, whose members may belong to different wings of
the Labour Party, comprises large Kvutoth, which also contain industries. The
Hever Hakvutzoth consists of small autonomous groups primarily belonging to the
"Gordonia" association. Hakibbutz Hadati, which was organised by Hapoel Hamiz-
rachi,embraces the settlements conducted in strict accordance with the requirements
of religious tradition. A detailed account of these settlements is given in Maurice
Pearlman's Collective Adventure (Heinemann, 1938).
the other settlements, they adhere to the principles of "self-
labour," mutual assistance, and the joint purchase of require-
ments and sale of produce.
and
Apart from the Zionist Organisation (or Jewish Agency)
the P.I.C.A., some smaller companies were also formed for agri-
cultural colonisation, the principal one being Hanoteah, which
was established by a group of Palestinian-born Jews called "Bne
Benjamin ("Sons of Benjamin," the latter being the
Hebrew
name of Baron Edmond de Rothschild), and the Jaffa Plantations,
Limited.
Jewish National Fund not only bought

The land for agricultur-
al development, but effected improvements of the soil wherever
necessary, as in the case of the Emek, by draining swamps, regulat-

the of stones and
ing streams and water-courses, clearing ground
weeds, and building roads. It carried out needful schemes of affor-
estation by planting hundreds of thousands of trees in once-
wooded areas that had been denuded, so as to check erosion and
restore the beauty of the landscape; and it popularised the custom
of planting groves and woods in honour of famous persons (like
the Herzl and Balfour Forests). It also bought urban and sub-
urban land for the building of residential quarters, as well as
large plots for public institutions. One of the largest areas of this
kind was a tract of 29,000 dunams in the Haifa Bay district, which
acquired in 1925-8. The Keren Hayesod co-operated with
it the
National Fund in agricultural colonisation, inasmuch as it
pro-
vided the money for everything needed besides land for the
creation of settlements. But its sphere was very much larger, as it
not only furnished the finance for all the variegated activities-
socialand economic, political and cultural of the Zionist Execu-
tive, but also participated in important enterprises, such as
Rutenberg's electrification scheme and the exploitation of the

mineral deposits of the Dead Sea, which have been of great bene-
fit to the general development of the country.
Parallel with the growth of agricultural colonisation there was
a notable development in the urban districts, since thousands of
Jewish immigrants were skilled in crafts for which employment
could only or best be found in the cities. There was a rapid in-
crease of the Jewish population in the four principal cities, Jeru-

salem, Jaffa, Tel- Aviv, and Haifa, which gave a vigorous stimulus
to the building industry. The most striking expansion took place
in Tel-Aviv, where the population grew from 2,000 in 1914 to
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME,, 1919-29 171
40,000 in 1929; and the total amount of Jewish capital invested in

building in the cities in that year was 1,742,000. Before the Brit-
ish occupation, the only industries in Palestine consisted of the
manufacture of wine, soap, and olive-wood articles, but the Jews
wrought a remarkable transformation by introducing numerous
trades previously unknown in the country. Factories, mills, and
workshops multiplied enormously, accompanied by an impressive
increase in the diversity of their products, which did not always
depend either upon local demand or upon the requisite materials

being locally available. A
census of Jewish industries taken in
1926 by the Palestine Zionist Executive showed that there were
558 establishments employing 5,700 persons, comprising the
following eight main categories: building materials (including
stone and marble quarries, cement, bricks, and floor-tiles), textiles
(weaving, knitting, tailoring, embroidery, hat-making, etc.), leath-
er (shoe-making, tanning, and saddlery), wood (furniture, joinery,
packing-cases for oranges, carriages, etc.), chemical industry (soap
and candles, matches, fertilisers, paints, etc.), paper (printing,
engraving, lithography, stationery, and bookbinding), metal in-
dustry (machinery, foundries, metal articles for buildings, etc.),
and foodstuffs (mills, bakeries, edible oils, dairy products, canned
fruits, beer, etc.). There was also a miscellaneous category of
twenty-six factories, including such articles as cigarettes, umbrellas
1
and artificial teeth. The factory for artificial teeth, established by
an American Jew in Tel-Aviv, was a notable instance of an enter-
prise based upon imported materials, and the good quality of the
products was attested by the fact that they were exported mainly
to England. A census carried out four years later, in 1930, showed
that the number of Jewish urban enterprises had been quadru-
pled. There was a total of 2,274, which gave work to 9,362 persons,
had an invested capital of nearly 1,000,000 and manufactured
3
products worth over 1,600,000 a year.

An important part in the development of these industries, and
indeed, in making some of them possible, was played by the
Palestine Electric Corporation, which operated the concession
granted to Mr. Rutenberg for the production of electric power
from the Jordan and the Yarmuk. Other leading enterprises were
the "Nesher" Cement Works, the "Shemen" Works of the Eastern
Oil Industries, Ltd., which manufactured edible oils, soaps, and
*
Report of the Joint Palestine Survey Commission, 1928 (pp. 71-2).
*
Palestine: Report on Immigration, Land Settlement and Development, by Sir
John Hope Simpson, 1930 (p. 107) .

1^2 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
perfumes, and the large flour mills, "Grands Moulins de Pales-
tine/' originally founded by Baron Edmond de Rothschild, all
three of which are situated at Haifa. The wine trade, concentrated
in the Co-operative Society of the Vine-Growers of Rishon le-Zion
and Zichron Jacob, produced in 1929 about 30 million litres of
wines and spirits, with a total value of 80,000. All these various
industries gave an incentive to the motor transport trade in the
form of buses and lorries, which was largely promoted by Jewish
1
enterprise, and also to the holding of industrial exhibitions at
Tel-Aviv.
Theindustrial progress of the country was reflected in the
expansion of commerce and the growth of trade relations with

other countries. The Jewish banks actively co-operated in these
developments. The Anglo-Palestine Bank provided the bulk of
discount credit and in some cases financed exports. The Palestine
Corporation, a subsidiary company of the Economic Board for
Palestine (formed in 1921 by a number of English Jews, with the
first Lord Melchett as the first Chairman), participated in the
founding of the Palestine Electric Corporation and facilitated the

purchase of raw materials; and the Palestine Economic Corpora-
tion (created by the Mack-Brandeis group in the United States)
provided long-term credits for selected industries. The Central

1
Bank of Co-operative Institutions, Ltd., and the Workers Bank
catered for the workshops organised on a co-operative basis, while
the Artisans' Bank and similar credit institutions were concerned
with the interests of the artisan class.
The Hebrew school-system, which had come under the control
of the Zionist Organisation in 1914, embraced about 80 per cent,
of all the Jewish schools in the country, the others belonging to
the Alliance Israelite, the Anglo-Jewish Association, and some
orthodox organisations (e.g. the old-fashioned Talmud Torah
schools). The Zionist Executive undertook the maintenance of the
Hebrew schools as naturally as the Government took under its
care the Arab schools, for the former were regarded as con-
stituting the fundamental cultural basis of Jewish national life.
It was there that the younger generation were not only taught the
usual subjects of a school curriculum and given a knowledge of
Jewish history and literature, but also inspired with a love of the
land of Israel and familiarised with its physical features and nat-
ural history. These schools also played no small part in the Hebra-
1
In 1929 there were already 200 Jewish-owned motor omnibuses employed in the
three principal cities.
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME, igig-gg 173
isation of the parents and of the Jewish population in general.
The Government might have been prepared to maintain them
entirely at its own cost, but only on condition that it had complete
control over them, as regards both management* and curriculum
a condition to which the Yishuv could obviously not agree. The
Government regarded them at first as private institutions, but, in
view of its obligation to facilitate the establishment of the Jewish
National Home, it agreed after some years to recognise them as
forming the Jewish national school system and to participate in
their support. It began by giving a grant in 1920-1 o 2,600, but
after repeated representations by the Zionist Executive, it in-
creased its contribution by stages, and appointed Jewish inspectors
of its own to co-operate with those of the Jewish Board of Educa-
tion (Vaad Hahinnuchj consisting of representatives of the Execu-
tive, the Vaad Leumi^ and the Teachers' Union). By the year
1928-9, when the Zionist educational network embraced over 220

schools of different kinds, with nearly 20,000 pupils, and had an
expenditure of 120,000, the Government had increased its grant
to 20,000. The Keren Hayesod contributed 70,000, and the bal-
ance was provided by the Yishuv (in the form of tuition fees and
grants from Jewish town and rural councils) and the P.I.C.A.
The Zionist educational system comprises all grades kinder-
garten, elementary, and secondary schools, as well as trade schools
and teachers' seminaries. Owing to ideological differences, the
schools belong to three different categories general, Mizrachi,
and Labour: a system that has been subjected to much criticism,
but for the simplification of which no proposal has yet proved
acceptable. Although the general schools included instruction in
the Bible and prayer-book, they leave the question of conformity
with religious tradition and ritual to the parents, while the Miz-
rachi insists that religious observance must be taught by the
teachers and that the curriculum must include purely religious
subjects (e.g. Talmud and Midrash). On the other hand, the
schools in the Labour settlements have their own curriculum, as,
owing to the labour arrangements, the children are under the care
of the teachers for longer periods than in the urban schools and
their parents wish them to brought up in their own ideology. The
Mizrachi and Labour schools, have separate ad-
therefore,
ministrative machinery, which, however, is subordinated to the
Vaad Hahinnuch. Students over the age of seventeen, who have
passed the leaving examination of a secondary school, are admit-
ted to the Technical Institute at Haifa, where instruction was first
1*74
confined to a four years* course in building or architecture, fol-
lowed by a year's practical work, or to the University.
The coping-stone of the educational system is the Hebrew
University, which, originally conceived as a centre of research
and post-graduate began undergraduate teaching a few
study,
years after it was opened. Its first faculty, as befitted such an
institution in the Holy City, comprised Institutes of Jewish and
Oriental Studies and also held general courses in philosophy,
history, and literature; but the University also included a few
departments of a Faculty of Science, devoted to mathematics,
chemistry, microbiology, and Palestine natural history. The early
development of the University was restricted by a shortage of
funds, but as this handicap was overcome it gradually expanded
into a seat of learning and scientific research, which became the
most notable academic centre throughout the Near and Middle
East. Subserving the needs of the University and promoting the
general intellectual interests of the country is the Jewish National

and University Library, which was built up from the library
founded in 1902 by a Bialystok physician, Dr. Joseph Chasano-
1
witsch (who used to accept rare books as fees from his patients.)
By the year 19219 it contained nearly 250,000 volumes, including
valuable incunabula and manuscripts.
The Zionist Executive considered it their duty also to look after
the physical welfare of the Jewish population. They set up a
Health Council (Vaad Habriuth) for the purpose of co-ordinating
and supervising all Jewish institutions and organisations con-
cerned with health work and co-operating with the Public Health
Department of the Government. The Hadassah Medical Organi-
sation and the Kupath Holim were the bodies mainly responsible
for the Jewish Health Service, to which the Government made a
small grant. The Hadassah Organisation, so-called because it was
founded and supported by Hadassah, the Women's Zionist Or-
ganisation of America, began its activity in Palestine in 1918, some
months after the British entry into the country. It established and
maintained four hospitals (one each in Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv,
Haifa, and Safed), several clinics and laboratories, and a nurses'
training school in Jerusalem. It organised an excellent maternity
and child hygiene service in most of the large cities and in a num-
ber of the bigger villages, covering maternity, infant, pre-school
x
Dr. Chasanowitsch (1844-1920), who was one of the delegates at the Kattowitz
Conference, sent 10,000 volumes to Jerusalem in 1906. He died in a poor-house at
Ekatineroslav (now Dnepropetrovsk).
BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME, 1919-29 175
and school hygiene. Its expenditure in 1930 was nearly 110,000,
which exceeded the entire amount spent by the Government
Health Department. The Kupath Holim, the Sick Benefit Society
of the Jewish Labour Federation, maintained its own out-patient
departments in five cities, provided physicians and nurses for its
18,000 members (besides 12,000 dependents) in fifty-three rural
centres, and conducted a central hospital and two convalescent
homes. Its budget of 55,000 in 1930 was covered chiefly by
membership dues, and partly by contributions from employers and
grants from the Jewish Agency and Hadassah. In the absence of
a compulsory insurance law, the growth and strength of this so-
ciety was a tribute to the organising powers and solidarity of the
Labour Federation.
Thanks to the systematic efforts of the Hadassah and the Kupath
Holim, the prevalence of such diseases as tuberculosis, malaria,
trachoma, and typhoid, which, previously had sorely tried the
Jewish still more, the
(and, Arab) population, was very con- ,
siderably reduced, and health conditions were greatly improved.

The beneficent results of their activities were shown in the decline
of the general mortality rate among Jews from 12.6 per 1,000 in
1924 to 9.6 in 1930 (compared with 29 and 27 respectively among
Moslems), and still more strikingly in the fall of infantile mortality
among Jews from 105 per 1,000 in 1924 to 69 in 1930 (compared
with 199 and 169 respectively among Moslems).1
We have now surveyed all the main branches of activity
immigration and labour, agriculture and industry, trade and
commerce, education and health that contributed to the building
up of the Jewish National Home during the first decade of British
administration. These activities, as has already been explained,
were all directed and mainly or solely financed by the Zionist
Executive (either through the Keren Hayesod or the Jewish
National Fund). But while this Executive acted on behalf of those
sections of the Jews of the world who identified themselves with
the cause of a Jewish Palestine, there was a separate body to
represent the Jews of Palestine. This is the Knesseth Israel (Con-
gregation of Israel), which absorbed the Vaad Leumi that was
elected in 1920 and the local Vaads that functioned in various Jew-
ish urban and rural districts. The Regulations for the Jewish Com-
munity were promulgated as an ordinance in the official Gazette
dated January i8th, 1928, and were based upon the Religious
1
Palestine: A Decade of Development. The Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, November, 1932. Article, "Public Health in Palestine/'
by Dr. I. J. Kligler.
Communities Ordinance of 1926. The
Knesseth Israel was the
but a small minority,
democratically organised Jewish community;
the ultra-orthodox organisation, Agudath Israel ("League of
far more numerous in Eastern Europe than in
Israel"), which was
Palestine,was allowed by the Government, after lodging protests
with the Mandatory and the League of Nations, to contract out
and administer its own affairs, its membership at the time being
about 10,000. The Mizrachi and other orthodox elements were at
in the draft
opposed to the suffrage for women,
first provided as
there was such
ordinance, and it was owing to this opposition that
1
a delay before the law came into force.
The communal organisation includes an Elected Assembly

of seventy-one membersthe number of
(Asefath Hanivharim)
the old Sanhedrin which is elected by adult suffrage and meets
elects a National Council (Vaad
annually, and which, in turn,
Leumi}, usually consisting of twenty-three
members (representing
2
different Zionist parties and other groups). The religious side

of two Chief Rabbis,
comprises a Rabbinical Council, composed
one for the and the other for the Ashkenazic Jews, and
Sephardic
six Rabbinical members (three for each section). This Council
exercises authority in religious matters and forms the Rabbinical
Tribunal, which has jurisdiction in matters of personal status of
members of the community. The Elected Assembly has the power
to levy upon its members a tax for education, health, and social
welfare, as well as for contributions to the maintenance
of the
Rabbinical Offices and Rabbis, and the Vaad Leumi. In each town
or village of any size a Vaad or municipal Council is elected,
adult suffrage, and the local communities
usually by a system of
of the ritual slaughter
may be authorised to impose fees in respect
of animals, licences for the making or selling of unleavened bread,
and the grant of certificates in accordance with the law. Such,
of the corporate life
then, was the general framework of^the Jews
in Palestine by the end of the first decade o British administration.
1
The firstelections did not take place until January 5th, 1931.
2
The full text of the Regulations for the Organisation Jewish Community
of the
on Palestine and TransJordan for 1927
isgiven in the British Government's Report
as "General a
to the League of Nations, pp. 81-93. Vaad Leumi figures Council,'^
mistranslation (due to political grounds) against which protest
was made in vam.
the communal organ-
See also Knesseth Israel be-Eretz Israel, a historical account of
isation and its activities, by Moshe Attias (Jerusalem, 1944)
In August, 1944, the
.
Elected Assembly was enlarged to 171 members, who were elected by 202,448
voters
of a total of 280,000). The main parties were the Palestine Labour

(out register
other Labour and Left groups with SO
Party, which secured 63 seats, followed by
seats, the Mizrachi with 27, the Aliyah Hadashah f
new settlers" from Central
with an allied Labour group, 7.
Europe) with 18, and General Zionists (A),
CHAPTER XI
EXTENSION OF THE JEWISH AGENCY
was realised in responsible Zionist circles, soon after the issue

IT of the Balfour Declaration, that the establishment of the
Jew-
ish National Home was bound to
prove too formidable a task for
the unaided efforts of the Zionist Organisation, and that it would
be necessary to enlist the active co-operation, on as large a scale as
possible, of Jews who remained outside the Organisation. At the
Zionist Conference held in London in July, 1920, a resolution was
adopted in favour of the convening of a Jewish World Congress,
constituted on a democratic which should be "the
basis,
authoritative body to speak and
on behalf
act of the Jewish people
in all national affairs." This resolution made no reference to the
rebuilding of Palestine as one of the tasks to be undertaken by
the suggested World Congress, but a proposal adopted by the
Twelfth Zionist Congress, held in September, 1921, was more
explicit. It was to the effect that the "Actions Committee" (Gen-
eral Council), in conjunction with the Executive of the American
Jewish Congress, the Vaad Leumi, and other Jewish democratic

organisations, should "take the necessary steps for the convocation
of a Jewish World Congress, whose task it shall be to organise all
Jewish national forces for the reconstruction of Palestine/' But
consideration of this proposal was deferred pending the ratifica-
tion of the Palestine Mandate, which took place on July 24th, 1922-
The Mandate contained specific mention of a "Jewish agency"
to co-operate with the Administration of Palestine in the follow-
ing three articles:
"Article 4. An appropriate Jewish Agency shall be recognised

as a public body for the purpose of advising and co-operating
with the Administration of Palestine in such economic, social,
and other matters as may affect the establishment of the Jewish
national home and the interests of the Jewish population in
Palestine, and, subject always to the control of the Admini-
stration, to assist and take part in the development of the
country.
"The Zionist Organisation, so long as its organisation and
constitution are, in the opinion of the Mandatory, appropriate,
shall be recognised as such agency. It shall take steps, in con-
sultation with His Britannic Majesty's Government, to secure
the co-operation of all Jews who are willing to assist in the
establishment of the Jewish national home.
"Article 6, The Administration of Palestine, while ensuring
that the rights and position of other sections of the population
are not prejudiced, shall facilitate Jewish immigration under
suitable conditions, and shall encourage, in co-operation with
the Jewish agency referred to in Article 4, close settlement by
Jews on the land, including State and waste lands not required
for public purposes.
"Article n. .The Administration may arrange with the
. .
Jewish agency mentioned in Article 4 to construct or operate
upon fair and equitable terms any public works, services, and
utilities, and to develop any of the natural resources of the
country, in so far as these matters are not directly undertaken

by the Administraiton. . . /'
At a meeting of the Annual Conference held at Carlsbad in

August-September, 1922, a resolution was
adopted that the
Zionist Organisation accepted the rights and duties of the Jewish
Agency and also that it was the wish of the Organisation that
"the Jewish Agency shall represent the whole Jewish people/'
The convocation of "a Jewish World Congress for the reconstruc-
tion of Eretz Israel" was recognised as the best means of realising
this object, and the Executive, as the organ of the Jewish Agency,
was instructed to take the preparatory steps towards bringing it
about. But the Executive soon realised the impossibility of con-
vening such an assembly for a long time, and therefore decided,
in February, 1923, that negotiations should be opened with the
representatives of leading Jewish communities and organisations
with a view to providing for the participation of those bodies in
the Jewish Agency, and to devising the most appropriate methods
of constituting the Agency. It was considered appropriate, as Great
Britain was the Mandatory, to conduct the first negotiations with
of British Jews and of the
representatives of the Board of Deputies
Anglo-Jewish Association, but discussions with these bodies in
1923 led to no immediate result. Dr. Weizmann, who was from the
very beginning the principal and most energetic advocate of the
extension of the Agency by the inclusion of non-Zionists, proposed
thatits controlling organs should be composed in equal numbers
of Zionists and non-Zionists, His plan was strongly opposed by

a small party headed by Isaac Gruenbaum, one of the leaders of
Polish Jewry and a member of the Polish Parliament. This party,
EXTENSION OF THE JEWISH AGENCY
which was called at first the "Democratic Group" and afterwards
the Radical Party, insisted that the enlarged Jewish Agency should
be based on the results of democratic elections, as its members
feared that in a body containing "notables," or persons not in
real sympathy with the principles of Zionism, those principles
would be flouted. A bitter controversy raged around this question
for some years, and formed one of the main features of the four
Zionist Congresses held between 1923 and 1929, until agreement
was at length achieved.
At the Thirteenth Congress, held at Carlsbad in August, 1923,

the opposition to the extension of the Jewish Agency was led by
Gruenbaum, but as his Radical Party numbered only twenty-one
out of 331 elected delegates, there was an overwhelming majority
in tavour of the continuation of negotiations with non-Zionists,
although with certain safeguards.
At this Congress Dr. Weizmann
and Mr. Sokolow were re-elected President of the Organisation
and Chairman of the Executive respectively, and Louis Lipsky
Dr. Max Soloweitchik
(New York), Joseph Cowen (London), and
were elected on the London Executive; but Dr.
(Kovno)
Soloweitchik resigned a few months later on the Jewish Agency
question. A
new figure added to the Executive in Jerusalem was
Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Herman Kisch, D.S.O. (1888-
1
943)^who had lbeen appointed head of the Political Department
of the Palestine Executive some months previously, and had had
a distinguished career in the British Army. Kisch became Chair-
man of the Palestine Executive, replacing Ussishkin, who was not
re-elected on that body. Ussishkin became Chairman of the Board
of Directors of the Jewish National Fund, and in that position,
which he held until his death eighteen years later, he rendered
very valuable services, which bore fruit in the remarkable growth
of the Fund and the expansion of land in Jewish possession.
The most important factor in the extension of the Jewish Agen*
cy consisted of
American Jewry, who were able to make a far more
Palestine than the
substantial contribution to the development of
Jews of any other country.

On
February iyth, 19*4, a "non-
to discuss the Agency question, was held in
partisan conference/*
New York under the chairmanship of Mr. Louis Marshall
President of the American Jewish Committee and
(1856-1929),
the recognised leader of American Jewry.
The members of the
but they could
Conference attended in their individual capacities,
to be representative of a large body of American
fairly be said
the Zionist movement. Dr.
Jews not hitherto associated with
Weizmann was present and took part in the proceedings. After
it was agreed to appoint a committee to
prolonged discussion,
study the further
question
and to formulate an appropriate plan
in the
whereby American Jews could associate themselves Agency;
another committee was appointed for the purpose of organising
an investment corporation with adequate capital for developing
the economic resources of Palestine on an economic basis. At
a second "non-partisan conference" held in New York, on
Marsh ist, 1925, under the chairmanship of Mr. Marshall, in
which Dr. Weizmann again participated, a committee was elected
"to bring about the creation and recognition of a Jewish Agency"
on the following basis: that the Zionists and the non-Zionists shall
each form 50 per cent, of the Council and of the Executive Com-
mittee of the Agency, and that of the non-Zionist members of the
Council 40 per cent, shall be representative of American Jewry.
As for the proposed investment corporation, it was reported that
the Palestine Economic Corporation had been established with an
authorised capital of 3,000,000 dollars, and with a board of
directors including Mr. Bernard Flexner as President, and Mr.
Marshall and Colonel Herbert H. Lehmann as Vice-Presidents.
The results of the negotiations in New York and London were
submitted to the Fourteenth Zionist Congress, which met in
Vienna In August, 1925. The Congress also had before it a report
of the Inquiries as to the prospects of non-Zionist participation in
the Agency which had been made in a number of other countries,
including Germany, Holland, Italy, and Canada. The proposed
of
reorganisation of the Agency was one of the principal subjects
discussion at the Congress, at which the opposition of the Radical
Party was reinforced by a new party, the Revisionists, and by
some American Zionists. The Revisionist Party was formed in
April, 1955, by Vladimir Jabotinsky, who advocated

a "revision"
of Zionist policy In the sense of a return to HerzFs original con-
1
ception of a Jewish State. His two basic demands were the
1
Jabotinsky resigned from the Zionist Executive in the course of a meeting of the
"Actions Committee" in Berlin, in January, 1923. The ostensible reason was his
opposition to Dr. Weizmann's conciliatory attitude to British Palestine policy,
al-
though he had himself subscribed to the White Paper of 1922. The immediate
cause of his resignation was the demand of the Labour Party that he should appear
before a Zionist Committee appointed to investigate the facts relating to his reported
negotiations with the notorious General Petlura, the organiser of Pogroms in
Southern Russia in 1919-21, concerning a Jewish self-defence corps in connection
with the Ukrainian army. Jabotinsky did not appear before the Committee, nor
give any explanation of his refusal to do so.
EXTENSION OF THE JEWISH AGENCY l8l
restoration of the "Jewish legion" (which he had

helped to create
in 1917) and a "colonisation regime/ by which he meant that
7
the Palestine Administration should itself promote

Jewish immi-
gration and colonisation. Hecontended that only in this way
could a Jewish majority be achieved on both sides of the Jordan,
and as such an objective could be pursued only by a leadership
with a strong nationalist consciousness, he was
opposed to the
extension of the Jewish Agency, which would mean sharing
the leadership with "assimilationist notables/' Dr. Stephen Wise,
as the principal spokesman of a group of American Zionists
opposed to the extension of the Jewish Agency, made a vigorous
attack upon the Soviet project of a Jewish settlement in the
Crimea, which was favoured by Mr. Marshall and his friends,
partly because the scheme ran counter to the principles of Jewish
nationalism, and partly because an appeal in America for its
financial support would affect the response to Zionist funds. On
the other hand, Weizmann and the other advocates of the Agency's
enlargement argued that it was only by allowing non-Zionists to
share in the responsibility for the work in Palestine that the latter
could be pledged to share in its prosecution, and also that to
quicken the development of the National Home would result in
strengthening Zionism itself.
After prolonged debate, the Congress decided in favour of the
establishment of a Council of the Jewish Agency consisting of an
equal number of Zionists and non-Zionists, provided that the
activities of the Agency were conducted on the following "In-
violable principles" namely, (a) a continuous increase in the
volume of Jewish immigration, (&) the redemption of the land as
Jewish public property, (c) agricultural colonisation based on
Jewish labour, and (d) the Hebrew language and Hebrew culture.
It was also laid down that the method by which the various com-
munities should appoint their representatives should in each case
be settled by agreement in accordance with local conditions, and
should, so far as possible, take the form of democratic elections;
that 40 per cent, of the seats allotted to bodies other than the
Zionist Organisation should be reserved for the Jewish com-
munity of the United States; and that the President of the Zionist
Organisation should be the President of the enlarged Agency.
The text of the Vienna resolutions was communicated to the
Colonial Office, which had been informed from the very beginning
of the steps taken for the extension of the Jewish Agency, and the
Colonial Office asked for an assurance that it would receive reports
of future developments. The situation became unfavourable,
how-
months owing
ever, forany further progress for nearly eighteen
to the controversy that resulted from the campaign launched in
the United States by the Joint Distribution Committee (an
American Jewish organisation engaged in relief work on an
extensive scale in Eastern Europe and other parts of the world)
for a 15 million dollar fund to be utilised largely for the purpose
of a scheme of Jewish colonisation in Southern Russia. The lead-
were largely identical with those in
ing figures in that organisation
the movement which had led to the convening of the New York
non-partisan Conference,
and the Russian scheme was regarded
with disfavour American Zionists. It was not until
by many
7
Dr. Weizmann s United States in October, 1926,

arrival in the
that the situation began to improveand negotiations with Mr.
Marshall and his associates were resumed. An agreement was
signed between Dr. Weizrnann and Mr.
Marshall on January i7th
1927, as to the desirability

and feasibility of organizing a Jewish
the Palestine Mandate
Agency in accordance with the terms of
and the lines of the resolutions of the Vienna Con-
along general
The agreement further provided for the setting up of "an
gress.
impartial and authoritative
Commission for the two-fold purpose
of carrying out a detailed survey of the economic resources and
possibilities of Palestine,
and of framing a long-term programme
of constructive work in Palestine for the reorganised Jewish
Agency." The immediate result of this agreement was the appoint-

ment of the Joint Palestine Survey Commission, consisting of
1
Lord Melchett, Dr. Lee K. Frankel and Mr. Felix Warburg
(of New York), and
Mr. Oscar Wassermann (of Berlin, a director
of the Deutsche Bank). The terms of reference were set forth in
a letter addressed to the members of the Commission by Dr.
Weizmann and Mr. Marshall on June ist, 1927. All the members
of the Commission visited Palestine in 1927 or 1928, and they

were assisted there by a number of expert advisers, who carried
out detailed investigations. The principal experts
wereSir John
Campbell (immigration and settlement), Professor Elwood Mead

and Professor J. G. Lipman (agricultural colonisation), Dr. Leo
*Lord Melchett (1868-1930), born Alfred Moritz Mond, was a member of the
House of Commons from 1906 to 1928, and a member of the British Government as
First Commissioner of Works, 1916-21, and Minister of Health, 1921-2. He was one
of Great Britain's leading industrialists, first Chairman of the Imperial Chemical
Industries, Ltd., and founder and first Chairman of the Economic Board for Palestine.
EXTENSION OF THE JEWISH AGENCY 183
Wolman (labour and co-operative institution), and Professor
Milton Rosenau (public health).
The Fifteenth Zionist Congress, which met at Basle from
August 30th to September nth, 1927, in the interval between
the appointment of the Joint Palestine Survey Commission and
the publication of its report, again discussed the question of the
reorganisation of the Jewish Agency at considerable length. The
policy laid down by the Congress of 1925 was reaffirmed. Reso-
lutions were adopted expressing the hope that the Agency would
represent, on a democratic basic, the principal Jewish com-

munities of the world, especially the Jishuv of Eretz Israel, and
would include representatives of organised Jewish labour; and the
Executive were requested energetically to continue their nego-
tiations with the Jewish communities of the various countries
concerned. The Fifteenth Congress was also marked by a very
animated and at times bitter debate about the causes of the eco-
nomic depression then existing in Palestine. A
strong desire was
expressed to bring about a state of consolidation in the agricul-
tural settlements, to practise rigid economy, and to eliminate party
influences from the deliberations of the Executive. A
change was
therefore made in the composition of the Executive by confining
it, for the first time, to General Zionists and excluding representa-
tives of the Mizrachi and Labour. In addition to Weizmann and
Sokolow, the Executive elected for London consisted of Dr. M. D.

Eder, Louis Lipsky, and Felix Rosenblueth, while the Executive
for Palestine consisted of Colonel Kisch, Mr. Harry Sacher, and
Miss Henrietta Szold. Dr. Eder resigned in July, 1928, and his
place was filled by Professor Selig Brodetsky.
The Palestine
Executive had a hard struggle to consolidate the settlements on
an income that was inadequate to their requirements, but, in the
latter part of their term, they experienced the satisfaction of seeing
an improvement in the general situation.
Early in June, 1928, the members of the Joint Palestine Survey

Commission met in London to consider the findings of their ex-
pert advisers, and on June i8th they issued a voluminous report
containing a number of important communications with regard
to the activities of the reorganised Jewish Agency, together with
a discussion of the economic resources of Palestine and its possi-
bilities as a field for Jewish colonisation. The Commission criti-
cised the Palestine Government's failure to facilitate "close settle-

ment of Jews on the land, including State lands and waste lands
not required for public purposes," and suggested that the Govern-
ment should adopt such measures as to render certain lands
available for settlement even before its completion of the cadastral
that the Agricultural
survey of the country. It recommended
Colonisation Department of the Zionist Executive should be reor-
on sound economic
ganised and conducted by the Jewish Agency
that the further establishment of com-
principles. It considered
munal settlements was undesirable, but that the equipment of
existing settlements of that character
should be completed. It
made various suggestions for the furtherance of industry and com-
merce, and urged that a larger share of responsibility than hither-

to should be borne by the Government with regard to public
health. In view of the lapse of time that would occur before the
establishment of the enlarged Jewish Agency and the introduction
of the recommendations of the Joint Commission, it stressed the
need of strengthening the position of the existing Zionist funds
activities
during the period of transition, so that the constructive
and consolidation work should not suffer.
When the General Council of the Zionist Organisation met in
Berlin in July, 1928, it declared that the report, in its general
outlines, was of essential importance for the drawing up of a pro-
gramme of work for the Jewish Agency. But it insisted that the
principles laid in the following five proposals formed an

down
unalterable foundation for the establishment of the Agency:
(a) all lands acquired out of the public moneys of the Jewish
Agency shall become the common property of the Jewish people

and be subject to all the principles of the Jewish National Fund in
whatever concerns the ownership of lands and their allotment to
settlers; should be preserved to choose
(6) the right of the settlers
their form of settlement Kvutzah, Moshav, or other form it
being understood that every form of settlement shall satisfy eco-
nomic requirements; (c) Jewish immigration into Palestine shall
be furthered, and both immigrant workers and immigrants with
independent means shall receive the requisite facilities to settle
there; (d) in all works and undertakings furthered by the Jewish
Agency the principle of Jewish labour must be safeguarded; and

(e) the recognition and development of the Hebrew language and
culture.
The report of the Joint Commission was also laid before
a Conference of American Jews convened by Mr. Marshall and
his associates, which met in New York on October 2oth and gist,
1928. This Conference, at which Mr. Marshall presided, was

attended by leading members of Jewish communities and organi-
sations in all part of the United States, and included
representa-
tives of almost all shades of American Jewish opinion. It was
agreed to accept the report of the Commission as a basis for com-

mon action between the American Jewish community and the
Zionist Organisation, within the framework of the Jewish Agency.
The resolutions of the New York non-partisan Conference of 1925
were endorsed, and an organisation committee was empowered to
designate the non-Zionist members of the Council of the Agency
allotted to the United States. The committee was also authorised
to adjust with the Zionist Executive any differences that might
have arisen with respect to the interpretation or operation of any
recommendation contained in the report of the Joint Commission.
An understanding was reached on the points raised in the reserva-
tions made by the Zionist General Council at its Berlin meeting,
and also on the resolution of the Vienna Congress which provided
that the constitution of the reorganised Agency should take effect,
in the first instance, for a period of three years, at the close of
which period the question of its renewal should be decided by
agreement between the Zionist Organisation and the other par-
ticipating bodies. The agreement and the understandings arrived
at were then discussed at a meeting of the Zionist General Council
in Berlin, in December, 1928. By 39 votes to 5, the Zionist Council
expressed with
its satisfaction the results achieved, and authorised
the Executive to take all necessary steps to ensure the establish-
ment of the Council of the extended Jewish Agency and its convo-
cation at the earliest possible moment after the Sixteenth Congress.
The protracted negotiations with American Jewry having thus
been successfully completed, steps were taken during the ensuing
months to secure the co-operation of all other Jewish communities
of any consequence. The adherence of the Anglo-Jewish commu-
nity was declared at a Conference in London, on April 2ist, 1929,
of representatives of Anglo-Jewish institutions and congregations,
convened by the Board of Deputies of British Jews. Similar con-
ferences were held in other countries, although in some,
many
like Canada, Zionism enjoyed such widespread support that there
were no non-Zionists to convene.
The last debate on the extension of the Jewish Agency took
place at the Sixteenth Zionist Congress, which met
at Zurich from
July s8th to August nth, 1929. The objections and apprehensions

jgg THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
of the Radicals and the Revisionists were again
advanced in vain,
and then, by an overwhelming majority, 231 to 30, the Congress
decided in tavour of enlarging the Agency on the
lines agreed
upon by the General Council.

A budget of 420,825 was adopted
col-
for the work in Palestine, including 204,500 for agricultural
onisation, but excluding any amount for land-purchase (the
function of the Jewish National Fund, which never submitted any
previous estimates).
A coalition Executive was again elected, con-
sistingbesides Dr. Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow, of the follow-
Professor Brodetsky, Solomon
ing for London: Lazarus Earth,
and Harry
Kaplansky (Labour), Louis Lipsky, Felix Rosenblueth,
Sacher; and the following for Jerusalem, Rabbi Meir Berlin
(Mizrachi), Colonel Kisch, Dr. Ruppin, Joseph Sprinzak (La-

bour), and Miss Henrietta Szold.
No sooner was the Congress over than the scene changed. On
the afternoon of Sunday, August i ith, in an atmosphere almost of
the constituent meeting of the
festivity, Dr. Weizmann opened
Council of the enlarged Jewish Agency. The various communities
that had agreed to participate were represented by 100 non-Zionist
members of the Council, and there was an equal number of
Zionist members elected the previous day by the Congress. There
were also 300 deputy-members (to fill the places
of any members
who might leave before the conclusion of the proceedings), as well
as 200 Press correspondents and 1,500 visitors. It was a gathering
of unique significance, for after seven years of animated discus-
sions and earnest negotiations between people of differing views
on both sides of the Atlantic, union had at length been established
for the purpose of furthering the rebuilding of Palestine as the
land of Israel. It was a demonstration of solidarity far more im-
First Zionist Congress held thirty-two years be-
pressive than the
fore. The occasion was graced by the presence on the platform of a
brilliant of
array Jewishnotabilities, who had come to declare
their faith in the future of their people in its national homeland
and their, gratification at the historic step now taken to achieve
their goal. Side by side with Dr. Weizmann and his veteran col-
leagues, Sokolow and Ussishkin, sat the first High Commissioner

for Palestine, Sir Herbert Samuel, the celebrated scientist, Profes-
sor Albert Einstein, the leader of British industry, Lord Melchett,

the distinguished French statesman, Leon Blum, the leader of
American Jewry, Louis Marshall, the President of the Anglo-
Jewish Board of Deputies, Sir Osmond d'Avigdor-Goldsmid, the
German financier, Oscar Wassermann, and the famous novelist,
Shalom Asch. There were also present representatives of the Swiss
Government and of the Mandates Section of the League of Na-
tions to add their good wishes for the success of the new develop-
ment, and venerable Rabbis from Palestine, Poland and other
lands bestowed their blessings.
The proceedings, which lasted four days, were marked by
a spirit of concord, and even the Radical Zionists declared that
they now submitted to the decision of the majority and would
willingly collaborate. After speeches and debates on the main
aspects of the work in Palestine, Dr. Weizmann was elected
President of the Jewish Agency, Mr. Louis Marshall was elected
Chairman and Lord Melchett Associate-Chairman of the Council,
and Mr. Felix Warburg (1871-1937) Chairman of the Admini-
strative Committee. The constitution, which had been previously
hammered out by representatives of the Zionist Organisation and
of American Jewry, was adopted unanimously and without
discussion. Its main features were that the enlarged Jewish Agency
should have three governing bodies a Council of about 200 mem-
bers, an Administrative Committee of forty, and a small Executive,
each body to be composed of an equal number of Zionists and
non-Zionists. The Council, corresponding to the Zionist Congress,
was to meet once in two years; and the Administrative Commit-
tee, corresponding to the Zionist General Council, was to meet (so
far as circumstances permitted) once in six months. The President
of the Zionist Organisation was always to be President of the Jew-
ish Agency. The Executive was to consist, until September goth,
1930, of twelve persons, eight Zionists and four non-Zionists, but,

1
after that date, of four Zionists and four non-Zionists. The Execu-
tive offices of the Agency were fixed in Jerusalem, but it was pro-
vided that "an of the Agency shall be maintained in London
office
under the direction of the President, in conjunction with such
members of the Executive as may be designated by the Council in
consultation with the President, and shall be especially charged
with the conduct of business between the Mandatory Power and
the Agency." The Keren Hayesod was declared to be the main
financial instrument of the Agency for the purpose of covering
its budget. The Council approved the Palestine budget passed by
the Congress, but with the proviso that the Administrative Com-
1
The first non-Zionist members o the Executive of the Jewish Agency were Dr.
Bernhard Kahn (1929-33), Dr. Maurice B. Hexter (1929-38) , Dr. Werner Senator
1929^39), and Mr. Julius Simon (1929-31),
matters of detail
mittee had the right to make changes In regard to
that might be necessitated by practical requirements.
status of the Jewish National Fund and
The organisation and
its relations with the Zionist Organisation
were left intact, and all
lands acquired with funds derived from the Jewish Agency
were
the medium and in the of the
to be purchased through name^
Jewish National Fund. After the adoption of the constitution fol-
lowed the ceremonial act of signing of the document. Weizmann
and Sokolow signed on behalf of the Zionist Organisation, and
as
then came twenty representatives of the non-Zionists of nearly
1 for the
many countries. Palestine was included among them, âs
constitution defined "non-Zionist" as "a person associated with the
of a member and repre-
Agency otherwise than in the capacity
sentative of the Zionist Organisation," the Vaad Leumi elected six
members to the non-Zionist section of the Council.
The assumption by the enlarged Jewish Agency of the principal

activities connected with the establishment of the Jewish
National
Home did not, in practice, appreciably diminish the sphere or
volume of activity of the Zionist Organisation, as the major part
it, and it continued to
de-
of the burden continued to rest upon
vote itself to Zionist propaganda, the furtherance of Hebrew
that had
culture, and the raising of funds. Moreover, all questions
to be ultimately decided by the Administrative Committee or by
the Council of the were first discussed by the Zionist Gen-
Agency
eralCouncil or by the Congress. There was one question, however,
had to pronounce:
upon which the British Government itself
Would the Zionist Organisation, after having yielded its rights to
the reconstituted Jewish Agency, be allowed, in the event of
a dissolution of the to resume the status accorded to
partnership,
it in the PalestineMandate? Immediately after the inaugural
in
meeting of the Council of the Agency, the Zionist Executive,
a letter dated September i6th, 1929, notified the Government of
the reconstitution of the Agency and asked the crucial question.
Practical recognition of the reformed Agency was immediately
accorded both by the Colonial Office and the Government of
Palestine, but no formal reply to the letter was sent until nearly
a year later. In a communication dated August 6th, 1930, the
1
There were three signatories for the United States (Louis Marshall, Felix War-
burg, and Lee K Frankel), two each for
Poland Rumania, and Sir Osmond
Great Britain, North-
d'Avigdor-Goldsmid signed for the British Empire, including
ern Ireland and Irish Free State, Canada, and South Africa. Louis Marshall died in
Zurich only a few days after the conclusion of the Conference.
Colonial Office notified the Executive of the formal recognition

of the enlarged Agency, and referred to the question of the pos-
sible return to the status quo in the following terms:
"In the event of the dissolution of the enlarged Agency,
His Majesty's Government, on being notified by the Zionist
Organisation that the enlarged Agency has been dissolved, will,
provided they are satisfied that its organisation and constitution
are at that time appropriate, recognise the Zionist Organisation
as the Jewish Agency for the purpose of Article 4 of the Man-
date for Palestine, and the Organisation shall in that event be
deemed to have reverted in all respects to the status which it
of the Agency."
possessed before the enlargement
The unusual delay in the despatch of this reply was due to

a sequence of disastrous events, which began even before the
Zurich deliberations had come to a close and which threatened to
shatter all the grandiose hopes that had been built upon the
memorable assembly.
CHAPTER XII
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES
T
__
HE Jews had always hoped that the benefits
development of Palestine conferred upon

naturally result in
which their
the Arabs
the process of time in the latter becoming
would
reconciled to the Balfour Declaration. Despite the unprovoked

attacks upon them in 1921, they every effort to live on
made
terms of friendship and goodwill with their Arab neighbours.
Not only did they adopt solemn declarations to this effect at
Zionist Congresses and on other occasions and reaffirm them in
official documents, but they sought to realise them
in various
social, economic, and cultural. Apart from
spheres of daily
life
the thousands of Arabs employed in the old Jewish agricultural

settlements, hundreds found work in the new industrial under-
Arab landowners en-
takings directly due to Zionist enterprise.
riched themselves by selling land to Jews, Arab farmers by dispos-
to them, and Arab landlords by
ing of their agricultural produce
houses and other property. Arab patients were
welcomed
letting
at Jewish hospitals,and Arab students at Jewish technical classes
and the Hebrew University Library. But although there were im-
proved relations with
some sections of the Arab community, the
Balfour Declaration continued.
antagonism of its politicians to the
For seven years the peace was outwardly preserved, but beneath
the surface the Arab Executive bided their time. Soon after the
in the summer of 1928, an incident
departure of Lord Plumer
occurred which, though apparently at first only an affront to
led to a calamity with far-
Jewish religious sentiment, gradually
reaching consequences.
The incident had its origin in the Jewish veneration for the
Western Wall, that remnant of the ancient Temple, before which
the
Jews had wept and prayed for many centuries. Unfortunately
Wall was part of the exterior of the Haram al-Sherif, the sacred
area containing the Dome of the Rock and the Mosque of El Aksa,
the third holiest sanctuary of Islam. On the eve of the Day of
Atonement in 1928, in addition to the usual appurtenances of
religious worship, including an
Ark with the Scrolls of the Law,
that were brought to the pavement before the Wall, a temporary
canvas screen had been placed against the Wall to divide the
male from the female worshippers in accordance with strict
orthodox practice. The screen had been used ten days before, on
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES 1Q1
the Jewish New

Year, without any objection being raised by the
But on this occasion the Deputy District-Commissioner
authorities.
of Jerusalem received a complaint on the eve of the holy day from
the guardian of the Wakf (Moslem charitable endowment) that
the screen constituted a transgression of the Moslem rights of
property. He therefore ordered that the offending object should
be removed and as his instruction was not obeyed by the Jewish
beadle, because its execution would have Involved a violation of

the most sacred day in the Jewish calendar, he had the screen forc-
ibly taken away by a police officer at a solemn moment in the
morning service. This act not only shocked and alarmed the
throng of devout worshippers, who could not understand how such
an outrage could be committed by a British official, but aroused a
storm of protest throughout the Jewish world. The Zionist Organ-
isation petitioned the League of Nations to assure the Jews free
and undisturbed worship before the Wall, whereupon the Arabs
made an appeal to the Moslem world and spread a legend about
Jewish designs against the holy places of Islam. In order to em-
phasise their legal rights, the Arabs built an extension above the
northern part of the Wall, ostensibly to screen the women's apart-
ments of the Mufti's house, and they stationed a muezzin on a
nearby roof to call to prayer five times a day and thus disturb the
Jewish worshippers. The Jews reacted by sending strongly worded
petitions to the Government in Jerusalem and London. The out-
come was the Issue in November, 1928, of a White Paper, which
quo in regard to Jewish worship before the
stated that the status
Wall must be maintained: "that the Jewish community have
a right of access to the pavement for their devotions, but they
may bring to the Wall only those appurtenances of worship which
were permitted under the Turkish regime." But the Government
omitted to define the appurtenances for which the Jews could
claim a prescriptive right.
The arrival of the new High Commissioner, Sir John Chan-
cellor, In November, 1928, seemed to herald a period of peace and
quiet, ashe displayed much concern for the economic development

of the country, and the early months of 1929 witnessed the begin-
ning of such important undertakings as the construction of the
Haifa Harbour and the exploitation of the mineral salts of the
Dead Sea. The question of the Wall receded from public notice
for a brief spell, but early in the summer the Arabs began to open
a passage from the Haram to the pavement, so that the place
before the Wall, hitherto a blind alley, would be converted into a
The Jews vehemently this struc-
thoroughfare. protested against
tural alteration, but the Government, after obtaining the advice
of the law officers of the Mandatory, allowed it to continue, while
with Jewish
warning the Moslem authorities against interfering
worship. The High Commissioner then went to Geneva, in June,
1929, to render an account to
the Permanent Mandates Com-
mission, which was holding its annual enquiry into the work of
the Palestine Administration. He presented a hopeful report on
the general situation, but urged that it was necessary to give
a definite ruling on the question of Jewish rights in regard to the
Wall. During the sitting of the Commission the Moslems caused
further annoyance by arranging in a room in the Haram area,
close to the Jews' praying place, a cacophonous ceremony known
as the Zikr (the invocation of God accompanied by the beating
of drums and cymbals), which made it almost impossible for the
worshippers to engage in their devotions.
The Government had
the nuisance for a few weeks, but the alterations for the
stopped
the Arabs engaged
opening of the passage continued. Moreover,
in an inflammatory propaganda, in which they accused the Jews
of designs upon the Mosque of Omar itself. The agitation was
organised by a "Society for the Protection of the Moslem Holy

Places/' which provoked the formation of a "Pro-Wailing Wall
Committee/' but while the Moslem Society was founded and
controlled by the Mufti and the Arab Executive in general, the
Executive.
Jewish Committee was discountenanced by the Zionist
The object of the Mufti was to mobilise on a religious issue the
public opinion of the Moslems, which he
had been unable to
arouse on purely political grounds, and at the same time to secure
for himself the united support of all sections in the retention of
the office of President of the Supreme Moslem Council, to which
he had been appointed only for a limited number of years. In such
an atmosphere only a spark was needed to cause a conflagration.
August i5th, the day after the conclusion of the Jewish Agency
meeting, was the Fast of Ab, commemorating the destruction of
the Temple, when it was customary for large numbers of Jews to
assemble before the Wall to bewail the glory of the past and to
pray for its return. On this solemn anniversary a gathering of
Jewish youths of the Revisionist Party, under a heavy police escort,
held a demonstration at the Wall, for which they had official per-
mission, raised a Zionist flag, then dispersed quietly. On the fol-
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES 13
lowing day a much crowd of Arabs, but with a much smaller
larger
engaged In a demonstration at the same place
police escort, also
and likewise with official permission; but before they disbanded
they destroyed a cabinet containing Jewish prayer-books, burned
the books as well as petitions (inserted by the pious In the crevices
of the Wall), and attacked and tore the clothes of the Jewish bea-
dle. Passionsbegan to rise, stimulated by an attack upon a young
Jew, who, while playing football, was stabbed by an Arab and
died two days later. On Friday, August 2grd, the storm broke in
full fury.
A crowd of Arab villagers who emerged from the Haram, where

they had been addressed by the Mufti, and who were armed with
sticks, knives, daggers and
firearms, Immediately attacked Jews
in various parts of Jerusalem. An orgy of savagery, murder, and
looting ensued, which spread from the city to a number of small
agricultural settlements and even to Haifa, lasting for seven days.
Motza, a few miles west of Jerusalem, Artuf in the Judean Hills,
Hulda in the foothills,and Beer Tuvia near to Gaza, were laid
waste by bands of armed Arabs. The most horrible attack of all
was made upon the Jews of Hebron, many of them students at
a Talmudical college: of the 500 men, women, and children,
over sixty were killed and over fifty seriously wounded. The
Government, taken by surprise, were unable to quell the disorders
with their greatly reduced forces, so that troops had to be hurried
to the scene from Egypt and Malta. A proposal of the Jewish
authorities, that a large number of Jews nominated by them
should be armed by the Government for the purpose of assisting
in the defence of their fellow Jews, was declined, and even Jewish
special constables (including British subjects) were disarmed, on
the ground that the feelings of the Arabs must not be "further ex-
cited." Unfortunately help arrived too late to prevent an attack
on the seventh day upon the Jews at Safed, where the mob mur-
dered about twenty men, women and children, and destroyed 130
houses and shops. Altogether the Jewish victims numbered 133
killed and 339 wounded, while of the Arabs largely as the result
of firing by the military and police 116 were killed and 232
wounded. The High Commissioner hastily returned to Palestine,
and issued a proclamation in which he strongly condemned the
"savage murders perpetrated upon defenceless members of the
Jewish population"; and, as the Arabs protested against this
language, he published another a proclamation a few days later,
stating that enquiry
would be made into the conduct of both sides.
This week of outrage caused a moral setback in the country,
embittered relations between Jews and Arabs, and undermined
confidence in the Government, which was attacked from both
sides. It aroused a storm of indignation among
the Jews through-
out the world, produced a most painful impression upon public

opinion in general,
and brought upon the British Government a
veritable avalanche of scathing criticism* The Jewish people
re-
sponded to the crisis by contributing over 600,000 to an Emer-

was expended on relief and reconstruction.
gency Fund, which
The Palestine Administration allocated 100,000 from its own
funds in partial payment of compensation to the sufferers, about
nine-tenths being given to the Jewish victims and the remainder to
innocent Arabs. Conditions of security were immediately improved
by increasing both the military
and the police forces; the British
distributed in a manner designed for the pro-
police were largely
Jewish colonies; and
tection of the the sealed armouries for self-
colonies by the
defence, which had been previously given to the 1
Government and gradually withdrawn, were now restored. The
law courts were busy for months with the trials of over 600 per-
sons accused of crimes in connection with the riots. Of the Arabs
for attempted murder, 150 for
55 were condemned for murder, 17
looting and arson, and 219 for
minor offences, but only three of
the murderers were executed, while the rest were reprieved. Two
the murder of Arabs, but their
Jews of Tel-Aviv were convicted of
sentences, after appeal, were commuted to terms of imprisonment.
The political
aftermath was of prolonged duration: there was
discussion and
a succession of official enquiries with a torrent of
controversy that lasted some years, and threatened not only the
stability, but the very future of the National Home. On September
6th, 1929, the Foreign Secretary(Arthur Henderson) stated at
the meeting of the Council of the League of Nations that the
British Government intended to despatch a Commission of En-
would be "limited immediate urgency,
to the
quiry, whose task
and would not extend to questions of major policy." Seven days
later the Commisssion was appointed by the Colonial Office "to
enquire into the immediate causes which

led to the recent out-
1
After the disorders of May, 1921, the Government furnished outlying Jewish
colonies with a stock of rifles and ammunition to be held under seal by the head-
man, and to be used only in case of emergency. From June, 1924, in consequence of
the unproved conditions, the arms were gradually withdrawn over a period of years,
although they were still in possession of some colonies in August, 1929.
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES 195
break in Palestine and to make recommendations as to the steps
necessary to avoid a recurrence/* It consisted of Sir Walter Shaw
as Chairman of the following representatives of the three political
parties: Sir Henry Betterton (Conservative), Mr. Hopkin Morris

(Liberal), and Mr. Harry (later Lord) Snell (Labour). In
announcing appointment, the Colonial Secretary, Lord
the
Passfield (formerly Sidney Webb), reaffirmed the statement of the
Foreign Secretary that the enquiry was 'limited to the immediate

emergency" and would not "extend to considerations of major
policy/*
The Commission held sessions in Jerusalem from October 25th
to December %gth 1929. Unlike the Haycraft Commission of
f
1921, it sat as a public Court of Enquiry, with power to summon
witnesses, to take evidence on oath, and to hear counselon behalf

of the Palestine Government, the Jewish Agency and the Arabs.
The Agency was representd by Sir Frank Boyd (now Lord) Mer-
riman, K.C., M.P., assisted by Lord Erleigh (now Marquess of
Reading), K.C., and other advocates; the Arabs were represented
by an ex-Colonial judge, Mr. Stoker, K.C., with the help of sev-
eral Arab lawyers; and the interests of the Palestine Government
were looked after by Mr. Kenelm Preedy and the Solicitor-Gen-
eral of the Administration (the Attorney-General, Norman Bent-
wich, being deemed to be precluded as a Jew from taking part). It
became evident after some weeks that the Commission was not
limiting its
enquiry to the terms of reference, and that the Arabs,
anxious to divert attention from the acts of murder and pillage,
were astutely doing their utmost to concentrate interest upon their
alleged economic grievances and their political aspirations. In
order, therefore, to prevent the Commission from trespassing
beyond its province, Lord Balfour, Mr. Lloyd George, and General
Smuts, members of the War Cabinet that was responsible for the
Balfour Declaration, published a letter in The Times of Decem-
ber 20th, 1929, in which they called attention to the Commission's
"limited terms of reference to enquire into specific matters," and
urged on the Government that the Commission must be supple-
mented by "an authoritative Commission" to hold "a searching
enquiry into the major questions of policy and administration."
In reply to a question in the House of Commons arising out of
this letter, the Prime Minister (Ramsay MacDonald) stated on
December 2grd that matters of major policy were definitely "out-
side the terms of reference of the Shaw Commission" and could
not be made a part of its report. He amplified this statement in
the House of Commons on March 24th, 1930, when he declared
that major questions of policy were for the Government to decide
and would not be affected by the Shaw Commission's Report.
The "Report of the Commission on the Palestine disturbances
was published on March gist, 1930. It found
1 ' 1
of August, igsg
that the outbreak in Jerusalem "was from the beginning an attack
form of earlier
by Arabs on Jews, for which no excuse in the
murders by Jews has been established." It did not find that the
outbreak was premeditated, although its own narrative of the
events pointed to the opposite conclusion. There had been incite-
ment in many districts, in which members of the Moslem hier-
archy had taken part; Arab agitators had toured the country
in the
third week of August and summoned people to Jerusalem; the
Chairman of the Arab Executive, Musa Kazim, had been seen in
of anti-Jewish
Jaffa on August i6th, 1929, inspecting the printing
pamphlets; and rumours had been spread among the Arab work-
men employed in the Jewish orange-groves at Petah Tikvah and
in other centres that the Jews intended to attack the Mosque of
Aksa on August 23rd. The majority of the Commission appor-
tioned "a share in the responsibility for the disturbances" to the
Mufti of Jerusalem for the part that he took in the formation of
societies for the defence of the Moslem holy places, as this move-
ment became "a not unimportant factor in the events which led
to the outbreak"; they thought it probable that "individual mem-
bers of the Arab Executive further exacerbated racial feeling after
the disturbances had begun"; and they blamed both Mufti and
Executive for failure during the week preceding the riots to make
an attempt to control their followers. But they made no reference
to the inclusion of the Mufti in the "Black List" of the police,
dated Augus 2grd, 1929, which was published in the Palestine
Press. Mr. Snell contributed a long note of Reservations, in which
he dissociated himself from the general attitude of his colleagues
towards the Palestine problem as well as from some of their
criticisms and conclusions. He attributed to the Mufti "a greater
share in the responsibility for the disturbance than is attributed
to him in the Report," and found it "difficult to believe that the
actions of individual members of the Executive were unknown to
that body, or, indeed, that those individuals were acting in a purely
personal capacity." He also rejected the conclusions of the ma-

1
Command Paper 3530 of 1930.
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES,, AND CONGRESSES
jority, "acquitting the Moslem religious authorities of all but the

slightest blame for the innovations introduced in the neighbour-
hood of the Wailing Wall."
The Commission dealt leniently with the question of the re-
sponsibility of the Palestine Administration. It found nothing
wrong in the Government disarming British Jews, although the
authorities were unable to afford the Jews adequate protection;
and itdelicately refrained from mentioning that several of the
Jews disarmed had served in the First World War, and that some
of them had held the King's Commission. Mr. Snell dissented from
the majority, and blamed the Government "for not having issued
an official communiqu^ denying that the Jews had designs on the
Moslem holy places.'* But, although the majority sought to
exonerate the Government, they pointed out that the Arab police
had proved unreliable and the Intelligence Service inadequate.
It was probably out of regard for the feelings of the Government
that the Commission refrained from mentioning that during the
early days of the riots one of the cries most in use among the Arabs
was "The Government is with us!" and also that, in the closing
speech on the Jewish side at the Enquiry, Sir Boyd Merriman
complained of the antagonistic attitude adopted by the Govern-
ment counsel towards the Jewish witnesses in contrast to the leni-
ency shown in the cross-examination of the Arab witnesses.
In dealing with the causes of the oubreak, the Commission
stated that the fundamental cause was "the Arab feeling of
animosity and hostility towards the Jews consequent upon the
disappointment of their political and national aspirations and fear
for their economic future." In fact, between 1921 and 1929 there
had been increasing instances of co-operation and fraternisation
between Jews and Arabs; and during the riots many Arabs had
declined to take part in the attacks and had even protected Jews
exposed to danger. Mr. Snell was very much nearer the truth when
he declared that "many of the immediate causes of the riots . . .
were of a temporary rather than of a fundamental character, and

were due to fears and antipathies, which the Moslem and
. . .
1
Arab leaders awakened and fostered for political needs/* The
majority of the Commission also included among the immediate
causes in addition to the incidents connected with the Wailing
Wall, incendiary propaganda, and exciting Press articles "the
enlargement of the Jewish Agency." It is doubtful whether any
1
Report of the Commission on the Palestine Disturbances of August, 1929^ p. 172.
ig8 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
of the murderers of Hebron and Safed, where half of the Jewish
victims were killed, had ever heard of the Jewish agency or its
enlargement.
The Report made anumber of recommendations, some of
them urgently necessary, while the others had little or nothing to
do with the troubles. Two of the recommendations namely, the
appointment of a special Commission to determine the rights and
claims in connection with the Wailing Wall and the reorganisation
of the policewere promptly acted upon by the British Govern-
ment. But the other main recommendations justified the worst
fears of those who had been anxious that the Commission should
not trespass beyond its terms of reference. Despite the repeated
assurance given by the Government, the Report dealt with
questions of immigration, land, and constitutional development,
and culminated in the proposal that the Government should issue
a new statement of policy. The majority of the Commission had
been impressed by the stories they had heard of an Arab landless
proletariat, said to have been caused by Jewish purchases
of land,
and seemed to suggest that the existence of such a class had also
contributed to the outbreak. Yet not a single witness had testified
that he represented the "landless proletariat/* nor, of all the
Arabs accused and found guilty of attacks upon Jews and Jewish
property, had a single one been able to urge by way of extenuation
that he had been evicted from his holding by a Jew or that he had
suffered in any other way through the settlement of Jews. The
majority of the Commission recommended that the new statement
should contain "a definition in clear and positive terms" of the
meaning that the Government attached to the passages in the
Mandate providing for "the safeguarding of the rights of the non-
Jewish communities in Palestine." Mr. Snell, who expressly
dissociated himself from what was required
their view, stated that
in Palestine was less a change of policy than a change of mind on
the part of the Arab population, who had been encouraged to
believe that the Jewish immigrants were a permanent menace to
their livelihood and future; and he recommended that any land
found to be unexploited should be made available to the Jews,
The uneasiness caused in Zionist circles by the contents of the
Report prompted Dr. Weizmann to write a letter to The Times
(April grd, 1930), in the course of which he asked: "Is the policy
of the Jewish National Home in Palestinethe
policy of the
Mandate to be reaffirmed, encouraged, or arrested? . . The
.
OUTRAGES,, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES IQ9
first word Is on policy, and that word is now with Britain, and to
Britain and to Britain's leaders the Jews of the world not only
of Palestineare looking." The answer came the same afternoon
from the Prime Minister, who stated in the House of Commons:
"His Majesty's Government will continue to administer

Palestine in accordance with the terms of the Mandate as
approved by the League of Nations, That is an international
obligation from which there can be no receding. ... It is the
firm resolve of His Majesty's Government to give effect in equal
measure to both parts of the [Balfour] Declaration, and to do
equal justice to all sections of the population of Palestine. That
is a duty from which they will not shrink, and to the discharge
of which they will apply all the resources at their command/*
But a few weeks later two things happened which seemed scarcely
consistent with this statement of policy. On May 6th Sir John
Hope Simpson was appointed a Government Commissioner to
report on questions of immigration, land settlement and develop-

ment, and ten days later the Palestine Government ordered the
suspension of the bulk of the 3,300 immigration certificates sanc-
tioned under the Labour Schedule approved on May 1 2th. It was
stated that this suspension was a temporary measure, "with a view
to ensuring that immigration in the intervening period [i.ef pend-
ing the publication of the Commissioner's Report] shall not be

such as to endanger the economic future of the country." The
Zionist Executive entered an emphatic protest against this action,
whereupon the British Government declared that it "was of a
purely temporary and provisional character/' and that there had
been "no cancellation of certificates/' On May 27th the Govern-
ment issued a White Paper* containing the text of the statement to
be made by its accredited representative at the forthcoming meet-
ing of the Mandates Commission. It set forth that a two-fold duty
was imposed on the Mandatory Power by the terms of the Man-
date and that the balance had consequently to be held by the
Government between two conflicting interests; that in substance
the Shaw Commission's Report (including its findings on ques-
tions ofmajor policy) was accepted; that the questions of immi-
gration and land transfer were under examination; that no steps
could be taken in the direction of self-government unless they
were compatible with the requirements of the Mandate; and that
1
Command Paper 5582 (1930) .
2OO THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
a more explicit statement of policy would be issued after the
receipt of Sir John Hope Simpson's Report.
The Mandates Commission subjected the Shaw Report to

trenchant criticism. It refused to accept the conclusion that the
anti-Jewish attack had not been permeditated, and passed stric-
tures upon the Mandatory for its lack of foresight and pre-
paredness. declared that the "charge against the Palestine
It
Government, that it has not fulfilled, by actual deeds, the obliga-
tion to encourage the establishment of the Jewish National Home,

has been notably reinforced by the fact that the Government has
shown itself unable to provide the essential conditions for the
development of the Jewish National Home security for persons
and property/' The British Government, in its written reply,
rebutted the criticism passed upon the findings of the Shaw Com-
mission and repelled the reproaches directed at its policy. It
declared that it was "the function of the Jews themselves/* It
defined its own responsibility as consisting in "placing the coun-
try under such political, administrative and economic conditions
as will secure the establishment of the Jewish National . . . Home
and the development of self-governing and also
institutions,
the safeguarding of the civil and religious rights of all the inhabi-
tants of Palestine, irrespective of race and religion/* and it ob-
served that the difficulty in fulfilling the first two objects was
further increased by the addition of the third. The tartness of the
British rejoinder prompted the Rapporteur of the Mandates Com-
mission, M. Procope, at the meeting of the Council of the League
in September, 1930, to adopt a more conciliatory tone, and while
not receding from the Commission's position, to emphasise the
points of agreement between them. The British Foreign Secretary,
in his reply, followed suit: he declared that the obligations laid
down by the Mandate in regard to the two sections of the popula-
tion were of equal weight, that these two obligations were in no
sense irreconcilable, and that it was the fixed determination of the
British Government that "their policy in Palestine shall be gov-
erned by these two fundamental principles/*
The next stage in the battle for the Jewish National Home was
waged in connection with the investigations made by Sir John
Hope Simpson, He was a former Indian Government official,
without any special knowledge of the basic problems underlying
the Palestine Mandate or of Palestine itself. He was in the country
from May soth to July 2 7th, 1930, and his
"Report on Immi-
OUTRAGES,, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES 2O1
1
gration, Land Settlement and Development" appeared on the

following October 2ist, simultaneously with another White Paper,
the "Statement of Policy by His Majesty's Government in the
2
United Kingdom." The Report was a disappointment, as it gave
a much lower estimate of the cultivable area of the country than
had hitherto been accepted; it implied that Jewish colonisation
had resulted in the displacement of a large number of Arab
peasants; and it declared that, apart from the
lands held by the
Jews in reserve, there was "with the present methods of Arab

cultivation no margin of land available for agricultural settlement
by new immigrants." The Jewish Agency Executive in London,
after making enquiries of their colleagues in Palestine with a view
to the verification of the data on which Sir John Hope Simpson's
of the
principal conclusions were based, published a brief analysis
5
statistical foundations of this Report, which was later (May gist)
laid before the Mandates Commission,* In this memorandum the
Agency challenged him on his facts and contended that his find-
ings were "based on doubtful assumptions, on hastily compiled
statistics, and on a misreading of material submitted to him." The
Mandates Commission was subsequently assured that the British
Government recognised that the facts were in dispute and called
for further investigation.
Much more and indeed alarming, was

objectionable, however,
the accompanying White Paper, which, as it was issued under
the authority of Lord Passfield, the Secretary of State for the
Colonies, came to be known by his name. This document consti-
tuted a disquieting sequel to the Churchill White Paper of 1922,
for it went much farther in whittling down the meaning of the
Balfour Declaration and the articles of the Mandate. It fore-
2
1
Command Paper 3686. Command Paper 3692.
*
The Bases of Sir John Hope Simpson's Report (London, 1931) . This
Statistical
memorandum showed that Simpson's conclusions were based upon four figures,
each of which was of vital importance for a correct appraisement of the situation,
and each of which was of doubtful value. By wrongly defining cultivable land as
land under cultivation, he cut down the area of cultivable land in Palestine from
12,000,000 to 8,000,0000 dunams (or 6300,000 dunams without Beersheba); and he
reduced the area of cultivable land in the hills by 54 per cent, largely on the basis
of an unchecked aerial survey of one-tenth of the hill district. He wrongly estimated
that there were 86,980 Arab families dependent upon the land by assuming the
very low co-efficient of 5.5 persons per family and ignoring the fact that residents in
rural districts included a substantial proportion of persons not dependent on agri-
culture for a livelihood. He was also incorrect in estimating that 29.4 per cent, of
the rural Arab families were landless, and that at least 1.30 dunams was required
to maintain a peasant family in a decent standard of life (the "lot viable") .
4
Minutes of the 20th Session of the Permanent Mandates Commission (June,
1931) ,
p. 74.
shadowed fresh restrictions in regard to immigration, which would
have been a clear departure from the principles laid down in that
earlier White Paper. It threatened the Jews with an embargo on
further purchases of land, as a result of Sir John Hope Simpson's
questionable figures, which had been accepted without any in-
vestigation as to their reliability. But, worse still, it commented
upon the work of the Jews in Palestine in disparaging terms that
were utterly incompatible with the friendly attiude naturally
expected from the Mandatory Power, and entirely omitted to give
them credit for the benefits which they had conferred upon
Palestine and its people. The effect was to leave Dr. Weizmann,
who had always pursued a policy of co-operation with the British
Government, no alternative but to resign the Presidency of the
Zionist Organisation and of the Jewish Agency, a decision of
which he notified the Government on the day of publication of
the White Paper. In a letter to Lord Passfield, he pointed out
that the White Paper went far towards "denying the rights and
sterilising the hopes of the Jewish people in regard to the National
Home in Palestine," so far as it was in the power of the Govern-
ment to do so, and aimed at "crystallising the development of the

Jewish National Home at its present stage." Dr. Weizmann's
resignation was followed by that of Mr. Felix Warburg from the
Chairmanship of the Jewish Agency Administrative Committee,
and by that of Lord Melchett from the Chairmanship of the
Council.
The Jews were not alone in regarding the White Paper as an
infringement of the Mandate. It was denounced by the two
surviving members of the War Cabinet, Mr. Lloyd George and
General Smuts; it was severely attacked in The Times by leading
statesmen of all parties, including Lord Hailsham and Sir John
(now Lord) Simon, who wrote with the additional authority of
eminent jurists; and it formed the subject of a debate in the
House of Commons, on November lyth, in which the Zionist
standpoint met with general sympathy. The upshot was that the
Government agreed to set up a Committee of Cabinet Ministers
to discuss the situation with representatives of the Jewish Agency.
Dr. Weizmann was requested by the Zionist General Council,
which was at the time in session inLondon, to carry on the duties
of his office until the next Congress, and he and other members of
the Agency Executive took part in the discussions, over which the
Foreign Secretary presided.
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES., AND CONGRESSES 2OSJ
The outcome of these discussions, which extended over two

months, was the publication on February igth, 1931, of a state-
ment in the form of a letter from the Prime Minister to Dr.
Weizmann* This letter, while not repudiating the White Paper,
explained away and negatived its objectionable passages, and was
couched throughout in a friendly and reassuring tone. It expressly
reaffirmed the Preamble to the Mandate, and recognised that "the
Jewish Agency has all along given willing co-operation in carrying
out the policy of the Mandate, and that the constructive work
done by the Jewish people in Palestine has had beneficent effects
on the development and well-being of the country as a whole." It
made it clear that "the obligation to facilitate Jewish immigration
and to encourage close settlement by Jews on the land remains a
positive obligation of the Mandate." It stated that a careful en-
quiry would be made into the number of alleged "displaced
Arabs" (which had been advanced by the Shaw Commission as
one of the contributory causes of the riots), that a comprehensive
enquiry would also be made to ascertain "what State and other
lands are, or properly can be made, available for close settlement
by Jews," and that it was the Government's "definite intention to
initiate an active policy of development, which, it is believed, will
result in substantial and lasting benefit to both Jews and Arabs."
The text of the letter was printed in the Parliamentary Report,
embodied in official instructions to the High Commissioner, and
communicated to the League of Nations.
In order to give effect to the policy outlined in this letter, the
Government appointed Mr. Lewis French in July, 1931, as
Director of Development, and instructed him to carry out
a systematic enquiry in Palestine and to draw up specific proposals
in regard to agricultural development and land settlement. Mr.
French was required in particular to prepare a register of "dis-
1
placed Arabs" and to draw up a scheme for their resettlement,
to investigate the methods necessary for carrying out the Govern-
ment's proposed policy of land development, and also to enquire
into the question of providing credits for Arab cultivators and
Jewish settlers, and proposals for draining and irrigating land.
When his Reports were at length released two years later (on
July i4th, 1933) they were found to be on the whole sterile on the
*The term "displaced Arabs" was defined as "such Arabs as can be shown to
have been displaced from the lands which they occupied in consequence of the land
passing into Jewish hands, and who have not obtained other holdings on which
they can establish themselves, or other equally satisfactory occoupation/'
constructive side, and ill-advised in their proposals for restrictive
legislation. His general conclusion was that there was nothing,

for the time being, that the Government could do for the assistance
or encouragement of Jewish agricultural development, and that
the exploitation of the Beisan and Huleh districts and of the
Jordan Valley would not be an economic proposition.
The Jewish
its views in a Memorandum, in which it de-
Agency published
clared that it could not see in the Reports the outline of the
scheme contemplated in the Prime Minister's letter, and that
"these Reports cannot be accepted as a basis for land and develop-
ment policy in Palestine in the execution of which the Jewish
Agency would find itself in a position to co-operate." One satis-
factory outcome of the enquiry, however, was to
establish the fact
that over a period of twelve years there were only 665 "displaced
Arabs."
As a practical sequel to the Reports of the various Commissions,
the British Government, in May, 1934, secured the passing by
Parliament of a Bill authorising the Treasury to guarantee the
principal and interest of a loan not exceeding 2,000,000, to be
raised by the Palestine Government, for the resettlement of dis-
placed Arabs, agricultural credits, public buildings, and various
public works. Owing to the accumulated surplus in the possession
of the Palestine Government, this loan was not issued, but the
Government spent 1,337,339 on account of it by March 3ist,
1938. The provision of 25o',ooo for the resettlement of displaced
Arabs was in conformity with an undertaking originally given by
the British Government in the course of the Parliamentary debate
on on November lyth, 1930. All the genuinely displaced
Palestine
Arabs who had signified their willingness to take up holdings on
Government estates had been accommodated before the end of
1934.* The total expenditure incurred on account of the re-
settlement of these Arabs, up to March 3ist, 1938, was only
85,796, that is about one-third of the amount provided.
In addition to the investigations by the Shaw Commission,
Sir John Hope Simpson, and Mr. Lewis French, the outrages of
1929 were responsible for four other enquiries relating to the
police, co-operative societies, the Administration, and the Wailing
Wall respectively. A thorough investigation of the Palestine police
was made by Mr. Dowbiggin, Inspector-General of the Police in
Ceylon, who drew up proposals for a comprehensive scheme of
reorganisation, involving a substantial increase in the proportion
1
Report of the Palestine Government for 1934, p. 57.
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES, AND CONGRESSES 2O5
of Jews In the police force and an improvement of the conditions
of service. In July, 1930, Mr. C. F. Strickland arrived in Palestine
"to study the economic position of the fellaheen and to instruct
officers of the District Administration and the fellaheen as to the
objects and methods of the working of co-operative credit societies."

He showed appreciation both of the progress and the possibilities
of the co-operative movement among the Jewish population, and
he saw In the usurious methods of the Arab moneylenders and the
lamentable indebtedness of the fellaheen the main cause of the
distressing economic conditions of the latter. Next came a com-
mission consisting of Sir Samuel ODonnell, K.C.S.L, and Mr. H.
Brittain (of the British Treasury) to investigate the general organ-
isation of the Palestine Administration. They received a delega-
tion representing the Jewish Agency and the Vaad Leumi, and
Colonel KIsch, on behalf of both, made representations on a num-
ber of matters, including efficiency In the direction of special
Jewish concerns, the adoption of a policy for training and increas-
ing the number of Palestinian officials, the desirability of raising
the standard of life for Arab workers and the Importance of not
reducing the Jewish standard, and the claim of Jewish workers to
a fair share of public and municipal works.
Even before the Shaw Commission had concluded its enquiry,
It recommended the appointment of a special Commission under
Article 14 of the Mandate "to determine the rights and claims in

connection with the Western Wall/* The Council of the League of
Nations accordingly decided on January i4th, 1930, to appoint an
International Commission to deal with this question, the members
of which were not of British nationality. The Commission con-
sisted of Senator Lofgren, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs in
Sweden, as President, Charles Barde, Vice-President of the Court
of Appeal in Geneva, and Heer van Kampen, formerly Governor
in the Dutch East Indies. The Commission, which began its ses-
sions in Jerusalem on June igth, 1930, sat for a month, and at its
first meeting the President stated that the Commission would pre-
fer that a 'Voluntary solution" should be found. But as negotia-

tions for an agreement between the Jews and the Arabs proved
unsuccessful, the Commission's Report was published by the
Government on June 8th, 1931. It confirmed for the most part
the findings of the White Paper of 1928. The recognition of the
long-standing usage of the Jews to visit the Wall for devotional
purposes had been clearly expressed in the documents which the
Moslems themselves had produced. The Mandatory must therefore
see that the Jews should have access to the Wall for their devotions
at all times. The Commission restricted the right of the Jews to
bring the Scrolls of the Law to special occasions, and upheld the
prohibition against blowing the Shofar (ram's horn). On the other
hand, the Moslems were forbidden to annoy or interfere with the
Jews during their prayers either by the practice of the Zi kr, by re-
pairing any buildings adjacent to the Wall in such a way as to en-
croach on the pavement, or by impeding the access of the Jews to
the Wall
The Reports of the Shaw Commission and of Sir John Hope
Simpson, as well as the Prime Minister's letter, naturally formed
the principal subjects of discussion at the Seventeenth Zionist
Congress, which was held at Basle from June goth to July J5th,
1931, and at the meeting of the Council of the Jewish Agency,
which followed immediately afterwards. Both assemblies expressed
appreciation of those assurances in the letter that showed the
Mandatory Government to allay the grave misgivings
desire of the
of the Jewish people aroused by the Passfield White Paper, but
they noted that the letter was not a complete statement of policy
and contained reservations affording grounds for apprehension,
and they therefore regarded it as a basis for further discussions of
the Jewish Agency with the Mandatory Government. In
particu-
lar, they drew attention to the continued difficulties attaching to
the purchase of land by Jews, to Jewish immigration, and to the
employment of Jewish labour on public works in Palestine. On
the subject of Jewish-Arab relations, the Council of the Agency
again placed on record its earnest desire for the creation of a dur-
able understanding and instructed the Executive "to continue its
work for the establishment, under the Mandate, of harmonious
relations between Jews and Arabs, based on the acceptance
by both
parties of the principle that neither is to dominate or be dominated
by the other." Dr. Weizmann, who had announced his resignation
of the office of President several months before and had been re-
quested by the General Council to continue to discharge his duties

until the Congress, delivered an impressive valedictory address, in
which he gave a comprehensive survey of his efforts over a period
of twelve years to co-operate loyally with the British Government
in all matters relating to the Jewish National Home. Mr. Sokolow
was the obvious choice as his successor.
The Congress also elected a small coalition Executive consisting
OUTRAGES, ENQUIRIES,, AND CONGRESSES 2O7
of Dr. Chaim Arlosoroff (1899-1933, Labour), Mr. Heschel Farb-
stein (Mizrachi), and Mr. Emanuel Neumann (of York) New
for Jerusalem, and Professor S. Brodetsky and Mr. Berl Locker
(Labour) for London. A

budget of 366,000 was adopted for the
work The Congress was also notable for the fact that
In Palestine.
the Revisionists, who at the 1925 Congress had only five delegates,
now formed the third strongest party with 52, comprising one-fifth
of the whole Congress of 254 delegates (the General Zionists hav-
ing 84, Labour 75, the Mizrachi 35, and the Radicals 8). Jabo tin-
sky and his colleagues not only attacked the policy that had been
followed by Weizmann, but also indulged in the severest criticism
oi the Labour Party and of its activities in Palestine. The
Revisionists constituted themselves the extreme Right Wing of
the movement and systematically engaged in vehement and often
violent opposition to the Histadruth and its leaders.
The Eighteenth Zionist Congress, which was held at Prague

from August sist to September grd, 1933, was overshadowed by
the tragedy of German Jewry, which was sped upon its doleful
course by Hitler's advent to power early in that year. The Con-
gress solemnly protested against the policy of disfranchisement
and persecution to which the Jews in Germany were subjected,
called upon the League of Nations to
remedy their wrongs, ap-
pealed to nations and Governments to grant asylum to the refu-
gees from oppression, and declared it to be "the duty of the
Mandatory Power to open the gates o Palestine for as large an
immigration of German Jews as possible and to facilitate their
settlement/' It was decided to create a Central Bureau for the
Settlement of German Jews in Palestine, of which Dr. Weizmann
(who was absent from Congress for the first time since 1898) was
elected Director. Resolutions were adopted rejecting the French
reports and declaring that

the decisions of the British Govern-
ment, which contemplated the resettlement of a certain number
of displaced Arabs and changes in the legislation regarding ten-
ants, were in contradiction to the assurances contained in the
Prime Minister's letter that the land development scheme would
be of equal benefit to displaced Arabs and to Jews. The Congress
proclaimed anew the wish of the Jewish people to create friendly
relations with the Arabs and requested the Executive to continue
its efforts to prepare the way for a collaboration of Jews and Arabs
both in Western Palestine and in Transjordan. It also expressed

approval of the transfer of the health and education services to
the jurisdiction of the Knesseth Israel} which had been carried out
in the previous year,
The Eighteenth Congress was also deeply agitated by the tragic
fate that had overtaken Dr. Arlosoroff, the Labour member of the
Executive who had been in charge of its political department in
Jerusalem. He was assassinated while taking a walk with his wife
on the beach of Tel-Aviv on June i6th, 1933. All the circum-
stances pointed to his having been the victim of political terrorism.
Two young members of the Revisionist Party were arrested and
charged with the murder, and one of them Stavsky, was convicted
but afterwards acquitted on appeal. The loss of their popular and
talented leader produced intense bitterness in the Labour Party
and increased the antagonism between them and the Revisionists,
which found an occasional outlet in storm scenes. Under the
ambitious leadership of Jabotinsky, the Revisionsts had organised
themselves into a World Union, which acted independently of the
Zionist Organisation and in opposition to the declared policy of
Congress, while at the same time there existed within the Organi-
sation a recognised Separate Union of Revisionists who were
apparently also members of the World Union. The Revisionists

made their own
representations to Governments and the League
of Nations, they boycotted the Zionist funds, and they sought to
undermine the authority and prestige of the Organisation to which
they owed allegiance. The Congress dealt with this intolerable
situation by passing a resolution affirming that in all Zionist ques-
tions membership of the Zionist Organisation entailed a duty of
discipline in regard to its constitution and

regulations, which took
precedence over any duty of discipline in relation to any other
body. The Revisionists were no longer united among themselves,
as a minority of their delegates (7 out of 52) broke away, called
themselves "Democratic Revisionists," and created the Jewish
State Party under the leadership of Mr. Meir Grossman. Labour
for the first time formed the strongest party. With its 138 dele-
gates in a Congress of 318, it secured 40 per cent, of the seats on

the new Executive, which consisted of General Zionists and La-
bour as follows: Nahum Sokolow, President, Professor Brodetsky,
Louis Lipsky, Berl Locker (Labour), for London; David Ben-
Gurion (Labour), Isaac Gruenbauni,1 Eliezer Kaplan (Labour),
Dr. Arthur Ruppin and Moshe Shertok (Labour), for Jerusalem;
1
The Radical Party, of which Graenbaum was the leader, was dissolved after the
1935 Congress, its members mostly returning to the ranks of the General Zionists,
and Dr. Victor Jacobson, representative at Geneva. The Palestine
budget approved 175,000 was the lowest on record, a reflec-
for
tion of the financial as well as of the
political depression through
which the movement was passing.
The next two
years were marked by the loss of several eminent
Zionist veterans, notably Leo Motzkin, who had been an in-
defatigable champion of Jewish rights in Central and Eastern

Europe, and a most efficient Chairman of Congress sessions;
Hayim Nahman Bialik (1873-1934), the national poet; Dr.

Schmarya Levin (1867-1935), the popular propagandist; and
Dr. Victor Jacobson, the urbane diplomatist. The interval between
the Eighteenth and the Nineteenth Congress also witnessed the
withdrawal from the Organisation of the Revisionist Party. In
order to counteract the insubordination of Jabotinsky and his
followers,and to make as widely known as possible the disciplinary
obligation of members of the Organisation, the Executive had
a brief clause defining this obligation printed on the Shekel
voucher, which every Zionist had to buy to qualify for taking
part in the Congress elections. The first Shekalim bearing this
clause appeared in September, 1934, and immediately provoked
resentful criticism on the part of the Revisionists. Resolved not to
conform with the prescribed regulation, they decided to break
away, and on April 25th, 1935, they announced that they had
seceded from the Zionist Organisation. The Jewish State Party
remained within the Organisation, and some time later Jabotinsky
founded the "New Zionist Organisation," which frittered away
1
most of its energy in futile attacks on the parent body.
dreadful plight of German Jewry again threw its length-
The
ening shadow over the Nineteenth Congress, which met at Lu-
cerne from August soth to September 3rd, 1935. Dr. Weizmann,
not being a member of the Executive, was elected President of
the Congress, and, thanks to the absence of the Revisionists, the
deliberations pursued a relatively smoother course. There were
463 delegates, of whom Labour, with 209 again formed the strong-
1 "New
The members of the Zionist Organisation/ or Revisionists, as they are
called, systematically boycott the Keren Hayesod, the Jewish National Fund,
still
and all other affiliated institutions of the Zionist Organisation. In 1938 "the Presi-
dency" of the "New Zionist Organisation" submitted a petition to the Permanent
Mandates Commission of the League of Nations for the purpose of depriving the
Jewish Agency of its statutory rights and functions. The petition was ignored.
Negotiations have been attempted with a view to the Revisionists returning to the
Zionist Organisation, but have failed owing to their refusal to promise to conform
to its constitution.
est party. Resolutions were adopted, protesting anew against the
the insecurity of the Jews
persecution in Hitler's Reich, stressing
in other parts o Europe, and demanding a quickening of the
in the development of the National Home. The Congress
tempo
effect to Arti-
again appealed to the Government
to
give practical
cle 6 of the Mandate, which provided for close settlement by Jews
on the land. It also called attention to other grievances: that the
the Government resulted
scanty immigration schedules granted by
in a continued labour shortage and impeded the development of
the National Home; that the share of Jewish labour in public and
the last Congress, and
municipal works had been reduced since
that there was an unduly small percentage of Jewish employees
1
in various branches of the Government service; and that, despite

the major importance of the Jewish contribution to the Govern-
ment's revenue, its grants to the Jewish education and health
services remained at a low level. The Congress urged the Govern-
ment Jews employed in its services and on public works
to enable
to observe the Jewish Sabbath and holy days as days of rest, and
to facilitate the passage by Jewish municipalities and local coun-
cils of by-laws for enforcing the public observance of the Sabbath.
It reaffirmed the determination of the Jewish people to live in
harmony with the Arab population, and declared that Jewish
achievements had already been of great benefit to the Arabs, not
only In Palestine, but throughout the Near East.
A notable feature of this Congress was the greater use of He-
brew in the discussions than at previous Congresses, owing largely
to the instinctive repugnance to speak the language of Israel's
declared enemy in a Jewish national assembly. The tragedy of
German Jewry was also the cause of a debate revealing an acute
difference of opinion on the arrangements that had been made to
facilitate the transfer (termed Haavarah] of the capital of Ger-
man Jews wishing to settle in Palestine. An agreement had been
concluded In August, 1933, with the German Reichsbank by the
Anglo-Palestine Bank and the German Jewish banks of Wasser-
mann and Warburg, whereby emigrants, besides obtaining their
first 1,000 in cash (necessary for "capitalist" immigration certifi-
cates), were able to deposit the rest of their assets with a clearing-
house in Palestine, to which local Jewish merchants made their
1
According to the latest available figures, the Palestine Civil Service (in 1937)
consisted of a total personnel of 15371, including 2,458 Jews (16 per cent.) and
10,721 Arabs (68 per cent.), the remainder being British Christians (Palestine Royal
Commission: Memoranda prepared by the Government of Palestine 1937, p. 140).
',
payments for goods imported from Germany, the exporters being

paid by the Berlin clearing-house. The Haavarah was also used for
the transfer to Palestine of funds collected for Jewish national
and of remittances for the education and
institutions in Palestine,
maintenance of children, and for kindred purposes. The agree-
ment was attacked by a number of delegates on the ground that
the Zionist Organisation should not enter into relations with any
organ of the German Government, but it was strongly defended
by others, particularly Labour delegates, on the ground that it
was the only means of salvaging the property of thousands of
German Jews and thus augmenting the resources of the Yishuv,
and that it did not bring any fresh money into Germany.1 The
result of the debate was the passing of a resolution that the whole
business of the Haavarah, in order to keep it within justifiable
limits and to prevent abuses, should be placed under the control
of the Executive.
The Congress concluded with the re-election as President of the
the Zionist Organisation of Dr. Weizmann, who thus again became
President of the Jewish Agency. Sokolow was elected Honorary
President of the Organisation and was also given the correspond-
ing office in the Jewish Agency. The general desire for harmonious
co-operation was shown in the election of a coalition Executive
containing representatives of all but the Jewish State Party. It
consisted of three Labour members, David Ben-Gurion, Eliezer
Kaplan, and^Moshe Shertok; two of Group A of the General
Zionists, Professor Brodetsky and Isaac Gruenbaum, and one of
Group B, Dr. Fischel Rottenstreich; and one of the Mizrachi,

Rabbi J. L. Fishman. In addition, the following were also given
seats on the Executive (although with limited voting power):
Menahem Ussishkin, as Chairman of the General Council, Dr.
Arthur Ruppin, as Director of the Office for Economic Affairs,
Dr. Nahum Goldmann, as political representative at Geneva, and
Louis Lipsky, as representative of the Executive in America. The
improvement in the financial position was reflected in an increased
budget of 388,000 more than double the budget of the previous

Congress. The Council of the Jewish Agency, which met im-
mediately approved the budget and the resolution relating
after,
to the Palestine, and both Zionists and non-Zionists
work in
looked forward to the coming years with hope mingled with no
little concern.
1 was
until August, 1939, a total of 8,000,000 of Jewish capital
From April, 1933,
transferred by this arrangement from Germany to Palestine.
CHAPTER XIII
THE ARAB REVOLT
question of the development of self-governing institutions

THE
in Palestine, as prescribed in Article 2 of the Mandate, which
was under consideration by the British Government before the
outrages of 1929, was merely postponed, but not abandoned. The
Shaw Commission, while admitting that the restoration of order
and security must necessarily take priority over proposals for
constitutional reform, suggested that radical changes in the con-
stitution were desirable in order to gain the confidence of the
Arabs and to facilitate the task of the Administration. But the
Permanent Mandates Commission did not agree with this view:
it declared that negotiations on this subject with sections of the
population openly hostile to the Mandate "would only unduly

enhance their prestige, and raise dangerous hopes among their
1
partisans and apprehensions among their opponents/' The Jewish
Agency had also placed itself on record as opposed to any
premature changes in the direction of self-government. The
question was reopened, however, by an Arab Delegation who
were in London in April and May, 1939, for the purpose of
discussions with the Government. The latter then replied that
the "sweeping constitutional changes demanded by them were
wholly unacceptable, since they would have rendered it impos-
sible for His Majesty's Government to carry out their obligations
under the Mandate." Nevertheless, the Passfield White Paper,
published in the following October, said: "The time has now
come when the important question of the establishment of a meas-
ure of self-government in Palestine must, in the interests of the
country as a whole, be taken in hand without delay," and it an-
nounced that the Government proposed to set up a Legislative
Council on the lines of the Constitution drafted in 1922, in which
the Arab leaders had declined to co-operate. Dr. Weizmann there-
fore made it clear to the Government that in the view of the
Jewish Agency a Round Table Conference between the Govern-
ment, the Arabs and the Jewish Agency, and an understanding
between the Jews and the Arabs, were necessary preliminaries to
any attempts at setting up self-governing institutions.
1
Minutes of the Seventeenth Session of the Permanent Mandates Commission,
July, 1930.
THE ARAB REVOLT
The question was shelved for a time, during which Sir John
Chancellor was succeeded as High Commissioner by Lieutenant-
General Sir Arthur Wauchope, who took the oath of office on
November igth, 1931. When the latter was in London early
in November, 1932, the Executive of the Jewish Agency took the
opportunity of expressing to him their view, that it would be most
prejudicial to the interests of both Jews and Arabs to raise the
question of the Legislative Council afresh, and that they could
not advise the Jews of Palestine to take part in a legislature so
composed (irrespective of the relative strength of the official
element) as to establish or imply the domination of the Jews by

the Arabs. Nevertheless, at the meeting of the Mandates Com-
mission on November loth, 1932, the High Commissioner stated
that the intention of the Government as regards the establishment
of a Legislative Council remained unchanged and that they would
take steps towards its formation when the new Local Government
Ordinance had been brought into working order.
Before this stage was reached, however, there was a recurrence
of trouble. In March, 1933, the Arab Executive Committee
published a manifesto protesting against Jewish immigration and
the Jewish purchase of land, and a big meeting that they
organised in Jaffa, attended by the Mufti of Jerusalem and by the
Mayors of most of the Arab towns, passed resolutions adopting
"the principle of non-co-operation" in regard to the "Govern-
ment, Government Boards, British goods, and Zionist goods."
The Arab Press, which became steadily more inflammatory,
indulged in such charges as that "a mass immigration of Jews
was being allowed and encouraged by Government, so that when
the Legislative Council was introduced the Jews would be in
a majority*" Agitation was fanned throughout the country until
the climax was reached in the following October. Despite the
Government's prohibition, the Arab Executive held a demon-
stration in Jerusalem on October igth, which was followed by an
Arab riot in Jaffa on October 2 7th and by disorders in Nablus,
Haifa, and Jerusalem. In all these towns there were attacks on the
police, who were compelled to fire in self-defence,
and the
casualties were one policeman killed and 56 injured, and
26 rioters killed and 187 injured. This outbreak of Arab violence
was distinguished by one feature from those that had preceded it.
In 1920, 1921, and 1929 the Arabs had attacked the Jews; in 1933
they attacked the Government. When the High Commissioner
received a deputation of Arab Mayors on November i4th in
connection with the riots, they again urged the establishment o
a Legislative Council, but the Government adhered to their plan
to have the new municipal elections first. The Municipal Cor-
porations Ordinance was enacted in 1934
and the elections took
place in that year, but the new Municipal Council of Jerusalem
was not definitely constituted until April, 1935.
Whenthe question of the Legislative Council was reopened by
the Governmentin the summer of 1934, the representatives of the
Jewish Agency again expressed to the High Commissioner their

opposition to the proposed constitutional reform on the ground
that was premature. They urged that as the Mandate recognised
it
the historic connection of the Jews with Palestine, anything that

tended to subject the country's destiny to the influence of the
present majority of the population was contrary to the basic con-
ception of the Mandate. They pointed out that the Mandate
invested the Jewish people with a special status in and with regard
to Palestine, and that if the Legislative Council were set up under
the existing numerical conditions, that special status would im-
plicitly be reduced and the Jews in Palestine would be degraded
to the level of a minority. Even if the competence of the proposed
Legislature were of limited scope during the first phase, no
constitutional guarantees could oiler adequate security to Jewish
progress in Palestine as long as the Arab leaders maintained
uncompromising hostility to theJewish National Home. The
representatives of the Agency expressed the fear that the proposed
Legislative Council, so far from assisting in establishing better
relations between Jews and Arabs, would merely serve as an
instrument for hampering the execution of the Mandate, spread-
ing anti-Zionist propaganda and intensifying racial strife. They
made it clear that in view of all these considerations no Jewish
participation could be expected in the contemplated reform.
Despite the Jewish Agency's reiterated and its
objections
fundamental and justified opposition, the Mandatory Power
resolved to go ahead. At the end of December, 1935, the High
Commissioner announced proposals for the establishment of
a Legislative Council on the following basis. It was to consist
of 28 members, 12 elected (9 Arabs and 3 Jews), n nominated
(5 Arabs, 4 Jews, and 2 representatives of the commercial world),
and 5 officials, meeting under an impartial president previously
unconnected with Palestine. Subject to securing the fulfillment of
THE ARAB REVOLT 215
the international obligations of the British Government (the
Mandate) and the High Commissioner's power to
articles of the
maintain law, order, and good government, the Council was to
have the right to debate all bills introduced by the Government,
and to amend and pass them for assent by the High Commissioner;
to introduce bills, except money bills, subject to the consent of
the High Commissioner; to propose any question of public interest
for debate but not to submit any resolution that the High Com-
missioner thought was likely to endanger public peace; and to
ask questions of the Executive relative to the administration of
Government. The Jewish leaders rejected the scheme mainly on
the ground that the Jews would thereby be relegated to minority
status in the land of their National Home, whose development
would inevitably be obstructed by a Council, the majority of
whose members rejected the Mandate the fundamental law of
the country. The project was debated in the House of Lords on
February 2 6th, 1936, and in the House of Commons on the
following March 24th, and in both Houses it was subjected to
strong adverse criticism by speakers who demanded its
suspension.
The Arab whose disunion was reflected in the fact that
leaders,
they represented five different parties, were disagreed about the
scheme, and they were therefore invited by the Colonial Secretary
to send a deputation to London to discuss the matter. But before
they could reach an agreement on the composition of the
deputation, there began in Jaffa, on April igth, 1936, a succession
of murderous attacks by Arabs upon Jews, which soon spread to
all parts of the country and also included violent assaults upon
the British military and police. The Arab Higher Committee,
consisting of the leaders of the various parties, and headed by the
Mufti of Jerusalem, proclaimed a general strike throughout the
country and formulated three main demands: the stoppage
(a)
of Jewish immigration, (&) the prohibition of the sale of land to
Jews, and (c) the creation of a "national representative Govern-
ment/* These demands were rejected by the Government.
The campaign of terrorism, in which firearms and bombs were
used extensively, began as an anti-Jewish attack and developed
into an organized revolt against the Government. Military re-
inforcements were summoned from Egypt and Malta to restore
order, but they proved inadequate. There were widespread acts
ofmurder and other outrages by gangs of armed terrorists, who
did not confine themselves to the destruction of Jewish life and
property, but also did considerable damage by cutting telegraph

and telephone wires, derailing trains, attempting to prevent roads
from being used by traffic, and setting fire to the oil pipe-line
between Haifa and Iraq. The gravity of the situation increased
owing to the indecision and vacillation displayed by the Govern-
ment, its leniency and inconsistency in applying the emergency
regulations that were specially enacted, its delay in punishing
persons caught infringing the law, and the alternation of stern
action with official parleying with the leaders It was officially
admitted that there was "propaganda from outside sources," and
there was no doubt that the terrorists were assisted not only by
mercenaries from over the border (especially from Iraq and
Syria), but also by funds and arms from foreign countries. The
two countries primarily implicated, though not mentioned at the
time, were Germany and Italy. It became necessary for consider-
able reinforcements to be sent from England, bringing up the
number of troops in Palestine to 20,000; but relatively little use
was made of these forces, the greater part of which returned later
when the situation became easier.
A month after the beginning of the revolt, on May i8th, 1936,
the Colonial Secretary announced in the House of Commons that
the Government had decided that, as soon as law and order had
been re-established, a full inquiry on the spot should be under-
taken by a Royal Commission, which would, "without bringing
into question the fundamental terms of the Mandate, investigate
the causes of unrest and any alleged grievances either of Arabs
or of Jews." On July sgth, the personnel of the Royal Commis-
sion, under the chairmanship of Earl Peel (a former Secretary of
State for India) was announced, together with the following terms
of reference:
"To ascertain the underlying causes of the disturbances

which broke out in Palestine in the middle of April; to inquire
into the manner in which the Mandate of Palestine is being
implemented in relation to the obligations of the Mandatory
towards the Arabs and the Jews respectively; to ascertain wheth-
er, upon a proper construction of the terms of the Mandate,
either the Arabs or the Jews have any legitimate grievances
upon account of the way in which the Mandate has been or is

being implemented; and if the Commission is satisfied that any
such grievances are well-founded, to make recommendations
for their removal and for the prevention of their recurrence."
THE ARAB REVOLT 2 17
The Arab which continued to consist of murder and

"strike,"
destruction, came an end on October mh, in response to
to
a manifesto to this effect issued by the Arab Higher Committee,
which had received an appeal for this purpose (after prolonged
negotiations instituted by General Nuri Pasha, then Foreign
Minister of Iraq) from the rulers of the neighbouring Arab lands.
By that time the revolt had resulted in 91 Jews having been killed
and 369 wounded, and in the destruction of 200,000 fruit and
forest trees, some 17,000 dunams of
crops, and hundreds of dwell-
ing places, on Jewish land. It had also included over 1,000 attacks
upon the police and the troops as well as upon Arabs who refused
to co-operate with the terrorists.
The Royal Commission were in Palestine from November iith,

1936, until January lyth, 1937, during which time they heard
evidence from over 113 witnesses. Their Report, a volume of
400 pages, which appeared on July 7th, 1937, was the most
informative and critical work on the administration of Palestine
since the beginning of the British
occupation. It was marked by
a sympathetic appreciation of Jewish and achieve-
aspirations
ments. It consisted of a comprehensive and analytical
survey of the
Palestine problem, an examination of the
operation of the
Mandate, and proposals for "the possibility of a lasting settle-
ment." In their conclusions, the Commission stated that "the un-
derlying causes of the disturbances, or (as we regard it) the
rebellion of 1936, are, first, the desire of the Arabs for national
independence; secondly, their antagonism to the establishment of

the Jewish National Home in Palestine,
quickened by their fear
of Jewish domination."
The
Commission found that most of the Arab grievances (e.g.
the failure to develop self-governing institutions, the
acquisition of
land by Jews, Jewish immigration, the use of Hebrew and English
as official languages, the
employment of British and Jewish officers
and the exclusion of Arabs from the higher posts, and the creation
of a large class of landless Arabs) "cannot be
regarded as legiti-
mate under the terms of the Mandate." They pointed out that the
Arabs had largely benefited by Jewish immigration; that the
expansion of Arab industry and agriculture had been considerably
1
financed by imported Jewish that to
capital; owing Jewish
1
Thanks to the profitable sale of their surplus lands to Jews, the Arabs increased
their possession of
orange-bearing lands from 22,000 dunams in 1922 to 140,000
m 1935, representing an
aupaeated valpe of over 10,000,000,
2l8 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
development and enterprise the employment of Arab labour had
increased in urban areas, particularly in ports; that the reclama-
tion and anti-malarial work undertaken in Jewish colonies had
benefited all Arabs in the neighbourhood; and that the general
beneficial effect of Jewish immigration on Arab welfare was il-
lustrated by the fact that the growth in the Arab population was
most marked in urban areas affected by Jewish development. On
1
the other hand, they found that the attitude of Arab officials pre-
cluded any extension of their employment in the higher posts of
the Administration, and stated that "self-governing institutions
cannot be developed in the peculiar circumstances of Palestine
under the Mandate." They considered that the obligations that
Britain had undertaken towards the Arabs and the Jews had
proved irreconcilable.
"We cannotin Palestine as it now is both concede the
Arab claim to self-government and secure the establishment of
the Jewish National Home."
As regards the main Jewish grievances, the Commission suggested

that "obstructions in the establishment of the National Home
owing to dilatory action in dealing with proposals demanding
executive action" could be mitigated by departmental decentral-
isation. They recommended "the careful selection of British officers
intended for service in Palestine and a course of special training."
On the question of "toleration by the Government of subversive
activities," more especially those of the Mufti of Jerusalem, they
regarded it as "unfortunate that no steps have been taken to reg-

ulate elections for the Supreme Moslem Council, which has de-
veloped an imperium in imperio with an irremovable President,"
and stated that "the policy of conciliation, carried to its furthest
2
limits, has failed." They made a number of recommendations in
1
Between the two census years of 1922 and 1931 the Arab population of Jerusa-
lem, Jaffa, and Haifa showed increases of 50 per cent, or more, while Bethlehem
remained stationary and Gaza suffered a decline.
Brigadier H. J. Simpson, who was on the staff of the military forces sent to sup-
3
British Rule, and Rebellion (Wm. Blackwood, Lon-

press the revolt, wrote a book,
don, 1937) in which he made a remarkable exposure of the extreme moderation
shown by the Palestine Government, the military authorities, the police, and the
judiciary, the effect of which favoured the prolongation of the excesses. He bluntly
asserted that "the Palestine Government had a hand in the rebellion because,
without that particular Government, there might have been no rebellion, or one so
short that H.M. Government would not have been stirred to obtain the appoint-
ment of a Royal Commission before it ended/* He also stated that the Royal Com-
mission was in a position to throw light (which it omitted to do) "on the long-
standing failure of the Administration to disarm the country or at least inflict de-
THE ARAB REVOLT 219
regard to land, such as measures "to provide land for close settle-
ment by the Jews, and at the same time to safeguard the
rights
and position of the Arabs/' and "limitation of the close settlement
upon the land to the plain districts"; but they found that "there
is no land available for
any experiments in close settlement and
mixed farming by the Jews except possibly in the
vicinity o
Jerusalem."
On the question of immigration, the Commission recom-
mended that 'Immigration should be reviewed, and decided
upon
political, social, and psychological as well as economic considera-
tions"; "a political 'high level'
should be fixed at 12,000 a year for
the next five years, to include
Jews of every category"; and "the
abolition of certain categories
dealing with the members of the
liberal professions and craftsmen, and the revision of the condi-
tions governing the free of capitalists/' They also recom-
entry
mended that "steps should be taken to secure the amendment of
Article 1 8 of the Mandate and
place the external trade o Pales-
tine upon a fairer basis/' and
"suggested an early substantial loan
for Tel-Aviv/' The Commission
regarded "failure to ensure pub-
lic security" as "the most serious as also the best founded of the
Jewish complaints/' They recommended that "should disorders
break out again there should be no hesitation in
enforcing martial
law throughout the country under undivided control/
1
military
After detailing these various recommendations, the Commis-
sion expressed the view that they would not "remove" the
griev-
ances nor "prevent their recurrence/' that
they were "the best
palliatives" they could "devise for the disease from which
Palestine is suffering," but could not "cure the trouble." In their
firm conviction "the disease is so
deep-rooted that the only hope
of a cure liesin a surgical operation/*
They discussed the proposal to divide Palestine into a
Jewish
and an Arab canton, whereby each would have self-government
in regard to social services, land, and
immigration, while the
central government would retain control over
foreign relations,
defence, customs, railways, posts and telegraphs, and the like,
besides directly administering the holy
places of Jerusalem and
Bethlehem with the port of Haifa in enclaves. They expressed
the view that such a system would involve difficulties of
govern-
terrent penalties on. the holders of unlicensed riftes; on the notorious conflict
between the Executive and a section of the
Judicature; on the drcumstauces in
which armed bands were able to entex Palestine from other countries and, after
being finally surrounded, were allowed to withdraw unscathed,"
ment, finance, and security, and would not satisfy the demands of
Arab nationalism or "give the Jews the full freedom they desire to
build up their National Home in their own way," while "in the
background would remain the old uncertainty as to the future
destiny of Palestine,"
The Commission therefore proposed a plan of partition on the
following main lines:
The present Mandate should terminate,
and Palestine should
be divided into three main parts. There should be two sovereign
states: (i) a Jewish state mainly in the plains, and (2) an Arab
state, including Transjordan, in the hills, with a port at Jaffa; and
(3) Great Britain should have a permanent Mandate of Jerusalem,
Bethlehem and Nazareth, with a corridor from Jerusalem to the
coast, and an enclave near Akaba, Tiberias, Acre and Haifa should
remain temporarily under the British Mandate. The Jewish State
should comprise the whole of Galilee, the whole of the Valley of
Jezreel, the greater part of Beisan,
and all the coastal plain from
Ras el-Nakura in the north to Beer-Tuvia in the south (an area
equal to about one-fifth of Palestine west of the Jordan). Treaties
of alliance should be negotiated by the Mandatory with the
Government of Transjordan and representatives of the Arabs of
Palestine on the one hand, and with the Zionist Organisation on
the other. The Mandatory would support any requests for ad-
mission to the League of Nations that the Governments of the
Arab and the Jewish states might make. The treaties would in-
clude guarantees for the protection of minorities in each

strict
state, as well as financial and other provisions, and there would be
military conventions "dealing with the maintenance of naval, mili-

tary, and upkeep and use of ports, roads and rail-
air forces, the
ways, the security of the pipe-line, and so forth/* The Jewish state
should pay a subvention to the Arab state (as the latter would not
be self-supporting); the Public Debt of Palestine (about 4,500,-
ooo) should be divided between the two states; and the British
Treasury should make a grant of 2,000,000 to the Arab state. In
view of the very large number of Arabs in the Jewish area and the
small number of Jews in the Arab area, the treaties should contain
provisions for the transfer of land and the exchange of population,
and "in the last resort the exchange would be compulsory/*
The Royal Commission made a number of recommendations
for the period of transition, such as the prohibition of the pur-
chase of land by Jews within the Arab area or by Arabs within the
THE ARAB REVOLT 221
Jewish area, and territorial restrictions on Jewish immigration

instead of the political "high level/* They pointed out in con-
clusion that partition would, on the one hand, give the Arabs
their nationalindependence, and, on the other, secure the
establishment of the Jewish National Home and relieve it from
the possibility of its being subjected in the future to Arab rule,
while to both it "offers a prospect of obtaining the inestimable
boon of peace."
The Report of the Royal Commission was accompanied by
1
a Statement of Policy of the British Government declaring that
they were "in general agreement with the arguments and con-
clusions of the Commission" and would take the necessary steps
to give effect to the scheme of partition. Meanwhile, any land
transactions that might prejudice the scheme were prohibited,
and the Jewish immigration for the eight months' period
total
August, 1937, to March, 1938, was limited to a total of 8,000

persons of all categories* The House of Commons, after a vigorous
debate on the question, passed a resolution on July sist, 1937,
that the partition proposals "should be brought before the League
of Nations with a view to enabling His Majesty's Government,
after adequate inquiry, to present to Parliament a definite scheme."
The Twentieth Zionist Congress, which was held at Zurich from
August 3rd to i7th, 1937, and was attended by 484 delegates,
devoted a week to an exhaustive discussion of the Commission's
Report. Opinions on the question of the proposed Jewish state

were keenly divided, the attractions and advantages of the pro-
posed independence being counterbalanced by the smallness of the
territory offered and the loss of the major part of Biblical
Palestine. Dr. Weizmann severely attacked the Palestine Adminis-
tration, charging it with responsibility for the disorders and with
having forced upon the Royal Commission the belief that the
Mandate was unworkablea thesis that he rejected. While op-
posed to the Commission's partition scheme, he was in favour of
conducting negotiations with the British Government with a view
to securing a scheme that would enable the Jews in Palestine to
live their own independent national life as the Jews themselves
understood the term, and one that would contribute to the solu-
tion of the Jewish problem in the different countries. The lead-
ing opponent of any kind of partition was Ussishkin, the septua-

genarian President of the Congress, who did not think the area
1
Command Paper 5513.
offered adequate or the transfer of 300,000 Arabs practicable. He
was in favour of a Jewish state, but it must be the whole of Pales-
tine. The principal supporters of a scheme of partition were the
General Zionists A and the Labour Party, while the Mizrachi,
Hashomer Hatzait (Labour Left Wing), General Zionists B, and
the Jewish State Party were the uncompromising opponents of any
form of partition. Eventually the following resolution was adopted
by a majority of 300 to 158:
"The Congress scheme of partition put
declares that the
forward by the Royal Commission is unacceptable. The Con-
gress empowers the Executive to enter into negotiations with a
view to ascertaining the precise terms of His Majesty's Govern-
ment for the proposed establishment of a Jewish State. In such
negotiations the Executive shall not commit either itself or the
Zionist Organization, but in the event of the emergence of
a definite scheme for the establishment of a Jewish State such
scheme shall be brought before a newly elected Congress for
consideration and decision/'
The Congress rejected the assertion of the Royal Commission

that the Mandate had proved unworkable, and demanded its
fulfilment; rejected the conclusion of the Commission that the
national aspirations of the Jewish people and of the Arabs in
Palestine were irreconcilable; reaffirmed the declaration of pre-
vious Congresses expressing the readiness of the Jewish people to
reach a peaceful settlement with the Arabs of Palestine; con-
demned the "palliative proposals" of the Commission; and pro-
tested against the decision of the Government to fix a political
maximum for Jewish immigration of all categories for the next
eight months. The retiring Executive was re-elected, the member-
ship of the General Council was limited to 70, and a budget was
adopted of 365,000.
At the meeting of the Council of the Jewish Agency, the non-
Zionists showed that they were divided on the question of partition
just as the Zionists were. The non-Zionists from Eastern Europe,
particularly Poland, were mostly in favour of the scheme, pri-

marily because of the urgency of emigration from that region; but
the leading spokesmen of the American non-Zionists, notably Mr.
Felix Warburg and Dr. Judah L. Magnes (President of the
University),* offered determined opposition to any form of parti-
*Dr. Magnes was one of the promoters of the Brith Shalom ("Covenant of
purpose of which was to aim at effecting
Peace**) Society in Palestine in 1928, the
a friendly understanding with the Arabs on the hasis of a bmational state.
THE ARAB REVOLT
tion or to a Jewish state. Dr. Magnes urged that negotiations
should be entered into with Great Britain, the Arabs, the League
of Nations, and the United States for the purpose of considering
how a bi-national state could be set up in an undivided Palestine.
Eventually the Council of the Agency endorsed the political reso-
lutions of the Congress. It also directed the Executive to request
the British Government "to convene a Conference of the Jews and
the Arabs of Palestine with a view to exploring the possibility of
making a peaceful settlement between Jews and Arabs in and for
an undivided Palestine on the basis of the Balfour Declaration and
the Mandate." The budget adopted by the Congress was con-
firmed, with a rider to the effect that the Executive and the Keren
Hayesod should do their utmost to increase the income to at least

600,000, so as to cover the cost of the consolidation and the
security of the newly established settlements.
The Permanent Mandates Commission, which met at Geneva
in August and heard explanatory statements on the partition
question from the Colonial Secretary, Mr. Ormsby-Gore (now
Lord Harlech), adopted conclusions stating that, while "favour-
able in principle to an examination of a solution involving the
partition of Palestine," it was
nevertheless "opposed to the idea of
the immediate creation of two independent states," and considered
that "a prolongation of the period of political apprenticeship con-
stituted by the Mandate would be absolutely essential both to the
new Arab and the new Jewish state." The Council of the
state
League, which was addressed on the question by the Foreign

Secretary, Mr. Anthony Eden, adopted a resolution stating that
it agreed to the British Government's continuing to study the
solution of the problem by partition, and, while pointing out that
the Mandate remained in force until such time as it might be
otherwise decided, deferred "consideration of the substance of the
question until the Council is in a position to deal with it as
a
whole," and meanwhile reserved its decision. The Assembly of the
League (on September goth) adopted a resolution expressing "its
conviction that the problem of Pales'tine . will be equitably
. .
settled, account being taken to the fullest possible extent of all

1 *
the legitimate interests at stake.
No official declaration on the proposals of the Royal Commis-
sion was made on the part of the Arabs. On the other hand, the
state ofpeace that had prevailed since October, 1936, came to an
end in June, 1937, when the Arabs resumed their acts of terror-
ism and assassination. The organised campaign became so inten-
sified during the next few months that the Palestine Government
was at last impelled, as it announced officially on October ist, "to
institute action against certain persons whose activities have
been prejudicial to the maintenance of public security in Palestine,
and who must thus be regarded as morally responsible for these
events." The Arab Higher Committee and all Arab national
committees were declared illegal associations, and five members
of the Committee were deported to the Seychelles Islands. The
Mufti of Jerusalem was deprived of his office as President of the
Supreme Moslem Council and of membership of the General
Wakf Committee (of which he was Chairman), and a fortnight
laterhe escaped in disguise to Beyrout. Many leading Arabs were
imprisoned or interned. Nevertheless, the reign of terror, murder,
and sabotage continued unabated. The Government therefore
established military courts on November i8th with authority to
try persons accused of the discharge of firearms, carrying arms or

bombs, or committing sabotage or intimidation, and to impose
sentence of death in the case of the first two offences. Before these
Courts were set up not a single Arab guilty of any of the murders
committed since April, 1936, had suffered the death penalty, but
now some Arab terrorists were executed. The campaign of violence
continued altogether for three years, until the outbreak of the
Second World War, by which time it had claimed 5,774 victims,
comprising 450 Jews killed and 1,944 wounded, 140 British killed
and 476 wounded, and 2,287 Arabs killed and 1.477 wounded.
The Arab terrorists had murdered more of their own people who
refused to join them than they had of Jews. During the same
period over 200,000 trees were destroyed by the Arabs, but
1,000,000 more trees were planted by the Jews-impressive proof
that no atrocities, however cruel, widespread, or persistent, could
weaken the determination of the Jews to rebuild their National
Home.
CHAPTER XIV
FROM PARTITION SCHEMES TO WHITE PAPER
policy announced by the British Government in July,

THE
1937, in favour of a scheme of partition as recommended by
the Royal Commission, which would have resulted in the creation
of an independent Jewish State, proved to be short-lived. Sixteen
months later the Government abandoned this view, and in May,
1939, they declared that they intended setting up in 1949 what
would be tantamount to an Arab state, in which the Jews would
be an impotent minority. This fundamental reversal of policy was
made in stages.
WhenMr. Eden, as Foreign Secretary, spoke to the Council of
the League of Nations in September, 1937, he announced that
the Mandatory Government intended to appoint "a further special
body to visit Palestine, to negotiate with Arabs and Jews" and
to submit to the Government "proposals for a detailed scheme of
partition/' He also stated that "at a later stage, a final and detailed
boundary Commission would need to be appointed/* After the
1
lapse of three months a further White Paper was published,
consisting of a dispatch to the High Commissioner for Palestine
dated December 23rd, 1937. This document stated that the
Government were in no sense committed to approval of the Royal
Commission's partition plan and had not accepted its proposal
for the compulsory transfer of Arabs from the Jewish to the Arab
area; that further investigations were required for the drawing up
of a more precise scheme expressed in greater detail; and that for
this purpose a technical Commission would be sent out to Pales-
tine. The task of this body would be to advise as to the provisional
boundaries of the proposed Arab and Jewish areas and the new
British mandated area, and also to undertake the financial and
other inquiries (concerning exchanges of land and population,
safeguards for minorities, etc.) suggested by the Royal Commission.
It was given "full liberty to suggest modifications of the proposed
7*
plan and, "taking into account any representations of the

com-
munities in Palestine and Transjordan," to recommend boun-
"
daries that would (a) afford a reasonable prospect of the eventual
establishment, with adequate security, of self-supporting Arab and
Jewish States; (&) necessitate the Inclusion of the fewest possible
1
Command Paper 5634.
Arabs and Arab enterprises in the Jewish area and vice versa*, and
(c) enable
His Majesty's Government to carry out the Mandatory
responsibilities,the assumption of which is recommended in the
Report of the Royal Commission/'

The as a result of investigation, there
dispatch stated that if,
a scheme of as equitable and
emerged partition "regarded
the Government, it would be referred to the
practicable" by
Council of the League for consideration, and, if it were approved,
a further period would be required for the establishment of new
for the negotiation of treaties for the
systems of government and
establishment of independent states. It might also be necessary to
consider "the suggestion of the Permanent Mandates Commission
that the Arab and areas should be administered temporarily
Jewish
under a system of 'cantonisation' or under separate Mandates/*
The Partition Commission were appointed on February 28th,
1938, with Sir John Woodheadas Chairman, a day before Sir
Arthur Wauchope was succeeded as High Commissioner by Sir

Harold MacMichael. The Commission arrived in Palestine two
months later, and stayed there for three months. Their Report
was published on November gth, 1938, together with a summary
of their conclusions, and accompanied by a statement of the
Government's decision.
The Commission unanimously advised against the adoption of
the scheme of partition (called Plan A) outlined by the Royal
Commission, on the ground of its impracticability. They found
that if the fewest possible Arabs were to be included in the Jewish
area, the Jewish State could not be a large one; that it could not
contain areas sufficiently extensive, fertile, and well-situated, to
be capable of intensive economic development and of dense and
rapid settlement; that Galilee
should not be included, as the
population was almost entirely
Arab and the Arabs would resist
inclusion by force; and that the Royal Commission's recom-
mendation for a direct subvention from the Jewish State to the
Arab State was impracticable.
The Commission also examined two other schemes, described
as Plans B and C. One member preferred Plan B, which was
Plan A with the exclusion from the proposed Jewish State of
Galilee and the small and predominantly Arab area at its southern
extremity. Two other members thought that the best scheme
under the terms of reference was Plan C, which divided Palestine
into three parts: (a) a northern part (including Galilee and Haifa)
to be retained under Mandate; (&) a southern part (the Negev) to
be retained under Mandate; and (c) a central part to be divided
into an Arab state, a Jewish state, and a Jerusalem enclave. A
fourth member, while arguing that Plan C was the best that could
be devised under the terms of reference, regarded both plans as
impracticable* The Commission pointed out that under either
plan, while the budget of the Jewish state was likely to show a
substantial surplus, the budgets of the Arab state (including
Transjordan) and of the mandated territories were likely to show
substantial deficits. They thought that on economic grounds a
custom union between the proposed states and the mandated
territories was essential, and that any such scheme would be
inconsistent with the grant of fiscal independence to the new
states. They concluded, therefore, that on a strict interpretation
of their terms of reference, they had no alternative but to report
that they were "unable to recommend boundaries for the proposed
areas which will afford a reasonable prospect of the eventual
establishment of self-supporting Arab and Jewish states/*
The Government, in their accompanying statement, declared
that, after careful study of the Partition Commission's Report,
they had reached the conclusion that the political, administrative,

and financial difficulties involved in the proposal to create inde-
pendent Arab and Jewish states inside Palestine were so great

that this solution of the problem was impracticable. They had,
therefore, decided to make a determined effort to promote an
understanding between the Arabs and the Jews (which, it may be
observed, they had neglected to do during the previous twenty
years). They proposed immediately to invite representatives of
the Palestinian Arabsand of neighbouring states on the one hand,
and of the Jewish Agency on the other, and to confer with them
as soon as possible in London regarding future policy, including
the question of immigration into Palestine. As regards the repre-
sentation of the Palestinian Arabs, the Government reserved the
right to exclude "those leaders whom they regarded as responsible
for the campaign of assassination and violence."
The
Jewish Agency also published a statement, in which they
pointed out that the majority of the Commission seemed to have
disregarded the international obligation of the Mandatory Power
to the Jewish people to facilitate the re-establishment of their
National Home in Palestine; that the Commission had devised
a "J ewM* state" comprising an area of less than one-twentieth
of the whole of Western Palestine, from which the greater part of
Jewish land holdings and the most important areas of Jewish
colonisation were excluded; and that, so far as the rest of Western
Palestine was concerned, they had abolished the Balfour Declara-
tion and the Jewish National Home provisions of the Mandate.
They also recalled the fact that the request made by the Jewish
Agency to the British Government after the publication of the

Royal Commission's Report, to convene a Jewish-Arab Conference
for the purpose of promoting an understanding between the two
peoples, was at that time refused; and they viewed with grave
apprehension the proposal to invite the neighbouring Arab states,
who had no special status in regard to Palestine and therefore no
claim to take part in such a discussion.
The Conference convened by the Government ostensibly for
the purpose of bringing about a Jewish-Arab understanding took
place In London at St. James's Palace, and lasted from February
8th to March lyth, 1939. The Jewish side was represented by the
Executive of the Jewish Agency and by leading Jewish personali-
ties,both Zionist and non-Zionist, widely representative of the
Jews of the British Empire, the United States, and other countries.
The Palestinian Arab delegates and their advisers included three
members who had been interned In the Seychelles Islands and
a fourth who had escaped deportation with them, although the
Government had previously announced that it reserved the right
to exclude from the Conference "those leaders whom they regarded
as responsible for the campaign of assassination and violence."
These delegates belonged to the following of the futgitive ex-
all
Mufti of Jerusalem. There were also three delegates of the mod-
erate National Defence Party, but they played only a minor and
passive part. The Arab states represented were Egypt, Saudi-

Arabia, Iraq, the Yemen, and Transjordan. The Government were
represented by the Colonial Secretary (Mr. Malcolm MacDonald),
the Foreign Secretary (Viscount Halifax), and the Under-Secre-
tary for Foreign Affairs (Mr. R. A. Butler). The Arab delegates
refused to meet the Jewish delegates, although the latter were
willing to meet the others (and had one informal meeting with
the representatives of the Arab states), so that the Government
conducted Conferences with the two sides separately. As these
talks led to no agreement, they were broken off, and on March
i5th the Government submitted a series of proposals to both

parties in the hope that they would be accepted. These proposals
FROM PARTITION SCHEMES TO WHITE PAPER 229
were rejected by the Executive of the Jewish Agency and by the
other Jewish delegates as a violation of the Balfour Declaration
and of the Mandate. They were likewise rejected by the Arab
delegates as falling short of their demands.
Two months later, on May iyth, the Government published
1
a White Paper,
in which they set forth the policy that they pro-
posed to carry out. In general it was identical with the proposals

that had been submitted to the Conferences. It declared that the
objective of the British Government was "the establishment within

ten years of an independent Palestine state in such treaty relations
with the United Kingdom as will provide satisfactorily for the
commercial and strategic requirements of both countries in the
future," and that this proposal would involve consultation with
the Council of the League of Nations with a view to the termina-
tion of the Mandate. There would be a transitional period during
which the people of Palestine would be given an increasing part
in the government of the country; Arabs and Jews would be in
charge of departments approximately in proportion their popu-
lations, with British advisers; the Executive Council would be
converted later into a Council of Ministers; and machinery would
be provided for an elective legislature, if public opinion were in
favour of such a development. Adequate provision would have to
be made for the security of, and freedom of access to, the holy
places, the protection of the interests and property of the various
religious bodies, the protection of the different communities in
Palestine in accordance with the obligations of the British Govern-
ment to both Jews and Arabs, and "the special position in Palestine
of the Jewish National Home." But if at the end of ten years
circumstances required the postponement of the establishment of
the independent state, the Government would "consult with
representatives of the people of Palestine, the Council of the
League of Nations, and the neighbouring Arab states before decid-
ing on such a postponement/'
On
the question of immigration the White Paper stated "that
fear of indefinite Jewish immigration is widespread amongst the
Arab population, and that this fear has made possible disturbances
which have given a serious setback to economic progress." In fact,
the economic progress was predominantly due to Jewish immi-
gration. The White Paper therefore proposed
that during the next
five years Jewish immigration would be at a rate which, if eco-
1
Command Paper 6019.
nomic absorptive capacity permitted, would bring the Jewish
population up to approximately one-third of the total population.
This would allow of the admission of some 75,000 immigrants
(including 25,000 refugees) over the next five years, and before
each periodic decision was taken Jewish and Arab representatives
would be consulted. After the five years, no further Jewish immi-
gration would be permitted unless the Arabs acquiesced in it.
The Jewish Agency immediately published an official statement,
in which they declared that the White Paper was a denial of the
right of the Jewish people to reconstitute their National Home in
their ancestral country, that it was a surrender to Arab terrorism,
that it robbed the Jews of their last hope in the darkest hour of
and that they would never submit to the closing
their history,
against them
of the gates of Palestine or let their National Home
be converted into a Ghetto. No doubt was felt in Zionist and
Jewish Agency circles or indeed by any well-informed and un-
prejudiced person, that the principal motive that inspired the
proposals of the White Paper was the Government's fear that
the Arabs, who had been aided and abetted in their revolt by
Germany and Italy, might side with these Powers in the war that
seemed to be approaching, and that the Government were bent
upon appeasing them. The ex-Mufti's Party rejected the White
Paper, but it was accepted by the Arab moderates (National
Defence Party), one of whom was promptly murdered by an Arab
terrorist.
The White Paper was severely criticised in both

Houses of
Parliament by members of two
all parties, particularly
by former
Colonial Secretaries, Mr. Winston Churchill and Mr. Amery.
Mr. Churchill stigmatised the document as "a plain breach of
1
a solemn obligation** and "another Munich/' and Mr. Amery
said that he could never hold up his head if he voted for it. The
White Paper was adopted on May sgrd by the comparatively
small majority of 89 in a House of Commons (consisting of 615
members) in which the Government normally counted on an
assured majority of 220. About 100 of the Government's sup-
porters abstained from voting, while 22 (including
Mr. Churchill
and Mr. Amery) voted with the Opposition.
The document was then submitted to the Permanent Mandates
1
An allusion to the agreement made at Munich in September, 1938, between
Mr. Neville Chamberlain, as British Prime Minister, and Hitler, whereby Czecho-
slovakia was compelled to cede the Sudetenland to Germany.
Commission in June for examination, with a view to a report
being made to the Council of the League of Nations on the ques-
1
tion of compatibility with the Mandate. After a four days
its
session the Commission unanimously rejected it, declaring that

"the policy set out in the White Paper was not in accordance with
the interpretation which, in agreement with the Mandatory Power
and the Council, the Commission had always placed upon the
Palestine Mandate." The Commission also considered whether
theMandate "might not perhaps be open to a new interpretation
which .would be sufficiently flexible for the policy of the White
. .
Paper not to appear at variance with it," and the majority de-
clared that they "did not feel able to state that the policy of the
White Paper was in conformity with the Mandate, any contrary
conclusion appearing to them to be ruled out by the very terms of
the Mandate and by the fundamental intentions of its authors/'
The minority (the representatives of France, Great Britain and
Portugal) considered that "existing circumstances would justify
the policy of the White Paper, provided the Council did not
oppose it." Owing to the outbreak of the Second World War
there was no meeting of the Council to consider the Commission's
report, and it was therefore believed that, in consequence of the
nature of this report, and as the Government had failed to obtain
legal sanction for their proposals, no steps would be taken to carry
them out. Nevertheless, the Government immediately began to
apply the White Paper in respect of Jewish immigration into

Palestine. They issued a reduced schedule for the months from
May to September, 1939, and after Germany's devastating invasion
of Poland, from which tens of thousands of Jewish refugees fled to
neighbouring countries, it was further announced that the sched-
ule until March, 1940, provided only for the admission of 300 non-
Jews and excluded Jews altogether.
The Twenty-first Zionist Congress, which assembled at Geneva
from August i6th to 24th, was held under the shadow of the
approaching war. It was attended by 529 delegates, a record
number, reflecting both the unusually momentous character of
the deliberations and the consciousness that the fortunes of the
movement were hidden in the grim uncertainties of the future.
Dr. Weizmann, in his inaugural address, painted a sombre picture
of the suffering and destruction that had already been wrought
among the Jewish people by the Nazi terror, and of the futile
efforts of the Evian Conference, convened by President Roosevelt,
to devise any measure of relief. The Jewish Agency had submitted
to the Conference a plan for the absorption of 100,000 refugees in
Palestine on a constructive basis within a relatively short time,
but it was thwarted by the very Government whose special duty
it was under the Mandate to facilitate the immigration and close
settlement of Jews in Palestine. He arraigned the British Govern-

ment in bitter and searing words, such as he had never used before.
He accused it of a lack of practical sympathy and of an "attempt
to undo a great historic act" at the very moment when the Jewish
people was faced by the most appalling and tragic crisis in its
history. He said:
"In this solemn hour I am reluctantly compelled to say that

the British Government has gone back on its
promises. It is not
easy for me above all for me to have to say it. But I would be
disloyal to my people, and faithless to the memory of the great

men no longer with us in our struggle for freedom and justice,
if I did not state from this tribune before the whole world that
a grave injustice is being done to us. I must raise my voice in
the strongest possible protest. We
have not deserved this treat-
ment. . . . An
international obligation to the Jews in regard to
a sacred land, undertaken before the whole civilised world, can-
not be unilaterally destroyed, least of all by a nation like Great
Britain, which has always striven, and still strives, to maintain
respect for law, for treaties, for moral principles, for good faith
in international relations. Yet in its new policy the present
British Government has taken upon not only to go back
itself
upon its promise of support, but actually to try to bring to a

standstill the great historic process of the return of Israel and
the rebuilding of Palestine, which began long before the country
came under British . The Government
rule. . .
may itself be the
victim of an illusion, the illusion that you can counter force by
further force, directed not against the aggressors but against the
victims. . . . We must and shall defend our lives, our rights, our
work, with the strength at our disposal.
all Whatever may . . .
happen to-day, to-morrow, or in the near future, the work our

pioneers have achieved will live and grow, and remain a per-
manent source of strength and courage to this and future
generations."
After an anxious week of earnest discussion, in which all aspects

of the events and activities of the past two years were critically
reviewed, and the representatives of all parties emphatically
expressed their opposition to the Government's proposals, the
Congress adopted a series of resolutions embodying Its conclu-
sions. It rejected the policy of the White Paper "as violating the
rights of the Jewish people and repudiating the obligation towards

them entered Into by Great Britain in the Balfour Declaration and
the Mandate, and endorsed by the civilised nations of the world."
It declared that "the Jewish people will not
acquiesce In the
reduction of Its status in Palestine to that of a minority, nor In
the subjection of the Jewish National Home to Arab rule." It
reaffirmed "the inalienable right of the Jewish people, exercised
without interruption throughout the centuries of the Dispersion,
to return to Palestine, where the only real and permanent solution
of the problem of Jewish homelessness is to be found/* It declared
that the new policy of the Government with regard to immigra-
tion and land was "a complete reversal of the Mandatory obliga-
tions to facilitate Jewish immigration and to encourage close
settlement by Jews on the land," and that "the obligations were
undertaken towards the Jewish people as a whole and not towards
the Jews of Palestine alone/* It protested against the suspension
of Jewish Immigration during the ensuing six months, thus de-
priving Jews under the Nazi tyranny of their only means of escape,
and declared that the responsibility for the consequences of that
policy lay upon the Government alone. It welcomed the unani-
mous conclusion of the Mandates Commission that the White
Paper was not In accordance with the Mandate. It reaffirmed the
resolve of the Jewish people to establish relations of mutual good-
will and cooperation with the Arabs of Palestine and of the neigh-
bouring Arab countries, and instructed the Executive to explore

the possibilities of such co-operation.
Owing to the gradual darkening of the political horizon as the

had to be curtailed. A budget
discussions proceeded, the Congress
was adopted of 720,000 (of which the Keren Hayesod was
expected to provide 600,000 and the Central Bureau for the

Settlement of German Jews 100,000), and the retiring Executive
were re-elected. In the concluding session, on Thursday night,
August 24th, Dr. Weizmann, who spoke with great emotion, said
that he hoped that they would all survive the coming conflict
and that their work would continue. Above and beyond their
grievances there were higher Interests that were common to them
and the Western democracies. "Their concern Is ours/' he said,
"their fight Is our fight. To our friends from Palestine, I wish
a successful journey. To our friends from Poland, I hope they
won't share the fate of their fellow Jews in the neighbouring
countries." Ussishkin, who, as President of the Congress, closed
the proceedings, also dwelt on the world catastrophe that was
about to break out and on the fate that was awaiting the Jews in
the lands of Central and Eastern Europe as well as those in
Palestine.He hoped that the Jews of Poland would not have to
suffer too much in the disaster that threatened. In the time-
honoured Hebrew phrase, he bade them all "Go in peace/* The
entire assembly of delegates and visitors then rose and fervently
sang "Hatikvah," and with mutual good wishes that they would
meet again in better times they streamed out of the Congress
building after midnight to hasten back to their homes in all parts
of the globe.
Despite the outbreak of war, which soon brought desolation,

slavery, and death to hundreds of thousands of Jews in Poland and
in other parts of Eastern Europe, the British Government, al-
though intensely preoccupied with graver concerns, did not relax
from the prosecution of the White Paper policy. In a letter to the
Secretary-General of the League of Nations, they stated that they
were of opinion that their action was in no way inconsistent with
the provisions of the Mandate, although the Mandates Commis-
sion had unanimously adopted a declaration to the contrary effect.
But they thought it right to inform the members of the Council
of the position "in case any member of the Council should wish
to ask that the Council should be convened to discuss it." The
members of the Council naturally understood that the suggestion
was merely a matter of form, and there were no replies. There-
upon the Government forbade any Jewish immigration into Pales-
tine for six months, until the end of March, 1940, on the ground
that there had been a large influx of illegal immigrants. But these
were all fugitives from barbarous persecution, who could find no
asylum except in the Jewish National Home, the land where they
had been assured by the White Paper of 1922 that they were "as
of right and not on sufferance." Not content with this embargo,
despite the increasing anxieties of the war, and although the

White Paper was devoid of any legal validity, the Government
next proceeded to enact a law to limit the sale and transfer of
land in Palestine to Jews to only a tiny part of the country.
On February 28th, 1940, the Government promulgated the
Land Transfers Regulations/ whereby the country west of the
Jordan was divided into three zones, in which land sales from
Arabs to Jews should be restricted, prohibited, or remain free
respectively. Zone A, in which the transfer of land to a person
other than a Palestinian Arab was prohibited save in exceptional
cases, included "the hill country as a whole, together with certain
areas in Gaza or Beersheba sub-districts where the land available
is already insufficient for the support of the existing population."
Zone B included the plains of Esdraelon and Jezreel, Eastern
Galilee, the maritime plain between Haifa and Tantura and
between the southern boundary of the Ramleh sub-district and
Beer Tuvia, and the southern portion of the Beersheba sub-
district (the Negev). Within Zone B transfers of land might be
sanctioned if they could be shown to be for the purpose of con-
solidating, extending or facilitating the irrigation of holdings
already in possession of the transferee or of his community, the
land to be transferred being contiguous to such holdings; or for
the purpose of enabling land held in undivided shares by trans-
feror and transferee to be parcellated; or in furtherance of some
special scheme of development in the joint interest of both Arabs

and Jews of which the Government approved. The parts in
which there were to be no restrictions included all municipal
areas, the Haifa industrial zone, and the maritime plain between
Tantura and the southern boundary of Ramleh sub-district. These
Regulations, although first issued on February 2 8th, 1940, were
deemed to have come into force on May i8th, 1939.
The significance of this enactment can be appreciated by
examining the comparative areas represented by the different
zones. Of the 6,717,250 acres of Western Palestine (exclusive of
lakes) only 335,750 acres, or just under 5 per cent., is in the
"free zone," about 64 per cent, is in the prohibited zone, and
about 31 per cent, in the restricted zone. In the prohibited zone
the area of Jewish land is 81,500 acres, but this figure includes the
19,000 acres of the Palestine Potash Company concession, which
is not available for agricultural
purposes, while most of the
remainder lies in the plain of the prohibited zone. In the actual
hill country,with the exception of the three settlements in the
corner of Northern Galilee, and a few more round Jerusalem,
the Jews have practically no land. In the restricted zone there are
132,250 acres of Jewish land; and of the 1,960,250 acres in this
1
Command Paper 6180,
zone not in Jewish possession, 1,700,000 acres constitute the
southern Negev, which is to-day arid and as yet unexplored.
acres of Jewish land
Finally, the "free zone" contains 172,000
and 163,750 acres of Arab and it is these 163,750 acres (or
land,
2.6 per cent, of the area of Western Palestine not in Jewish
the margin of possible Jewish land
possession) that constitute
but there are
acquisition free from administrative restrictions;
to-day 48,500 Arabs on that land.
If we compare the 5 per cent, of the area of Western Palestine
in which the are free to acquire land with the extent of the
Jews
the Balfour Declaration,
territory contemplated or understood by
we shall have a true measure of the whittling down of that historic
promise and likewise of the bitter disillusion of the Jewish people.
For, as the Palestine Royal Commission testified in their report
(p. 38),
the area in which the Jewish National Home was to be
established was originally understood to be "the whole of historic
Palestine/* which includes Transjordan, and it was the definite
intention of the Government to establish a Jewish state (p. 24).
Thus, the vision of a Jewish state on both sides of the Jordan was
reduced to a "Pale of Settlement" only one-sixtieth of the original
area.
The practical reason advanced for the

new regulations was that
"ifland sales remain unrestricted there is likely to arise a landless
Arab* problem of such dimensions that it will be extremely diffi-
cult to find any solution to it." When the regulations were de-
bated in the House of Commons on March 6th, 1940, the Colonial
Secretary (Mr. Malcolm MacDonald) was asked whether he had
any figures of Arabs rendered landless by Jewish purchases, and
he readily admitted: "We have not any statistics." The only
detailed inquiry into the facts was made in 1931-2, when it was
ascertained that 664 Arabs, mostly tenants, had been displaced
during the twelve years in which the Jews had purchased
115,000 acres. Of these displaced Arabs only about 100 availed
themselves of the opportunity of resettlement offered by the
Palestine Government, and, according to the Government's Re-
port for 1937, about fifty of these families "deserted the settlement
and are engaged, for the most part, in other than agricultural
work." The Government subsequently passed a Tenants' Protec-
tive Ordinance to prevent further displacements. Moreover, no
data have ever been adduced to show that peasant proprietors are
being dispossessed. The fact is that the Arabseven those loud in
their complaints that the Jews are buying up the country sell land
that they can spare, and with the proceeds they develop the re-
mainder. In soliciting Parliament's approval for the new policy,
the Colonial Secretary said that it was necessary "to enable us to
mobilise our forces to prosecute to a victorious conclusion the war
against Nazi Germany." This seemed to suggest that as soon as

the Land Regulations were passed, hundreds of thousands of Arabs
would flock to fight for the Allies. The reaction of the Arabs, apart
from an Insignificant number, was a policy of deliberate passivity.
The new policy has prevented the Jews from applying their
capital and Industry to the development of any part of Palestine
beyond a tiny area. It has struck equally at the Arabs, who have
been denied one of the surest means to Improve their surplus land.
It was publicly admitted by the Arab Delegation at the St. James's
Palace Conference in 1939 t^Lat there were some 19 millions
dunams (about 434 million acres) of land in Western Palestine,
out of a total of 28 million dunams (about 6^4 million acres),
which were not cultivated by the Arabs and could not be culti-
vated by them. The greater part of this land has thus been con-
demned to remain waste. Moreover, the new regulations were a
violation of Article 6 of the Mandate, which requires that the
Administration shall encourage close settlement by Jews on the
land, and likewise of Article 15, which prescribes that "no dis-
crimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants of
Palestine on the ground of race, religion, or language/* It Is, in-
deed, ironical that whereas the Jew may buy land in all countries
save those under Nazi domination or influence, he is forbidden to
buy any In 95 per cent, of the land of his internationally guaran-
teed National Home, and that the prohibition was imposed at a
time when his people were being subjected to unparalleled perse-
cution over so wide an area In Europe. It seemed as though the
Balfour Declaration, which was acclaimed as one of the noblest
products of the First World War, had found its nadir In the
Second.
CHAPTER XV
PROGRESS IN THE NATIONAL HOME
National Home continued on its course of progress

THE Jewish
despite all the obstacles that it had to encounter. Neither
Arab outrages, nor inquiry commissions, nor the rigidity o the
Administration, succeeded either in preventing the influx of Jew-
ish settlers, or in retarding social, economic, and cultural develop-
ments. Of all the difficulties that had to be overcome the most
deliberate and persistent were those placed by the Government
in the way of immigration. Instead of facilitating the admission
of new settlers, as expressly required by the Mandate, the Govern-
ment, either by special ordinances or by bureaucratic practice,
devised obstructions to the return of the Jews to their ancestral
land. The half-yearly labour schedule formed a regular subject of
controversy: the carefully compiled estimate of the Jewish Agency,
based on the ascertainable needs of labour, was invariably
challenged by the Government and drastically reduced. From
April, 1930, the screw was also turned in regard to persons of the
capitalist category: 1,000 was then fixed as the necessary mini-
mum, after having in practice been required for a considerable
time, instead of 500, the amount prescribed in the original
ordinance. Two years later the Government agreed to
accept the
lower figure as a minimum for certain occupations only, on con-
dition that the settlement of a person with that amount did not
lead to undue competition in the pursuit that he
proposed to enter,
and was sufficient to assure him a reasonable pros-
that his capital
pect of success provisos that were interpreted very strictly. Diffi-
culties were also raised in regard to members of the liberal
pro-
fessions and skilled craftsmen, who were
required to possess 500
and 250 respectively, and from 1937 these categories were can-
celled. Moreover, increasing severity was applied in the interpre-
tation of the term "dependents," so that
Jewish settlers who were
fully able to support their parents or other near relatives were not
allowed to secure their admission.
In 1937 the Palestine Government definitely
departed from the
principle of regulating immigration according to the economic
absorptive capacity, and adopted the principle of the "political
high level." Spokesmen of the Mandatory Government declared
both in London and in Geneva that this was "a purely
temporary
PROGRESS IN THE NATIONAL HOME 239
and arbitrary measure," but it nevertheless became the law of the
land. In August, 1937, a new Ordinance was enacted, which gave
power High Commissioner temporarily to prescribe the

to the
maximum aggregate number of immigrants during any specified
period, as well as to prescribe categories of immigrants and the
maximum number of persons to be admitted in any category.
But from March gist, 1939, when the persecution of the Jews in
Europe was increasing both in intensity and in geographical
range, the Immigration Ordinance of 1937 was made valid for
any period. The Jewish Agency promptly challenged the legality

of this action and requested the British Government to submit it
to the judgment of the Permanent Court of Justice at The Hague,
but the request was refused.
The trend of Jewish immigration after 1929 reflected the
fluctuations in the attitude of the Administration, the disorders
in the country, and the extension of Nazi oppression. In both
years 1930 and 1931 the total was below 5,000, but in 1932 when
the Fifth Ally ah began, it rose to 9,550, and in the next few years
it mounted to 30,327 in 1933, to 42,359 in 1934, and to
steadily
61,854 in 1935- This last year witnessed the peak of immigration,
and thereafter the total declined from 29,727 in 1936 to 16,405
in 1939.* The composition
of the influx displayed various changes
from 1933, the year of the beginning of the Nazi terror. Before
that date the Jews from Poland had formed an average of nearly
40 per cent, of the total, but from then the unenviable place of
primacy was occupied by the Jews of Germany and Austria.
Immigrants from these two countries had formed less than
2 per cent, of the total in 1922, but in 1937 they amounted
to 36 per cent., and in 1938 to 52 per cent,, while those from
Poland, who were over 30 per cent, in 1922, declined from
36 per cent, in 1937 to 27 per cent, in the following year* The
swelling exodus from Germany brought to recollection that when

Herzl proposed holding his first Congress in 1897 in Munich,
there were angry protests by many German Rabbis and communal
leaders on the ground that such an assembly on German soil would
throw doubt upon the loyalty of German Jewry: now the children
and grandchildren of those protestants consider themselves for-
tunate that the purpose of that Congress had not been thwarted.
Over 65,000 Jews from Germany and Austria have settled in
Palestine since 1933.
1
In 1939 there were also 11,156 uncertiicated immigrants. See III.
Appendix
Not only has there been a change in the relative proportion of
Jews from different countries, but there has also been a variation
in the proportions of different categories. In the
twenty years
from October, 1919, to September, 1939, the immigrants of the
labour category formed 50 per cent, of the total and those of the
capitalist category 17 per cent., but in the years from 1934 to 1937
both of these categories were much below the average, the former
declining from 25 to 16 per cent, and the latter from 11 to 10
per cent. In 1935, the peak year of immigration, the total in the
capitalist category was 6,398, but the number declined in the
following years to 2,606 in 1939. On the other hand, from the
beginning of the Nazi oppression dependents (despite the rigorous
regulations), persons engaged in religious occupations, and stu-
dents formed a rising proportion. The importance of
rescuing
the younger generation, in many cases where the
parents could
not or were not allowed to escape from their persecutors, or where
the parents no longer existed, led to the creation in 1933 of a new
section of immigration, called "Youth A liyah" The Government
issued special certificates for boys and girls
entering educational
institutions on the basis of guarantees given
by the Vaad Leumi
to schools under its jurisdiction, as well as for children of both
sexes placed in agricultural villages. The total number of these
juvenile immigrants, many of whom had adventurous and perilous

journeys, is about 15,000, and the organisation involved in their
transfer and the supervision of their settlement were, until her
death in February, 1945, the charge of that veteran worker, Miss
Henrietta Szold, who displayed exemplary energy and devotion
to the very end.
There is still another category of immigrants, those who,

fleeing
from persecution, have entered the country without certificates,
and in most cases at great personal risk. They are
officially
designated "illegal Immigrants," but they base their right to
return to their ancestral homeland on the grounds of and
justice
humanity, recognised by the oft-quoted passage in the Churchill
White Paper, which assured the Jews that they were in Palestine
as "of right and not on sufferance/
1
As they have all been
economically absorbed, it cannot be said that their entrance has
violated the principle of not
exceeding the absorptive capacity of
the country. Nevertheless, the Government has
invariably taken
into account their estimated number from time to time
by making
a corresponding deduction in fixing the
periodical schedule. On
PROGRESS IN THE NATIONAL HOME
the other hand, there has been an illegal Immigration of Arabs
from the adjoining territories of Syria and Transjordan, especially
from the Hauran, which cannot be justified on the ground of
persecution or ancestral connection, and which has been due
solely to the economic attractions of Palestine created by Jewish
1
activity.
The total number of Jewish immigrants into Palestine from
October, 1919, to September, 1939, was 326,000,* and during the
first five years of the Second World War there have been rather
over 50,000, so that we can assume that since the beginning of

1919 the aggregate Jewish immigration has amounted to about
376,000.* It has been primarily owing to immigration that the
population of Palestine has increased at a rate unparalleled in any
other part of the world. It has been calculated that of the total
increase of Jews by 300,000 in the period from 1922 to 1936, only
19 per cent. (57,000) were due to natural increase and 81 per cent.
(243,000) to immigration, while in the same period the non-Jews
increased by 351,000, of whom 77 per cent. (272,000) were due to
4
natural increase and 23 per cent. (79,000) to immigration. The
Jewish population is now estimated at 600,000, forming over
31 per cent, of the total population (1,750,000). It has more than
trebled since 1929, when it was 160,000, and is over ten times
as large as at the end of 1918, when it stood at 55,000. One-third
of Palestinian Jewry is concentrated in Tel-Aviv, which, with
a population of nearly 200,000, including 27,500 in an adjoining
suburb of Jaffa, has grown at a phenomenal rate, for in 1914 it
had only 2,000 inhabitants, by 1929 it had 40,000, and ten years
later 150,000. Tel-Aviv isthe only all-Jewish city in the world,
and all its public services from the magistracy and police to
1
The
Palestine Royal Commission (Report, pp. 289-92) estimated that unauthor-
ised Jewishsettlers had risen in the two years 1932-3 to 22400. They gave 2300 as
the figure of Hauranis illegally in the country, but, according to a writer in the
Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society (October, 1936) , the number of illegal
Arab immigrants in 1934 was over 20,000. On November 7th, 1945, the British Colo-
nial Secretary, in reply to a question in the House of Commons, stated that in the
period 1922-42 there was an increase of the population by the immigration of 10,015
Moslems and 15,645 Christians, Arabs being 99.6 per cent, of the Moslems and 83
per cent, of the Christians, besides 10,000 Moslems included by alteration of the
northern boundary in 1923. From 1939 to 1942 the number of Jews who entered
Palestine without certificates was 18,090.
2
See Two
Decades of Keren Hayesod, by A. Ulitzur (Jerusalem, 1940), p. 37.
s
According to a report published by the Statistical Department of the Jewish
Agency in Jerusalem, the total number of Jewish immigrants from 1919 to the end
of 1942 was 358,903.
4
Economic Survey of Palestine, by David Horowitz and Rita Hinden (Tel-Aviv,
1938), p. 22.
1
transport and scavenging are In the hands of Jews. The next

are those of Jerusalem, where there
largest Jewish communities
are 98,800 Jews (65 per cent of the total). About one-fourth of the
Yishuv lives In the rural districts. Owing to the comparatively
before 1939, building was very
large immigration in the years
active both in town and country, as many as 12,000 Jewish workers
being employed In that industry and allied

trades. The amount of
in 1935 was 7,000,000, and
Jewish capital invested in building
during the next three years a further 9,000,000 was devoted to
the same purpose.
The
progress of the National
Home has been notably marked
by an Increase in the amount of land in Jewish ownership, in the
expansion of industrial and commercial activity,
and in the growth
of the educational and health services. The extent of land in Jew-
by purchase, now amounts to 1,690,000
ish possession, all acquired
dunams, which is
equivalent to 6 per cent, of the total area of
Western Palestine (26,158,000 dunams). Of this Jewish land
720,000 dunams are the property of the Jewish National Fund:
the largest tracts are in the Valley of Jezreel (182,500 dunams)
and In Judaea (108,500 dunams), while smaller areas are in the
Plain of Sharon (80,500), the Jordan Valley (69,000), and Samaria
(31,000). The greatest changes
In the landscape of the country
have been wrought by the Jewish National Fund, with the aid
of the Keren Hayesod, in the Valley of Jezreel and the Plain of
Sharon, where land belonging to absentee Arab landlords, which
was formerly a wilderness, has been transformed into a fruitful
and smiling countryside. Changes almost of equal importance
have been made in the Kabbara Marshes and the Plain of Athlit,
thanks to the developments carried out by the P.I.CA., which has
leased the land from the Government. Of the total area in Jewish
possession, 170,000 dunams represent concessions, the most Im-
portant consisting of 57>ooo dunams in the Huleh Valley, acquired
in 1934 by the Palestine Land Development Company, and of
this tract 15,000 dunams^ after being drained at the expense of the
Company, are to be set aside without payment for local Arab

fellaheen. Experts are divided as to the amount of land In Pales-
tine that is cultivable, but Dr. Arthur Ruppin, an authority who
devoted over thirty years to the agricultural development of the
3
country, calculated that one-half of the total area Is cultivable,
1
The expenditure of the Tel- Aviv Municipality has now reached 1369,000 a
year.
3
Ruppin, The Jewish Fate and Future, p. 334.
which means that the land in Jewish possession amounts to
12 per cent, of the cultivable area. Friends of the Arabs have
accused the Jews of acquiring the best soil in the country, but,
if it is the best, it has been rendered so by Jewish industry, capital,
and scientific methods, as the land was previously regarded as

barren and derelict. The cultivators of the soil are by no means
confined to the labour class, as many middle-class Jews, with
capital of their own, especially from Germany
and Poland, have
invested their money in farms, which they manage themselves,
and they have also been assisted by the Keren Hayesod.
Fortunately, Jewish perseverance succeeded in discovering water
resources in a number of places, and in an abundance exceeding
the anticipation of many experts. Another notable improvement
in the landscape has been the reafforestation of the country. The
Jewish National Fund has planted over 3,500,000 trees in thirty-
two localities, and thus altered the appearance of the hill-country
in Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee, where attractive vistas of green
terraces have replaced the bare expanses of former times.
No more striking testimony to Jewish zeal and energy could be
afforded than the material progress made both during the violent
disorders that troubled the country from 1936 to 1939, and during
the years ofwar that followed. In the former period Jewish land-
purchases amounted to 83,000 dunams (70,000 acquired by the
Jewish National Fund), while in the first five years of the war
the National Fund bought another 240,000 dunams. Nor was there
any cessation in the founding of new settlements. Owing to the
risk of Arab attacks, if these had been established by the former
normal methods, which occupied at least some weeks, it was
necessary to create a new settlement within twelve hours, between
dawn and dusk. This feat was accomplished by a brilliant com-
bination of organisation, co-operation and speed: the new settlers,
accompanied by comrades from neighbouring settlements and by
Jewish supernumerary police, arrived on the chosen spot at the
break of dawn with lorries laden with all the manifold requisite
materials in pre-fabricated form, and such was the energy and
co-ordination displayed that by sunset the settlement was complete
within its stockade, and a tall water-tower flashed an electric
signal across the valley to the nearest villages that the work was
done. Within the first five years of the war nearly forty new
settlements were founded, and now the total number of agri-
cultural settlements approaches 300.
244 THE ZI ^ NIST MOVEMENT
The progress of Jewish agriculture has been marked by an
increase of produce and the diminution of the size of individual
holdings, thanks to experimentation
and the systematic application
of scientific methods. The success achieved is
particularly notable
when compared with Arab records. On many Jewish farms the
milk yield of a cow is nearly ten times as great as that of a cow
on an Arab farm, which is 600 litres a year; the laying capacity
of a hen is thrice as great as that of one on an Arab farm; and,
thanks to irrigation, a field, instead of giving only one crop, yields
fiveto six crops of forage or two to three crops of vegeables.
Before 1914 the average size of a Jewish holding was 240 dunams>
but was gradually diminished to 100 dunams^ and in later
this
the land could be irrigated, it was
periods, in districts where
reduced still further to 20 dunams.
The most extensive development has taken place in the growing
of citrus fruit. Between 1919 and 1939 the area under orange
cultivation increased from 30,000 to 300,000 dunams, of which
160,000 belonged to Jewish settlers, who also introduced the grow-
ing of grape-fruit and lemons. The citrus crop of 1938-9 was
a record, amounting to 18 million cases. This fruit once formed
nearly 80 per cent, of the country's exports, and about two-thirds
of the annual crop went to Great Britain; but owing to the war
and the difficulties of shipping the amount grown had to be greatly
reduced and the cultivators have had to be helped with Govern-

ment loans. The crop in 1941-2 was only 61^ million cases, and
in 194^-3 it fell to 5 millions. The
area covered by vineyards and
fruit orchards increased during the years 1934-9 from 400,000 to
870,000 dunams. The expansion took place largely on Arab hold-
ings, thanks to the active encouragement by
the Government in
distributing free saplings to fellaheen and providing expert advice,

a form of assistance from which Jewish farming benefits very little.
The area of vegetable cultivation by Jewish farmers was nearly
3,500 dunams in 1935-6, but owing to the Arab disorders and
boycott during the next three years that area was nearly trebled,
and, since the war, it has been extended still further to 17,000
dunams.
At the end of 1942 there were close on 14,000 milch-cows in
Jewish possession, the productive capacity of which reached

50 million litres of milk for the year. The number of dairy cattle
had by then increased to 27,400, and the number of sheep to
nearly 32,000. The Jewish

settlements also have 654,000 head of
poultry, producing nearly 100,000,000 eggs, and over 15,000

bee-
hives (forming over 70 per cent, of the total). The aggregate sales
of agricultural and dairy produce by the Jewish Co-operative
Society, "Tnuvah," amounted in 1941-42 to ,100,000, compared
with 210,000 in 1933-4 that is, an increase of ten times within
eight years.
There have been striking developments in the field of
also
industry, thanks largely to the immigration of industrialists,

scientists, inventors, engineers, and trained craftsmen from Ger-
many, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, who brought with them not

only capital and technical skill, but also, in many cases, patent
processes and the requisite plant. These victims of Hitlerism have
proved a boon to the Holy Land, which is the only country in the
Near and Middle East where certain articles can be manufactured.
Among the industries introduced in recent years are cinema films
and iron safes, automobile bodies and armoured cars, refrigerators
and water-sprinklers, boats and agricultural machinery, plate and
window glass, buttons and rubber, electrical, scientific and pre-
cision instruments, lenses for binoculars, steel and alloys, heavy
and fine chemicals, diamond polishing and zincography. The
diamond-polishing trade has been created by refugees from
Antwerp and Amsterdam and employs over 4,000 people in
works established at Tel-Aviv, Nethaniah and other centres.
There are now altogether 7,000 Jewish factories, workshops, and
other industrial establishments, which employ over 50,000 per-
sons and have an annual output worth 40,000,000 one-fourth of
which is for war purposes. The dominating part that the Jews
play in Palestine's industry is attested by the fact that they have
provided 90 per cent, of its capital and supply 85 per cent, of its
labour.
development has been greatly furthered by the

Industrial
electrificationscheme introduced by Pinhas Rutenberg, in 1923,
by harnessing the waters of the Jordan and the Yarmuk. There is
a hydro-electric power-house near the junction of these rivers,
and other power-houses have been erected at Haifa and Tel-Aviv.
The entire system, which is operated by the Palestine Electric
1
Corporation, has a total generating capacity of 72,000 horse-

1
This company, of which Viscount Samuel is Chairman, has an. authorised capital
of over 4,000,000, of which 2,752,000 is paid up.
power, and the number of kw.h. units sold increased from
millions in 1930 to nearly 200 millions in 1945* Another industry
of far-reaching importance is the extraction of the mineral depos-
its of the Dead Sea, originally conceived before the First World
War by Mr. M. Novomeysky, and conducted by him (for some

years in conjunction with the later Major Tulloch) for Palestine
Potash, Ltd. There are two plants, one at the northern and the
other at the southern end of the lake, and they are capable of pro-
ducing over 100,000 tons of potash per annum, and other salts in
proportion. The amount exported in 1939 consisted of 63,500 tons
of potash and 590 tons of bromine, of the value of 427,000. The
Dead Sea isestimated to hold in solution 2,000 million tons of
the world's requirements at the present
potash, enough to supply
rate for 5,000 years. It is the only source within the confines of the
BritishEmpire that yields this mineral salt, as well as magnesium
chloride and anhydrous carnallite, and these products occupy the
second place in the list of Palestine's exports.
Commerce has received a powerful impetus from the Jewish
resettlement, and in consquence most of the leading banks,
shipping companies, and insurance companies of Europe, Ameri-

ca, and other parts of the world have branches or agencies at Tel-
Aviv, Haifa and Jerusalem. The opening of the harbour at Haifa
in October, 1933, was an inevitable result of this development,
and the importance of the city was further enhanced by its being
made one of the terminal points of the Iraq oil pipe-line. The con-
struction of a jetty and lighter port at Tel-Aviv was rendered
necessary by the temporary closing of the Jaffa harbour by the

Arab general strike in 1936, The Tel-Aviv port is an achievement
due exclusively to Jewish enterprise, capital and labour: it cost
over 200,000, and more than 1,000 Jewish workers (largely
stevedores from Salonika) were in regular employment before the
Second World War (besides 2,000 in other harbours). The port
was officially declared open on February 23rd, 1938, for the land-
ing of passengers, and by the end of the year the amount of cargo
loaded and unloaded was nearly 300,000 tons. The commercial
importance of Tel-Aviv was first signalised by the industrial exhi-
bitions> which began to be held there in 1929. Limited originally
to 7,000 square metres, the exhibition was extended by 1936 to
130,000 square metres, the participants included twenty govern-

ments and nearly 3,000 exhibitors from fifty countries, and the
value of the sales exceeded 500,000. The Foreign Trade Insti-
tute,founded in 1938 by the Jewish Agency in collaboration with
the Palestine Manufacturers' Association and the Anglo-Palestine
Bank, has promoted trade with various countries, especially those
of the Near and Middle East, India, New Zealand, South Africa,
and the United States. The tourist traffic has been greatly fur-
thered by Jews, who have built hotels in Tel-Aviv, Jerusalem,
Haifa, and other places, besides establishing health resorts at
Tiberias (sulphur springs) and by the Dead Sea.
One of the most noteworthy developments in the years before *
the Second World War was the increasing part taken by the
Yishuv in marine affairs. A
special section of the Labour Depart-
ment of the Jewish
Agency Executive was formed for the purpose
of consolidating the position of the Jews in the ports,
promoting
shipping, training seamen, and fostering the fishing trade.
A steadily growing number of Jews are employed as stevedores,
porters, and boatmen. Jewish shipping is still in an
elementary
stage, but it has developed since 1939, when there were two com-
panies, one of which used to conduct a passenger and freight
service between Palestine and Rumania, and the other carried on
coastal traffic with adjoining countries. The sea as a career Is
making an increasing appeal to the Jewish youth, and training

has been conducted by the Zebulun
Seafaring Society, Hapoel,
the Sea Scouts, and particularly by the Nautical School
opened
in 1938 as a department of the Haifa Technical Institute, There
are Jewish shipyards at Tel-Aviv and Haifa, where
lighters,
passenger-launches, and fishing boats are built; and in response
to the needs of the Tel-Aviv
port a group of men have specialised
in diving. The Jewish fishing industry is making
satisfactory pro-
gress, thanks partly to the fishermen who migrated from Salonika,
and partly to others who learned the craft at
places as varied as
Gdynia (Poland) and Civita Vecchia (near Rome). There are
four main branches: deep-sea
fishing off Haifa, coastal fishing off
Athlit and Tel-Aviv, lake-fishing in the Lakes Tiberias and
Huleh,
and carp-breeding in creeks in the Beisan
Valley. The total catches
increased from 132 tons in 1939-40 to 858 tons in
1943-4, and
now form about a fourth of the total fishing of the
country.
An outstanding feature of Jewish economic life in Palestine (as
already indicated in Chapter X) consists of the move-
co-operative
ment, which embraces over one-third of the Jewish population.
Palestine thus ranks among the world's most progressive co-
operative communities. Every member of the General Federation
of Jewish Labour belongs simultaneously to the "General Co-
operative Association of Jewish Labour in Palestine, Limited/*

which forms the legal body comprising hundreds of agricultural
settlements and industrial producers' and service co-operatives,
7
besides a Workers Bank, credit co-operatives, consumers' co-

operatives, contracting offices, a marketing co-operative,
and other
institutions. The remarkable progress made by the co-operative
movement shown by the fact that between 1932 and 1940 the
is
business transacted by its economic institutions expanded from

1,000,000 to 6,500,000. The agricultural settlements are served
by two important co-operative societies, Tnuvah, which markets
about 70 per cent, of the total Jewish agricultural produce and
had a turnover of 2,100,000 in 1942, and Mr, which fosters co-
operative settlement on the land and has capital reserves exceed-
ing 480,000. The principal consumers' co-operative, Hamashbir,
which was during the First World War and co-operates
initiated
with the English Co-operative Wholesale Society, comprises 95
societies and has a turnover of more than 1,285,000. In the sphere
of industry and transport there are (a) groups of producers' co-
operatives (relating particularly to the metal, boot, building, car-
pentry, and bakery trades) with over 573,000 capital and 1,000,-
ooo assets;(b) motor-transport co-operatives operating 80 per
cent, of the Jewish omnibus and truck services, which link up the
various settlements and cities and provide convenient communi-
cations with Syria, Iraq, Egypt, and the rest of the Middle East;
(c) the maritime association, Nachshon, including stevedores, fish-

ermen, and sailors or the boats of the association, which helped to
build the port of Tel-Aviv and invests in cargo and fishing boats;
and (d) the central society for co-operative contracting, Solel
Boneh y the largest organisation of its kind in the Near and Middle
East, which possesses the biggest iron foundry in Palestine, besides
glass works and stone quarries, and carried out industrial and
public works in 1943 to the value of 1,800,000.
According to a special investigation made by the Statistical

Department of the Jewish Agency in the middle of 1942, there
were then 508,000 Jews in Palestine, of whom 45 per cent, were
wage-earners, as follows:
Agriculture ....
Category
Industry and crafts .

No. gainfully employed
.
32,800
49>6oo
Percentage
15.4
23.3
Transport
tions ....
and communica-
Building and public works (in-

7,400 3.5
cluding 13,500 workers in

military camps) . . .
23,900 11.3
Trade 23,500 11.0
Liberal professions . .
16,500 7.8
Clerical professions, Civil Ser-
vice, and religious occupa-
tions 23,000 10.8
Domestic service , . .
17,600 8.3
Finance and investments .
7,300 34
Various vocations . . .
4*300 2.0
Jewish settlement police 'and

general police . . .
6,900 3.2
212,800 100,0
Early in 1943 there were over 20,000 Jewish volunteers in the

British Army.
The principal financial instrument of the Jewish Agency for the
development of Palestine is the Keren Hayesod (Foundation
Fund), which since Its establishment has raised over 12,000,000
by means of voluntary contributions from Jews in all parts of the
world. Within the first twenty years of its activity it expended a
total of 9,477,000, which was divided among the following pur-
poses:
Percentage
Agricultural colonisation . . .
2,944,000 31.6
Education and culture . . .
1,706,000 18.0
Immigration and training . ,

1,115,000 11.8
Public works and housing . .
1,027,000 10.8
National organisation and security .
885,000 9.3
and investments ....

Urban settlement, trade and industry
Administration and other expenses .

747,000
624,000
7.9
6.6
Health and social services . .
379,000 4.0
For the year 1944-5 the Jewish Agency (including the Zionist
Organisation) adopted a budget of 2,100,000 for all purposes, in-
for new settle-
eluding 120,000 from the Jewish National Fund
ments. This Fund has now raised a total of over 7,000,000, which
has been devoted mainly to land purchase and afforestation.
1
from the Karen Hayesod and the National Fund, large
Apart
sums have been expended in Palestine since 1918 by the
also
associated with the Zion-
following leading institutions and funds
ist Organisation or the Jewish Agency: the Hadassah Medical
Organisation, the Palestine Restoration Fund, the Hebrew Uni-

versity,the Women's International Zionist Organisation, the
Emergency Fund, and the Central Bureau for
the Settlement of
German Jews in Palestine. The total expenditure of all these or-
the Keren Hayesod and

ganisations and institutions (including
the National Fund) up to September, 1944, was over 26,000,000.
The Women's International Zionist Organisation (commonly
called the W.LZ.O.) has covered an ever-widening sphere of
useful service in Palestine, upon which it has spent over 500,000
in the first twenty-three years of its career. It has devoted itself to
two main tasks the training of women and girls for productive
work and the creating of social services for the well-being of
mothers and children. In pursuance of this programme, which
a part in the healthy development of the Yishuv,
fulfils so essential
it has established 13 training institutions (including agricultural
schools and training farms, and schools for domestic science and
the training of children's nurses), and 137 child welfare and social
service institutions (including kindergarten, creches, milk distri-
bution centres, country holiday homes, clothing centres, and
refugee hostels). It also provides intensive vocational training
courses in towns, and conducts a scheme whereby travelling
teachers visit settlements throughout the country to give instruc-
tion in housekeeping, gardening, vegetable-growing, and poultry
rearing. The W.LZ.O. is supported by
its affiliated federations in
over forty countries (many new ones having sprung up in South

American and elsewhere to replace those in Europe swept away by
the war), and its executive committee in London works in close
collaboration with a committee in Jerusalem.
The first Jewish bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust, had a paid-
up of over 395,000 when its business was taken over at the
capital
beginning of 1934 by its subsidiary company, the Anglo-Palestine
1
In 1934 the Keren Hayesod obtained from Lloyds Bank a loan of 500,000 (the
the greater part of which has been repaid.
Anglo-Palestine Bank providing 50,000),
In 1988 it obtained a second loan of 175,000 from Lloyds Bank, which has been
fully repaid. In December, 1943,
it received a further loan of 500,000 from the
same bank, guaranteed by the Jewish Agency.
Bank, and it was converted into a Holding Company. The Anglo-

Palestine Bank, whose head office is in Tel-Aviv (with thirteen
branches in Palestine and one in London), has an authorised
capital of 1,000,000, of which paid up, and a reserve
860,854 is
fund of 218,000. It holds a controlling interest in the General

Mortgage Bank of Palestine, Ltd., which has paid-up capital
of 475,000. The Jewish Agricultural Bank was established in
March, 1936, for the assistance of Jewish farmers, with the co-
operation of the Anglo-Palestine Bank holds the preference shares,
had a paid-up share capital, at the end of 1942, of 232,000, and
deposits totalling 800,000, and it advanced loans amounting to
over 700,000 to agricultural settlements, co-operative societies,
and other bodies associated with the Histadruth (the General
Federation of Jewish Labour).
The other main bodies actively participating in the work of
reconstruction are (as mentioned in Chapter X) the P.I.C.A., the
Palestine Economic Corporation, and the Economic Board for
Palestine,and there are many Jews with means who have settled
in Palestine on their own and are engaged in private enterprise.
The Palestine Economic Corporation, founded by American Jews,
has contributed to the growth of basic industries through sub-
stantial investments,and has made credit available to farmers,
city workers, small business-men and manufacturers, to enable
them to become economically independent. The Corporation
operates through the following subsidiaries: (i) Central Bank of
Co-operative Institutions (over 3,600,000 advanced in loans to

180 societies); (2) Palestine Mortgage and Credit Bank (260,000
issued in mortgage loans); (3) Palestine Water Company, founded
in 1932 to supply water for irrigation and domestic use at low
costs, and operating 16 plants; (4) Bayside Land Corporation,
formed in 1928 hold and develop along modern town-planning
to
Haifa Bay district, purchased
lines the large tract of land in the
by the Palestine Economic Corporation; and (5) the Loan Bank,

for granting small loans to artisans, shopkeepers, and small manu-
facturers. The Palestine Economic Corporation also has invest-
ments in Palestine Potash, Palestine Electric Corporation, Palestine
Hotels, and other concerns. The Economic Board for Palestine
operates through the Palestine Corporation, Limited, which has
a paid-up capital of 515,000, partly invested in commercial and
industrial undertakings and partly used for loans secured by
debentures, mortgages, or other securities.
The measure of progress hitherto attained has been governed
mainly by the extent of the man-power and of the financial re-
sources available. The total amount of Jewish capital brought into
the country from the beginning of the British occupation until
to-day can be moderately estimated
at over 120,000,000, one-
third of which was introduced during the years 935-4 ** Both tlie
1
would
Jewish population and the amount of capital its
certainly
have been larger had the Administration pursued a more liberal
immigration policy and had it not
made the possession of at least
1,000 the for the admission of settlers of
requisitequalification
the "independent means" category. All the economic, educational,
and other activities and services of the Jewish Agency and the
Vaad Leumi are financed almost entirely out of voluntary funds
provided by the Jewish people.
In addition to the 1,600,000 a year furnished by the Keren
Hayesod, the Jewish National Fund, and other national funds
(the Hadassah,
the University, and the W.I.Z.O.), the Yishuv
itself, through the taxation imposed by
the Vaad Leumi and the
about 2,170,000 a year on various
Jewish Local Councils, expends
services. Of the latter sum, in 1941-2, the Yishuv spent
public
750,000 on education, an equal amount
on health, and 500,000
on social services, relief and welfare. Towards the total of
the Government
2,170,000 for these three main public services,
made grants aggregating only 95,000, viz. 56,000 for education,
24,000 for social welfare, and 15,000 for health services.
These
are small in relation to the Government's income, which
grants
amounted in to 7,379,000," in relation to
the Jewish
1941-2
ratio of the population, and, above all, in relation to the Jewish
contribution to the Government's revenue, for, although the Jews
form only one-third of the population, they provide over two-
thirds (70 per cent.) of that revenue. On the other hand, thanks
to theeconomic progress resulting from Jewish effort, the Govern-
ment has accumulated a relatively large surplus, which amounted
to 6,500,000 before the outbreak of the Arab revolt in 1936, and
was reduced by the cost of suppressing it, and by expenditure on
public works, to 5,266,073 on March ist, 1942.*
1
Of this amount 6,250,000 was provided by the revenue from the country, the
rest consisting of grants-in-aid from the British Government
*
There was a decline in imports from 15,434,000 in 1937 to 14,633,000 in 1939,
and a decline in exports from 5,819,000 to 5477,000 in the same period. Bank
deposits at the end of 1943 stood at about 50,000,000, of which the Anglo-
Palestine Bank alone had 25,000,000.
The day is long past when it could be said that the Jews in
Palestine are dependent for their development or for the develop-
ment of the country upon their brethren in other lands. For the
total amount which they provide, in the form of Government
taxation and municipal rates, of Vaad Leumi taxation and contri-
butions to Jewish national funds, falls hardly short of 6,500,000
per annum, which is little less than the Government's own annual
budget. The benefits of Jewish progress are by no means confined
to the Government, but have also flowed over in various ways to
the Arabs. It has already been noted that the growth of the Arab
population has been most marked in those districts where the
greatest advance has been made in Jewish settlement, and lowest
where there are few or no Jews. Before the First World War there
was a steady emigration of Arabs from Palestine to oversea
countries, whereas Jewish economic developments have attracted
an influx of Arabs from the neighbouring regions. Arab land-
owners and farmers have become richer by the sale to Jews of
and of agricultural produce, and many Arab
their surplus lands
workers have found employment in Jewish undertakings. More-
over, Arabs in general have gained by learning the modern
agricultural methods introduced by the Jews, and likewise bene-
fited by the hygienic improvements effected by the drainage and
irrigation carried out by Jewish bodies. There has thus been a rise
in the Arab standard of living in comparison both with former
years and with the conditions of the Arabs in other countries.
CHAPTER XVI
NATIONAL LIFE IN EVOLUTION
YEWISH life in Palestine has now acquired all the multiple facets
of a highly organised national community.
The rebuilding of
J
the ancient homeland is marked not only by unparalleled progress
in the main spheres of economic activity, but also by ceaseless and
creative effort in the intellectual and spiritual domains. The
maxim that "man doth not live by bread alone" could hardly be
illustrated more vividly than by a survey of the labours of the
Jews in Palestine in the varied fields of education and culture, of

literature and journalism, of music and drama, of science and art.
And the diversity of their national renaissance isreflected further
in manifold developments in their social, political, and religious

life, as well as in their public
health system and their sport. The
fullness and complexity of their new world far surpasses the vision
of any of the heroic pioneers, who, with their sweat and blood,
laid the foundations of the modern Yishuv. The bulk of it
is the
for before the First World

product of the last twenty-five years,
War the Jews were too intensely engrossed in the task of wresting
a frugal livelihood from the long-neglected soil, and also too few
in number, to be able to give much thought to other interests; but
even then, as in all previous ages, they cultivated their spiritual
devotion. The fruits of culture now
heritage with unwavering
visible are the result of the work, the zeal,. and the inspiration, of
the sons and daughters of Israel from many lands, but chiefly of
those from Central and Eastern Europe.
the
The outstanding achievement in the cultural sphere is
revival ofHebrew as a living tongue. It is a cardinal feature of the
national renaissance, a vital bond linking the people of the new
with their forefathers of the ancient Judaea. Not that Hebrew was
ever dead, or merely a medium of prayer, throughout the long
centuries of dispersion, for it continued to be the language of the
scholar and the author, in which Rabbis conducted their learned
correspondence, and philosophers and historians, poets and
satirists, wrote their books. In mediaeval Spain,
in eighteenth-
century Germany and Galicia, and in nineteenth-century Russia

and Lithuania, there appeared a host of Hebrew works in verse
and in a tongue that in all essentials was the same
prose, composed
as that of the chroniclers, the psalmists, and the prophets of the
NATIONAL LIFE IN EVOLUTION 255
Bible. But the return to Palestine has given to the ancient speech
a new and vigorous life entirely undreamt of before, for it has
become the principal medium of intercourse of the Jews through-
out the country. It is the only vehicle through which Jews from
so many communicate with one another: it is
different lands can
the language of the school and the home, of the shop and the
bank, of the mart and the field, of the lecturfe-room and
the concert-hall, of the theatre and the Press. It has been
developed and amplified to respond to all the latest needs of
modern civilisation and scientific progress, and has been fashioned
into a flexible instrument of modern thought. Its vocabulary has
grown under the impetus of daily needs and been enriched under
the careful direction of a "Language Board" (Vaad Halashori),
founded in 1889 by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, and consisting of scholars
and experts, who coin whatever fresh mintings are wanted on the
basis of existing Hebrew roots and publish them in a quarterly
journal. Even those who are slow to learn the language must be
influenced and helped by the daily broadcasts of the Palestine
Broadcasting Station, which, heralding its announcements with
"Jerusalem calling!", devotes rather less than one-third of its time
to Hebrew.
The basis of cultural life consists of the schools, which have
increased in number and variety from year to year. The Vaad
Leumi, which controls the organised educational system of the
Yishwv, has under its direction 530 schools, with over 73,000 pu-
pils and 3,200
teachers. The general schools contain 55.3
per cent,
of the pupils, while those of Labour have 22 and those of the
1
Mizrachi have 21,7 per cent. Labour, owing to its settlements
being widely scattered, has the largest number schools, 218, but
their average size is much smaller than that of the 181 general or
of the Mizrachi establishments. The Vaad Leumi educational net-
work includes twenty-five secondary schools, five teachers' colleges
and five trade schools; and it comprises 75 per cent, of the Jewish
school population, which numbers 88,000 altogether. The total
expenditure of the Vaad Leumi on elementary and secondary
education in 1944-45 was 1,250,000, to which the Government
contributed 113,000 (besides 33,000 to other Jewish Schools)
out of the Government's total education budget of 528,000.
Every endeavour is made to provide the pupils with an education
suitable to the conditions of the country, with which they are
1
For an account of the three categories of schools, see Chap. X.
familiarised by being taken by their teachers on rambles to places
of Biblical interest. Their physical welfare, too, is looked after.
The school in the towns are visited by medical officers of the
Hadassah Medical Organisation, and those in the villages by local
doctors; andthe children are given daily a glass of milk. There
are clubs for the students of many secondary schools, and holiday
camps are held in the summer.
Training in agriculture is provided at a number of special
schools, ofwhich the oldest is that founded by the "Alliance
Israelite" at Mikveh Israel. The W.LZ.O. maintanis agricultural
schools at Nahalal and Ayanoth, and a German Jewish association
maintains a school at Ben-Shemen largely for youthful refugees
from Nazi persecution. The Jewish Farmers' Association has
a school of its own at Pardess Hannah, and there is a training
farm at Talpioth, outside Jerusalem. Thanks to a bequest left
by Sir Ellis Kadoorie, of Hang-Kong, the Palestine Government
built and maintains the Kadoorie Agricultural School at Mount
Tabor (and also a similar school elsewhere for the Arabs). And,
finally, there
are some girls' farms and other places where the
Jewish youth can be taught how to become farmers.

The central establishment for technical education is the Haifa
Technical Institute, which was greatly enlarged in consequence
of the increased influx of Jewish youth from Germany, Poland,
and other parts of Europe from 1933. It embraces a Technical
College (with departments of civil engineering, industrial engi-
neering, and architecture), a Technical High School, and a Nauti-
cal School. It has a highly qualified staff, including many
experienced technologists exiled by Hitler; it is well equipped

with laboratories; and its examinations are conducted under the
supervision and with the participation of officials of the Govern-
ment Departments of Public Works and Education and of other
extra-mural examiners. There were 550 students in 1939, but the
number has diminished owing to a large proportion volunteering
for service in the British forces. Another branch of technical in-
struction is represented by the Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts,
which, after having passed through a period of decline, entered
upon a new era of useful activity after the influx from Germany
and provides competent training in manual crafts involving a
feeling for form and beauty*
The crowning feature of the educational system is the Hebrew
University at Jerusalem, which is a great institution of research
and learning. It has developed from two small research institutes
to two complete faculties one of the Humanities and the other
of the Natural and Mathematical Sciences, and it confers degrees.
The Faculty of Humanities includes departments of philosophy,
history, education, Classical and Romance languages, and the
English language and literature. The chair in the last subject was
founded with funds raised by the Anglo-Jewish community as
a memorial to Sir Moses Montefiore (with the aid of the British
Council), and the first professor entered upon his duties in 1943.
The other faculty embraces Institutes of Microbiology, Biology,
Hygiene, Botany, Zoology, and Mathematics. There is also
a Department of Agriculture, at which a five years' course is given
partly in Jerusalem and partly in the laboratories of the Agri-
cultural Experimental Station and of the Daniel Sieff Research
Institute at Rehovoth. The Sieff
Institute, the creation of English
'
Zionists, is
particularly concerned with research into the resources
of Palestine. Its director is Dr. Weizmann, and most of its workers
are exiled scientists from Germany. Attached to the University,
and likewise situated on Mount Scopus, is a great Medical Centre,
the joint foundation of the Hadassah Organisation and the Uni-
versity. It comprises, in addition to a new University Hospital,
departments of Parasitology and Hygiene, Pathological Physiology
and Anatomy, research laboratories for cancer and hormones, and
the Henrietta Szold School for Nurses. The main purpose of this
Medical Centre to afford opportunities for research, and to
is
enable young doctors to continue their specialisation, particularly

in local diseases.Some of the University teachers have already
made notable contributions to the knowledge of the Middle East.
Professor Saul Adler, head of the Department of Microbiology,
has conducted fruitful researches into certain diseases in the
Mediterranean region on behalf of the Royal Society of England;
and the Department of Hygiene, under expert direction, has won
both praise and material support from die League of Nations
Health Organisation for its work in combating malaria, and from
the British Empire Marketing Board for its study of human and
animal nutrition.
The growth of the University, over which Dr. Judah L* Magnes
(formerly a Rabbi in New York and for many years a leader of

Zionism and the Jewish community in the United States) has pre-
many years, first as Chancellor and then as President, has
sided for
been considerably stimulated by the persecution of Jews in
Europe, and adorned by the names of many famous
its staff is
scholars and scientists. tlie first year of the Nazi terror, when
Since
a gradual exodus of Jewish professors and students began from
the universities in Central and Eastern Europe, the seat of learn-
ing on Mount Scopus has become a refuge for the Jewish intellect
and a citadel of Jewish culture; and in consequence of the de-
struction of all academies of Jewish learning on the Continent, its
as an intellectual centre of Judaismis enhanced
importance
beyond all anticipation.
By 1940 the Universityhad increased
staff
to nearly 150 professors, lecturers, and research assistants, and it

had 1,200 students, but these numbers (especially of the students)
have been very greatly reduced owing to the war. The annual
budget, which now exceeds 120,000, is largely covered by volun-
tary contributions from Jews in many countries, particularly
America; the Jews of Palestine are giving increased support; and
a small grant is received from the Government.
The Institute of Jewish Studies and the Institute of Arabic and
Oriental Studies, which formed the nucleus of the University,
both cover a wide range of learning. In the former are taught all
branches of Jewish lore, all aspects and periods of Jewish litera-
ture, philosophy, and history; and the latter is perhaps the best-
equipped institution of the kind. The Royal Commission, which
reported on Palestine in 1937, stated that the University "on the
fringe of Asia maintains the highest standards of western scholar-
ship," and "has made a valuable contribution to our knowledge
of the Near East and, particularly, of Arab life and culture/* The
translation of the Koran into Hebrew and an anthology of classical
Arabic poetry are among the outstanding achievements of the
University. Its most important contributions to Jewish knowledge
include Professor Joseph Klausner's history of modern Hebrew
literature, Professor Gerhard Scholem's researches into Jewish
mysticism, and Professor Torczyner's studies in Hebrew philology

and his interpretation of the writings on the potsherd Letters of
Lachish. Moreover, the University Press has rendered a valuable
by publishing a
service library of philosophical classics in modern
Hebrew.
Two important adjuncts of the University are the Jewish Na-
tional Library and the Museum of Archaeology. The Library,
containing over 400,000 volumes in all languages, especially He-
brew, is the largest collection in the Near and Middle East. It has
been built up mainly from gifts of Jews and non-Jews, Govern-
ments and learned societies, in all parts of the world. It possesses
many precious manuscripts, including the original treatise on
Relativity presented by Einstein; a goodly collection of Hebrew
"incunabula"; and a collection of autograph letters of famous
Jews of many centuries. The Museum is planned to house a com-
plete record of Jewish history throughout the ages.
Jewish scholarship is fostered not only by the Institutes of the

University but also by other agencies, particularly the Bialik
Foundation and the Rabbi Kook Institute. The Bialok Founda-
tion, which was created to perpetuate the memory of the national
poet, is devoted to the publication or support of literary and sci-

entific works of national and cultural importance. It is "controlled
by a Board of Governors consisting of representatives of the Jew-

1
ish Agency Executive, the Hebrew Authors Association, the

Hebrew University, the Hebrew Language Board, and the Keren
Hayesod. It has already issued a number of notable works, includ-
ing histories of Judaism, of Zionism, and of the Yishuv, antholo-
gies of Jewish legends and folklore, books on psychology and
aesthetics, and translations of standard works, like Professor Ed-
dington's Nature of the Physical World and H. A. L. Fisher's

History of Europe. publishes every year a miscellany in mem-
It
ory of Bialik entitled Knesseth, containing literary and scientific

contributions, poetry, and research in the works of the poet, which
ranks as the outstanding annual publication in the field of
Hebrew literature.It helps the Jewish Palestine Exploration
Society to issue its works, supports several literary periodicals, and

gives grants to the Rabbi Kook Institute, to the Culture Depart-
ment of the Vaad Leumi, and to excavations of Jewish interest. It
also looks after Bezalel Museum, which has a large collection of
Jewish art treasures and ritual articles. The Kook Institute,

founded in memory of a former Chief Rabbi of Palestine, concen-
trates primarily upon the publication of works of religious inter-
est, both ancient and modern, and issues a literary monthly, Sinai.
In no sphere of intellectual labour is there such an abundance

of creative activity as in that of literature, where all sorts of
writers novelists and poets, philosophers, historians, and essayists
are giving birth to a variety of work of imagination, criticism,
and scholarship. Palestine has become the most important and
prolific centre for the production of Hebrew letters at the present
and its size it probably contains more authors and
for
day,
journalists than any other national community on earth. Activity
in thisdomain began long before the British occupation, although
only in a limited measure. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda had already em-
barked upon his monumental dictionary of the Hebrew language,
and that wayward poet, Naphtali Herz Imber (1856-1909), author
of H&tikvah, had, during his six years* sojourn in the Holy Land
(1882-8), composed a number of poems, of which the best known
are the Mishmar Ha-Yarden ("The Watch on the Jordan' and
1
)
Himmalet Hahamh (''Escape to the Hills"), the latter an appeal to
the Jews in Europe to hasten to Mount Zion before the ground
under their feet became too hot. But the literary efflorescence did
not begin until after the establishment of the Mandatory regime.
The dominant figure in the period between the two World

Wars was Hayim Nahman Bialik (1873-1934), the greatest He-
brew poet of modern times, who had achieved world-wide fame
by the wealth and brilliance of his works before he settled in Tel-
Aviv in 1921. Acknowledged as the poet laureate of his
people
from the day when, in his In the City of Slaughter, he
scourged
them for their failure to defend themselves in the Kishinev
po-
grom of 1903, he kindled in them a sense of pride in their past and
the will to live on as a nation. He was a lord of in whose
language,
skilled hand Hebrew was a very flexible instrument,
capable of
expressing the most subtle thoughts and airy fancies. Unlike the
Psalmist, he sang the songs of Zion in a strange land, his native
Russia, but after returning to his ancestral homeland his muse,
except on a few rare occasions, was silent. Yet he exercised his
and the powers of his personality in other stimu-
intellectual gifts
lating inspiring ways. He became a publisher by profession

and
and took a leading part in the social and cultural life of the
Yishuv, He was guide, teacher, and
prophet. He devoted much
industry to unearthing the treasures of the Jewish mind from the
lore of the past, especially the homiletical and ethical
portions of
the Talmud, and representing them in an attractive
anthology,
Sefer Ha-aggadah. He also produced some fine translations of
European classics, such as Don Quixote and Schiller's William
Tell His memory has been honoured
by the conversion of his
house into a Bialik Museum, a collection of his books,
containing
manuscripts, photographs, and various personal possessions, which
serves as a literary shrine.
Second in importance in the literary world came Saul

Tcheraichowski (1875-1943), also a native of Russia, who had
likewise achieved great fame as a Hebrew
poet before he made his
NATIONAL LIFE IN EVOLUTION 2|6l
home In Tel-Aviv in 1930. But he was unlike Bialik in his choice

of themes, for to him the
tragic aspect of Jewish life made only
a secondary appeal. His favourite
subjects were the beauties of
Nature and the delights o love: he drank of Hellenic as of other
springs; and in one of his early poems he apostrophised Apollo.
But, despite what critics regarded as a pagan outlook (though he
drew from the same fount as the author of The Song of Songs), he
also composed some
songs of Zion and greatly enriched Hebrew
letters with brilliant translations of famous works from seven lan-
guages. Chief among them are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey* Soph-
ocles' Oedipus, Rex, Shakespeare's Macbeth, Goethe's Reineke
Fuchs, and the Finnish epic, Kalewala. Tchernichowski was also
a writer of short stories,
essayist, and playwright. Educated for the
medical profession, he had practised in Russia and
Germany
before devoting himself to the in Palestine; and he com-
calling
piled Hebrew dictionaries of medicine and anatomy as well as
one of botany. In his honour the Tel-Aviv
Municipality founded
the Tchernichowski Prizes that are awarded
annually for the best
Hebrew translations of classical works.
Of the host of other creative writers
it must suffice to select
a few of the more prominent. Jacob Cohen, like Bialik and

Tchernichowski, had also achieved a reputation as a poet before
settling in Palestine. Jacob Fichman is one of the finest Hebrew
poets and essayists of the day. Of the small band of women writers,
who have mostly composed lyrics, the most gifted was Rachel
(1890-1931), who published three small volumes of verse ex-
pressing love for the soil and landscape of the Land of Israel,
tinged with sadness due to her premonition of an early death.
Among prose writers, Joseph Hayim Brenner (1881-1921) was a
realistic novelist, whose works
suggest the influence of Dostoievski
and Gorki. He joined the ranks of Labour and worked for a time
on the soil; he edited various periodicals; and he was a victim of
the Arab disorders in 1921. Other
important novelists are S. I.
Agnon, who describes Jewish life in Galicia and in Palestine in
several masterly novels and short stories, Yehuda
Burla, who
draws his themes from the life of the Sephardic
community, G.
Shofman, a brilliant short story writer, H. Hazaz, and A. Barash.
Moses Smilansky has written stories describing the life of the
Jew-
ish settlers and their Arab neighbours. Apart from original works
there is a great and growing multitude of Hebrew translations
covering all branches ot literature and including all the leading
authors of the present and the past.
Activity in the field of journalism is no less vigorous than in

that of literature. There are seven Hebrew dailies which represent
different political or social outlooks. The newspaper with the
largest circulation is the Davar ("Word"), which is the organ of

the General Federation of Jewish Labour and voices the views
of Social Democracy. It has two editions daily, and maintains
a high literary standard and a good news service. The middle-
class element read Haaretz ("The Land"), which represents a
liberal standpoint on political and social matters and counts sev-
eral of the leading Hebraists of the country among its contribu-
tors. Both papers have a circulation of between 30,000 and 40,000.
Hazman ("The Time") and Haboker ("The Morning") are the
papers of Group A
and Group B of the General Zionists respect-
ively, the former being closer to Labour and the other tending
more to the Right. A
fifth paper, Hamashkif ("The Spectator")
isthe bold mouthpiece of the Revisionists; the Mizrachi party has

an organ called Hatzofeh ("The Observer"), and the Left-wing
"Hashomer Hatzair" has Mishmar ("Guardian"). There is only
one English daily, the Palestine Post, which is owned and edited
by Jews: it observes a high standard as regards articles and accu-
racy of news, and aims at fostering good relations between all sec-
tions of the country.
The number of weekly, monthly, and other periodicals in

Hebrew is legion. Some years before the Second World War the
total had already reached 300. Every religious section, every
political group, and every professional association have their own
journal: the Mizrachi and the "Agudath Israel," the various
shades of Labour, the doctors and lawyers, the engineers and
architects, the teachers and farmers, the lovers of drama and the
devotees of music.Hapoel Hatzair> the oldest weekly, is the organ
of the PalestineLabour Party. Haolam, the organ of the Zionist
Organisation, was transferred from London to Jerusalem in 1935.
The Hebrew University is
responsible for two periodicals, one
dealing with books and bibliography, and the other containing
original contributions professors. The Jewish Archaelog-
from the
ical Society publishes a bi-monthly journal of its transactions; and
the Jewish Medical Association issues a quarterly containing orig-
inal scientific contributions. There are also an English weekly, the
Palestine Review, covering all aspects of Jewish life in Palestine,
NATIONAL LIFE IN EVOLUTIO.N 263
and an English monthly, The Palestine and Near East Magazine^
devoted mainly to economic matters. In addition to its multi-
farious Press, Palestine has two Jewish news agencies, one of them,
"Palcor," under the control of the Jewish Agency Executive, and
the other, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency.
The creative and artistic spirit of the Jew has found expression
not only in literature, but also in drama, music, and art. Owing
to the comparative youth of the Yishuv and the limited possibili-
ties of patronage, there has been relatively little activity in the
plastic arts, although a number of painters and a few sculptors
have found inspiring themes in the new Judaea. Several painters
from the Diaspora notably Abel Pann, Leo Blum, Ruben, New-
man, Gliksberg, and Steinhardt -have produced striking works
marked by the rich colouring of the Palestinian scene, some of
which have been exhibited in the leading galleries of many coun-
tries. But in the other forms of art the developments have been
more profuse. The two principal theatrical companies are "Habi-

mah" and the "OheL" "Habimah," which came into existence in
Moscow in 1917, consists of players who owed their first training
to Vachtangor, of Stanislawsky's Moscow Art Theatre, and mi-
grated to Palestine when they realised that there was no future

for the Hebrew drama in Russia. They have devoted years to at-
taining perfection in their particular parts, and can vie with the
best European companies in the excellence of their acting. In the
course of twenty-four years, "Habimah" has produced some sev-
enty plays, about half drawn from Hebrew and Yiddish dramatic
literature,and the other half from general European literature,
thus showing that it aims at a broad human appeal. Shakespeare
and Moliere, Shaw and Ibsen, Chekhov and Capek, have all been
presented on its stage. Jewish authors from Europe now settled in
Palestine have also had plays produced, notably David Reubeni,
by Max Brod, formerly of Prague, who is the company's dramatic
adviser. During the last few years three original plays by Pales-
tinian writers have met with success: Jerusalem and Rome (deal-
ing with the life of Flavius Josephus), by Nathan Bistritzky, and

Michaly the daughter of Saul and This Land, by Ashman. This
Land, which depicts the life and struggles of the early pioneers in
the country, has had over 100 performances.
The "Ohel" Labour Theatre at first concentrated on Biblical

themes, but it also stages Hebraised versions of modern works,
with a preference for such playwrights as Gorki and Capek. Both
companies, which are organised on a co-operative basis, tour
throughout the country, the "Ohel" players visiting as many
agricultural villages as possible. In addition, there are a comedy
theatre, "Matateh" ("Broom"), which deals in a spirit of satire
with any social or political question of the day, and the "Opera
Amamit," which produces operettas.
The Jewish love for music led to the opening of a musical
school in Tel-Aviv before 1914, but notable developments did not
begin until after the British occupation. A
Musical Conservatoire
was established in Jerusalem and societies for the promotion of
concerts were formed, not only in that city, but also in Tel-Aviv
and Haifa. A powerful stimulus was given by the arrival of many
brilliant musicians conductors and instrumentalists from Nazi-
controlled countries, as well as by the visits of such famous Jewish
artists as Gabrilovitch, Rubinstein, and Heifetz, who gave per-
formances in aid of furthering the cultivation of music. The pres-
ence of so much talent suggested to Bronislav Hubermann the
desirability of organising a Symphony Orchestra, and his efforts
met with such success that the first concerts of this orchestra were
given in the winter of 1936, with Toscanini as the conductor and
Hubermann as the leading violinist. The Palestine Symphony
Orchestra, which has also been conducted by other famous visi-
tors,has an ideal and inspiring setting for its performances in the
open-air amphi-theatre of the Hebrew University. It has now
established a reputation as the finest musical ensemble throughout
the Near and Middle East, and indeed far beyond, and it has
often given successful concerts in Egypt and Syria. Other Jewish
musicians have formed a String Quartette under a former leader
of the Budapest Quartette, and a Chamber Orchestra, which is a
regular part of the Palestine broadcasting system. For some years
there was also a Hebrew Opera Company, conducted by a former
operatic director from Russia. It produced operas of the Italian
and Russian schools, as well as as an original Hebrew opera writ-
ten in Palestine by the Russian Jewish composer, Rosovsky, but
the company was unable to exist without a subvention and was
dissolved. It has since been succeeded by two other companies.
The happiness of the younger generation at the return to their
ancient homeland has found expression in song and dance.
A number of Hebrew poems have been set to music and are sung
with gusto by the workers on the land, in the factory, and at the
forge. One of their favourites, based on a poem in the Passover
liturgy, is God will rebuild Galilee. Many o their songs proclaim
the dignity of labour; others express love for the new
Judaea, and
others, again, thankfulness for the wanderers' return to the home-
land. Some revolve round the figure of the
Elijah, legendary
forerunner of the Messiah; and another, sung to a lilting melody,
with a rapid repetition of the final strophe, embodies the ethical
teaching of Hillel:
f<
lf I am not for myself^ who will be for me?
If I am only for my self^ what am I?
And if not now, when?"
The natural impulse to dance for joy on

touching the ancestral
soilhas given birth to the Horn, which is danced by a
group clasp-
ing crossed hands together in a circle and whirling round at a
gradually increasing tempo to a tune that is lustily sung by both
dancers and onlookers,
The energy displayed in

all these fields of cultural
expression is
paralleled by the efforts in the of social and
sphere physical wel-
fare, for one of the cardinal tenets of the Yishuv is mens sana in
corporate sano. Three main bodies (as already mentioned) have

1
combined in concerting the necessary measures for

ensuring the
good health of the Jewish population and disease the
fighting
Hadassah Organisation, the Kupath Holim (the Sick Fund of the
Jewish Labour Federation), and the Health Department of the
Vaad LeumL These three, together with the Tel-Aviv Munici-
pality, are represented on the Vaad Habriuth, the Health Council,
which acts as the central co-ordinating authority. There are
Jewish
hospitals, well equipped, in all the larger centres of Jewish popu-
lation, the principal one being that of the Medical Centre on
Mount Scoups (the Hadassah-Rothschild-University Hospital)
built and planned on the most up-to-date scientific lines, and in-
cluding a school of nursing and a post-graduate medical school.
The Hadassah Organisation has five hospitals, besides urban
cKnics, pathological, radium, and X-ray institutes, laboratories,
health welfare centres (largely due to the
generosity of the late
Nathan Straus of New York), and a school hygiene department,
upon all of which it spends about 100,000 a year. The Kupath
Holim y which has a paying membership of 115,000, has an annual
budget of 500,000, operates in 165 centres, and benefits 250,000
persons. It employs a staff of 1,000, its
hospitals have a daily total
1
See Chap. X,
of 700 patients, and Its clinics, dispensaries and infant welfare
stations are visited by 10,000 patients daily. Its headquarters are
in Tel-Aviv and central hospital is In the Emek. Special meas-
its
ures are taken jointly for the suppression o malaria, tuberculosis,

paratyphoid, and other contagious diseases, with satisfactory
results. Between 1934 and 1938 new cases of malaria among mem-
bers of the Sick Fund declined from 23 to 9.7 per 1,000, and the
total cases of enteric fever from 429 to 336. There is also a Red
Cross organisation, called the Red Shield of David (Magen David
Adorn), comprising central stations in the cities and the chief set-
tlements, and a network of first-aid stations throughout the coun-
try. The total expenditure
of the Yishuv on health work is
750,000 a year, towards which the Government gives a grant of
15,000. Owing largely to the flight from the Nazi terror, there Is
an abundance of doctors, and the interests of the profession are
looked after by the Jewish Medical Association.
The land has produced a new Jewish type, robust, muscular,
fearless, and without a trace of the Ghetto bend. Physical fitness
of the young Is by organised sport, which has been a means
fostered
of furthering friendly relations with the Arabs, as there have been
football matches between Jewish and Arab teams. The Scout
movement too enjoys much popularity, embracing troops not
only of Boy Scouts and Girl Guides, but also of Sea Scouts, Land
Scouts, and Religious Scouts. Before the riots of 1936-9, therewas
a popular athletic festival at Tel-Aviv, the "Maccabiad," modelled
after the Olympic Games, to which Jewish athletes from many
countries went to compete in fraternal rivalry with the sons and
daughters of the new Judaea.
The Yishuv is made up of elements from so many different
lands, andthe successive waves of immigration during the past
twenty-five years have been characterised by such contrasts, that it
Is as yet Impossible to expect a homogeneous national community.
Even though the majority were drawn to Palestine by Zionist

sentiment (for there is a minority many of them refugees from
Hltlerism who went there primarily as to a haven of safety), and
even though Hebrew is the predominant medium of intercourse,
the Influence and traditions, the customs and conventions in which
they were brought up cannot be effaced or moulded to a common
pattern within a generation. The devision Is particularly sharp
between the Jews from Europe and other Western countries and
those from Oriental climes, particularly the Yemenites. The latter
NATIONAL LIFE IN EVOLUTION #67
are mostly poor, they are not accustomed to secular education,
they have the Eastern view of the position of women, arid they
drift into unskilled trades. In Jerusalem, for instance, a large
proportion of those employed as street porters, shoeblacks,

domestic servants, newspaper boys, and the followers of other
humble occupations, belong to the Oriental communities, and it
will take time before they rise to a higher social level. The Hista-
druth has realised the necessity of ironing out these differences,
for inits Workers' Youth movement, Ha-Noar Haovedît
provides
a common form of education for the children of all communities,
In some seventeen kibbutzim Yemenites and other Orientals, Ger-
man and Polish youth, all work and live together on a basis of
equality and cordial understanding. Most of the Jews from Eastern
Europe who settled in the country before 1933 feel themselves
members of the YishuVj but a large number of those who arrived
laterhave not yet become integrated in the general community.
4
The latter have formed a new type of organisation, based on the

country of their origin. There are about a score of such unions
from as many and they serve some useful pur-
different countries,
pose. They provide loan funds for their members to set them up
in business, they help them to learn Hebrew, they facilitate the
securing of immigration certificates for their relatives abroad, and
they furnish a meeting place for social intercourse. These organi-
sations are a product of the solidarity uniting immigrants from
the same country, and might be expected to dissolve in time after
theirmembers become endenizened in the Yishuv. Yet the union
ofGerman and Austrian settlers has not limited itself to a social
programme: it has constituted itself as a new party, the Aliyah
Hadashah ("New Immigration"), with the addition of immigrants
from Czechoslovakia, and thus increased the already existing
parties.
The multiplicity of political parties, a familiar feature of Jew-

ish communities in Eastern Europe (as of many countries on the
Continent) before the war, reveals the presence of internal divi-

sions in the Yishwu despite its common fundamental basis. The
parties are by no means confined to those of the Zionist movement
Labour of various shades, the orthodox Mizrachi, the General
or Central Zionists of two different groups, and the Jewish State
Party. In Municipal, local council, and Kehillah elections there
are also candidates representing local economic interests, such as
the Farmers* Assoiation and property-owners (in addition oc-
casionally to the Agudath Israel and the so-called "New Zionist
Organisation"). The largest politcial party that of Labour,

is
called the Mapai* which has gained in importance as the rebuild-

ing of the National Home advanced and the Histadruth grew. It
stands for a close identification of the task of reconstructing Pales-
tine as the homeland of the Jewish people with the creation of a
Jewish working class as the basis of a regenerated nation. The other

Labour groups, somewhat more to the Left, are Hashomer Hatzair
and the Left Poale Zion, both of which emphasise Marxist prin-
ciples. But despite these
internal differences of Right and Left, of
bourgeois and worker, which are inevitable in any modern com-
munity, all are agreed upon the essentials of Jewish national life.
Nor is there uniformity in the matter of religious observance
any more than in the rest of Jewry. There is, indeed, no funda-
mental difference on questions of principle, but there are grada-
tions in regard to ritual conformity. There are thousands belong-
ing to the orthodox and even super-orthodox school, who are

most punctilious in the performance o all the minutiae of the
Shulchan Arukh (the code of religious law); a larger proportion
are more modern in outlook; and there are numbers who are
frankly secularist. But Jewish tradition is held in general respect
even on the part of those who are not observant themselves, and
in no other country in the world can Judaism be lived and prac-
tised with a stricter fulfilment of Biblical commands and Tal-
mudic prescriptions. So much of the Jewish religion is based upon
life and events in ancient Judaea, and so many of its precepts and
practices were designed to help in the struggle to achieve the new

Judaea, that many of those who have actively shared in the
struggle have a different conception of Judaism from that usually
associated with the Synagogue. For them it is not a matter of
creed and dogma, but a way of life, and one that can best be lived
in a revived Judaea* They hold that laborare est orare, and their
view has been supported by a high orthodox authority. When the
late Chief Rabbi Kook was once asked to take action against some
young workers who had infringed the religious law, he replied by

recalling theimmunity enjoyed by the workers in the Holy City
in olden times.The High Priest could enter the holy of holies in
the Temple only on the Day of Atonement and after making the
most elaborate preparations, but the builders and masons could
enter it at any time to carry out repairs to the fabric. The workers
1
From the initials of Miflegeth Poale Israel Eretz {'Tarty of the Workers of the
Land of Israel")- Its English name is the Palestine labour Party.
NATIONAL LIFE IN EVOLUTION
of to-day were repairing breaches in the House of Israel, and even
though they departed from the law they must not be treated as
transgressors.
There is no lack of synagogues in the cities, or in most of the
larger villages, or in several of the smaller ones. The important
part played by the Mizrachi is a guarantee of the observance of
religious tradition in the institutions and establishments depend-
ent upon Jewish public funds. The Executive of the Jewish
Agency has given grants to Talmudical academies and to Rabbis,
it has assisted in the establishment of places of worship and other
religious institutions, and it has facilitated the provision of kosher

food for supernumerary police and soldiers. The Sabbath and the
Jewish festivals are observed as days of rest in all centres of Jewish
population: allplaces of business are closed and traffic is sus-

pended. In no city in the world is there such a general atmosphere
of Sabbath repose and calm as in Tel-Aviv, The Sabbath has
received a new content in the form of a weekly gathering initiated
by the poet Bialik, under the name of Oneg Shabbat ("Joy of
Sabbath"), at^wirich he spoke on some theme of historical or
literary interest; and these gatherings, at which readings are given
from the Hebrew classics and national songs are sung, have be-
come popular, not only throughout Palestine, but also in many
lands of the Diaspora. The three "pilgrim" festivals of Passover,
Pentecost, and Tabernacles attract large holiday assemblies in
Jerusalem, Some festivals have taken on a new form of celebration
based partly upon ancient tradition, and acquired an importance
that they hardly enjoyed in the Diaspora. Pentecost, the season of
the harvesting of the first ripe fruits, is the occasion of a joyous
procession particularly in Haifa, where delegations from agri-
cultural villages in the Emek appear with the fruits of their labour
in carts adorned with garlands. Purim is celebrated by a public
carnival in Tel-Aviv, in which many Arabs too have taken part.
On the Feast of Hanukah the Menorah (eight-branched can-
delabrum), symbol of the deliverance of Judaism from the Syrians*
fell designs, is carried aloft in a public
procession. And the New
Year for the Trees (in February), which has become a mere
memory for the rest of the world, has been resurrected as a holiday
for schoolchildren, when, accompanied by teachers and parents,
they fare forth to the countryside to plant new trees.
Thus are the historic days of old given new life and meaning in
their ancient setting. They are some of the bones of Judaism
which, as in the Valley of Ezekiel's vision, have taken on new flesh
and strength. And as for the spirit, embodied pre-eminently in the
principle of social righteousness, which was the constant theme
of the Prophets and the recurring refrain of the Psalmists, that
too has risen again as the guiding motive-force of the Judaism of
the new Judaea.
CHAPTER XVII
ZIONISM IN THE DIASPORA
has now become an integral element in Jewish life.

ZIONISM
Frowned upon at first by the majority of Jewry, severely
opposed by wealthy and influential sections, and treated with
it has now, after nearly fifty
frigid indifference by vast numbers,
years, achieved a position that is impregnable. Its triumphant
progress has been due partly to the astonishing

achievements in
Palestine, which have won the admiration even of former sceptics,
and partly to the deplorable deterioration of the Jewish position
in Europe. At the time when it was thought in some quarters that
the idea of tolerance was spreading and that the Jews in lands of
reaction and oppression would inevitably profit thereby, it was
perhaps natural although mistaken for some Jewish leaders to
continue attacking Zionism for fear lest it might impede that
desirable consummation. Now that hopes in the growth of toler-
ance have been drowned in the blood-baths organised by Hitler's
hordes of executioners, it is realised that any speculations regard-
ing the future welfare of the Jews cannot be based upon an early
improvement in the political scene, and that Palestine must as-
sume the leading place in any such considerations. The acceptance
of this conclusion, at least as far as the Jewish world is concerned,
is bound to impart increased vigour to the Zionist movement.
In the summer of 1939 the Zionist Organisation comprised

Territorial Federations in nearly forty countries in all parts of the
world. These Federations, each consisting of many local branch
societies, existed in almost every State in Europe, with the excep-
tion of Germany, Dantzig, and Italy, where the movement had
been suppressed by the Nazi and Fascist tyrannies. In addition
to the Federations, there were numerous societies and local groups
in several lands, where the smallness of the Jewish population and
geographical conditions made the existence of federations im-
practicable. These regions included Egypt, India, the Straits
Settlements, as well as places in Central America and in the Far
East. Apart from the Federations and the "unfederated" societies,
which consisted of General Zionists, there were also five Separate
Unions based (with one exception) on a distinctive political or
religious principle. These were (i) the Mizrachi, with headquar-
ters in Jerusalem and 16 territorial branches, (2) the Union of
Poale Zion-Hitahduth, with headquarters in Tel-Aviv and 18 ter-
(3) Hashomer Hatzair,
ritorial branches, with headquarters at
Merhaviah, and 16 territorial branches, and (4) the Jewish State
Party, with headquarters in Tel-Aviv, and 16 territorial branches.
The branches of these four Separate Unions exist on both sides of
the Atlantic. The fifth, the Order of Ancient Maccabeans, a
friendly benefit organisation in England, has no distinguishing
principle, and is affiliated to the Zionist
Federation of Great Brit-
ain. In many countries there are also Federations of Women
and an organised youth
Zionists, Associations of Zionist Students,
movement. There are three countries in which Zionis has been
banned: Russia, where the movement was proscribed on the al-
leged ground of its being a counter-revolutionary agency; Turkey,
where the Government would not tolerate activity on behalf of a
former part of the Ottoman Empire; and Iraq, where the Arabs
are hostile to the policy of the Palestine Mandate.
The activities of Zionist societies vary according to the political

and cultural conditions of the country, but they possess many
features in common, whether they are in the East or in the West.
They hold frequent meetings for propaganda purposes, foster

a knowledge of Zionist history, promote Hebrew-speaking circles,
and organise collections for the Keren Hayesod, the Jewish Na-
tional Fund, and other Zionist funds. They hold periodical con-
ferences for the discussion of questions of policy, as well as
occasional Oneg Shabbat gatherings for talks on Jewish subjects
and the singing of Hebrew songs. They encourage their members
to evince a personal interest in Palestine by visiting it and buy-
ing land, even if they cannot settle there. They honour the mem-
ory of Herzl by having his portrait in a place of honour in their
meeting-place, and by holding a public gathering or a synagogue
service on the anniversary of his death, at which an address is
delivered on his work. They strive to play a useful and important
part in the local community, in accordance with the policy enun-
ciated by the founder from the very beginning, that Zionists
should "conquer the community." They seek to enlighten their
non-Jewish neighbours on the aims of their movement and the
achievements in Palestine, and to win the practical support of
politicians and other public personalities, who are always wel-
come on their platforms. The members of the societies derive
their information about the latest developments from the organ
published by the head office of their Federation, which is a me-

dium for the expression and exchange of views as well as for the
dissemination of news. The Federation office is a centre of indus-
try, in regular communication, not only with all its affiliated socie-
ties, but also with the headquarters of the World Zionist Organi-
sation in London and Jerusalem, It is responsible for the general
course of Zionist activity in its particular territory, supplies
speakers for its branches, and issues pamphlets
and other publica-
tions. It provides news about Zionist matters to the national Press,
keep at watchful eye on the newspapers, and does its best to correct
misrepresentations about conditions in Palestine. In times of
emergency it organises special conferences and public meetings,
at which resolutions are adopted that are transmitted to the Brit-
ish Government. In many countries the Federation Office has a
special department for dealing with emigration to Palestine, or

it
co-operates with the local offices of the Separate Unions in the
administration of a bureau for this purpose.
is an organised campaign for the sale of the

Every year there
Shekel, which every avowed Zionist must buy as proof of his
acceptance of the Basle Programme, and which forms the principal
source of income of the Zionist Executive. The payment of the
Shekel (which varies in amount according to the economic con-
ditions of each country, but does not exceed half a crown per
head) entitles the holder (if he is at least eighteen) to vote for a

delegate and (provided he is over twenty-four and has also con-
tributed in the past year to the Keren Hayesod and the Jewish
National Fund) to be elected as a delegate to the Congress, which
normally takes place every two years. The Shekel campaign is
attended by intense activity in the months immediately preceding
a Congress, as all Federations and Separate Unions are anxious to
secure as large a representation as possible. The Shekel sale in a
Congress year is therefore much larger than in a non-Congress
year: in the years before the war it was about three times as large.
The total number of Shekalim sold in 1938-9 was 1,052,377. If we
exclude the Jews of the countries where the movement is forbid-
den, and estimate the pre-war Jewish population in the rest of the
world at 12,000,000, we see that the active members of the Zionist
Organisation formed about 8 per cent. The actual proportion, in
terms of the adult population, was, of course, much higher, and,
even so, it did not include large numbers of sympathisers and
supporters who did not consider it necessary to take the Shekel as
a mark of their adhesion.
The movement has undergone serious changes in many coun-
tries, especially on the European Continent, where its main forces
once flourished. The Jewish national consciousness has always
been felt most intensely and expressed most vigorously in Eastern
Europe. It was fostered in the compact Jewish communities that
were concentrated there for centuries, nurtured by the spiritual
and intellectual traditions that survived through the ages, and
stimulated by the goad of oppression. Thus it was that throughout
the time of Herzl Russia provided the largest proportion of his
followers, even though he was a Westerner and the Jewish sub-
jects of theTsar were Easterners. The propagation of Zionism was
tolerated at times and persecuted at others, according to the
caprice of local authorities or a hint from the central Government;
but organisation was hardly necessary for the spread of the idea
among the masses: it was immanent among them. Even though
there were serious obstacles in the way of creating societies and
arranging conferences, means were found for the distribution of
Shekalim and for carrying on various branches of Zionist work.
At the Congresses that followed the death of Herzl, just as at those
held during his lifetime, the delegates from Russia formed at least
a third of the total number. They played an important, and often
a decisive part in the proceedings, and far more Russian was
spoken than English. Throughout the decade that elapsed between

the death of the founder and the beginning of the First World
War, the Russian Zionists formed the backbone of :he movement
and figured at the head of all lists of contributions to Zionist
funds. After that war a complete transformation took place in
Eastern Europe. Zionism was strictly forbidden and ruthlessly
persecuted in Soviet Russia, but it was fostered with greater zeal
and energy than before in those westerly regions of the Muscovite
Empire that became independent and in which Jews acquired
political emancipation.
During the two decades between the two World Wars Zionism
was a much more vital and active force in a large part of Eastern
Europe than in any other region of the world except the land
in which it was being realised. It penetrated deeply into all mani-
festationsand ramifications of Jewish life. In Poland, Lithuania,
and Latvia, and to a less extent in Rumania (though almost to
an equal extent in Bessarabia, which had been annexed by
Rumania), every Jew belonged to some party or other: he was
51 3
either a Zionist, an Agudist, a "Folkist/ a Socialist, a "Bundist/'
or an Assimilationist. There was a ceaseless struggle between these
for the supremacy of its own principles and
parties, each striving
for a decisive and dominating influence in Jewish affairs, and each
supported by a spirited Press. Polish Jewry in particular had
a multitude of papers dailies, weeklies, and monthlies of which
a goodly proportion supported the Zionist cause (each party hav-
ing Its own organ). The activity of the Zionists was not confined
to membership of a society and the support of Zionist funds, but
took the form of a constant fight for the recognition of the Jewish
nationality and all its implications, especially for the recognition
of the rights of the Jews as a national minority in the lands of
which they were citizens. The Zionists took up a determined stand
within the Jewish community for the purpose of ensuring the
maintenance of schools on a Jewish national basis, with Hebrew
as the medium of instruction, and the appointment of Rabbis who
were Zionists.They also carried the fight into the general com-
munity and sought election to municipal councils and to
Parliament on a purely Zionist platform. Their efforts were
crowned with much success in both spheres. At one time there
were fifteen Zionists in the Polish Seym, and there were also Zion-
ist members in the Parliaments of Lithuania, Latvia, and Ru-
mania, besides Zionist Senators in Poland and Rumania.

In the cultural domain the Zionists in Eastern Europe made
great headway with the establishment of schools in which Hebrew
was the medium of instruction, despite the opposition of the
Bundists and "Folkists," who maintained that Yiddish was the
only legitimate language of the Jewish people, and also the oppo-
sition of the Agudists, who objected to the use of the Biblical
tongue for secular purposes. In Poland the Hebrew system, called

Tarbuth ("culture"), comprised over 140 schools with 16,600
pupils, while the Yiddish system had 95 schools with 1 1,800 pupils.
The Tarbuth system also prevailed in Lithuania (where 75 per
cent, of all the Jewish schoolchildren attended 150 Hebrew
schools), Latvia, Estonia, Rumania, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia

(mainly In Carpatho-Ruthenia). The inevitable result of the prev-
alence of Jewish national education was that the younger genera-
tion were conscious and intelligent Zionists before they left school,
1
The "Folkists** (from German Volk) were Jewish nationalists who advocated a
form of cultural autonomy in the Diaspora.
*
The "Bund** was the Jewish Socialist Party of Russia, Poland, and Lithuania,
founded in Vilna hi 1897. It has always adopted an anti-Zionist attitude.
and there was a great abundance of Youth organisations of
different parties. Manyyouths joined branches of Hehalutz, in
which they received an intellectual, moral, and technical training
for settlement in Palestine, and formed the bulk of the picked
workers who went out to build up the National Home. In Ruma-
nia Zionist sentiment varied in intensity according to district, for
the State consisted of Old Rumania, Transylvania, Bukovina, and
Bessarabia, each with its own cultural influences. The three
annexed territories all returned Zionist deputies to Parliament,
who were thus able regularly to confer with the leading Zionists
in Bucharest. The Jews in Bulgaria enjoyed the distinction of
being the only community that imposed an annual tax on its
members as a contribution to the Keren Hayesod*
In contrast to this pulsating activity in various parts of Eastern
Europe was the enforced sterility in Soviet Russia, where Zionism
was persecuted as a "counter-revolutionary movement" and
"an agency of British imperialism/' The hostility emanated from
the Jevsektsia, the Jewish Department of the Commissariat of
Nationalities, which had control over Jewish affairs and largely
consisted of former Bundists. The teaching of Hebrew was for-
bidden and the printing of Hebrew books suppressed. From 1922
there began a systematic campaign of oppression. Zionists were
arrested and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment in special
political jails, called polit-isolators, or banished to lonely places in

inclement regions in Northern Russia, Siberia, or Turkestan. At
least a few thousand Jews have suffered and starved for their
loyalty to the Zionist idea, and many have died in captivity.

Despite the danger of discovery, some tens of thousands continued
to carry on Zionist propaganda and to learn Hebrew in secret.
For a time there were even two Hehalutz organisations, one
tolerated and the other illegal, which had agricultural farms for
training purposes; but first the illegal and then the other farms
were liquidated. The Soviet Government must have convinced
itself by now that Zionism is not a counter-revolutionary move-
ment, since it does not impinge upon local political conditions;

and it must have likewise realised, in the light of Jewish criticism
of British policy in Palestine, that it is not an agency of British
imperialism. Since the war between Germany and Russia there
has been a growth of friendly relations between the Yishuv and
the Soviet authorities, thanks to the gift of motor ambulances and
other important war requisites from the Jews of Palestine to the
Russian Army Command, and thanks also to visits of official Rus-
sian representaitves to Jewish settlements and institutions In Pal-
estine. It Is, therefore, to be hoped that there will soon be a funda-
mental revision of the Russian Goverment's attitude to the Zionist
movement, just as there has been in regard to religious worship.
The political and economic conditions in Austria and Germany
after the First World War
gave a powerful Impetus to the Zionist
cause. Although the headquarters of the movement had been
situated first In one and then in the other country for a period of
seventeen years, and some of its best leaders had come from there,
it had failed to win the adhesion of any but a small minority In
either territory. But from 1919, when it was realised that the
expected blessings of political emancipation were not likely to
materialise, organised opposition to Zionism gradually became
weaker and the number of adherents steadily rose. The growth of
rapid anti-Semitism, in the form propagated in Austria by the
Hakenkreuzler and in Germany by the National Socialists, com-
pelled an increasing number of Jews to look upon Zionism as
affording a solution, not only for the problem of the Jews in
Eastern Europe, but also for their own. problem; and as soon as
Hitler came power there began a wave of migration to
into
many other countries), which quickly assumed
Palestine (as also to
swelling dimensions. Even before the Nazi Revolution enthusiasm
for the Land of Israel had found expression In the increasing
popularity of Zionist Student societies, under such names as

"Maccabi" and "Hasmonea/* in the establishment of a large
number of training centres where the Jewish youth were prepared
for the new life In that country, in the increasing study of Hebrew
as a living language, and in a vigorous Press. Zionist students
displayed the Jewish national colours, blue and white, when
rowing on the Spree and on the Danube; and the Viennese football
team, with its Hebrew name, Hakoah ("Strength"), proved its
mettle by beating first-class British players. At one time there were
no fewer than a dozen Zionist papers and periodicals in Austria,
Including a popular daily, the Wiener Morgen-Zeitung, and a

scholarly monthly, Paldstina^ which contained contributions from
experts. For a brief period, too, there was a Zionist deputy in the
Austrian Parliament*
The most important journal in Central Europe was the Jildische
Rundschau, which appeared in Berlin, first as a weekly and then
as a bi-weekly, and which maintained a high standard in its leading
2^8 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
articles and other The importance and the circulation of
features.
this paper grew enormously when the Nazi terror suppressed all
national papers in Jewish ownership or under Jewish control and
forbade all Jewish writers to contribute to any papers except those
exclusively devoted to Jewish affairs. The Judische Rundschau
then welcomed many of these ostracised journalists to its pages,
which it doubled so as to include special articles dealing not only
with Zionist politics and Palestine, but also with literature and the
arts. It was this paper which set a superb example of moral courage
in making a stand for Jewish dignity in those evil years when the
German Government did its utmost to blacken and humiliate the
Jewish name. It helped to strengthen and stiffen Jewish morale;
and when the decree was issued for Jews to wear the yellow badge,
it displayed on its front page in bold letters the watch-word:
"Wear it with pride!" In fortunate contrast to the conditions in

those German lands, the Jews in Czechoslovakia were spared the
horrors of Jew-baiting until the Nazi invasion, but that did not
diminish their attachment to the Zionist cause. They were en-
couraged by the Government to declare their Jewish nationality
in the filling up of census forms in 1930, with the result that over
52 per cent, so described themselves. Moreover, two Zionist
deputies were returned to the Parliament in Prague, where they
were recognised as representing the Jewish national party. In
Hungary, owing to the opposition by both the "Magyars of the
Jewish faith" and the ultra-orthodox, the Zionist Federation was
not legalised by the Government until 1927.
In most of the other countries of the Continent, there were also
centres of Zionist activity, though on a lesser scale, due to the
smaller Jewish population and the better political conditions. In
France the native Jews were largely apathetic, but the populous
immigrant colony in Paris maintained several societies that dis-
played much zeal and energy. Paris was important, however,
because it was the home of a few notable figures who rendered
conspicuous services to the cause: there lived that princely lover of
Palestine, Baron Edmond de Rothschild, who gave generous help
to the settlements and the institutions of the Yishuv in many
a crisis; Max Nordau and Alexander Marmorek, the eloquent
lieutenants of Herzl and the vigilant custodians of his political
legacy; and Leo Motzkin, Chairman of the Zionist General Coun-
cil and President of the Council for the Rights of Jewish
Minorities (previously the Committee of Jewish Delegations),

ZIONISM IN THE DIASPORA $79
which was subsidised by the Zionist Organisation. Paris was also
the seat of an influential society of friends of the Jewish National
Home, called "France-Palestine," which had a former Cabinet
Minister, Senator Justin Godart, as President, and included Leon
Blum among the statesmen, scholars, and writers who formed its
Comittee. Neither Holland nor Belgium could equal France in
political importance, but they
had a more robust Zionist
Federation; and Switzerland and Italy also made useful contri-
butions to the cause. Mussolini was for many years an avowed
friend of the Zionist movement, until his imperialistic ambitions
made him jealous of the British Mandate and he joined with
Hitler in fanning the flames of Arab unrest. In Yugoslavia and
Greece (especially Salonika) in the south, as well as in the north-
ern lands of Norway and Sweden, Finland and Denmark, there
were also active centres, while the Jewish communities of both
Lisbon and Luxembourg likewise maintained a lively attachment
to the cause.
Zionism in Great Britain has made steady and increasing pro-

gress In the past twenty-five years, and has benefited by the fact
that the headquarters of the movement and the seat of the
Mandatory Power are in London. The character of its followers
has Inevitably changed with the passage of years, for while
English-born Jews formed only a small minority in the period
before the First World War, they now constitute the predominant
element. Zionist sentiment has now acquired a strong hold upon
nearly all sectionsof the Anglo-Jewish community, and there is
no longer any appreciable opposition. Those polemical ad-
versaries,Luclen Wolf and Laurie Magnus, have left no spiritual
successors.In the days of Herzl, the Chief Rabbi, Dr. Hermann
Adler, stigmatised Zionism as "an egregious blunder," and many
Rabbis under his jurisdiction took their cue from him. Now no
preacher utters a word against the Zionist ideal. The example set
by the Chief Rabbi, Dr. Joseph H. Hertz (who was an eloquent
spokesman of the cause even when the communal leaders were
strongly opposed), has had a salutary influence upon the Jewish
clergy. Even the Rabbi of the Liberal Synagogue in London,
although hostile to the principles of Zionism, does not preach
against them, and is an active supporter of the Hebrew University.
The progress madeis shown by the large number of London
synagogues and of Jewish friendly societies that have become

constituent bodies of the English Federation and by the supple-
actlivties of various other organisations the Mizrachi,
mentary
the Poale Zion, the Jewish State Party, the Federation of Women
Zionists, the Jewish National Fund Commission,
the University
Zionist Federation and the Association of Young Zionists. The
Poale Zion have a office in London, maintain friendly
political
relations with the British Labour Party, and send delegates to this
Party's annual conferences.

No better index of the advance of the
movement could be found than the fact that the Board of Depu-
ties of British Jews, which once contained only
a minority of Zion-
ists, now has an undoubted majority,

and that its President
S. is a member of the Zionist Executive.
(Professor Brodetsky)
Other indications consist of the increasing interest of Jewish
schools in Hebrew as a living language, the frequency of lectures
in Hebrew, and the success of the Habonim organisation in pro-
the younger generation.
moting Jewish national ideals among
And still another illustration is provided by the fact that somd
years before the Second World War a training farm was estab-
lished in the south of England (in memory of Dr. M. D. Eder) to
enable Jewish youths and girls to be prepared for agricultural life
in Palestine, and its first trainees have been installed in a Kibbutz
of their own (together with some young workers from Baltic
countries) in the Huleh area of Palestine.
TheZionist Federation of Great Britain has rendered very
valuable services to the movement in general, since the days of
the Balfour Declaration, in the political field. It has provided
Weizmann, Sokolow, and other leaders with a platform from
which they could address, not only the local community and
other Jewries, but the world in general. It has performed an
important task needs continued renewal) in educating the
(which
in regard to the meaning
public opinion of the country in general
of Zionism and its value to British interests in the Near East. It
with Members of Parliament, a number of whom
keeps in touch
of all parties have formed a Palestine Committee, so as to
special
endeavour to ensure that British policy in Palestine shall "be in
accordance with the spirit and the letter of the Mandate. And
whenever an emergency arises, it organises a deputation to the
Colonial Secretary to make whatever representations may be
necessary*
Thestory of activity in other parts of
the British Empire is
neither so varied nor so momentous, but there are two countries
that presentan excellent record of valuable work South Africa
ZIONISM IN THE DIASPORA 28l
and Canada. The small Jewish community of South Africa has for
years enjoyed the distinction of contributing the highest amount

per head to the principal Zionist funds. It owes this eminent
position, not to the inordinate wealth of the contributors, for
they are probably not richer than the Jews in other British ter-
ritories or in the United States, but to the Jewish national
consciousness and the spirit of self-sacrifice that have been fostered
in them in an intensive degree. Consisting to a large extent of
immigrants from Lithuania and their children, the Jews in South
Africa have built up a Federation that may be regarded as a model,
with branches extending from Cape Town to Nairobi. Stimulated
by the occasional visits of leaders from Europe and Palestine, they
lay stress upon Jewish national education as well as upon fund-
raising. The official organ, The Zionist Record, is a popular
weekly, and other Jewish papers also support the cause. The
esteem in which the movement is held in the Union isdue in no
small measure to the staunch championship it has received from
Field-Marshal Smuts, who has been a loyal friend of the cause
since the days of the Balfour Declaration, which he, as a member
of the Cabinet, helped to launch.
In Canada the Zionist Organisation embraces a far-flung net-

work of societies extending from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific,
under the direction of the head office in Montreal, and with
regional offices in Toronto and Winnipeg. Zionist work is also
carried on by Hadassah (the women's organisation) and the
Federation of Young Judaea, each of which has over a hundred
branches in all parts of the Dominion, as well as by the Zionist
Order Habonim, which has numerous lodges. All Jewish centres
are periodically visited by travelling speakers, and occasionally
there are tours by leaders from London, Jerusalem, and New
York, not only for raising of funds, but also for educational
purposes. The cause is well served by the Press, for, in addition
to the official monthly organ, The Canadian Zionist, there are
several Anglo-Jewish weeklies and Yiddish dailies, which all
actively support it. There are indeed no non-Zionists in the coun-
try. Theenthusiasm of Canadian Jewry has found particular
expression In generous contributions to the Jewish National
Fund, while the women have distinguished themselves by main-
taining the Girls* Agricultural School at Nahalal and some social
welfare institutions in Palestine.
In Australia and New Zealand, too, despite the vast distances

centres of Jewish life, there are
separating them from the great
several Zionist societies, which are invigorated from time to time
1
and The societies
speakers from Europe
visits of Palestine.
by the
ia Australia are united in a Federation, of which the late General
Sir John Monash was Honorary President, and delegates from
New Zealand have attended conferences in Sydney. Societies also
flourished for many years in Singapore and in Shanghai,
and in
the latter city there appeared a monthly journal, Israel's Messen-
a long and useful career.
ger, which had
The Zionist Organisation in the United States, thanks to a
five millions, is by far the largest and
Jewish population of nearly
most important constituent body of the World Organisation. As in
many other countries, it does not cover the whole
field of Zionist
Hadas-
work, as there are other active organisations, notably the
sah (the women's organisation), the Young Judaea, Avukah (a
union of students' societies), and Massada (a youth organisation).
The Zionist Organisation has two official organs, The New Pales-
tine,an English weekly, and Dos Yiddische Folk, a fortnightly in
Yiddish, while each of the other bodies has its own paper.
More-
over, the Zionist parties, particularly the Poale Zion and the
Mizrachi, likewise have large organisations, with their own-

organs. In addition to the Zionist Press in English and Yiddish,
there is a Hebrewweekly, Hadoar, Propaganda
is energetically
conducted by public meetings, lectures, the issue of publications,

and the display of films of life in Palestine, while the help of the
radio is also frequently invoked. The movement has made con-
siderable strides since the beginning of the First World War,
when, owing to the inevitable rupture of the Zionist world, a
Provisional Committee for Zionist affairs was set up in New York
under the chairmanshipof Louis D. Brandeis. The importance of
American Jewry was recognised at the time when the text of the
Balfour Declaration was under discussion, by the submission of
the draft to Dr. Stephen S. Wise, Mr. Justice Brandeis and other
Zionist leaders for their views, and that recognition has continued
in a steadily increasing measure.
American Jewry is called upon to provide, and does provide,
a large proportion of the funds annually required by the Keren
Hayesod, the Jewish National Fund, the
Hebrew University, and
the first emissary of the Zionist Executive, in 1920, to
the
*The author was
Australia and New Zealand, and also to those in the Far
Jewish communities of
is related in The Journal of
East, Singapore, Java, and India. The story of his tour
a Jewish Traveller (John Lane, 1925) ,
ZIONISM IN THE DIASPORA 283
other Institutions In Palestine. Since the extension of the Jewish
Agency, which could never have been accomplished without its
co-operation, it has given enhanced support both moral and
material, to the development of the National Home; and It has
always been represented in the Executive both of the Zionist
Organisation and of the Jewish Agency. Despite the distance
separating them, relations have always been close between the
headquarters In London and Jerusalem and the Zionist leadership
in the United States, and there has hardly been a year when
members or representatives of the World Executive, including
Dr. Weizmann, have not visited that country for propaganda,
political or financial purposes. relations have been greatly
These
furthered by the New York the "Palcor" Agency, which
office of
receives and
Zionist other news by cable from London and
Jerusalem and disseminates it
widely among the national Press.
During the present war distinguished Zionist speakers from the
United States have visited Great Britain and taken a leading part
in successful fund-raising campaigns.
Upon the outbreak of the Second World War an Emergency

Committee of Zionist Affairs was set up in New York to watch
over the political Interests of the movement; and, in view of the
part that the American Government was expected to play in
the problems of reconstruction and resettlement after the war,
a political bureau was opened by the World Executive in
Washington In 1943. The position occupied by American Zionism
was reflected in the holding in May, 1 942, of the All-Zionist Con-
ference, which passed the resolution defining Zionist policy as
consisting in the establishment of "a Jewish Commonwealth

Integrated in the structure of the new democratic world" the
resolution adopted six months later by the Small Committee of the
Zionist General Council in Jerusalem as embodying the decision of
the supreme organs of the movement in war-time. The ascendancy
that Zionism has won in American Jewish life Is due to the devoted
labours of a succession of able and distinguished leaders and to the

destruction of European Jewry. Its acceptance as the policy best
calculated to serve the truest interests of the Jewish people, espe-
cially In the tragic situation created by the War, was strikingly

illustrated by the American Jewish Conference of 500 delegates
representing all sections of the community, held in New York in

September, 1943, when the demand for a Jewish Commonwealth
was acclaimed by an all but unanimous assembly only four voting
against it.
Sympathy with Zionist aims has been repeatedly ex-
pressed by successive Presidents of the Republic from Woodrow
Wilson to Franklin D. Roosevelt and by several leading State
Legislatures; but there is still a band of Jewish opponentssmall
but wealthy who are doing what they can to thwart the consum-
mation of the Jewish national ideal owing to their groundless
fear that their civic status might be affected.
South of the United States there is also much activity, although

less extensive and of more recent origin. The movement has been
introduced into Mexico by Jewish immigrants from Central and
Eastern Europe and occupies an important position in communal
life. By far the leading centre of Zionist activity in South America
is in Buenos Aires, as Argentina contains about 70 per cent, of the
half-million Jews now settled in that sub-continent. The Argentine

Federation has a large central office in the capital, with consider-
ably over 100 branches throughout the country; there is a flourish-
ing branch of the W.I.Z.O., likewise with numerous societies; and
the Mizrachi, too, has secured a foothold. The cause is vigorously
promoted by the Jewish Press, which comprises papers in Spanish,
Yiddish, and Hebrew, and the general Press, especially La Nation,
issympathetic. Unfortunately the once friendly attitude of the
Government has been affected by the pressure of Nazi influence,
with the result that the display of the Zionist flag is forbidden, even
in Jewish schools and synagogues. An embargo was also placed
upon the Yiddish and Hebrew Press in October, 1943, but in con-
sequence of President Roosevelt's denunciation of this pro-Nazi
measure it was soon withdrawn. Argentina was chosen by Baron
de Hirsch as the land in which he hoped that the problem of
Russian Jewry would be solved by the creation of agricultural
colonies. It is, therefore, relevant to note, not only that his object
proved impracticable, but also that the beneficiaries of his philan-

thropy manifest no little enthusiasm for the Land of Israel.
In Brazil, Zionist activities were forbidden in 1938 by a Gov-
ernment decree, which imposed a ban upon all international
political organizations, although the display
of the Zionist flag in
synagogues was permitted as a religious symbol and the singing

of Hatikvah was allowed as a religious hymn. On April 5, 1945,
however, the Government informed Brazilian Jewry that it was
"permitted to join the World Zionist Movement and to partici-
pate fully in the upbuilding of Palestine and the transfer of the
destitute Jewish masses of Europe to their own National
Homeland."
The Jewish community in Chile is very much smaller than
that of Argentina or Brazil, but its national consciousness finds
more vigorous expression culturally. There are also very active
Zionist centres in Uruguay and Peru, but the work in Ecuador
and Colombia is on a smaller scale. In all these vast regions of
South America progress is impeded by the huge distances separat-
ing many communities from the larger centres of Jewish popula-
tion, but the lesson of Zionism has been impressed upon all by the
influx of refugees from Nazi persecution, and it is reinforced
periodically by the visits of emissaries from Palestine. In order to

stimulate and improve Zionist activities the Latin American
Department of the Jewish Agency, which was opened in New York
in 1943, cooperated! with the Central Zionist Council of Argentina
in organising the first Latin American Zionist Convention, which
was held at Montevideo (Uruguay) in March, 1945. The Conven-
tion, which was attended by over 300 delegates from 12 Latin
American republics, decided upon the creation of a Central
Zionist Office in Buenos Aires for the purpose of furthering the
development of all branches of Zionist work in South America.

A number of young Palestinian Jews, after receiving a suitable
training, have been sent by the Zionist Executive to act as instruc-

tors to the Jewish youth in South America, particularly to direct
Hechalutz training centres.
Thecultivation of the Jewish national consciousness in the
lands of the Orientis relatively easy, for the
Jews in those regions
have throughout the centuries maintained their traditions and
customs intact and remained loyal to the faith of their forefathers
in a far greater degree than their brethren in the Occident. The
Jews in Morocco, for instance, do not regard themselves as Moroc-
cans of the Jewish faith; and similarly in China, where the resi-
dence of Jews is comparatively recent (if we leave out of account
the now defunct colony of Kai-Feng-Fu), one never hears of a
"Chinaman of the Jewish persuasion/' Throughout the East the
Jews who are natives of the East look upon themselves as members
of the Jewish nation, and, for the most part, need no propaganda
addresses to revive their national spirit. But the extent to which
they actively participate in Zionist work depends upon their

material conditions and also upon the political environment. In
the north of Africa the liveliest Zionist centre for many years was
in Tunisia, where there were societies in all the larger communi-
ties, and there was a Zionist paper published at Sax. Progress in
Morocco was rendered by the attitude of the authorities,
difficult
but nevertheless steady work was carried on. In Tripolitania the
societies were under the general direction of the Italian Federa-
tion, and had to close down when Mussolini suppressed the parent
body. In Egypt there are societies in both Cairo and Alexandria,
whose union is prevented by friendly rivalry, and their proximity
to Palestine gives them the advantage of occasional addresses from
prominent Zionists passing through the country. In both Iraq

and Syria it has not been possible to make appreciable headway
owing to the hostility of Arab politicians to the Jewish National
Home, but Zionist funds have received generous gifts from friends
in Baghdad. Little progress, too, has so far been made in Persia,
owing to the attitude of the Government; but in India there
is an active centre in the large Jewish community of
Bombay,
and minor support in the smaller one of Calcutta.
The principal workers in all these varied regions throughout
the world meet together at the Zionist Congress, which assembles
in normal times every two years. It is by far the most important
event in the Diaspora, attended, not only by a few hundred dele-
gates, but by many hundreds of visitors and journalists. The
also
Congress held
is
primarily to afford the Executive an opportunity
of submitting reports on its labours, to furnish the delegates with
the opportunity of discussing those reports, and to frame decisions
and to hammer out policies for the immediate future. In the course
of its long career, the Congress has developed its own machinery
and forms of parliamentary procedure, designed to cope with
a multitude of questions that must be disposed of within about
a fortnight. The difficulty of compressing its deliberations within
so short a space of time, and of satisfying delegates, some of whom
have to travel thousands of miles to make a speech, is such as
would tax the ingenuity of any but the experienced Prasidium that
presides over the proceedings. Much of the business is transacted

ill a number of committees, which deal with politics, Palestine
immigration, agricultural settlement, trade and industry, educa-

tion, health, finance, and other questions. These committees,
which are composed of delegates of the various parties in propor-
tions corresponding to the composition of the entire Congress,
formulate the resolutions that are submitted to plenary sessions of
the Congress for adoption. Since each party is anxious to secure a
relatively strong position both in Congress and committees, there
is a credentials committee to scrutinise and decide
upon the
validity of any delegate's election that may be challenged, while,
in serious cases, the judgment of the Congress Court consisting of
lawyers invoked. Apart from the committees devoted to specific
is
questions, there is also a standing committee called Permanenz

Ausschuss or Havaadah Hamathmedeth^ formed on the same basis
as the others, whose function is to act as the steering organ in the
often difficult and occasionally critical course of the Congress dis-
cussions, and above all to prepare a list of nominations for the new
Executive and the General Council which will be assured adop-
tion. So voluminous is the business that has to be completed
within the limited time available that night sessions are an invar-
iable feature. The proceedings are reported in an official gazette
that appears daily, and some months later a complete stenographic
record is
published.
The Congress is the occasion for numerous other meetings and
conferences of all kinds. The members of the London and
Jerusalem Executives (with their New York colleague) meet
frequently; the General Council assembles both before and after
the Congress; and as soon as this is over there is a gathering of the
Council of the Jewish Agency, followed by one of its Administra-
tive Committee. The delegations from the different countries
hold private meetings to discuss particular questions, and the
parties likewise confer to decide on points of policy. Moreover,
allthe important institutions and organisations of the movement,
such as the Keren Hayesod, the Jewish National Fund, the Jewish
Colonial Trust, and the Board of Governors of the Hebrew Uni-
versity, also hold meetings; and various associations, like those of
Tarbuth (Hebrew-speaking societies), of Hebrew authors, and of
Jewish doctors also take advantage of the opportunity. Apart

from all these gatherings, there are other functions and arrange-
ments to claim the interest of the delegates and of the multitude
of visitors and journalists an exhibition of Jewish art, the display
of a Palestine film, bookstalls with all sorts of works in various
languages on the Jewish renaissance, a concert of Jewish music,
and (if the local conditions are favourable) an athletic festival.
In short, all the multifarious phases and facets of the movement-
political and economic, social and cultural, financialand organi-
sationalfind their reflection within the ample orbit of the Con-
gress. It is a vast clearing-house for the exchange of thoughts
and ideas on Jewish problems, for the testing of plans and the
weighing of schemes; it enables Jews from the remotest lands of the

Diaspora to get to know and understand one another, and to learn
of the quality of their brethren from Eretz Israel; it deepens and
strengthens the feeling of national solidarity; and it furnishes

a wealth of information, impressions, and inspiration, that has
a stimulating and fructifying influence for many a long day
thereafter.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Second World War has had the
profoundest upon effects
THE
the Zionist world, which have varied
markedly in character
according to regional conditions. Throughout Nazi-occupied
Europe, where Hitler has ruthlessly pursued his anti-Jewish cam-
paign of deportation, enslavement, and extermination, all Zionist
institutions and activities, together with all Jewish communal life,
have been utterly destroyed. In the few neutral countries, such as
Switzerland and Sweden, a certain amount of
activity has been
maintained in the face of serious difficulties. In all free areas of
the world, however, and particularly in all
English-speaking lands,
the movement has developed a strength, both moral and material,
far exceeding the progress made in
any equivalent period before
the war. The realisation that upon the aims and efforts of Zionism
will largely depend the satisfactory
healing of the Jewish tragedy
when the vast conflict is over has given a tremendous
impetus to
all Zionist bodies able to carry on their work and evoked an un-
precedented financial response. But more momentous than all

these effects has been the development in Palestine itself. There
the Yishu-v has risen to the full height of its national
responsibili-
tiesin what is the greatest crisis of the Jewish
people as In that of
the world In general. It has made very substantial contributions
to the Allied wareffort in the military, economic, scientific, and
technical fields; has enlarged and strengthened the fabric of tht
it
National Home; and it has played a leading part in the desperate

endeavours for the rescue of the imperilled Jews in
Europe.
Even, before the war began and only a few days after the Con-
gress in Geneva was over, Dr. Weizmann wrote the following letter
on August sgth, 1939, to the British Prime Minister, Mr. Neville
Chamberlain:
"In this hour of supreme crisis, the consciousness that the

Jews
have a contribution to make to the defence of sacred values
impels me to write this letter. I wish to confirm, in the most
explicit manner,, the declaration which I and my colleagues
have made during the last months, and especially in the last
week: that the Jews 'stand by Great Britain and will fight on
the side of the democracies/
"Our urgent desire is to grve effect to these declarations. We
wish to do so in a way entirely consonant with the general
scheme of British action, and therefore would place ourselves,
in matters big and small, under the co-ordinating direction of
His Majesty's Government. The Jewish Agency is ready to enter
into immediate arrangements for utilising Jewish man-power,
technical ability, resources, etc. The Jewish Agency has recently
had differences in the political field with the Mandatory
Power. We would like these differences to give way before the
the time.
greater and more pressing necessities of
"We ask you to accept this declaration in the spirit in which
it is made."
The Prime Minister replied on September 2nd as follows:
"I should like to express my warm appreciation of the con-

tents of your letter of sgth August, and the spirit which
prompted it. It is true that differences of opinion exist between
the Mandatory Power and the Jewish Agency as regards policy
in Palestine, but I gladly accept the assurance contained in your
letter. I note with pleasure that in this time of supreme emer-
gency, when those things which we hold dear

are at stake,
Britain can relyupon the whole-hearted co-operation of the
Jewish Agency. You will not expect me to say more at this stage
than that your public-spirited assurances are welcome and will
be kept in mind/'
This exchange of letters was not followed by any step on the

part of the British Government to avail itself of Dr. Weizmann's
offer.But independently of this correspondence, the Executives of
the Jewish Agency and of the Vaad Leumi held a joint meeting in
Jerusalem on September grd, at which they decided to carry out
a registration of volunteers for national service during the period
of the emergency. The result of the registration was that 85,781
Jewish men and 50,2 62 women, between the ages of eighteen
and
fifty,volunteered for national service, either within the Jewish
community or at the disposal of the British military authorities in
Palestine. Despite this evidence of eagerness on the part of the
Jews to serve not only in defence of their National Home, but in

general support of the Allied cause, the military authorities were
at slow to avail themselves of their co-operation.
first
The immediate effect of the outbreak of the war was to bring to

an end the Arab disorders that had afflicted Palestine for over
three years and to silence all political controversy. On the other
hand, economic interests brought about a certain co-operation be-
tween Arabs and Jews in the steps taken to secure Government
help, particularly in the important citrus industry, and friendly
relations developed also in other spheres. Owing to the difficulties
of shipping and the consequently greatly reduced export of citrus
fruits, a heavy loss was inflicted upon the growers, who had to
abandon many of their groves, and the loss was only partly miti-
gated by the subsidies and loans provided by the Government and
certain banks. There was also a serious slump in the building
industry owing to the reduction of immigration and of imported
capital and the lack of raw materials, but this was later offset by
the impetus given to various manufacturing industries, especially
by military requirements.
Whatever anxieties the Jews in Palestine experienced in the
early period of the war, they were moved far more deeply by the
tragic fate that overtook thousands of Jewish refugees from Nazi
oppression who sought asylum in their National Home, but were
not admitted because the Government, ignoring their exceptional
plight, declared them to be illegal immigrants. At the beginning
of September, 1939, a s îp that reached the coast of Palestine,
crowded with such victims of the Nazi terror, was fired on by the
coastal police and three of them were killed. In March, 1 940, the
Darien reached Palestine with 800 refugees, the majority of whom
had escaped from the massacres in Bucharest and other cities in
Rumania, and carrying on board the survivors of another refugee
vessel, the Salvador, which had sunk in the Sea of Marmora with
the loss of over goo lives; but on landing, all of them were interned.
In November, 1940, more than 1,770 Jews, who had fled from
Nazi-occupied lands, reached Haifa on two vessels, the Pacific and
the Milos, and, as they were without permits, they, together with
over 100 refugees from another vessel, were transferred to the
Patria for the purpose of being deported to a British colony. The
official communique broadcast from Jerusalem on November soth
stated: "The ultimate disposal of the immigrants would be de-

ferred for consideration until the end of the war, but it is not
proposed that they shall remain in the same British colony where
they are to be sent or go to Palestine." The Patria,, with 1,900
persons on board, exploded in the harbour, and 257 refugees lost
their lives, yet the High Commissioner declared that the survivors
should be deported; but owing to public protests in England and
America the order was rescinded and the refugees were allowed to
remain In Palestine, About the same time the Atlantic brought
1,750 refugees, who, after being landed for internment, were
1
deported to Mauritius Island.
A year later there was a much worse calamity that stirred what
was still left of the civilised world. In December, 1941, a small
weather-beaten vessel, the Struma} brought 769 Jewish refugees
from the pogroms in Rumania to the approaches of Istanbul and
was unable to proceed further. The Turkish authorities would
not allow them to land without an assurance that another country
would admit them, and the Jewish Agency tried to obtain such an
assurance in vain. The Struma was then compelled to put to sea,
and broke up, on February 24th, 1945, with the loss of all onboard
except one. The exclusion of all these fugitives from persecution
from the land where their people had been told that they were
"as of right and not on sufferance" was justified by the Palestine
Government on the ground that their admission would constitute
a violation of the regulations. But even the White Paper of 1939,
which had never been sanctioned by the League of Nations,
provided for the admission of 25,000 refugees within five years;
and besides, numbers of non-Jews (Poles, Greeks, and Yugoslavs)
were allowed to enter, and rightly so, without question.
Despite the widespread bitterness engendered by this callous
attitude to their homeless kinsfolk, the Jews in Palestine did not
relax in the least in their eagerness to help the military authorities.
During the first year of the war only a limited number of Jewish
and Arab volunteers were accepted for the service corps, and
two Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps were formed, in which the
Jews outnumbered the Arabs by about three to one. The first
batch of men of this corps distinguished themselves during the
great battle in Flanders and North France, took part in covering
the retreat of the second British Expeditionary Force from St.
Malo, were among the last to leave for England, and then partici-
in the Battle of Britain.
pated in the defence of the southern coast
When most of the ground personnel of the Royal Air Force in
Egypt had to be transferred in the summer of 1940 to Britain, their
places were filled by 1,500 qualified Jewish
mechanics from Pales-
tine. Not until September, 1940 (after Italy came into the war)
were the Jews given the opportunity of joining the combatant
ranks. It was then decided to form fourteen military companies,
seven Jewish and seven Arab, the recruitment to be on a basis of
1
After being detained, in Mauritius for over 4^4 years, the refugees (of whom
120 had meanwhile died) were transferred to Palestine in August, 1945.
strict equality of numbers; but this principle had to be relaxed, as
Arab reluctance was a brake upon Jewish volunteering. The

Executive of the Jewish Agency, together with that of the Vaad
Leumi and other organised sections of the Yishuv, opened a Cen-
tral Recruiting Office and called upon all able-bodied Jews to do
their duty. There was a prompt response, so much so that at times
the military authorities were unable to cope with the rush of
Jewish volunteers, many of whom had to wait for an opportunity
to join up.
While recruiting was going on in Palestine, Dr. Weizmann was

endeavouring to secure the assent of the British Government to
the raising of a Jewish Fighting Force. Following up his letter to
the Prime Minister, he made an offer on December ist, 1939, of
a Jewish Division, which would serve wherever required. It was
intended that such a force should officially represent the Jewish
people in a war that had first been launched against themselves,
and that they should fight under their own flag. In September,
1940, the Government agreed to the formation of a Jewish Divi-
sion in the West, consisting of Jewish volunteers from America
and other free countries, including a number of Palestinians.
But six months later consideration of the offer was postponed on
the alleged ground of lack of equipment; and in August, 1941,
it was definitely declined on the
alleged ground of new technical
difficulties. As any such difficulties could have been overcome, it
was generally understood that the rejection was mainly due to
political reasons to the fear that a Jewish fighting force might
have aroused the resentment of the Arabs, who were distinguished
for their passive attitude to the war, and to the additional fear
that the exploits of such a force might be later advanced in support
of Jewish claims at the peace settlement. After many months of
continued agitation for a Jewish Fighting Force, conducted on
both sides of the Atlantic and supported in the British Dominions,
the Government announced on August 7th, 1942, their decision
(i) to create a Palestine Regiment consisting of separate Jewish
and Arab infantry battalions for general service in the Middle
East; expand the Palestine Volunteer Force (open only to
(2) to
Britishand Palestinian subjects) to a maximum of 2,000; and (3)
to complete the establishment of the Jewish Rural Special Police
by the enrolment of 2,500 additional recruits, requisite training

staff and co-ordination officers, arms and equipment to be pro-
vided by the Gommander-m-CMef, Middle East.

the end of August, 1944, there were 23,500 Palestinian
By
Jewish volunteers (including 2,886 women in the Auxiliary Terri-
torial Service), as against 8,000 Arabs, in various units of the
British defence forces. There were nearly 4,000 in the infantry
and as many in the Royal Service Corps, over 3,000 in the
Army
Pioneer Corps and nearly that number in the Royal Engineers,
over 2,100 in the R.A.F., 1,050 in the Royal Navy, over 600 in the
Royal Artillery, and over 500 in the Port Operating Company.
The vast majority of these men and women were serving in sixty
Jewish units. These units were originally under the command of

British officers and non-commissioned officers, but an increasing
number of Jews were subsequently appointed as N.C.Os. and later
as officers, until there was a total of 300 Jewish officers. In addi-
tion to the Jews in the fighting ranks, a large number joined the
police forces. There were 5,840 in the Supernumerary Police,

about 800 in the regular Police Force, and about 16,000 in the
1
Special Police, receiving part-time military training.
This considerable contribution to the various defence services
has entailed a financial burden upon the rest of the Yishuv. As
Palestinian Jewish soldiers are paid only two-thirds of British rates
of pay, and their wives and children receive allowances on the
same the Jewish Agency, apart from taking political steps
scale,
to remedy the situation, set up a Jewish Soldiers' Welfare Com-
mittee to aid soldiers' families and provide comforts for the troops.
Later, in conjunction with the VaadLeumi, it created the War Ser-
vices Fund to conduct welfare activities among soldiers' families,
provide comforts for soldiers and supernumerary police, partici-
pate in the budget for security, and centralise the financial aid of
the Yishuv for refugees. It has raised 1,500,000, of which 400,000
has been spent on the rescue of Jews from Europe.
The Jewish soldiers of Palestine have done service on all the
fronts in the Near and Middle East from Egypt to Tunisia, in
Abyssinia and Eritrea, in Greece, in Syria, and in Italy. Their
gallant conduct has evoked praise from all their commanding

officers; but unfortunately they receive no credit for individual
exploits in official announcements, which always use the geo-

graphical term "Palestinian," without any indication as to whether
Jews or Arabs are meant. General Wavell has stated, with regard
to the first campaigns in North Africa, that "they performed fine
work, pre-eminently at Sidi Barrani, Sollum, Fort Capuzzo
1
See footnote on tne Jewish Brigade Group on p. 303.
THE SECOND WORLD WAR 2Q5
Bardia, and Tobruk," In the fighting on the Egyptian frontier in
1942, Palestinian Jewish units of the Royal Engineers and of the
Transport Companies played an important part in carrying troops
to the forward battle areas, in the construction of fortified strong
points at El Alamein, and in the laying of minefields. Magnificent

work was done by Jewish drivers, upon whose courage, prompt-
ness, and precision the supply of vital material for the advanced
troops depended. One Jewish water-tank company performed an

exemplary service in carrying 500,000 gallons of water to the front
lines across the trackless wastes of the Western Desert, day and
night, for months without pause. The men were sometimes under
fire from enemy air and ground forces, but they persevered with-
out flinching. The first Camouflage Company of the Eighth Army,
consisting mainly of Palestinian Jews, was mentioned in despatches
by General Montgomery and praised by Mr. Winston Churchill
in a review of the Army's victorious advance. Brigadier Frederick
H. Kisch, C.B.E., D.S.O., Chief Engineer of the Eighth Army (a
former Chairman of the Jewish Agency Executive in Jerusalem)
was killed in the march towards Sousse, in Tunisia, in April, 1943.
In Eritrea the Palestinians distinguished themselves in the battle
for Keren. Some 300 of them (three-fifths Jews), thanks to their
toughness and daring, were selected for dangerous service in

Abyssinia. They operated in so-called "suicide squads," demol-
ished enemy fortifications night after night, and brought back
valuable information.
In Greece there were many Palestinian Jews with the R.A.F.,
the Royal Engineers, and the Pioneer Corps, whose bravery earned
the praise of General Wavell and of Air Marshal d'Albiac. Several
hundreds were with the 7,000 R.A.F. men to leave Greece
last
after successfully covering the retreat in the final days of the

evacuation, and afterwards many fought in Crete. But, unfortu-
nately, 1,444 Palestinians were among the 10,000 British troops
missing in Greece and Crete, and of that total 1,023 were J ews
and the rest Arabs. When the campaign in Syria began, fifty
young Jewish settlers with an intimate knowledge of the district
near its Palestinian frontier were chosen to

accompany the Austra-
lian vanguard, to whom they rendered valuable services as guides
1
and behind the enemy lines. The Palestinian contingent helped
*In 1941, before the British invasion of Syria, the ex-Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj
Amin el Husseini, fled from his refuge in Beyrout to Baghdad, where he
conspired
with the Iraqi Premier, Rashid Ali el-Khilani, in plotting an abortive pro-Nazi
the Allied forces in recapturing Kuneitra, the key position on the
main road from Safed to Damascus. One Jewish group, which,
under the command of a British officer, undertook a particularly
1
daring task, was completely wiped out, General Sir Henry Mait-
land Wilson, who was in charge of the expedition, afterwards
stated that "he much appreciated the assistance rendered by Jews
in this campaign."
Considerable help has also been given by Jews in regard to
transport and public works. In consequence of the presence of
large numbers of soldiers stationed in Palestine, and of others
there on leave, the Executive of the Jewish Agency formed a Cen-
tral Transport Committee, which brought about the creation of
a central freight transport co-operative, "Ta'an," comprising a
fleet of 850 trucks. Drivers from the transport co-operatives and
the settlements joined the various transport units, while a special
transport unit was recruited, consisting of Jewish drivers with
their own vehicles. The Committee also arranged training courses
for mechanics and produced manuals in Hebrew on the auto-
mobile engine. The construction of military camps, hospitals,
fortifications, and roads has been greatly facilitated by the exist-
ence of a large Jewish labour force, skilled in all branches of
building, together with the necessary staff of engineers, techni-
cians, and foremen. The fortification works in the north of Pales-
tine, which were necessary before the British troops advanced into
Syria, were constructed by 8,000 to 10,000 Jewish

workers em-
ployed day and night.
Palestine Jews have also rendered very useful services at sea.
The youths trained at the various Jewish maritime institutions at
Tel-Aviv and Haifa were among the first to volunteer when motor-
boat crews were raised for the R.A.F., and they are serving at
R.A.F. wartime stations all over the Middle East. A number of
skilled Jewish mechanics have joined the British Navy, and their
ability, devotion and diligence

have earned them the appreciation
of their commanding officers. At least twelve Jews have received
commissions In the Navy. The Jishuv has its own small fleet, of
which seven ships were lost through enemy action and other
causes, while eight ships, belonging to companies serving under
rising.These two, with other Pro-German Arabs, then escaped to Teheran, whence
they later flew to Italy and Germany, where the ex-Mufti became an anti-British
propagandist on the air.
1
The Times, March 4th, 1943.
THE SECONP WORLD WAR
the Ministry of War Transport, are still left. Moreover, Jewish
companies have shown much initiative in developing coastal
shipping with sailing boats. Since the beginning of the war they
have acquired seventeen sailing boats, most of them equipped
with motors, which have done valuable work in keeping up the
sea traffic between Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus and Turkey.
Five of these boats were lost through enemy action and two were
sunk in a storm.
important are the contributions made
Not less in various
branches of the economic field. Soon after the outbreak of war the
Executive of the Jewish Agency set up an Economic Council to
mobilise fresh resources for agricultural and industrial develop-
ments. During the first two years a sum of 2,000,000 was spent
food production
mainly for these purposes, so as to increase the
of the country and expand industries useful for war needs. Since
the end of 1939 the Jewish National Fund has acquired another
240,000 dunams, part of which has been put
under cultivation;
large-scalereclamation and draining work has been carried out in

the Haifa Bay, the Beisan Valley, and the Huleh area; and wells
have have been bored and water supplies installed in several
settlements in the Haifa Bay district. Nearly forty new agricultural
settlements have been created and some old-established ones ex-
tended. New cultures have been introduced, such as soya beans,
nuts, Australian and Moroccan soft wheat;
and the irri-
ground
has been considerably in-
gated area devoted to mixed farming
creased. Sheep-breeding has been expanded, and the output
of
dairy produce, vegetables,

and other agricultural products has risen
1
substantially. Before the war the Jewish farms were producing
6 per cent, of the country's wheat yield, 4 per cent, of its oats, and
in 1943 they were producing
7 per cent, of durra and other grains;
24 per cent, of the wheat, 17 per cent, of the oats, and 9 per cent.
of the durra and other grains. It is significant of this agricultural
settlements have begun to repay
expansion that most of the village
their loans to the Keren Hayesod, the sum of nearly 90,000 having
been the spring of 1943.
repaid by
In the field of industry, there is an even more impressive pic-
ture. Of the 2,000 factories and workshops" owned by Jews, a
in Jewish settlements
'Between July, 1339, and the end of 1942 the dairy cattle
to SI ,575, the laying hens
increased from 16,477 to 27,408, the sheep from 12,000
from 405,000 to 654,000, and vegetable production by 50 per cent.
which
3
The total number of Jewish industrial establishments is about 7,000, of
about 5,000 are engaged IB handicrafts.
large number are engaged in the manufacture of war materials*
Many have been enlarged, and over 400 new factories and work-
shops have been built, mainly by refugees from Germany and other
Nazi-oppressed countries, who have brought with them not only
technical experience and knowledge of patent processes, but also
in many cases their own mechanical
equipment. The large number
of metal, electrical, timber, textile, leather, cement, and chemical
works are mainly devoted to war requirements. In the case of
many factories there was a rapid transition from peace-time to
war production; and Jewish concerns are able to supply
many
machines, machine tools, and machine parts, as well as a wide
range of spare parts for vehicles. There are, moreover, a large food
industry, which furnishes all kinds of supplies for the Army, and
a growing pharmaceutical industry. Palestine's
synthetic drugs,
sera and vaccines are also available for the
Army; while the pro-
vision of electric light and power, and the
supply of potash,
bromine, and other chemicals from the Dead Sea are invaluable.
The extent of the industrial advance from 1939 to 1942 is shown
by the increase of the value of production from about 1 2,000,000
to 40,000,000, while the number
engaged in industry has risen
from 19,000 to over 50,000. The extent to which industry is work-
ing for the wax effort is evidenced by the fact that whereas in
1940 the total value of military orders was only 1,000,000, it
increased in 1943 to 12,000,000.
The Jews have also made important scientific and technical
contributions to the war effort. The laboratories and scientific
staff of the Hebrew
University and the Haifa Technical Institute
have been placed at the disposal of the military authorities. At
the University special courses on
parasitology and tropical medi-
cine have been held for the medical officers of the British and
Australian forces, and the Parasitology
Department has provided
sera for the prevention and cure of
typhoid and other tropical
diseases, A new and more economical technique for fighting
typhus has been perfected by a group of Jewish scientists, mainly
German refugees, and offered to the British Government for use
in the Middle East. The
University, in conjunction with the
Hadassah Hospital and Medical Centre, has also
arranged courses
in war surgery and camp sanitation for
military physicians. Its
Meteorological Department has supplied the Army Command with
air data for
weather reports covering the entire area between the
Caucasus Mountains and Lower
Egypt, and its Physiological
THE SECOND WORLD WAR 299
Laboratory Is
producing vitamins and hormones for local pharma-
ceutical firms to satisfy the needs of both the civilian population
and the troops. The Technical Institute is co-operating with the
Royal Engineers in the testing of building and constructional
materials that cannot be imported owing to the war. Its electrical
laboratories prepare and repair instruments and motors for the
Army and Navy as well as for industries supplying war materials.

The Daniel Sieff Research Institute at Rehovoth is producing
acetone and butyl alcohol by fermentation, both important war
chemicals. It has also established a pharmaceutical factory for the
production of certain drugs, such as synthetic anti-malarias and
hypnotics, which are badly needed owing to the lack of quinine,
formerly obtained from the East Indies.
While the Yishuv was putting forth every effort in furtherance
of the Allied cause, its numbers were being slowly increased by
immigration despite all the difficulties and dangers of travel created

by the spreading of the war. New routes had to be devised and
traversed to circumvent the obstacles. Jewish refugees from Po-
land who had escaped to Russia had at first to make their way to
Shanghai in order to reach Palestine, and later many travelled by
a roundabout route through Cape Town and East Africa. Nego-
tiationswere conducted by the Jewish Agency with the Govern-
ments of Soviet Russia and Turkey for transit visas to enable the
refugees to pass through those countries. During the first five
years of the war about 50,000 Jewish refugees reached Palestine,
most of them originating from Europe. Their value to the country
may be judged from the fact that 30 per cent, of them were mem-
bers of the Youth Aliyah, 30 per cent, were in the capitalist
category (each possessing f 1,000 or more), and 25 per cent, were
workers. The remainder were dependants of Palestinian residents,
Rabbis, with their families, and others. One contingent of refu-
gees aroused an exceptional degree of pathetic interest: it con-
sisted of 800 children, mainly from Poland and Germany, and
many of them orphans, whose toilsome journey had led from

Russia to Teheran, and thence (owing to Iraq's refusal to grant
transit) through the Arabian and Red Seas. After prolonged
negotiations conducted by the Government for the exchange of
Palestinian residents in Axis countries against German citizens
in Palestine, two groups of women and children reached Palestine,
the first in December, 1941, and the second in November, 1943.
A number of other women and children, totalling 700, who were
not Palestinian citizens, were also rescued from Europe and
brought to their National Home. The Jewish Agency's Immigra-
tion Department introduced an orderly system for the emigration
of Yemenite Jews from Aden, and made repeated efforts to secure
the departure of Jews, particularly of children, from the Balkan
countries, Hungary, Vichy France, and the Iberian Peninsula.
But owing to the hostility of the German Government and its
grip over its satellites, these efforts met with scant success.
The Agency's Immigration Department rendered a further

service in enabling members of the tens of thousands of Jewish
families who had escaped from Poland to Russia, to get into touch
with one another. In order to trace the addresses of these refugees
and to enable them to communicate with relatives and friends in
Palestine, the Department opened an Information Office, which
registered over 20,000 addresses. It also despatched over 10,000
parcels of food and other forms of relief
to the refugees in Russia.
And in addition to these acts of humanity, the Executive of the
Jewish Agency, together with the Vaad Leumij played a leading
and conspicuous part in the efforts to direct the attention of the
United Nations to the tragic plight of the Jews who were the
object of Germany's sadistic campaign of extermination. The
Jews in Palestine had to a large extent come from the lands in
which orgies of Nazi savagery were raging; many of them still had
relations or friends in the Polish ghettos that had been turned
into shambles; and it was therefore but natural that they should
be stirred more deeply than any other Jewish community and also
be the most insistent and clamant in demanding that the British
and American Governments should undertake immediate attempts
at rescue.
In addition to the anxiety about the fate of their kinsfolk in the
European inferno, which weighed heavily upon the Yishuv, they
were not a little disturbed about their own future. The White
Paper of appeasement hovered over them like a spectre, and
indications and incidents accumulated that emphasised its menace.
The authorities exercised a rigorous censorship, which was gov-
erned not by considerations of the country's security against the
enemy, but by their resolve to stifle any discussion about future
policy. On March sgrd, 1943, the High Commissioner broadcast
a speech on post-war reconstruction in Palestine, which was defi-
nitely based upon the assumption that the White Paper was to
prevail. His address produced a feeling of profound disquiet
among the Jews, because it
utterly ignored the vital part that they,
in common with Jews throughout the world, believed and wished
that the country should play in the post-war settlement of the
Jewish question. This uneasiness was intensified a few months

laterby slanderous attacks made upon them in the course of two
trials atthe Military Court in Jerusalem. In the first trial in
August, at which two British soldiers, with criminal records, had
been sentenced to fifteen years' imprisonment each for smuggling
arms and ammunition into Palestine, the counsel for their defence,
a British officer, sought to extenuate their guilt by indulging in
sweeping accusations against the Jewish people, the Yishuv, the
Jewish Agency and its Chairman, and the Jewish soldiers serving
with the British Forces in the Middle East. This tirade of
defamation was even surpassed in the second trial, in which two
Jews were sentenced to seven and ten years' imprisonment
respectively on the charge of arms smuggling,
and in which the
principal witnesses were the British soldiers convicted
in the first
case. The Prosecutor repeated the aspersions made in the first
trial, and included the Haganah, the Histadruth, and the Solel
Boneh in his fantastic diatribe. He alleged the existence of "a
powerful, sinister organisation/*whose aim was the possession of
1 *
unlimited arms, "whose policy and objects were "in direct con-
flict with those of the United Nations/' and who "with watchful
cunning" awaited "the opportunity to sabotage the war effort."

He said that the Jews in Palestine began to take an interest in the
war only when Rommel stood at El Alaniein (October, 1942), and
that Jews in the British Forces were "a canker in the military
organism in the Middle East." This astonishing tissue of falsehood
and calumny was denounced at an extraordinary meeting of the
Elected Assembly (Asefath Hamvharim), at which the Chairman
of the Jewish Agency Executive, David Ben-Gurion, stigmatised it
as a political manoeuvre for the purpose of discrediting and even
provoking the Yishuv* and of thus ensuring the enforcement of

the White Paper. He declared that the sentences on the Jews, in
the light of the evidence available, were a miscarriage of justice.
all
He pointed out that there had been many trials for the stealing
of arms in the Middle East, in most of which Arabs had been
involved, but never before had such publicity been given to the
proceedings. Only a few months before, a British soldier had been
tried for selling stolen arms to an Arab, but the Arab had not
been allowed to appear in court. In the case of the
proceedings
against thetwo Jews, every effort had been made to secure world-
wide publicity, and American correspondents In Cairo had been
invited to come to Jerusalem- As for the Haganah, Ben-Gurion
declared that this Jewish self-defence organisation, the existence
of which had been known to the authorities for years, would
continue to be maintained, not for any aggression, but for the
sole purpose of the defence of the Yishuv, since they could not
1
depend upon any other power*
The and- Jewish hostility displayed in these arms trials
spirit of
was vented further in the prosecution of a Palestinian Jew, Eiiahu
Sacharoff, who had a license to carry a revolver. He was charged
with possessing two bullets, and was sentenced by the Jerusalem
In the same weeek
Military Court to seven years* imprisonment.
an Arab was charged with having a British military rifle and
eighty-six bullets, and
was sentenced to only six months' imprison-
ment; and a couple of weeks later another Arab, convicted of pos-
sessing a British rifle and thirty rounds of ammunition, received a
sentence of only five months' imprisonment. The prosecuting
authorities exercised their prerogative of bringing these two cases
before magistrates' courts, where only light penalties could be
aroused among the Tishuv by this
imposed. The indignation
flagrant discrimination
had scarcely had time to cool when they
were subjected to a further act of provocation. On November
i6th British police, together with Indian troops and personnel of
the Polish Provost, carried out a search of Ramath Hakovesh, a
collective settlement in the Valley of Sharon. The police fired two
shots, wounded a settler, who died a few days later,
and arrested
The Government issued a communiqu^ stat-
thirty-five settlers.
was the result of reports that "certain deserters
ing that the search
from the Polish Army were harboured at Ramath Hakovesh, and,
moreover, that at this settlement there was a training camp of a
unit of an illegal organisation, and that illegal arms were con-
cealed there/ The only outcome of the search, in the vague
1
terms of the official statement, was that "certain military equip-

1
The Palestine Royal Commission (Report, p. 201) stated: "If there is one griev-
ance which the Jews have undoubted right to prefer it is the absence of security.
Our review has shown that the steps taken at intervals by the Palestine Adminis-
tration to strengthen their security services,., ,to guarantee to the Jews 'quiet
of their National Home, have more than once proved ineffectual. And
enjoyment'
not unnaturally we heard grave doubts expressed as to the future."' At a meeting
of the Mandates Commission, on August 2nd, 1937, the Colonial Secretary, Mr.
-restraint exercised by
Ormsby-Gore (now Lord Harlech), paid a tribute to the self
the Jews in the face of Arab aggression and said: "We cannot deny, and we see no
reason to deny, that the Jews themselves have already organised . , . the Maganah."
ment was found In a camp within the perimeter of the settlement/'
Two Hebrew newspapers were suspended on account of their re-
ports, whereupon the rest of the Hebrew Press
failed to appear as
a demonstration of solidarity.
Mass meetings were then held at Tel-Aviv, Haifa, and Ramath
Hakovesh, at which the speakers strongly protested against what
was evidently a campaign against the Haganah, and demanded an
inquiry into the latest incident and the release of the arrested
settlers. These men
were liberated after some days without any
charge being brought against them. Early in
December seven
settlers from Huldah were charged before a Military Court in
Jerusalem with the illegal possession of bombs

and cartridges.
Their counsel pleaded that these arms were solely for defence, as
many of their comrades had been killed in Arab disorders, and

the Kvutmh had had to be rebuilt three times. Two settlers, who
of the Court to disclose
pleaded guilty, declined the suggestion
the origin of the arms and thus obtain a lighter sentence, on the
had done
ground that they were not criminals and that what they
was necessary for the defence of their settlement. The Court
sentenced the seven men to terms of imprisonment ranging from
two to six years.
Thus, twenty-six years after the Jewish people had acclaimed

the Balfour Declaration as the Charter for the reconstitution of
their National Home, those who had been the most active in its
establishment were harried and traduced by official representa-
tives of the Power responsible for the fulfilment of the Declara-
tion. was a situation that was a mockery of all principles of
It
honour and justice, due apparently to the desire to create a com-
bination of circumstances favourable to the maintenance of the
White Paper policy. It was a situation utterly lacking in reason
and consistency, for the Jews were the only people in the Near
and Middle East who had from the very start volunteered to fight
in the war for civilisation, and they were now besmirched
3
and
'On September 19th, 1944, the British Government announced that they had
decided to accede to the request of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, that a Jewish
that the Infantry
Brigade Group should he farmed to take part In active operations;
of the Palestine Regiment, and
brigade would be based on the Jewish battalions
that ancillary units, based on existing Palestinian units, would join the infantry
brigade; and that the Jewish Agency
had been invited to co-operate In the realisa-
tion of the scheme. On September 28th the Prime Minister (Mr. Churchill) stated
in the House of Commons: "It seems to me indeed appropriate that a special Jewish
m't a special unit of that race which has suffered indescribable torments from the
Nazis, should be represented as a distinct formation among the forces gathered for
their final overthrow, and I have no doubt they will not only take part in the
subjected to discrimination in order to please the Arabs, who had
refrained from helping in the struggle, but wished to benefit by
its It was the fruit of the policy of appeasement, which
victory.
might have been condoned in 1939 on the ground of expediency,
but had no justification whatever after four years of war. The
Yishuv refused to bow to that policy or to give up any of the aspi-
rations by which they had been upborne through all the toil and
travail of a quarter of a century. Their sons had fought and bled
on many fronts for the triumph of liberty and the defence of their
ancestral land. They were resolved to face the future undaunted,
confident that the exasperations and humiliations to which they
had been exposed would pass like an evil dream, and that, when
all the bloodshed was over, and reason and justice returned to
their own, their cause would prevail.
struggle,but also in the occupation which will follow." The military authorities
approved of the flag of the Jewish Brigade Group two horizontal blue stripes
divided by a white stripe, with a blue Shield of David in the centre; and of a blue-
white-blue shoulder flash, with the Shield of David in gold, accompanied by the
designation, "Jewish Brigade Group," and the initials of the Hebrew equivalent
(Hatikvah Yehudith LahemethJzwish Fighting Formation).
CHAPTER XIX
PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE
of the Mandatory Power in Palestine, after a war

THE policynearly
lasting six years, governed by the instrument
is still
born of the fear of war the White Paper of May, 1939. This doc-
ument enacted that the Jews shall be limited to one-third of the
total population, that after five years no further Jewish immigra-
1
tion shall be permitted unless the Arabs of Palestine acquiesce,
that no further transfers of Arab land to Jews shall be allowed in
certain areas,and that at the end of ten years there shall be set
an independent Palestine State, in
which the Arabs will be
up
assured of a two-thirds majority. When the White Paper was
submitted to the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League
of Nations for without which its proposals possessed no
approval,
legal validity, itwas unanimously declared to be inconsistent with
the Mandate; and owing to the outbreak of war it was never con-
sidered by the Council of the League. But although it thus lacked
the requisite sanction, the British Government rigorously enforced
its in to immigration, and that too at a time
regard
provision
when, owing to persecution in Europe, a relaxation of the restric-
tions should have been dictated by considerations of humanity.
Moreover, in February, 1940, the Government issued new regula-
tions for the sale and transfer of land, the effect of which was to
limit to only one-twentieth of Western Palestine the area within
which Jews were free to acquire land without any restriction.
a
Thus, racial discrimination was applied against the Jews in
at the time when the United Na-
country under British rule very
tions were fighting to suppress racial discrimination among other
evils in Europe; and the country was that of the Jewish National
Home
When White Paper was first published, the Executive of
the
the Jewish Agency issued a statement, in which they stressed^that
its effect was to deny to the Jewish people the right to reconstitute
an-
1
On November 10th, 1943, the Colonial Secretary, Colonel Oliver Stanley,
nounced in the House of Commons that the total number of 75,000 Jews to be
admitted into Palestine under the provisions of the White Paper, 43,922
bad
entered up to September SOth, 1943, and that there would be no time-limit
for the
admission of the remainder. On October 5th, 1944, he informed the Jewish Agency
that permission had been given to use 10300 immigration certificates remaining
under the White Paper for Jews coming from liberated or non-enemy countries,
to be distributed at the rate of 1,500 monthly.
their National Home in their ancestral country, that it would put
the Jewish population at the mercy of the Arab majority, and that
the Jews would never submit to "the closing against them o the
gates of Palestine, or let their National Home be converted into
a Ghetto." declared: "It in the darkest hour of Jewish
is
They
history that the British
Government propose to deprive the Jews
of their last hope and to close their road back to their homeland."
Since that statement was issued, what was the darkest hour then
has become very much darker still owing to the unparalleled
tragedy that has overtaken the Jews in Europe; and, in con-

sequence, the determination
of the Jewish people to resist the
White Paper policy has increased tenfold. Millions of Jews were
of Nazi-occupied Europe to Poland and
deported from all parts
six millions are estimated to
neighbouring regions; some fully
have been exterminated in conditions of the most revolting bar-
barity; and vast numbers
were reduced to slavery and starvation
in ghettoes and concentration camps, where torture was the order
of the day. Repeated appeals to the Governments of the United
Nations to rescue all who could still be saved were answered by
denunciation of the Nazi criminals, by assurances of the deepest
an official Anglo-American con-
sympathy with their victims, by
ference at Bermuda in the spring of 1943, and by the creation, on
the part of the United States Government, of a War Refugees
Board to help in carrying out the work of deliverance. Moreover,
the British and American Governments announced that none who
acts of savagery against the Jews would go unpun-
participated in
the free of
ished, and President Roosevelt appealed to ^peoples
to refugees. So far as is generally
Europe and Asia to grant asylum
known, however, the practical results achieved were very small.
The chief consolation that was offered was that salvation would
come when the war was over, and that all efforts must be directed
towards hastening this end.
Now that the war is over the great problem of salvage has to be
undertaken, and in the solution of that problem Palestine
must
The number of Jews on the Continent of
play its proper part.
Russia and the neutral coun-
Europe (exclusive of those in Soviet
tries) who have survived Hitler's campaign of extermination
scarcelyamounts to one and a half million. Most of the survivors
who were deported or fled from Western Europe, or from Italy
and Greece, have now returned to their homes. Many have also
and other countries, where
gone back to Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE 307
they have found the conditions of existence forbidding and dis-

tressing, not so much because of the economic effects of the war
as because of the vitiated anti-Jewish atmosphere created by the
long years of Nazi occupation, and because of the difficulty, and

insome cases the impossibility, of recovering their former homes
and possessions. In some districts Jews who had returned from
concentration camps met with such a hostile reception that they
immediately left again. In Poland there have even been small

pogroms Cracow, Rzeszow, and Czeladz), involving the loss of
(in
lives, the burning of a Synagogue, and the looting of property. But
worst of all is the plight of over one hundred thousand Jews in
Germany and Austria, of whom about 85,000 in the British, Amer-
ican and French zones are still in camps, though nominally free,
while the rest are technically described as "displaced persons."
All the States that were under the Nazi tyranny have abolished
their anti-Semitic legislation, restored civil equality to Jews, and
undertaken that they should not be subjected to any legal or
bureaucratic discrimination on racial or religious grounds. No
demand has been made for a revival of the minority rights that
were embodied in over a dozen Peace treaties after the First World
War, largely because twenty years' experience has shown that
Jews derived very little benefit from the minority clauses and that
States which do not want to respect the rights of their Jewish
citizens cannot be compelled to do so. Instead of those specific
safeguards, it is hoped to achieve the same
and by one of the pro-
visions in the Charter of the United Nations, which prescribes
"international co-operation ... in promoting and encouraging re-
spect for human rights and for
fundamental freedoms for all,
without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion." But the
Charter contains no provision for "ensuring" respect for human
rights and for fundamental
freedoms for all. It is inevitable, there-
fore, that most of the Jews on the Continent, especially in Central
and Eastern Europe, after their bitter experience of the gragility
and futility of paper guarantees, put no faith in the value of the
in the new Charter. Hundreds of thousands
provisions laid down
of them wish to flee from Europe as soon as possible, in order to
shake off the effects of the ghastly nightmare from which they
have suffered so long, and to find a home in a land where they will
feel sure of being treated as human beings.
Now what lands are open to them? At the Evian Conference
held in the summer of 1938, over thirty Governments were
assembled In earnest discussion for the purpose of finding terri-
tories where the victims of Hitler's fury could be welcomed, but
the result of their deliberations showed that they had little to
offer beyond sympathy. Various tentative proposals were made
for the admission of afew thousand Jews in one or two countries,
but in the end they dwindled to nothing of consequence. If that
was all that was offered before the war, when conditions were
comparatively stable, what likelihood is there that more will be
forthcoming now, when most countries are undergoing the up-
heaval of adjusting themselves to peace-time occupations? Can
there be a welcome in any of them for destitute refugees in
desperate search of work when organised precautions are taken
to ensure that returning soldiers can immediately recover their
former jobs? All hopes of alleviating the immeasurable misery
of European Jewry that may be based upon optimistic answers to
these questions are foredoomed to pitiful disillusion.
Suggestions have been repeatedly made from time to time that
large Jewish colonies, embracing tens of thousands of persons,

can be established in some country overseas, in South America,
in Africa, or in Australia. Indeed, the Jewish Territorial Organi-
sation, under the dynamic leadership of Israel Zangwill, scoured
the globe for nearly ten years before the First World War in order
to discover a suitable territory for this purpose, but all in vain.
And if those endeavours, conducted with the active co-operation
of colonial explorers and distinguished scentists, at a time when
the world was at peace and free frorfit economic disturbances,
proved sterile, what prospect is there that, if they were now
resumed in a world racked with political strife, economically
exhausted, and poisoned with race-hatred, they would be more
successful? Various British sympathisers have suggested that there
isample room within the vast confines of the British Empire for
1
the "tribe of the wandering foot/ but not a single concrete and
feasible scheme has yet been worked out for the settlement even
of ten thousand Jews in some definite area in a particular terri-
tory. Fifty years ago Baron de Hirsch believed that he could solve,
or at least alleviate, the Jewish problem by transplanting Jewish
masses from Russia to the Argentine, He transported only a few
thousand, for the country made no general appeal, and now the
original settlers, their children, and all who have followed them,
are suffering from the Nazi-inspired anti-Semitic policy of the
Government fand even experienced a pogrom in October, 1945),
from which many are seeking to escape by immigration. What
countless homeless and State-less Jews who survive the Hitlerite
scourge want, is to go to a country where they will be free from
fear of further persecution, where
they will be able to live as Jews
and human beings, and where they will not be subject to the
caprice or malice of a non-Jewish majority. The only land where
they hope to find, and are entitled to expect, these conditions is
their own ancestral country.
Palestine thus makes a powerful appeal to great numbers of
Jews as the
only land that will satisfy their longings and require-
ments. It is the only country with a large,
public-spirited Jewish
community, that has had sixty years* experience of colonisation
and ready and eager to receive new settlers. But if it is to play
is
its
proper part in schemes of post-war reconstruction it is essential
that the White Paper be revoked. Such a
step would not involvd
any White Paper itself is illegal, and its
legal difficulties, for the
abolition would be a return to legality. Nor would it be the first
time that the Mandatory Power rescinded an obnoxious statement
of policy, for the Passfield White Paper of 1930, which also con-
tained proposals that were a flagrant infringement of the letter
and spirit of the Balfour Declaration and of the Mandate, was
virtually revoked a few months later by a letter from the Prime
Minister to the President of the Jewish Agency. The abolition of
the White Paper should certainly not meet with any
opposition
on the part of leading members of the present Labour Govern-
ment, for they denounced it and voted against it when it was
submitted to the House of Commons. Mr. Herbert Morrison, now
Lord President of the Council, called it a "cynical breach of
pledges given to the Jews and the world, including America" and
a "breach of British honour/' and he warned the Chamberlain
Government that "this document will not be automatically bind-
ing upon their successors in office, whatever the circumstances of
the time may be." Mr. Philip Noel-Baker, now Minister of State,
said that the White Paper was in flagrant violation of the Balfour
Declaration and the Mandate" and called it
"cowardly and wrong."
If thosewere the views and sentiments of these ministers, as they
were of several distinguished colleagues at the time of apease-
ment, they surely cannot now be different after years of war to
slay thevampire of appeasement. Nobody had any doubt at the
time of its publication that the White
Paper was deliberately
designed to placate the Arabs and to ensure that, in the threaten-
glO THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
ing conflict, they should not side with the Axis Powers who had
aided and abetted them in their revolt. Mr. Churchill put it very
bluntly: "We are now asked to submit and this is what rankles
most with meto an agitation which is fed with foreign money
and ceaselessly inflamed by Nazi and Fascist propaganda.'* And
just as the humiliating Munich Agreement was formally repudi-
ated by the British Government at the request of the Czecho-
slovak Government, so should its lineal successor, the White
Paper of 1939, be repudiated at the request of the Jewish people,
at whose expense it was enacted.
In the course of the conferences with the Jewish and the Arab
delegates at St. James's Palace early in 1939, a distinguished
member of the Government was reported to have said: "There
are times when questions of justice must give way to con-
siderations of expediency." If there were such times, they are
now past. It was for justice that the Jewish people asked for
hundreds of but it was denied it. Instead, in one country
years,
after another, it was condemned to persecution, outlawry, and
expulsion, while throughout its tribulations it cherished its na-

tional ideal as the instrument of its preservation. And when at
last it received the Balfour Declaration it regarded this as ample,
if belated, amends for all its sufferings; and by utilising its oppor-
tunities efficiently it has brought blessings to all the inhabitants
of Palestine and benefits to the Government itself. Now the
promise contained in the Declaration is imperilled by the White

Paper, and therefore the Jewish people demands that this docu-
ment be scrapped.
The situation now
reached makes it necessary to emphasise
afresh the principal reason why Great Britain was entrusted with
the Mandate for Palestine. The question was dealt with by the
Royal Commission, who said that of the specific obligations
imposed on the Mandatory and the Administration, they regarded
four as of major importance: (i) the obligations with reference to
the Jewish National Home, (2) the obligation to safeguard the
rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine and in particular those
of non-Jews, (3) the obligation to develop self-governing in-
stitutions and encourage
autonomy, and (4) the obligations
local
undertaken with regard to the Holy Places. After commenting
upon the relative scope of these different obligations, the Royal
Commission concluded: "Unquestionably, however, the primary
purpose of the Mandate, as expressed in its preamble and its aril-
cles, is to promote the establishment of the Jewish National
Home." This view was enunciated much earlier, although in
1
somewhat different terms, on behalf of the Mandatory Govern-

ment itself. For at the meeting of the Permanent Mandates Com-
mission held in October, 1925, the then Colonial Secretary, Mr.
Ormsby-Gore (now Lord Harlech) said: "The Commission should
remember that it was, after all, the Balfour Declaration which was
the reason why the British Government is now administering
3
Palestine," surely be no question that the specific
and there can
reason for the Declaration was the promise to facilitate the
establishment of the Jewish National Home. The time envisaged
for the fulfilment of this promise was not limited either when
the Declaration was Issued, or when Mandate was conferred,
the
or when it was ratified. Nor Is there any article in the Mandate
that empowers Mandatory to declare unilaterally when it
the
has discharged Its trust. There is no article setting forth the con-
ditions in which the Mandate may be terminated, but there is
one that definitely precludes the Mandatory from changing or
modifying its terms. Article 27 reads:
"The consent League of Nations

of the Council of the Is
required for any modification of the terms of this mandate."
The constitute a fun-

provisions of the White Paper undoubtedly
damental modification, and they are therefore a violation of the
Mandate. They are also in gross contradiction to the policy of
the British Government as clearly defined in the very first Report
issued by the first High Commissioner, for in that Report we read;
"The policy of His Majesty's Government contemplates the

satisfaction of the legitimate aspirations of the Jewish race
throughout the world in relation to Palestine, combined

with
8
a full protection of the rights of the existing population."
These "legitimate aspirations" are the same now as they were

In 1921, but they have acquired a far greater importance owing
to the events of recent years, and the need for their satisfaction is
far more imperative. The Mandatory clearly cannot continue to
retain Its trust unless it endeavours to satisfy those aspirations.
The position that would arise i it failed to do so was once ex-
Palestine Royal Commission Report, pp. 38-9. The italics are in the original,
1
.
8
Minutes of the Seventh Session, 1925, VI, CMJP., 328, p. 111.
*An Interim on the Civil Administration of Palestine, during the Period,
Report
1st Jttfy, 1920-30*/* June, 1921. London, 1921.
pounded, cogently and candidly, by Mr. Winston Churchill. In

his devastating criticism of the Passfield White Paper (which was
by no means so revolutionary as the later one), he said, in the

House of Commons, on November 2nd, 1930;
"No one could claim that the British nation is bound for all
time, irrespective of events or of their own physical and moral

strength, to pursue
the policy of establishment of the Jewish
National Home. But from the moment that we recognise and
proclaim that we have departed
from these undertakings and
are regarding the Zionist cause as a mere inconvenient incident
in the Colonial Office administration of Palestine, we are bound
to return our Mandate to the League of Nations and forgo the
strategic, moral, and material advantages arising from the

British control of, and association with, the Holy Land."
The League of Nations is now dead, and the future status of

Palestine has not yet been decided, though it is intended that it
shallcome under the Trusteeship System of the United Nations.
But since the end of the war the leaders of the Palestinian Arabs,
energetically backed by the Arab States, have revived the demand
for an independent Arab Palestine, which was repeatedly made
before the war by the rebellious ex-Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin
el-Husseini, who later became an active ally of Hitler and Musso-
lini. The
question of the future of Palestine has, therefore, again
become an object of serious consideration. Three suggested alter-
natives havebeen under discussion: that Palestine shall become an
Arab or a bi-national State, or a Jewish State.
State,
The claim that Palestine should become an Arab State is based
upon the ground that Arabs have lived there for thirteen hundred
years and form the majority of the population. The Arabs in
Palestine were independent for rather less than one-third of that
period, from the seventh to the eleventh century, but even
then
they never had self-government, as Palestine for a long time
formed the southern part of Syria and was subject to foreign Arab
rulers* They cannot therefore invoke on their behalf the clause
in the Atlantic Charter relating to "sovereign rights and self-
government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of
them," since they never enjoyed such rights. There is, indeed,
some doubt as to whether, strictly speaking, they are Arabs at
all, for the British Foreign Office Handbook on Syria and Palestine*
*JLondon ?
states: "The people west
of the Jordan are not Arabs, but only
Arabic-speaking." they are Arabs, then they are part of the
I
great Arab people which already has Its own independent States
in Arabia: and if they are Syrians, they form part of the people
which has its own Syrian State, Moreover, a recent writer has
shown, on the basis of numerous authorities from mediaeval times,
that there never was a substantial Arab population in Palestine
until the middle of the nineteenth century. He maintains that the
Immigration of genuine Arabs Into the country began only in

1882, the very year In which Jewish colonisation began, and that
75 per cent, of the Arab population are either immigrants them-
selves or the descendants of persons who entered the country
1
during the last hundred years, and mostly during the last sixty.
Palestine has never been a centre of Arab culture. During the
greater part of their connection with the country, the Arabs have
not produced any outstanding achievement In art or learning,
with the sole exception of the Mosque of Omar, and that was
built, not by Arabs, but by Greek architects and artificers. The
recognised centres of Arab culture have always been Baghdad,

Cairo, and Damascus; and Mecca and Medina have always ranked
higher In Islam than Jerusalem. The degree of the Arabs' attach-
ment to Palestine can be assessed by the measure of their resistance
to their conquerors In the past or to any potential conquerors.
They did not fight for the freedom of Palestine in the First World
War, but owed It to British forces, with which Jewish battalions
cooperated; and, but for a small number, they have not fought
for It in the Second World War.
Palestine as an Arab State would mean a catastrophe for the
Jews, to which the Royal Commission thought it necessary to call
serious attention. Referring to the Jews, the Commksion stated:
"Convinced as they are that an Arab Government would mean
and ideals, that it would convert
the frustration of all their efforts
the National Home into one more cramped and dangerous
Ghetto, It seems only too probable that they would fight rather
than submit to Arab rule. Aiid to repress a Jewish rebellion against
British policy would be as unpleasant a task as the repression of
Arab rebellion has been/* 2 Guarantees, apparently quite adequate,
might be offered that the Jews would be able to enjoy the usual
minority rights or the rights that they have In their National
Justice for My People by Ernst Frankenstein. Nicholson & Watson, London,
1
f
1943.
3
Palestine Royal Commission Report, p. I
Home at present. But no paper guarantees, however cautiously or
afford reliable security against
alluringly phrased, would either
discrimination or compensate for the loss o national hopes. Their
value would soon depreciate and disappear. The Jews in Palestine
have already had more than one taste of Arab intolerance. Their
brethren in Iraq have also been the victims of pogroms on more
than one occasion in October, 1936, and in May, 1941; on the
latter occasion, when the treacherous Raschid Ali attempted his
rising on the side of Germany against Britain, 120 Jews were

150 were seriously injured, and
killed, over 14,500 persons suffered
from the looting of homes and businesses. Besides, there was the
previous episode of
the massacre of Assyrian Christians in Iraq.
The worst demonstration of Arab hostility were the most recent.
In Cairo and Alexandria, on November 2, 1945, there were or-
ganised anti-Jewish riots, in
which one Synagogue was destroyed
and others were wrecked, and a Jewish school, clinic, home for
the aged, and the department-stores, shops, and homes of Jews,
were pillaged under the eyes of a passive police. And a few days
later there were terrible pogroms in towns of Tripolitania, in
which over 100 Jews were killed and many injured. So much,
therefore, for guaranteed protection under Arab rule.
differ somewhat as to the nature of the constitution
Opinions
of Palestine as a bi-national State. Such a State is favoured by a
small of Jewish intellectuals and by the Hashomer Hatzair
group
party, but while the former are prepared to make far-reaching
compromises with regard to limitations on Jewish immigration
the latter demands free Jewish immigration regulated entirely by
the Jewish Agency, in whom the development of the natural
resources of the country should be vested. If Jewish immigration
were free from all restriction, the Jews would eventually become
a majority and thus constitute a Jewish State. On the other hand,
some regard bi-nationalism as implying parity in government and
legislation, others as also implying equality in numbers and
and
land possession. Such a system is bound to lead to a permanent
deadlock, and that too on the most vital questions affecting the
future of the Jewish people. There would be further complications
if some sort of union or Federation of Arab States, as advocated
by some of their spokesmen, were created, for then the Arabs of

a bi-national Palestine might wish to join it, while the Jews might
consider it inimical to their interest to do so. It has, indeed, been
argued that such a union, which would make the Arabs of Pales-
.tine feel fortified
politically and help them economically, would
also reconcile them to a large
Jewish immigration, since the result-
ant Jewish community would still be a minority in the much larger
Arab community. But thqre is no certainty of such a development;
there is even a risk that Palestine might come under the
sway of
the other Arab States, or, if political
developments should favour
such an unfortunate contingency, become the prey of their rivalry,
In short, a bi-national State would contain the seeds of future
trouble and put the Jews into a far more disadvantageous position
than they hold under the Mandate. The Arabs have attained and
disposal. The Jewish
are attaining statehood in vast areas at their
people has a right to achieve a similar status in Palestine.

The idea of a Jewish State is by no means new, for its realisation
was envisaged by the Cabinet responsible for the framing of the
Balfour Declaration. The Royal Commission quoted the views of
a number of British statesmen and of President Wilson, all
of whom "spoke or wrote in terms that could only mean that
5
they contemplated the eventual establishment of a Jewish State."
Even when the White Paper of 1922 appeared with a definition
of the National Home that caused the most profound disappoint-
ment among the Jewish people, there was, wrote the Commission,
"Nothing in itto prohibit the ultimate establishment of a Jewish
State, and Mr. Churchill himself has told us in evidence that no
2
such prohibition was intended." In advancing a claim, therefore,
to a State of their own, the Jews would simply be conforming to
the expectation and intentions of those who laid the foundations
of British policy in Palestine. The British Government lauded the
advantages of a Jewish State when they made their ephemeral
offer in 1937, ^ ut ê State they
proposed was too puny to survive.
The Zionist aspiration is that not a fraction but the whole of
Palestine shall become the Jewish State.
The Jewsbase their claim to such a State upon their uninter-
rupted connection with Palestine for over three thousand years,
and upon the fact that the only national polity they ever had
existed in that country. They base it upon the original implica-
tion of the Balfour Declaration, upon the achievements they have
wrought in Palestine, upon the position they hold in the civilised
world, and upon the contributions they can yet make to the
progress of humanity. Are they alone among the nations of the
earth to have no land in which they can fully develop their national
1 3
Palestine Royal Commission Report, pp. 24-5. Ibid.f p. 33.
existence without being "cribbed, cabined, and confined" by the*
laws of another nation? Are they alone among the nations to be
denied the right of self-determination, and above all in the land
which they alone endowed with its eternal fame? But for the
Jews and for what they wrought in Palestine, the country would
not have become the Holy Land, and it would mean little more
to the world than some obscure portion of Asia. Their need of
a State of their own has now become more urgent than ever before,
for, after a sojourn of nineteen hundred years in Europe, during
which they have experienced innumerable vicissitudes, they have
been subjected to a war of extermination without parallel in
history. They wish to be as safe
in future from the changing
caprices of a Government that may be friendly one moment and

intolerant the next, as from the unchanging hostility of a tyran-
nical oppressor. They wish to be masters in their own home in
their own National Home. They wish to be able to enter it freely,
without challenge or scrutiny, without restrictions as to time or
numbers, and without stipulation as to means. To them Palestine
Is everything, for without it they can have no assured national
existence. To the Arabs it means nothing more than less than

i per cent, of all the immense Arabic-speaking territories in Asia,
which may yet take centuries to develop. The Arabs did little in
the First World War to regain their freedom, and much less ill
the Second to retain it. Can they who have known so little suffer-
ing and not allow the Jews, whose

possess six States in Asia alone,
sufferings have been immeasurable and who have no other land,
"that small notch"as the late Lord Balfour called it needed for
their national salvation? Of one thing the Arabs may be sure
that any of their people who would live in a Jewish State would
be treated not only with justice but with friendship and goodwill,
for such a State will be based on the lofty ethical principles of the
Prophets, who enjoined equality of treatment for all, whether

"sojourner or stranger." There would naturally be the most scrup-
ulous respect for the rights and susceptibilities of the Arabs in
regard to their religion, language, and culture, and they would
exercise their civil and political rights on a footing of equality
with all other citizens. There would be no need for any of them
to transfer their homes to the neighbouring lands of Iraq and
Transjordan, although these are both sparsely populated and cry-
ing out for additional man-power to develop their vast neglected
regions.
The policy of the Zionist Organisation regarding the future
was firstlaid down in a resolution, which was submitted by the
Executive of the Jewish Agency to the Small Committee of the
supreme authority in the movement
Zionist General Council, the
during the war. This resolution, adopted at a meeting of the
Committee in Jerusalem on November loth, 1942, was as follows:
"The Small Committee of the Zionist General Council
endorses the Zionist political line as defined by its representa-
tives at the All-Zionist Conference in America in May, 1942,
which lays down that the new world order that will follow
victory cannot be established on foundations of peace, justice,
and equality unless the problem of Jewish homelessness is
finally solved.The Conference urges that the gates of Palestine
be opened, that the Jewish Agency be vested with the control
of immigration into Palestine and with the necessary authority
for the upbuilding of the country, including the development
of its unoccupied and uncultivated lands; and that Palestine be
established as a Jewish Commonwealth integrated in the
structure of the new democratic world/*
1
This resolution was adopted by twenty-one out of the twenty-five
members, the minority consisting of the three representatives of
the "Hashomer Hatzair" and one of the Left Poale-Zion. It has
been endorsed by the Zionists in Great Britain, in all British
Dominions, and in all other free countries, and upon its realisation
depends the future of the Jewish National Home and the destiny
of vast numbers of the Jewish people. The resolution does not
indicate the time when it is desired that Palestine shall be estab-
lished as a Jewish Commonwealth, for there must be a transitional
period after the war. The appropriate time will clearly be when
the Jews form the majority, and to attain that position immigra-
tion must be under the control of the Jewish Agency.
At the first World Zionist Conference held in London after
the war, in August, 1945, and attended by 85 delegates from
Palestine, the United States, Great Britain and the British Domin-
ions, Poland, France, and other countries, the Jewish position
resulting from the devastating effects of the war was discussed
from angles and the utmost emphasis was placed upon the part
all
that Palestine must play in the solution of the problem confront-
*This resolution is sometimes referred to as the Bfltmore Programme, as the

Conference at which it was first adopted was held at the Bfltmore Hotel in New York.
Ing the Jewish people. The Conference endorsed the resolution

adopted by the Inner Zionist Council in 1942, and also the resolu-
tion adopted by the Council on May 31, 1945, which laid down
that "the Jewish State will be based upon full equality of rights
of all inhabitants without distinction of religion or race in the
political,civic, religious, and national domains, without domina-

tion or subjection/' that "the Arabic language and Arab schools
will enjoy full State rights," and that "the Jewish people will aim
at cooperating with the Arabs in Palestine in order to attain the
in the interests of
highest degree of development of the country
all its inhabitants and will strive for an alliance of friendship
between the State and the Arab people in the neighbouring coun-
tries, basis of reciprocal relations and mutual assistance for
on the
the welfareand progress of all countries in the Middle East/* The
Conference adopted a declaration expressing regret and resent-
ment at the continuance of the White Paper, which had been
responsible for the loss of tens of thousands
of Jewish lives, recall-
ing that this document had met with the disapproval of the Man-
datesCommission of the League, and reaffirming the view of the
Jewish Agency, communicated at the time to the British Govern-
ment, that the White Paper is devoid of any moral or legal validity.
The specific requests of the Conference were defined in the fol-
lowing terms:
"The Conference proclaims its full endorsement of the fol-
lowing requests submitted by the Jewish Agency to His

Majesty's Government on May 22nd, 1945:
(a) That an immediate decision be announced to establish

Palestine as a Jewish State;
(b) That the Jewish Agency be vested with all necessary
authority to bring to Palestine as many Jews as it may

find it necessary and possible to settle, and to develop,
fully and speedily, all the resources of the country

especially land and power resources;
(c) That an international loan and other help be given

for the transfer of the first million Jews to Palestine,
and for the economic development of the country;
(d) That reparations in kind from Germany be granted to

the Jewish people for the upbuilding of Palestine, and
as a first instalment that all German property in
Palestine be used for the resettlement of Jews from
Europe;
(e) That international facilities be provided for the exit
and transit of all Jews who want to settle in Palestine.
The Conference begs to address an urgent appeal to His

Majesty's Government to implement these requests without
delay. It appeals to the principal Allies of His Majesty's
Government and to all the United Nations to give His Ma-
jesty's Government their full moral and material support

in the adoption and implementation of this policy."
The British Government responded to these requests on August

25th by offering the Jewish Agency merely 1,500 immigration
certificates a month on the basis of the White Paper, This offer
was rejected as ridiculously inadequate. The Jewish Agency had
previously applied to the Government for the immediate grant

of 100,000 certificates; and this request was strongly supported In
a letter to Mr. Attlee, the Prime Minister, by President Truman,
who had received a report on the conditions in Germany from his
personal representative, Mr. Earl Harrison, who urged the transfer
of most of the Jews in that country to Palestine.
It was generally expected that as soon as the war was over, the
White Paper would be abrogated, as it constituted a policy of
appeasement towards the Arabs, which it would no longer be

necessary to continue. This expectation was greatly increased
when a Labour Government was returned to power in Great
Britain in July, 1945, because the Labour Party, ever since the
end of 1917, had been a staunch supporter of the Balfour Declara-
tion and the Mandate. Indeed, no political party had been so
profuse in its sympathy with Zionist aspirations, or so vehement

in its denunciation of any violation of the Mandate* On more
than one occasion the Labour Party formulated demands in regard
to Palestine that went beyond the officially expressed wish at the
time of the Zionist Organisation or of the Jewish Agency. As far
back as December, 1917, it recommended that Palestine should
form "a Free State, under international guarantee, to which such
of the Jewish people as desired to do so may return, and may
work out their salvation free from interference by those of alien
race or religion." In December, 1944, at a Labour Party Confer-
ence, a resolution moved by Mr. Attlee, on behalf of the National
Executive, was adopted, that Jews should enter Palestine in such
numbers as to become a majority, that "the Arabs be encouraged
to move out as the
Jews move in/' and that the possibility of
should be examined.
extending the present Palestinian boundaries
This resolution was reaffirmed, on April 25th, 1945, by the Execu-
tiveCommittee of the Labour Party, who called upon the British
Government "to remove the present unjustifiable barriers on
immigration/* A month later, at
the Conference o the Labour
Whit Week, at Blackpool, the National Executive
Party during
committed themselves again, and more deeply than before. In
the reply to the debate made by Mr. Hugh Dalton (now Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer), he said that "it is morally wrong and
politicallyindefensible to restrict entry to Palestine of Jews desir-

ing to go there," that "there should
be close agreement and
cooperation between Britain, America, and Russia, particularly
if this can assure a settlement not only in Palestine but in sur-
rounding countries/' and that "if the settlement is to stand firm

and unshakable, it is indispensable that steps be taken to get
common support for policy giving a free, happy and prosperous
Jewish State in Palestine/*
Apart from these resolutions, most of the leading members of
the Labour Government had, before the General Election, dis-
of the Balfour Declara-
tinguished themselves as zealous upholders
tion and the Mandate and uncompromising opponents of any
measure that was a violation of either of those historic documents.
Nothing could surpass in eloquence or excel in arguments the
speeches with which they
belaboured the White Paper and its
author. Yet when they acquired the power to rescind it, they
continued to maintain it in all its rigour. This glaring contradic-
tion between the professions and pledges made by members of
the Labour Government when they were in opposition, and their
attitude after coming into power, is a cynical commentary upon
the reliability of politicians' promises. It cannot be justified on
the ground that the British Government has to consult other
Governments before scrapping the White Paper, for it adopted
this policy on its own sole responsibility and enforced it in the
face of the unanimous disapproval of the Mandates Commission.
The only manifest ground for continuing to apply this illegal
document is the attitude of the Arab States, which have been
encouraged by Britain to form a League, and which have jointly
and repeatedly demanded that Palestine should be constituted an
independent Arab State. The members of the British Cabinet
were fully aware of this attitude when they urged that the Jews
should have a state of their own; but now that the Arab States
threaten, Jewish requests are granted, to use the arms which
if
they kept idle during the war, they apparently find discretion the
better part of valour. But this discretion means a continuance of
the hardships and the agony of the many scores of thousands of
Jews on the Continent, who have been sustained during all the
weary months since their liberation from the Nazi barbarians
solely by the hope of being transferred to Palestine.
In consequence of the repeated representations made by the

Jewish Agency and numerous Jewish organisations in various
parts of the world to the British Government, and also as a result
of similar representationsmade by the Zionist Organisation of
America and other Jewish bodies to the United States Govern-
ment, a detailed statement was made, on November igth, 1945,
in the House of Commons by the Foreign Secretary, Mr. Ernest
Bevin. He reviewed the tragic situation of the Jews in Europe,
maintained that under the Mandate the Government had obliga-
tions to the Arabs as well as to the Jews, declared that the Jewish
problem could not be solved in Palestine alone, and stated that

the cause of the Palestinian Arabs had been espoused by the whole
Arab world and become a matter of keen interest to the Moslems
in India. In view of the world-wide interest of the question the
British Government had invited the United States Government
to cooperate with them in setting up a joint Anglo-American Com-
mittee of Inquiry to examine the question of European Jewry
and to make a further review of the Palestine problem in the light
of that examination, and the United States Government had ac-
cepted the invitation.
Mr. Bevin announced that the terms of
reference of the Committee of Inquiry would be as follows:
(1)
To examine economic, and social conditions
political,
in Palestine as they bear upon the problem of Jewish
immigration and settlement therein and the well-being
of the people living therein.
(2)
To examine the position of the Jews in those countries
in Europe where they have been the victims of Nazi and
Fascist persecution, and the practical measures taken or
contemplated to be taken in these countries to enable

them to live free from discrimination and oppression,
and to make estimates of those who wish or will be
g22 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
impelled by their conditions to immigrate to Palestine
or other countries outside Europe.
(3) To hear the view of competent witnesses and to consult

representative Arabs and Jews
on the problems of Pales-
tine as such problems are affected by conditions subject
to examination under paragraph i and paragraph 2
above and by other relevant facts and circumstances,
and to make recommendations to His Majesty's Govern-
ment and the Government of the United States for ad
interim handling of these problems as well as for their
permanent solution.
(4)
To make such other recommendations to His Majesty's
Government and the Government of the United States
as may be necessary to meet the immediate needs arising
from conditions subject to examination under para-
graph 2 above, by remedial action in the European
countries in question or by the provision of facilities
for emigration to and settlement in countries outside
Europe.
So far as Palestine was concerned, Mr. Bevin stated that the
British Government could not divest themselves of their duties
and responsibilities under the Mandate while the Mandate con-
tinued, and that they proposed, "in accordance with their pledges/'
to deal with the question in three stages. He announced that:
(i) They will consult the Arabs with a view to an arrange-

ment which will ensure that, pending the receipt of the
ad interim recommendations which the Committee of
Inquiry will make in the matter, there is no interrup-
tion of Jewish immigration at the present monthly rate
(i.
e. 1,500).
(ii)
After considering the ad interim recommendations of
the Committee of Inquiry, they will explore, with the
parties concerned, the possibility of devising other tem-
porary arrangements for dealing with the Palestine
problem until a permanent solution of it can be restated.
(iii) They will prepare a permanent solution for submission

to the United Nations and, if possible, an agreed one.
Mr. Bevin added that the course which the British Govern-
ment proposed to pursue in Palestine in the immediate future
"will in no way prejudice either the action to be taken on the
recommendations of the Committee of Inquiry or the terms of the
Trusteeship Agreement, which will supersede the existing Man-
date and will therefore control ultimate policy in regard to
Palestine.
A similar statement to the Foreign Secretary's was made on the

same day in Jerusalem, at Government House, to leaders of the
Jewish arxd Arab communities by Mr. J. W. Shaw, the officer
administering the Government of Palestine (pending the arrival
of the new High Commissioner, Lieutenant-General Sir Alan
Cunningham, the successor to Field-Marshall Lord Gort). The

profound shock of disappointment caused by this statement of
policy among the Jews in Palestine was manifested by the imme-
diate proclamation by the Vaad Leumi (National Council) of a
twelve hours' general strike as a symbol of protest. The sorrow
that it produced was shown by the observance of the following
day as a day of prayer and fasting. In Tel-Aviv the indignation

of the Jewish people found vent in mass demonstrations, culmin-
ating in attacks by irresponsible youths upon Government build-
ings, in which some lives were lost. And in many Jewish communi-
ties throughout the world, particularly among the Jews in the
camps in Germany, there were likewise impressive manifestations

of protest.
The policy set forth in the Government's statement was appar-

ently actuated partly by the wish to gain time and partly by the
desire to share with others in the future administration of Pales-
tine. It certainly cannot be justified by any ignorance of the con-
ditions and the wishes of the Jews in Germanythe people most
urgently concerned for these have already been carefully investi-
gated and reported upon by Mr. Earl Harrison, the personal

representative of President Truman, as well as by many other
inquirers. Nor can it be justified by ignorance of the political,
social, and economic conditions in Palestine, for these too are
very well known. On December loth, 1945, the composition of

the Anglo-American Committee was announced, consisting of six
British and six American members, with Mr. Justice Singleton
and Judge Joseph C. Hutcheson as the respective joint chairman.
The need for the utmost expedition was urged upon the Com-
mittee, who were requested to furnish their Governments with
their report within 120 days from the inception of the inquiry,
which began with a joint meeting in Washington on January
gth, 1946.
How many Jews would eventually be settled in Palestine cannot
be determined in advance with mathematical accuracy, any more
than anybody could have forecast that Tel-Aviv, which had only
2,000 Jews in 1914, would have nearly 200,000 thirty years later.
There are at present over half-a-million Jews living on about
12 per cent, of the cultivable soil (or on about 6 per cent, of the
total area) of Western Palestine, and if only a large scheme of
irrigation of the Jordan Valley
were carried out, if the hill districts
were ameliorated and terraced, if areas regarded as uncultivable
were reclaimed, and if agriculture in all parts were intensified,
then, apart from the unknown potentialities of the vast unin-
habited region of the Negev, experts are agreed that the present
extent of agricultural colonisation could be increased several times
over. There are, moreover, as the amazing progress made by
last twenty years has shown, enormous industrial
Jews in the
which are by no means dependent upon the raw
possibilities,
materials locally available; and whatever money may be needed
for large reconstruction schemes after the war could be provided,
apart from Jewish private capital and national funds, by inter-

national loans. Towards the end of the period of the Second
1
Temple Palestine had a population of five millions, and a leading

American expert on soil conservation, Dr. Walter Clay Lowder-
milk, who recently made a careful investigation of the soil of
Palestine and of the possibilities of its absorptive capacity, has
come to the conclusion that, if an extensive scheme for the
reclamation of the Jordan Valley were carried out, the country
could in time absorb four millions in addition to the present
3
population. There can therefore be little doubt that Palestine
could make a very substantial contribution to the solution of the
Jewish problem. This could not be accomplished all of a sudden,
or in a year or two: it represents a long-term programme, which,
given the necessary conditions, could certainly be carried out with
the united support of the Jewish people.
The Jewish question has engaged the attention of international
Government conferences on various occasions during the past
century and more, but it has been dealt with only in the form of
*Jean Juster, Les Juifs dans I'Empire Romain, Vol. I, p. 210
3
Dr. Lowdermilk's scheme is fully described in his book, Palestine: Land of
Promise.
piecemeal solutions and patchwork arrangements, which

have
proved but ephemeral. The greatest tragedy that has overwhelmed
the Jewish people since its dispersion calls for a more comprehen-
sive, more fundamental, and more durable solution one based
on historic justice and legitimate national aspirations, and not
only upon the principles of civil and political equality, which can
be abolished overnight. The remnant of Israel in Europe must
be saved, and the welfare of the largest number can be best
assured in their ancestral home.
It would be hazardous to forecast that this end will be achieved
as a result of the recommendations of the Anglo-American Com-
mittee of Inquiry. It will doubtless be some time before those
recommendations are formulated and published, and more time
will elapse before the United Nations Organisation adopts its deci-
sions on the question. But the people of Israel, throughout the
centuries of their dispersion and persecution, never lost hope, and
they will continue to hope and labour for the fulfillment of their
dreams in the land of their forefathers.
CHAPTER XX
ZIONISM IN THE UNITED STATES

by Bernard G. Richards
the vast horizons of America, the unrealized dreams and

UNDER ideals of the Old World were destined to have a new birth and
flowering, and pioneer settlers from England and Holland steeped
in the Bible and Hebraic traditions were bound to manifest their
spiritual kinship with
and share the hope of Israel. So it was that
leaders the Puritan fathers not only clung closely to the
among
Scriptures but studied and spoke the original language of the
Good Book, as did Governor Bradford of the Plymouth Colony,
Elder William Brewster, John Cotton and Richard Mather, who
in 1640 edited a translation of the Psalms made directly from the
Hebrew text.
Imbued by the spirit of Jewish teachings, early American lead-
ers ofthought were equally responsive to the hope of a restored
Zion. Anticipating a long and illustrious line of Presidents of the
1
Republic who were later to give their sanction to the Zionist
Movement, John Adams, second President of the United States
as early as1818 readily responded to the appeal of Major Mordecai
Manual Noah for Jewish national restoration in Palestine. "I
really wish the Jews again in Judaea, an independent nation/'
wrote Mr. Adams. And the romantic career of Major Noah, native
of the diplomat, orator, playwright, and the
soil, editor, politician,
first
great political Zionist to rise on this continent, is interspersed
with the names of many notable citizens of the land who were as
much by his bold conception of Jewish national rebirth
thrilled
as they were by his stirring dramas on the stage.
American interest in the fate and future of the Jews and their
relation to Palestine took further form even in the days before
the advent of modern Zionism when non-Jews like W. D. Robin-
son and Henry Jones manifested their interest in the plight of
homeless Jewry and Warder Cressen of Philadelphia, one-time
American Consul at Jerusalem, became not only an adherant of
the Jewish belief in national restoration but a convert to Judaism
itself, and attempted in 1850 to found a colony at Raphaim.
1
America and Palestine: Letters and Documents, edited by Reuben Fink. New
York: American Zionist Emergency Council, 1944.
On March 5, 1891, under the impact o the Russian pogroms,
the Rev. William E. Blackstone, a clergyman of national standing,
presented a Memorial to President Benjamin Harrison and Secre-
tary of State, James G. Elaine, petitioning that they use their good
offices and the influence of the United States for the holding of an
International Conference "to consider the Israelite claim to Pales-
tine as their ancient home and to promote in all other just and
proper ways, the alleviation of their suffering condition."
The signatories to this petition included not only outstanding
official personalities but also a long list of eminent leaders of
thought, heads of leading newspapers and press associations as
well as eminent representatives of business and leading professions.
The men occupying official positions included in the list were
MelvilleW. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States, Chauncey
M. Depew, United States Senator from New
York, Thomas B.
Reed, Speaker of the House of Representatives, Robert R. Hitt,
Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Sereno E.
Payne, Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, William
McKinley, Representative from Ohio (and later President of the
United States), William E. Russell, Governor of Massachusetts,
Hugh J. Grant, Mayor of NewYork, DeWitt C. Cregier, Mayor
of Chicago, N. Matthews, Jr., Mayor of Boston,
and a number of
other Members of Congress, Judges, State and Federal officials.
"The torch of Jewish nationalism dropped by Noah at his
death, now lay extinguished for several years. Before long, in a
strange quarter there arose a man who relighted it by the preach-
ing of nationalism and restoration. Raphael J. De Cordova, lay
preacher at Temple Emanu'el, New York, where
the sharpest
reaction against Zionism had taken place, spoke of a revival of
1
Jewish nationality."
De Cordova, who was born in Jamaica and came to New York
in 1848, and was later to figure as an outstanding editorial writer
and commentator of his time, did not thrive long in the citadel of
the opposition. After several seasons, his service as lay preacher
was discontinued.
Out of the soil of America, and detached from the surging emo-
tions of the great Jewish centers of the Old World, arose like Noah
and De Cordova, another gifted child of the Jewish people to sing
the songs of Zion and to plead for its restoration. Emma Lazarus
1
The Rise of the Jewish Community of New York, 1654-1860, by Hyman B.
Grinstein, Philadelphia, Jewish Publications Society of America, 1945.
(1849-1887) whose great message of hope and welcome to the
oppressed of all lands in an ode called "The New Collosus" was
to be emblazoned on the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty and
whose poetic and literary productions were to receive the admira-
tion and praise of the great literary figures of her day, came for-
ward at the time of the Russian outrages against the Jews, not
only to welcome and befriend the victims of Czarist oppression,
but also to proclaim the ideal of Jewish redemption in the form
'
of a restored nation in Palestine. Through her 'Banner of the
Jew/' "The Choice/ "The New Ezekiel," and other stirring

1
poems of Jewish revival, and especially through her "An Epistle

to the Hebrews/' she gave fervent and memorable expression to
the hope of Jewish national restoration.
The Hoveve Zion (Lovers of Zion) movement in
rise of the
Russia, soon found an echo on this side of the Atlantic and the
organization in 1882 of the first society to devote itself to the
resettlement of Zion is recorded by Dr. Joseph I. Bluestone/ a
leading spirit in this and subsequent Zionist undertakings. Aaron
Simcha Bernstein, editor of Hebrew weekly, Hatzofeh b'Eretz
ha Chadasha, was chosen president, and Dr. Bluestone, vice-presi-
dent, Asher L, Germansky, an east-side bookseller, treasurer, Alex-
ander Harkavy, later to be famed as Hebrew and Yiddish lexi-
cographer, secretary, and Joseph H. Cohen, financial secretary.
The ensuing trials and tribulations of Hibbat Zion in America, are
vividly described in Bluestone's reminiscences. The ultra-ortho-
dox- would have nothing to do with what seemed to them a coun-
travention of Messianic belief. The radicals and laborites had
nothing but scorn and ridicule for Bluestone and other Jewish
nationalists who merely sought to regenerate the Jewish people
when socialism heralded the early arrival of universal human
brotherhood and redemption for all humanity. Between these
divisions and the indifference of the large masses absorbed in the
immediate economic struggle of new immigrants to gain a foot-
hold in a strange land, the early pioneers here of Hibbat Zion, had
innumerable obstacles to contend with.
At one time there were two rival organizations, each one claim-
ing priority of position, but in 1884 they reached an agreement
and united under the name of Hebra Ohabe Zion. At that time
this society and other circles associated with Palestine charities
8
Unpublished Memoirs and Scrapbooks of Dr. Bluestone, summarized by Hyman
American Jewish Historical Society No. 35,
B. Grinstein, A.M. for Publications of
New York, 1939.
ZIONISM IN THE UNITED STATES 329
became very much exercised by the famous legacy of Simpson
Sampson, a New York community leader, bequeathing $50,000
to any local society interested in the Palestinian Yishuv. The
Hebra Ohabe Zion engaged counsel and sought to obtain that
fund in the face of a report that the ICA, (Jewish Colonization
Association) of France, was making a similar attempt. To the
dismay of the Lovers of Zion, the Charter of their Society was
found to be lacking in legal validity, but even with more explicity
atated objectives the society could not have won out against the
successful litigation of the Sampson family which prevented the
fund from being applied to Palestine.
Around the year 1890, Bluestone and his associates including
Rabbi Philip Klein, Rabbi Aaron Wise, father of Stephen S. Wise,
Rabbi H. Pereira Mendes, Rabbi M. S. Margolis, Hyman Aaron
Medalia, father of George Z. Medalia, Eliezer Bricker, Jerucham
Zevi Simpson, Mordecai Johalemson, and Dr. Moses Mintz,
Yiddish journalist and orator, later to figure as advocate of the
new Zionism, formed the Shovai Zion, an organization which
planned to settle its members in the Holy Land. Adam Rosenberg
who was afterward to be known as attorney-at-law, and Meyer
London, the east side Matzoth baker, were sent by the Society to
Palestine to purchase land for the group. The venture was not
satisfactory and for the time being the enterprise, which antici-
pated the Achooza land-purchasing groups of later years, fell by
the wayside. While studying medicine, Bluestone, a Hebrew
scholar, who on occasion wrote verse in the sacred tongue, de-
voted much time and energy to the Zion movement of the time.
In 1886 he edited Hoveve Zion, a supplement of the New York
Yiddisher Zeitung and in 1889, he published Shulamith, a weekly
Yiddish newspaper devoted to Palestinian colonization, the paper
having continued for nearly one year.
In 1896, the startling tidings of a new event came across the
seas and letters and newspaper articles from abroad revealed the
appearance of a book called "Der Judenstaat" (The Jewish State)

written by an unknown man called Dr. Theodor Herzl and pro-
claiming the rebirth of the Jewish nation. There were stirrings
of wonder and curiosity on the East Side of New
York, in the
Jewish settlements of other large cities,
and even in the more
distant up-town Manhattan. There the venerable Rabbi Gustave
Gottheil ofTemple Emanu-el called together a group of friends
and read to them with tense interest an account of Dr. HerzFs
appeal to the Jews of the world, published

in the London Jewish
Chronicle.
But the honor of forming the first society in response to this
1
call belongs not to New York but to Chicago. It was in that city,
late in the year, that Bernard Horwich and his brother Harris
who had visited Palestine and become entirely possessed by its
spirit assembled a group
of adherants of the national ideal and
discussed long and intensely, the question of forming a Zionist
society. There was in this gathering
of Jews entirely of Eastern
European origin, "one lone member of the German-Jewish group"

who rose said that he felt he was himself too old to live to
and
the day the great hope of Israel's national rebirth would be
when
realized, but that he was prepared to work for it until his last day
on earth. His words made a profound impression on the meeting.
The speaker was the reverend Rabbi Bernard Felsenthal, of the
Sinai Congregation, Chicago, a great pioneer of both Reform
Judaism and Zionism in America who as early as 1891 at the
time of Blackstone's petition to President Harrisonand again in
1893 wrote in American Jewish newspapers in favor of coloniza-
tion in Palestine and who afterward constantly corresponded with
the officers of the Zionist organization and assisted their work until
2
the end of his noble life. The meeting resulted in the establish-
ment of the Chicago Zionist Organization No. i (this name having
been chosen with the object of establishing such additional socie-
ties later.) Bernard Horwich was elected president, Wolf Sydofsky,
secretary, and Elias Epstein, treasurer. Among the other members

were Leon Zolotkoff, noted Yiddish journalist, Dr. A. P. Kadison
and Wolf Shure, publisher of a Hebrew paper. When later an-
nouncement was made of the calling of the first Zionist World
Congress, this group elected M. Zolotkoff as its delegate.
The echoes of the first stirrings of Zionist activities in the new
world have now reached the home of Dr. Herzl in Vienna
and
under date of May 23, 1897, the founder of the new movement
made this entry in his diaries:
"The movement is starting in America. Michael Singer, pub-
lisher of a new weekly Tolerance sends me reports of meetings in
New York. A conference of Rabbis headed by Dr. Gottheil de-
clared itself in favor of our movement. The New York Sun of
1
"My by Bernard Horwich-Chicago Argus Books, 1939.
First Eighty Years,"
2
Bernhard Felsenthal, Teacher in Israel, Selections from His Writings with
Biographical Sketch and Bibliography, by Emma Felsenthal. New York Oxford
University Press, 1924.
May loth, published an article on Zionism. When

I showed the
clipping to Benedict (Moritz B., one of the publishers of the Neue

Freie Presse which employed Dr. Herzl as correspondent abroad
and as literary editor, but which for years excluded all reference to
the Zionist movement), he good-naturedly remarked, "You are
1
driving the whole world crazy, a veritable Pied Piper of Hamlin.

the same date, he makes an additional entry, "de Haas
Under
writes that there is a desire in America that I come there for a
lecture tour." On February 25, 1901, Dr. Herzl writes a lengthy
2
letter to Prof. Richard Gottheil which in remarkably prophetic

spirit, anticipated undertakings in the United States of a
much
later period. He urged the American leader of the movement to
take steps that may bring about a discussion in the United States
House of Representatives and Senate of the difficulties which were
being experienced by Jews with regard to entering Palestine. The
the Turkish
question, he states, ought to be raised as to "whether
government has the right to prevent American citizens whether
Jews or Christians," from entering Palestine or to make any dis-
tinction between citizens. The time has come, he says to go to 7
President McKinley and to discuss this matter with him. He urges

Dr. Gottheil to consult with Dr. Cyrus Adler, Mr. Straus (Oscar
S.),
Mr. Sulzberger (Mayer) and Judge Rosenthal, (whose identity -
is not clear, but who may have been Judge Simon W. Rosendale,
of Albany, N. Y.
the impetus of the report of the publication of Der
Under
Judenstaat, and subsequent announcement of the impending
furtherance
holding of an international Jewish Congress for the
of the Zionist ideal, the first steps were taken in New York and
other cities to form Zionist societies, though outside of the associa-
tion that was formed in Chicago, the other bodies came too late to
be formally represented at the Congress. Nevertheless, several
at
outstanding American Jews took part in the first Congress
Basle, having attended to represent not so much formal organiza-
tions as prevailing sentiment, though Adam Rosenberg, on his
way back from a trip to Palestine, could be considered a represen-

tative of the Hoveve Zion. Associated with the early lovers of
Zion, was also Rabbi S. Schaffer of Baltimore and he, too, came
to Basle as did also Davis Trietsch, German writer and pioneer
Zionist who just before the Congress
was convened, for a time
1
Herzl's Tagebucher, Vol. I, p. 633.
a
Herzl's Tagebucher, Vol. I, p. 634.
sojourned in New York. Prof. Richard Gottheil, later to become
the head of the organized American Zionists, was invited as an
outstanding American Jew, and o course, Leon Zolotkoff, as
indicated before, represented the Chicago Zionist Society No, i.
After the first Congress, steps were taken to bring together into one
cohesive body the scattered Zionist societies of New York and
several other cities that had recently come into being, and a
convention of delegates held in New York in 1898 resulted in the
organization of the Federation of American Zionists with Prof.
Richard Gottheil as president and Dr. Stephen S. Wise as secre-
tary. Abraham Radin was elected treasurer. Later, the Hoveve
Zion which at first felt they had not been given sufficient recogni-
tionby the new body, became affiliated with the Federation.

During those early days, Dr. Bluestone put forth a plan for the
organization of a Jewish fraternal order identified with Zionist
purposes and several branches of such an order were formed in
New York and several cities outside. However, there was no
general agreement among Zionists about the desirability of fur-
thering such an undertaking and after a while, the project was

abandoned. Other differences of opinion arose later and the
strictly orthodox elements within
the movement which were asso-
ciated with the first Hoveve Zion activities, found sufficient
ground to secede from the Federation and form a rival organiza-
tion called the United Zionists of America, with Rabbi Philip
Klein as President. This was in 1901. Somewhat later, this body
sent Dr. Bluestone as a delegate to the Zionist Congress. Ulti-
mately the breach was healed and the Federation continued its
early pioneer activities without any challenge to its authority, the
additional or auxiliary bodies which took their places in the move-
ment later, such as the Order Sons of Zion, the Mizrachi, the
Poale Zion having been established with the approval and coop-
eration of the central Zionists. The revival of the plan for a
Zionist fraternal order for which there was already a prototype in
the Knights of Zion formed in Chicago in 1897 with Bernard Hor-
wich, Leon Zolotkoff and Max Shulman as its leading figures, now
received the full support of the Federation. The Order Sons of
Zion was established in 1910 through the efforts of Dr. Judah L.
Magnes and Joshua Sprayregen, who became its Mazkir or secre-
tary with Dr. J. L. Magnes as Nasi or grand master for the first
year, to be succeeded later by Dr. David Blaustein, Leon Zolot-
koff, Dr. I. J* Bluestone, Joseph Barondess and others.
Among the younger men destined to assume leadership who

came forward at the beginning of the movement or appeared at
somewhat later stages were Dr. Stephen S. Wise, Rabbi Max
Heller, Rabbi Max Raisin, Louis Lipsky, Dr. J. L. Magnes,
Maurice L. Avner, Pittsburgh, Israel B. Brodie, Baltimore, Senior
Abel, Louis Robison, Israel Matz and Jacob Fishman and Abba
Hillel Silver, who with his brother Maxwell Silver, as youngsters
of school age, founded the Dr. Herzl Zion Club in 1904 the year
of the passing of the great leader bringing together a striking
group of boys, which marked the beginning of Hebrew speaking

societies and anticipated work among the youth through Young
Judaea, which was established in 1909. Among the members of

this Club were Emanuel Neumann, Sol Cohen, George Sokolsky,
Barnett R. Brickner, Elieezer Sheinmark, Jesse Schwartz, David
W. Pearlman, Israel Chipkin, Reuben J. Holland and Reuben
Grossman. A youth group called Aids of Zion was formed in Phila-
C. David
delphia by Israel Herbert Levinthal, Louis Feinberg,
Matt, Joseph Kohn, David J. Gaiter and others in 1901. To this
the Nordau
period and class of youth organizations belongs
also
Zionist Club formed in 1905 by three school boys bearing the

names of Samuel Blitz, Morris Margulies and Charles Passman.
A society to promote the Hebrew language, Chevra Mefitse Sefat
Ever, was formed in 1901, among others, by Hyman J. Epstein,
A. S. Waldstein, and A. S. Schwartz and Morris Levin.
There are many more names of the early workers for the cause
which figure in the scattered and fragmentary records of our initial
activities and especially in the pages of our first official organ, the
was first issued in
monthly magazine, "The Maccabean" which
November, 1901, as a bi-lingual publication in English and Yid-
dish, under the direction of Louis Lipsky as managing editor,
with Professor Gottheil as leading contributor.
Dr. Gottheil was succeeded in the presidency of the organization

in 1904 by Dr. Harry Friedenwald of Baltimore, who retained
office until 1912 when Louis Lipsky who had
been assuming a
the labors and in the movement became
larger share of leadership
chairman of the Executive Committee. After serving for one
Dr. Wise was followed as secretary by Isadore D. Morrison
year,
who in 1902 gave way to Jacob de Haas upon the latter's arrival
close association with
here from England, where he had worked in
Dr. Herzl. When after two years, de Haas relinquished his duties
and moved to Boston, the office of Secretary was filled by Dr.
Judah L. Magnes. On assuming duties as
Rabbi of Temple
Emanu El and as chairman of the New York Kehilla, Dr. Magnes
withdrew from his office in the Federation and was succeeded by
Rabbi Joseph Jasin of Texas, who served for two years and gave
way to Miss Henrietta Szold. By that time the movement had
grown sufficiently to enlarge its official press and in 1909 "Dos
Yiddische Folk" was established as a Yiddish weekly with Senior
Abel as editor, a position afterward held for a number of years
by Abraham Goldberg. This period coincided with the Order
Sons of Zion as a fraternal insurance association, becoming a more
active factor in the movement and with the creation in 1907 of
Young Judaea as a junior department of the Federation and with

the establishment in 1912 of Hadassah, the Women's Zionist
Organization, conceived and
nurtured with matchless devotion by
Miss Henrietta Szold. The movement gradually grew, not only
in size but in the diversity and multiform character of a truly
national revival as it gave expression to various shades of Jewish
belief and thought through the organization of the Poale Zion
or labor organization in 1905 and the Mizrachi organization,
representing the more positive religious elements, 1911. The
American branch of the Jewish National Fund was established
in 1910.
II
The United States had an estimated Jewish population of
1,045,555 in 1901, and 1,777,185 in 1910. Judaism was still largely

confined to its narrower requirements of synagogue attendance and
of giving alms to the poor. The early settlers of German origin or
Reform affiliation kept aloof from the new arrivals from Eastern
Europe, only emerging from their exclusive circles to administer
charity or to condescendingly offer Americanization or enlighten-
ment to their immigrant breatheren; these bewildered strangers
largely peddlers, small traders and sweat-shop workers, were
deeply immersed in their daily tasks of earning a livelihood.
Under these circumstances and throughout a longer period of
adjustment and resettlement, with non-Zionist or anti-Zionist ex-

ponents of Judaism holding the key positions in the community
and giving the tone to Jewish life, the Jewish national ideal made
but slow progress in those early years of the movement, adherants
of the cause being chiefly confined to the so-called East Side or
down-town elements of our people. These devoted bands and
the members of the small pioneer societies, like the Ohev Zion
and Hatechya of New York, the Ezras Hoveve Zion of Baltimore,
the Dorshe Zion of Boston, the Bnai Zion Alliance of Norfolk,
the Tiphereth Zion Society of Pittsburgh and similar associations
in other cities, stood steadfast in their convictions, and there were
choice spirits scattered throughout the country who as guides and
spokesmen bravely held aloft the banner of Zion.
The rank and file membership was for many years sup-
of the
plied by the Jews of Eastern European origin,

but one of the
compensations for the long indifference of the Jews from the West
was that thev furnished a preponderant number of men of leader-
ship who from the first gave direction and a certain communal
authority to the movement. There were the Gottheils, both father
and son, and the joint presence on a Zionist platform of Rabbi
Gustav Gottheil of Temple Emanuel, premier Reform congrega-
tion of New York, and Richard J. H. Gottheil, Professor of Semitic
Languages at Columbia University, gave the eloquent and intrepid

Yiddish orator, the Reverend Hirsch MasHansky, a theme in itself
for a glowing Zionist oration, Rabbi Bernhard Felsenthal of Chi-
cago, Rabbi Benjamin Szold of Baltimore, Dr. Aaron Frieden-

wald and Dr. Harry Friedenwal*, of Baltimore, again father and
son, as we have once more in the case of Rabbi Aaron Wise and
Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, both among the pathfinders of the move-
ment in America. In Miss Henrietta Szold we have a distinguished
daughter following the footsteps of her father,
Rabbi Szold, an
scholar and teacher in Israel. There were men like
outstanding
Rabbi H. Pereira Mendes of the Congregation Shearith Israel,
the oldest congregation in New York, Rabbi B. L. Levinthal of
Philadelphia; Rabbi Adolph Radin, preacher, and the predecessor
of Rev. Masliansky at the People's Synagogue of the Educational
Alliance, East Side of York; Herman Rosenthal, and scholars
New
like Dr. Marcus Jastrowof Philadelphia; Dr. Caspar Levias of the
Eisenstein of New York,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati; J. D.
founder and editor of Ozer Israel, Hebrew Encyclopedia; William
Schur, editor of the Hebrew paper, Hapisgah; and Louis M.
Dem-
bitz of Louisville and other men of their type, such as Prof. Israel
Friedlaender; Prof. Louis Ginzberg; Professor Mordecai M. Kap-

lan and Professor Israel Davidson, who appeared on the scene at
a later time, lent weight and influence to the struggling movement.
the fourth annual convention of
Standing out of the record of
the Federation, June 16, 1901, at Philadelphia, are the following
names of the heads oi committees: J. H. Greenstone, Rev. Henry
S. Morals, Marcus Klein, William Morris, Gabriel H. Meyer, all
of Philadelphia; Henry Iliowizi, Joseph Seff, Abraham Radin,
New York; George Tunkel, Atlanta; S. D. Solomon, Syracuse;
A. S. Waldstein, Boston; Leon Zolotkoff, Chicago; A. J. Leon,
B. Weinberg,
Minneapolis, Paul Harmel, Washington, Isaac
Baltimore, Isaac Allen, Nathan Chazan, Joseph Barondess,
Joshua Bloch, Michael Salit and a host of others to whom only a

full history could do justice, rendered yeoman service in those early
days.
Preceded by his great reputation as a Hebrew scholar, Prof.
Solomon Schechter, reader in Rabbinics at the Cambridge Uni-
versity, England, coming to the United States in 1902 to become
President of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, pro-
vided our community with a new moral and intellectual force for
a positive Jewish outlook. His espousal of the Zionism in the days
when the cause was battling against odds served to disarm much
of the opposition and to enhance the standing of the movement.
His appearance some of our public gatherings and especially
at
his presence in 1906 at one of the two idyllic Zionist conventions
in Tannerville, New York, where in the open-air gatherings Jew-
ish songs and slogans echoed through the mountain-topsserved
to inspire a rising generation of aspiring young Jewish people in
search of an ideal. [Naphtali Hertz Imber, eccentric and pictur-
esque author of the Jewish national anthem Hatikvah hovering in
the wings of convention platforms and corridors and suddenly
emerging to receive and bask in the acclaim, whenever the assem-
bly burst into the singing of his hymn furnished a memorable
scene that remained vivid through the passing years.]
Jacob H. Schiff, a trustee of the Jewish Theological Seminary

who in 1908 challenged the public utterances of Dr. Schechter on
the ground of divided loyalty, on January 16, 1920, in the columns
of our official Zionist organ, appealed to American Jewry to unite
for the upbuilding of Palestine.
To give additional character to the personnel make-up of the
Movement, came Abraham Eliahu Lubarsky to represent here not
only merely the commercial interests of the famous Hoveve Zion
family of Wissotsky, but also as the intimate friend of Achaad
Haam, Chaim Nachman Bialik, I. Ch. Ravnitzky, and A. L. Levin-
sky, to herald the advent of the new Hebrew culture of the time.
E. W. Lewin-Epstein, merchant and scholar enhanced the Zionist
circle with both the traditions of European Hebrew culture and
the glamour of early pioneering in Palestine where he was one of
the founders of the Colony of Rechovoth. Boris Katzmann, em-
bodying the militant spirit of the fighting students organization,
Kadimah, in Vienna, and further imbued by the atmosphere of
the First Congress in Basle, arrived to stimulate and to stirr to
action a group of the younger men like Horace M. Kallen, Charles
Cowen, Hyman R. Segal, Israel Goldberg, Dr. Samuel Joseph,
Sundel Doniger, Elisha M. Friedman, and others. Dr. Nathan
Birnbaum of Vienna, who had coined the name of Zionism, ar-
rived here to lecture at a somewhat later date and while he was no
longer closely associated with the leaders of the movement in
Europe, of which he was one of the pioneers, his addresses here
did much to encourage the nationalist elements.
Dr. Ignatz Zollschan, the anthropologist and Dr. Franz Oppen-
heimer, sociologist, were among the other distinguished visitors,
and their scholarly and scientific attainments served to strengthen
the foundation of the Zionist position. Rubin Brainin, the noted
Hebrew writer and editor exerted an influence on both the spread
of the Hebrew language and the advancement of Zionism in the
United States. Dr. Simon Bernstein, joining American Zionist
forces in 1921, brought us the benefit of his knowledge and experi-
ence gained in many years of association with the work of the
World Zionist Organization in several European capitals.
With the outbreak of the World War endangering the safety of
the Jewish communities of Europe and immediately disrupting
the operations of the World Zionist Organization, a new and
gloomy outlook presented itself. It soon became clear that the
center of Zionist activities would have to be shifted to America.
Nahum Sokolow had come to the United States in behalf of the
World Zionist Organization in 1912. His reception by prominent
government officials, his powerful addresses in a number of large
cities, especially his appearance before several large Reform
and
congregations, which his fame as a scholar and Hebrew writer
made possible, left
on Jewish public
a perceptible impression
opinion vis-a-vis Now,

Zionism. two years later, Schmarya Levin
was with us for the third time, enhancing the powerful influence
he had exerted upon American Jewry first in 1906 when after
the disbanding of the Russian Duma and the signing the protesting
Viborg Manifesto, he came here, and from the platform of a great
New York mass meeting together with Jacob H. Schiff and other
eminent men, fiercely denounced the Czarist persecutions of the
Jews, and second, when he arrived here in 1908 in the interest of
the Hebrew Technical Institute in Haifa for which, with the
special support of Jacob H. Schiff, he obtained substantial non-

Zionist support. The visit here of 1914 was made chiefly in the
interest of Zionism itself and his addresses in a number of cities
reenforced the favorable sentiment that was aroused by Mr.
Sokolow and extended the contacts with wider circles of our peo-
ple. Dr. Levin had already sailed for Europe when the war broke
out and his boat returned from mid-ocean to our shores.
Recognizing the sudden and serious crisis which had overtaken

Jewry and the Zionist movement, he promptly persuaded the
American Zionists to join him in taking immediate steps to meet
the situation. Under date of July 23, 1914, Dr. Levin in behalf
of the Actions Committee of the General Zionist Organization
and Louis Lipsky, in behalf of the Federation of American Zion-
ists, issued a call to "an extraordinary conference of representative
Zionists" that was to be held at the Hotel Marseilles, New York

City, on Sunday, August goth.
These sessions lasting all day and evening, resulted in the organ-
ization of the Emergency Executive Committee for General
Zionist Affairs, and the adoption of plans to maintain the integrity
of the World Zionist movement and to rescue the Yishuv from
disintegration. This conference, marking the beginning of a
greater Zionist movement for the United States also signalized the
appearance of a new leader in the person of Louis Dembitz Bran-
deis of Boston who assumed the
chairmanship of the Committee.
On the basis of some public utterance sympathetic to Zionism
made by Mr. Brandeis, perhaps before the Menorah Association
in Cambridge, the present writer had previously
corresponded
with him and in November, 1911, invited the distinguished Bos-
ton attorney to address a meeting that was to be held to observe
the tenth anniversary of the founding of The Maccabean. Mr.
Brandeis could not come to the meeting, but he sent to the
writer a letter for the meeting and a check for $25.00 for the
Federation, his first contribution to the Zionist cause. In 1912,
Mr. Brandeis conferred with Mr. Sokolow both in Boston and
New York, where an economic corporation for Palestine was
tentatively considered and where about a month later Mr. Bran-
deis attended and spoke briefly at a farewell dinner to Mr. Soko-
low. Jacob de Haas who had been away from the center of Zionist
activities tot anumber of years and was editing a Jewish weekly
newspaper, "The Jewish Advocate" in Boston, at about this time
utilized an
opportunity to acquaint Mr. Brandeis with various
aspects of the Zionist movement and with the vital
Jewish issues
ot the time. He
subsequently became the close and trusted lieu-
tenant of the new leader.
In accepting the chairmanship of the Provisional Committee,
Mr. Brandeis assumed responsibility not
only for the future for-
tunes of American Zionism but also for a
leadership which vir-
tually involved a trusteeship for the world movement and for the
Zionist institutions in Palestine. He threw himself into the work
with characteristic vigor and thoroughness,
carrying on a heavy
correspondence from his office in Boston, making constant trips
to attend meetings in New York and to fill
speaking engagements
in other cities, His
comprehensive and penetrating addresses and
public statements on Zionism, the Jewish question, the American
Jewish Congress issue/ imparted a fresh and vigorous note to the
current literature of the day.
Under the new leadership coming at an extraordinary time
and
fitting into the conditions ofan expanded Jewish community,
the Zionist Organization made great strides forward both in its
membership and in financial resources which increased far beyond

any previous figures. The organization attracted men of prestige
like FelixFrankfurter, Bernard Flexner, Louis E. KIrstein,
Mrs. Mary Fels, Nathan Straus, and also larger
support from
among the masses. Steadily gaining in political influence, which
was partly advanced through Zionist participation in the organi-
zation of the American Jewish Congress, 1916-17, the
organization,
through the sympathy of President Wilson won by Mr. Brandeis
and Dr. Wise, played a which led to the
decisive role in the events
issuance ot the Balfour Declaration in 1917 and the award of the
Palestine Mandate to Great Britain. After Mr. Brandeis' appoint-
ment to the Supreme Court in 1916, he necessarily discontinued
his active leadership of the Provisional Committee, but still gave
it his full guidance and close attention.
Ceasing to appear in public
and to take frequent part in meetings of the organization, he
acted through committees and through associates who represented
his polnt-of-view. The Provisional Committee which was made
up of representatives from all the Zionist parties (as is the case

of the present American Zionist Emergency Council) was dissolved
1
"Louis D. Brandeis," Jacob de Haas, Bloch Publishing Company, New York, 1929.
in 1916 with the withdrawal of the Poale Zion and the Mizrachi.
At its convention held in Pittsburgh in 1918, the Federation of
American Zionists merged all its branches into the Zionist Or-
ganization of America (A.O.A.), establishing as its basis individual
units or districts. Justice
membership divided up int<5 territorial
Brandeis was elected honorary president; Judge Julian W. Mack,

president; Stephen S.
Wise and Harry Friedenwald, vice-presi-
dents; Jacob de Haas, executive secretary; Louis Lipsky, secre-
tary for organization; Henrietta Szold, secretary for education;
and E. W. Le win-Epstein, treasurer, all of these officers having
previously been active in
the emergency activities of the Provi-
sional Committee.
Among other important decisions, this Convention adopted a
resolution relating to the social and economic aspects in the re-
building of Palestine, which has since become known as the Pitts-
burgh Platform. It is given as an appendix to this volume.
With Movement, our literary and publi-
the expansion of the
cation activitieswere extended and beginning in 1919, our
monthly official organ, The Maccabean* was at first supplemented
and then replaced by the New Palestine which through the years
was successively edited by Israel Goldberg, Marvin Lowenthal,
A. H. Fromenson, Meyer W. Weisgal and Samuel Caplan, Mr.
Lipsky being throughout its most prolific contributor, with Jacob
de Haas, Rabbi Max Heller, B. G. Richards, Hyman R. Segal,
Jessie E. Sampter and Miss Henrietta Szold among the many other
frequent writers for the paper.
The Brandeis administration went out of office at the Cleveland
convention of 1921 under circumstances which have already been
alluded to in the main body of this book and which involved
certain serious differences as to policy between Mr. Brandeis and
Dr. Chaim Weizmann, head of the World Zionist Organization,
this conflict of opinion affecting also the question of authority
in the relations between the World Zionist Organization and the
Zionist Organization of America. Mr. Brandeis had visited Pales-
tine at the conclusion of the war in 1919 and his observations
there strengthened him in certain views as to the economic factors
in the upbuilding of the country. These views which were later
to be the chief issues at the Cleveland convention were consid-
ered at an International Zionist Conference held in London in
1920, which Mr. Brandeis attended as the head of an outstanding
delegation from the United States. Stressing concentration on
economic activities with special emphasis on private investments
in Palestine and opposing the projected establishment of the Keren
Hayesod or Palestine Foundation Fund, which was to be an all-
inclusive to be made up in part of donations and in part of
fund
investments, the attitude of the American delegation ran counter
to the views of Dr. Weizmann and the World Zionist Organiza-
tion. The Conference might have found a solution of the prob-
lem by Mr. Brandeis' acceptance of world leadership which was
then offered him. This he declined on the ground of his duties
to his official position and particularly to the liberal elements in
the United States whose views he represented in that office.
This conflict of opinion reached its climax at the Cleveland
Convention held after the Weizmann-Ussishkin-Levin delegation
had come here and set up an American office for the Keren Haye-
sod with the aid of the opposition to the American administration
in charge. The delegates to the convention having refused to
sustain the position of the officers of the administration, Mr.
Brandeis, Judge Mack and their colleagues submitted a statement
withdrawing from all responsibility.
This split actuated by strong convictions on both sides and
involving a wrench in each group from feelings of high regard
and affection for the leadership, caused much regret and cast a
shadow of gloom over the movement. But the rift after a while
brought a certain amount of compensation in that each of the
separating groups concentrated on advancing the
work which
held for the strongest appeal. The so-called Brandeis-Mack
it
group shortly thereafter established the Palestine Development

Council leading to several other economic activities for the fur-
therance of industrial enterprises in Palestine. On the other
hand, the opposition which now became the administration, ac-
centuated its efforts to arouse and stir the masses to greater zeal
and sacrifices for the cause. Mr. Lipsky, who as a member of the
administration had previously resigned to take a leading part in
the opposition, now became a dominant figure in the group which
emerged out of the Cleveland deliberations.
The Cleveland Convention set up a collegium or administra-
tion which included in addition to Lipsky, Abraham Goldberg,
Morris Rothenberg, Emanuel Neumann, Bernard A. Rosenblatt,
Herman Conheim, Louis Topkis and Peter J. Schweitzer. From
then on until 1930, Lipsky continued to be the outstanding worker
and spokesman for the organization. The administration took
advantage of the new opportunities for the movement which
presented themselves in the work of Zionist education, and of
spreading our political influence, which was constantly extended.
The Keren Hayesod was established on a firm basis and the funds
raised by it America became the principal support of the Pales-
in
tine budget. Among other significant economic undertakings of
the time was the successful floating in America of the Tel Aviv
Bond issue, the first Jewish Bond, (municipal or national) in all
history, approved by Sir Herbert Samuel in 1922 and completely
subscribed to through the efforts of Judge Bernard A. Rosenblatt,
who also had a large share in the activities of the American Zion
Commonwealth, as land purchasing corporation. After a while,
several members of the Brandeis-Mack group, notably Judge Mack
himself, Dr. Stephen S. Wise, and Dr. Abba Hillel Silver resumed
active work for Zionism, and supported the Keren Hayesod.
Through by the Zionists of New England under

efforts initiated
the leadership of Elihu D. Stone of Boston, a political success
was achieved by the organization when the Congress of the
United States adopted a joint resolution, approved by President
Warren G. Harding on September 22, 1922, endorsing the pur-
poses of the Balfour Declaration.
Subsequently, the movement experienced certain set-backs oc-
casioned by the Arab riots in Palestine of 1929, coming on the
heels of a serious economic crisis in the Yishuv. The depressing
effect of these circumstances heightened the demand, previously
made manifest on several occasions, for unity within the Zionist
movement. In response to this demand and in order to bring
about a reunion of all Zionist forces, the Cleveland Convention
of 1930 laid the ground for the full return of the Brandeis-Mack
group. Mr. Lipsky having declined to continue as President, the

Convention elected an Executive of eighteen persons to constitute
the administration, with a predominance of the Brandeis-Mack
group in its membership. Later, Robert Szold was named as
Chairman of the administration. He continued in office until
1932 when Morris Rothenberg was elected President. Rothenberg
served for four years during which, among the other achievements,
the membership was greatly increased through thê energetic
efforts of the secretary, Morris Margulies. In 1936, Dr. Wise was
elected president. A constitutional provision limited the term of
office and Dr. Wise was followed in 1938 by Dr.
to two years
Solomon Goldman of Chicago, then by Edmund I. Kaufmann of
Washington, who held office for one year. He was followed in
office in 1941 by Judge Louis E. Levinthal of Philadelphia. Judge
Levinthal was succeeded by Rabbi Israel Goldstein who served
for two years until 1945 when the present president, Dr. Abba
Hillel Silver was elected.
Under the successive, active and vigorous administrations of
allthese officers, many important achievements were gained in
spreading the Zionist ideal and enlarging the membership which
at the beginning of 1946 amounted to 160,000 and in correspond-
ing influence of the organization politically and otherwise Edu-.
cational projects introduced first under the leadership of Judge

Levinthal and then sponsored by Dr. Goldstein culminated in
the publication of a number of books by the Z.O.A. which greatly
enriched the store of Zionist literature. A
further advance of the
political aims of Zionism, giving them complete and ultimate
form, expressed itself in the adoption of a resolution of the extra-
ordinary Zionist conference held in May 1943, which has come
to be known as the Biltmore Platform, formulated* under the
presidency of Judge Levinthal. It is printed elsewhere in this

volume.
When thewar broke out in 1939, Dr. Weizmann authorized the
American form an agency similar to one which func-
Zionists to
tioned for a number of years from 1914 to further the political
purposes of the organization. This led to the formation of the
American Emergency Committee for Zionist Affairs, made up of
representatives from the various Zionist parties and organizations
and ultimately taking the form of the American Zionist Emer-
gency Council, presided over jointly by Dr. Stephen S. Wise and
Dr. Abba Hillel Silver.
As one of the important achievements in the field of political
work, the Emergency Council was able to record the adoption
of a resolution by the United States Congress on December 20,
1945, endorsing Jewish aims in Palestine and which is
in part as
follows:
"WHEREAS the President and the British Prime Minister

have agreed upon the appointment of a "Joint Anglo-Ameri-
can Committee of Enquiry" to examine conditions in Pales-
tine as they bear upon the problems of Jewish immigration
and the Jewish situation in Europe and have requested a
be
report within one hundred and twenty days: Therefore
it
RESOLVED by the Senate (the House of Representatives

concurring) that the Interest shown by

the President in the
solution of this problem is hereby commended and the
United States shall use its good offices with the mandatory
to the end that Palestine shall be opened for free
power
to the maximum of its agri-
entry of Jews into that country
cultural and economic potentialities, and that there shall be
full opportunity for colonization and development, so that
they may freely proceed

with the upbuilding of Palestine as
the Jewish national home and, in association with all ele-
ments of the population, establish Palestine as a democratic
commonwealth in which all men, regardless of race or creed,
shall have equal rights/'
In the course of the years, with their enforcement of the

somber lessons of history, two World Wars within one-quarter
of a century accentuating the anomolous and tragic position of
the Jews of the world, all elements of American Jewry have be-
come imbued with the potent force and redeeming qualities of
Zionism. Not only as a means of the preservation of Judaism and
its cultural and heritage, but as an assurance of the
spiritual
bodily survival of Israel, brought to the brink of utter destruction
and with ruthless brutality decimated in the Nazi holocaust. One
of the many manifestations of the complete change of attitude on
the part of a section of the religious leadership of American
which was to Zionism, was the adoption
formerly opposed
Jewry
of a resolution in 1943 by the Central Conference of American
Rabbis that Zionism and Reform Judaism are definitely compati-
ble. This altered attitude is further illustrated by the friendly
interestwhich the Union of American Hebrew Congregations
manifested in the work of upbuilding Palestine on several occa-
sions. At its convention held in Columbus, Ohio, in 1937, it
adopted a resolution which is in part

as follows:
M
"In lands where our people live, they assume and seek to
all
share loyally the full duties and responsibilities of citizenship and

to create seats of knowledge and religion. In the rehabili-
Jewish
tation of Palestine, the land hallowed by memories and hopes, we
behold the promise of renewed life for many of our brethren.
We affirm the obligation of all Jewry to aid in its upbuilding
as
a homeland to make it not only a haven or

Jewish by endeavoring
center of Jewish culture and
refuge for the oppressed but also a
spiritual life.
The Union has since given further consideration to the question
of Palestine especially in connection with its participation in the
American Jewish Conference of which it continues to be a mem-
ber. In his report to the Convention of the Union in February,
1946, Dr. -Maurice N. Eisendrath, Executive Director, declared
that the organization had "boldly and forthrightly disassociated
itself from dogmatic anti-Zionism." It was in this spirit that the
Union confirming an earlier decision took a position of neutral-
ity, leaving it to the option of constitent congregations to define

their position on Zionism.
While making certain reservations with regard to the political
implications of Zionism, some other national organizations have

shared with the Zionists the general hope for the upbuilding of
Palestine and encouraged the growth of a distinctive and whole-
some Jewish life in the land of the Fathers. Outstanding among
these was the American Jewish Committee which, like the Cen-
tral Conference of American Rabbis, greeted with enthusiasm,
the Balfour Declaration in 1917, and subsequently manifested a
genuine concern in the advancement of Jewish resettlement in
Palestine. This has been expressed in several different ways by
opposition to the British White Paper and by a demand for a

free flow of Jewish immigration into Palestine especially in the
light of the tragic plight which World War II brought upon the
Jews of Europe.
During a considerable period of his distinguished career, the
late Louis Marshall, one of the founders and for many years
President of the American Jewish Committee, eminent in the
public life of the country and in Jewish communal affairs,
evinced a marked interest in Palestinian cultural and industrial
enterprises, this interest dating back to his association in 1910-11
with Jacob H. Schiff in furthering the plan for the Hebrew Tech-
nical Institute in Haifa. As one of the delegates from the Amer-
ican Jewish Congress to the Peace Conference of Versailles, 1919,
he took an active part in formulating and presenting to that
Conference, the Jewish demands for group rights in Eastern
Europe and for Palestine as the Jewish National Homeland. At
a later period, Mr. Marshall labored arduously in collaboration
with Dr. Chaim Weizmann for several years to establish the Jewish
Agency of Palestine which was formed at the Conference of rep-
resentatives from world Jewry at Zurich, Switzerland, in 1929,
the great American Jewish leader having passed away at the con-
elusion of the sessions that witnessed his final public achievement.
While the Central Conference of American Rabbis assured
American Jewry that there is no conflict of ideology between
Reform Judaism and Zionism, the other Rabbinical associations
like the Rabbinical Assembly of America and the Union of Ortho-
dox Rabbis of America, went further to impress upon all Jews
their obligation to actively support the upbuilding of the Jewish
Commonwealth. The largest number of rabbis in the United
States, associatedwith congregations of every point-of-view are
participating in work for Zionism or Palestine, of one type or
another, and symbolizing the attitude of nearly all religious, edu-
cational and cultural institutions in the United States, the tasks
of which have been enhanced by the Hebrew renaissance of litera-
ture, scholarship and art in Palestine, the four outstanding theo-
logical seminaries, faculties, students, and members may now be
listed on the side of a restored Jewish Palestine. The overwhelm-
ing sentiment of Jews making up the many scattered communities

throughout the country, has as indicated before, been voiced by
the American Jewish Congress in 1918 and, in keeping with the
fateful events of the time, more distinctly and emphatically by
the American Jewish Conference of 1943. The extensive and
diversified Jewish press of America published in different cities
and in several languages, has given almost unanimous support to
Zionist strivings. Add to this the impartial Roper Poll of Novem-
ber, 1945, showing that practically 90 per cent, of American Jews
favored a Jewish Commonwealth in Palestine, and the doubts to
which the remaining and dwindling opponents still cling, vanish
into thin air. Fortified by the regenerative power of Zion and a
positive behalf in the future of Israel, American Jews stand firm
in their support of the Zionist movement now more closely
linked with mankind's great hope for a free and just new world.
APPENDIX I
THE FEISAL-WEIZMANN AGREEMENT

OF JANUARY gRD, 1919
TTis ROYAL HIGHNESS THE EMIR FEISAL, representing and acting

-" on behalf ofArab Kingdom of Hedjaz, and DR. CHAIM
the
WEIZMANN, representing and acting on behalf of the Zionist
Organisation,
mindful of the racial kinship and ancient bonds existing be-
tween the Arabs and the Jewish people and realising that the
surest means of working out the consummation of their national
aspirations is
through the closest possible collaboration in the
development of the Arab State and Palestine, and being
desirous further of confirming the good understanding which
exists between them,
have agreed upon the following Articles:
ARTICLE I
The Arab State and Palestine in all their relations and under-
takings shall be controlled by the most cordial goodwill and
understanding, and to this end Arab and Jewish duly accredited
agents shall be established and maintained in the respective
territories.
ARTICLE II
Immediately following the completion of the deliberations of

the Peace Conference, the definite boundaries between the Arab
Stateand Palestine shall be determined by a Commission to be
agreed upon by the parties hereto.
ARTICLE in
In the establishment of the Constitution and Administration
ot Palestine all such measures shall be adopted as will afford the
fullest guarantees for carrying into effect the British Government's
Declaration of November 2nd, 1917.
ARTICLE rv
All necessary measures shall be taken to encourage and stimu-
lateimmigration of Jews into Palestine on a large scale, and as
quickly as possible to settle Jewish immigrants upon the land
through closer settlement and intensive cultivation of the soil. In
taking such measures the Arab peasant and tenant farmers shall
be protected in their rights, and shall be assisted in forwarding
their economic development.
ARTICLE V
No regulation nor law shall be made prohibiting or interfering
in any way with the free exercise of religion; and, further, the free
exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship with-
out discrimination or preference shall for ever be allowed. No
religious test shall ever be required for the exercise of civil and
political rights.
ARTICLE VI
The Mohammedan Holy Places shall be under Mohammedan
control.
ARTICLE VII
The Zionist Organisation proposes to send to Palestine a Com-

mission of experts to make a survey of the economic possibilities
ot the country, and to report upon the best means for its develop-
ment. The Zionist Organisation will place the aforementioned
Commission at the disposal of the Arab State for the purpose of
a survey of the economic possibilities of the Arab State and to
report upon the best means for its development. The Zionist
Organisation will use its best efforts to assist the Arab State in
providing the means for developing the natural resources and
economic possibilities thereof.
ARTICLE VIII
The parties hereto agree to act in complete accord and harmony

on all matters embraced herein before the Peace Congress.
ARTICLE IX
Any matters of dispute which may arise between the contracting
parties shall be referred to the British Government for arbitration.
Given under our hand at
London, England, the

third day of January,
One Thousand Nine CHAIM WEIZMANN.
Hundred and Nineteen, FEISAL IBN HUSSEIN.
(Translation from the Arabic.)

RESERVATION BY THE EMIR FEISAL:
If the Arabs are established as I have asked in my manifesto of
January 4th addressed to the British Secretary of State for Foreign

Affairs, I will carry out what is written in this agreement.
If changes are made, I cannot be answerable for failing to
carry out this agreement.

APPENDIX II
MANDATE FOR PALESTINE

Council of the
League of Nations:
THE Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have agreed, for the
purpose of giving effect to the provisions of Article 22 of the
Covenant of the League of Nations, to entrust to a
Mandatory
selected by the said Powers the administration of the
territory of
which formerly belonged to the Turkish Empire, within
Palestine,
such boundaries as may be fixed by them; and
Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the
Mandatory should be responsible for putting into effect the
declaration originally made on November 2nd, 1917,
by the
Government of His Britannic Majesty, and adopted by the said
Powers, in favour of the establishment in Palestine of a national
home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that
nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and

religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine,
or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in
any other
country; and
Whereas recognition has thereby been given to the historical
connection of the Jewish people with Palestine and to the grounds
for reconstituting their national home in that country; and
Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have selected His Britan-
nic Majesty as the Mandatory for Palestine; and
Whereas the mandate in respect of Palestine has been formu-
lated in the following terms and submitted to the Council of the
League for approval; and

Whereas His Brittanic Majesty has accepted the mandate in
respect of Palestine and undertaken to exercise it on behalf of the
League of Nations in conformity with the following provisions;
and
Whereas by the afore-mentioned Article 22 (paragraph 8) it is
provided that the degree of authority, control or administration
to be exercised by the Mandatory, not having been previously
agreed upon by the Members of the League, shall be explicitly

defined by the Council of the League of Nations;
Confirming the said mandate, defines its terms as follows:
ARTICLE I
The Mandatory shall have fullpowers of legislation and of

administration, save as they may be limited by the terms of this
mandate.
ARTICLE 2
The Mandatory shallbe responsible for placing the country

under such political, administrative and economic conditions as
will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home, as laid
down in the preamble, and the development of self-governing
institutions, and also for safeguarding the civil and religious rights
of all the inhabitants of Palestine, irrespective of race and religion.
ARTICLE 3
The Mandatory shall, so far as circumstances permit, encourage
local autonomy.
ARTICLE 4
An
appropriate Jewish agency shall be recognised as a public
body for the purpose of advising and co-operating with the
Administration of Palestine in such economic, social and other
matters as may affect the establishment of the Jewish national
home and the Jewish population in Palestine, and,
interests of the
subject always to the control of the Administration, to assist and

take part in the development of the country.
The Zionist organisation, so long as its organisation and con-
stitution are in the opinion of the Mandatory appropriate, shall
be recognised as such agency. It shall take steps in consultation
with His Britannic Majesty's Government to secure the co-opera-
tion of all Jews who are willing to assist in the establishment of
the Jewish national home.
ARTICLE 5
The Mandatory shall be responsible for seeing that no Palestine
territory shall be ceded or leased to, or in any way placed under

the control of, the Government of any foreign Power.
ARTICLE 6
The Administration of Palestine, while ensuring that the rights
and position of other sections of the population are not preju-
diced, shall facilitate Jewish immigration under suitable condi-
tions and shall encourage, in co-operation with the Jewish agency,
referred to in Article 4, close settlement by Jews on the land, in-
cluding State lands and waste lands not required for public pur-
poses.
ARTICLE 7
The
Administration of Palestine shall be responsible for enact-
ing a nationality law. There shall be included in this law provi-
APPENDIX II 351
sions framed so as to facilitate the
acquisition of Palestinian citi-
zenship by Jews who take up their permanent residence in
Palestine.
ARTICLE 8
The privileges and immunities of foreigners, including the
benefits of consular jurisdiction and as
protection formerly enjoyed
by capitulation or usage in the Ottoman Empire, shall not be
applicable in Palestine.
Unless the Powers whose nationals enjoyed the afore-mentioned
privileges and immunities on August ist, 1914, shall have previ-
ously renounced the right to their re-establishment, or shall have
agreed to their non-application for a specified period, these privi-
leges and immunities shall, at the expiration of the mandate, be
immediately re-established in their entirety or with such modifica-
tions as may have been agreed between the Powers con-
upon
cerned.
ARTICLE 9
The Mandatory shall be responsible for seeing that the judicial
system established in Palestine shall assure to foreigners, as well
as to natives, a complete guarantee of their
rights.
Respect for the personal status of the various peoples and com-
munities and for their religious interests shall be fully guaranteed.
In particular, the control and administration of Wakfs shall be
exercised in accordance with religious law and the
disposition of
the founders.
ARTICLE 10
Pending the making of special extradition agreements relating
to Palestine, the extradition treaties in force between the Manda-
tory and other foreign Powers shall apply to Palestine.
ARTICLE 11
The Administration of Palestine shall take
all necessary meas-
ures to safeguard the interests of the community in connection
with the development of the country, and subject to any interna-
tional obligations accepted by the Mandatory, shall have full
power to provide for public ownership or control of any of the

natural resources of the country or of the public works, services
and utilities established or to be established therein. It shall intro-
duce a land system appropriate to the needs of the country, having
regard, among other things, to the desirability of promoting the
close settlement and intensive cultivation of the land.
The Administration arrange with the Jewish agency men-
may
tioned in Article 4 to construct or operate, upon fair and equitable
terms, any public works, services and utilities,
and to develop any
of the natural resources of the country, in so far as these matters
are not directly undertaken by the Administration. Any such

that no profits distributed by such
arrangements shall provide
shall exceed a reasonable rate of
agency, directly or indirectly,
interest on the and any further profits shall be utilised by
capital,
it for the benefit of the country in a manner approved by the
Administration.
ARTICLE 12
The Mandatory shall be entrusted with the control of the
foreign relations of Palestine
and the right to issue exequaturs to
consuls appointed by foreign Powers. He shall also be entitled to
afford diplomatic and consular protection to citizens of Palestine
when outside its territorial limits.
ARTICLE 13
All responsibility in connection with the Holy Places and
religious buildings
or sites in Palestine, including that of pre-
serving existing rights
and of securing free access to the Holy
Places, religious buildings and sites and the
free exercise of
worship, while ensuring

the requirements of public order and
decorum, is assumed by the Mandatory, who shall be responsible
to the of Nations in all matters connected therewith,
solely League
in this article shall prevent the Mandatory
provided that nothing
from entering into such arrangements as he may deem reasonable
with the Administration for the purpose of carrying the provisions
of this article into effect; and provided also that nothing in this
mandate shall be construed as conferring upon the Mandatory

authority to interfere with the fabric or the
management of purely
Moslem sacred shrines, the immunities of which are guaranteed.
ARTICLE 14
A special Commission shall be appointed by the Mandatory to
the rights and claims in connection
study, define and determine
with the Holy Places and the rights and claims relating to the
different religious communities in Palestine. The method of
nomination, the composition and the functions of this Commission
shall be submitted to the Council of the League for its approval,
.and the Commission shall not be appointed or enter upon its
functions without the approval of the Council
APPENDIX II
353
ARTICLE 15
The Mandatory shall see that complete freedom of conscience
and the free exercise of all forms of worship, subject only to the
maintenance of public order and morals, are ensured to all. No
discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants
of Palestine on the ground of race, religion or language. No
person
shall be excluded from Palestine on the sole ground of his religious
belief.
The right of each community to maintain its own schools for

the education of its own members in its own language, while
conforming to such educational requirements of a general nature
as the Administration may impose, shall not be denied or impaired.
ARTICLE 16
The Mandatory shall be responsible for exercising such super-
vision over religious or eleemysonary bodies of all faiths in
Palestine as may be required for the maintenance of public order
and good government. Subject to such supervision, no measures
shall be taken in Palestine to obstruct or interfere with the enter-
prise of such bodies or to discriminate against any representative
or member of them on the ground of his religion or nationality.
ARTICLE 17
The Administration of Palestine may organise on a voluntary
basis the forces necessary for the preservation of peace and order,
and also for the defence of the country, subject, however, to the
supervision of the Mandatory, but shall not use them for purposes
other than those above specified save with the consent of the
Mandatory. Except for such purposes, no military, naval or air
be raised or maintained by the Administration of
forces shall
Palestine.
Nothing in this article shall preclude the Administration of

Palestine from contributing to the cost of the maintenance of the
forces of the Mandatory in Palestine.
The Mandatory shall be entitled at all times to use the roads,
railways and ports of Palestine for the movement of armed forces
and the carriage of fuel and supplies.
ARTICLE 18
The Mandatory shall see that there is no discrimination in
Palestine against the nationals of any State Member of the League
of Nations (including companies incorporated under its laws) as
compared with those of the Mandatory or of any foreign State in

matters concerning taxation, commerce or navigation, the exercise
of industries or professions, or in the treatment of merchant vessels
or civil aircraft. Similarly, there shall be no discrimination in
Palestine against goods originating in or destined for any of the
and there shall be freedom of transit under equitable
said States,
conditions across the mandated area.
Subject as aforesaid and to the other provisions of this mandate,
the Administration of Palestine may, on the advice of the
Mandatory, impose such taxes and Customs duties as it may
consider necessary, and take such may think best to
steps as it
promote the development of the natural resources of the country
and to safeguard the interests of the population. It may also, on
the advice of the Mandatory, conclude a special Customs agree-
ment with any State the territory of which in 1914 was wholly
included in Asiatic Turkey or Arabia.
ARTICLE 19
The Mandatory shall adhere on behalf of the Administration
of Palestine to any general international conventions already
existing, or which may be concluded hereafter with the approval
of the League of Nations, respecting the slave traffic, the traffic
in arms and ammunition, or the traffic in drugs, or relating to
commercial equality, freedom of transit and navigation, aerial
navigation and postal, telegraphic and wireless communication

or literary, artistic or industrial property.
ARTICLE 20
The Mandatory shall co-operate on behalf of the Administra-
tion of Palestine, so far as religious, social and other conditions
may permit, in the execution of any common policy adopted by
the League of Nations for preventing and combating disease,
including diseases of plants and animals.
ARTICLE 21
The Mandatory shall secure the enactment within twelve
months from this date, and shall ensure the execution of a Law of
Antiquities based on the following rules. This law shall ensure

of treatment in the matter of excavations and archaeo-
equality
logical research to the nationals of all States Members of the
League of Nations.
APPENDIX II 355
"
(1) Antiquity" means any construction or any product of
human activity earlier than the year 1700 A.D.
(2) The law for the protection of antiquities shall proceed by
encouragement rather than by threat.
Any person who, having discovered an antiquity without being
furnished with the authorisation referred to in paragraph 5,
reports the same to an official of the competent Department, shall
be rewarded according to the value of the discovery.
(3) No
antiquity may be disposed of except to the competent
Department, unless this Department renounces the acquisition of
any such antiquity.
No antiquity may leave the country without an export licence
from the said Department.
(4) Any person who maliciously or negligently destroys or
damages an antiquity shallbe liable to a penalty to be fixed.
(5) No clearing of ground ordigging with the object of finding
antiquities shallbe permitted, under penalty of fine, except to
persons authorised by the competent Department.
(6) Equitable terms shall be
fixed for expropriation, temporary
or permanent, of lands which might be of historical or archaeo-
logical interest.
(7) Authorization to excavate shall only be granted to persons
who show sufficient guarantees of archaeological experience. The
Administration of Palestine shall not, in granting these authori-
sations, act in such a way as to exclude scholars of any nation
without good grounds.
(8) The proceeds
of excavations may be divided between the
excavator and the competent Department in a proportion fixed
If division seems impossible for scientific
by that Department.
reasons, the excavator shall receive a fair indemnity in lieu of
a part of the find.
ARTICLE 22
English, Arabic and Hebrew shall be the official languages of

Palestine.Any statement or inscription in Arabic on stamps or
money in Palestine shall be repeated in Hebrew and any state-
ment or inscription in Hebrew shall be repeated in Arabic.
ARTICLE 23
The Administration of Palestine shall recognise the holy days
of the respective communities in Palestine as legal days of rest for
the members of such communities.
ARTICLE 24
The Mandatory shall make to the Council of the League of
Nations an annual report to the satisfaction of the Council as to
the measures taken during the year to carry out the provisions
ot the mandate. Copies of all laws and regulations promulgated
or issued during the year shall be communicated with the report.
ARTICLE 25
In the territories lying between the Jordan and the eastern
boundary of Palestine as ultimately determined, the Mandatory
shall be entitled, with the consent of the Council of the League of
Nations, to postpone or withhold application of such provisions
of this mandate as he may consider inapplicable to the existing
local conditions, and to make such provisions for the administra-
tion of the territories as he may consider suitable for those condi-
tions, provided that no action shall be taken which is inconsistent
with the provisions of Article 15, 16 and 18.
ARTICLE 26
The Mandatory agrees that, if any dispute whatever should
arisebetween the Mandatory and another Member of the League
of Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the
provisions of the mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled
by negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of
International Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant
of the League of Nations.
ARTICLE 27
The consent of the Council of the League of Nations is required
for any modification of the terms of this mandate.
ARTICLE 28
In the event of the termination of the mandate hereby conferred
upon the Mandatory, the Council of the League of Nations shall
make such arrangements as may be deemed necessary for safe-
guarding in perpetuity, under guarantee of the League, the rights
secured by Articles 13 and 14, and shall use its influence for
securing, under the guarantee of the League, that the Government
of Palestine will fully honour the financial obligations legitimately
incurred by the Administration of Palestine during the period of
the mandate, including the rights of public servants to pensions
or gratuities.
APPENDIX II 357
The present instrument shall be deposited in original in the
archives of theLeague of Nations and certified copies shall be
forwarded by the Secretary-General of the League of Nations to
all Members of the
League.
Done at London the twenty-fourth day of July, one thousand
nine hundred and twenty-two.
ARTICLE 25 OF THE PALESTINE MANDATE

MEMORANDUM BY THE BRITISH REPRESENTATIVE
Approved by the Council on September i6th, 1922*
Article 25 of the Mandate for Palestine provides as follows:
territories lying between the Jordan and the eastern

"In the
boundary of Palestine as ultimately determined, the Mandatory
shall be entitled, with the consent of the Council of the League
of Nations, to postpone or withhold application of such provi-
sions of this Mandate as he may consider inapplicable to the
existing local conditions, and to make such provision for the

administration of the territories as he may consider suitable to
those conditions, provided no action shall be taken which is
inconsistent with the provisions of Articles 15, 16 and 18."
2. In pursuance of the provisions of this article, His Majesty's

Government invite the Council to pass the following resolution:
"The following provisions of the Mandate for Palestine are
applicable to the territory known

not as Transjordan, which
all territory lying to the east of a line drawn from
comprises
a point two miles west of the town of Akaba on the Gulf of that
name up to the centre of the Wady Araba, Dead Sea and River
Jordan to its junction with the River Yarmuk: thence up to the
centre of that river to the Syrian frontier/'
PreambleRecitals 2 and 3.
Article 2. The words, "placing the country under such political,

administrative and economic conditions as will secure the estab-
lishment of the Jewish National Home, as laid down in the
Preamble, and."
Article 4.
Article 6.
1
See Minutes of the Twenty-first Session of the Council, Official Journal, Novem-
ber 1922, p. 1,188.
"
Article 7. The sentence, there shall be Included in this law
provisions framed so as to facilitate

the acquisition of Palestinian
citizenship by Jews who take up their permanent residence in

Palestine."
Article 1 1. The second sentence of the first

paragraph and the
second paragraph.
Article 13.
Article 14.
Article 22.
Article 23.
In the application of the Mandate to Transjordan, the action

which, in Palestine, is taken by the Administration of the latter
country will be taken by the Administration of Transjordan under
the general supervision of the Mandate.
3. His Majesty's Government accept full responsibility as

Mandatory for Transjordan and undertake that such provision
as may be made for the administration of that territory in accord-
ance with Article 25 of the Mandate shall be in no way inconsistent
with those provisions of the Mandate which are not by this reso-
lution declared inapplicable.
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(b) JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION

Extract from the Palestine Government Report to the League of
Nations for 1938
The recorded volume of Jewish immigration and emigration

in 1938 and previous years is as follows:
Jewish persons registered Jewish persons recorded

Year: as immigrants as leaving permanently
1 2
19204 42/784 5,476
1925-9 58,022 18,501
19304 91,258 2,345
1935 61,854 396
1936 29,727 773
1937 10,536 889
1938 12,868 1,095
Total 306,049 29,475
NOTE. There is a small discrepancy between the Jewish Agency's

and the Palestine Government's grand total for the period
to the end of 1938 owing to data known to the one body
not being available to the other, but it may have become
less or disappeared in the Government's subsequent records.
1
The records begin in September, 1920.
2
Nofigures are available for Jewish emigration in 1920, 1921, 1932, 1933 and 1934.
The census in 1931 revealed that the actual number of Jewish emigrants was larger
than that shown in the migration records.
APPENDIX IV
THE JEWISH POPULATION OF PALESTINE
A CCORDING to a careful estimate made by the Statistical Depart-

-** ment of the
Jewish Agency in Jerusalem, the Jewish
population in Palestine at the end of 1942 amounted to 517,000.
This estimate was based on (a) the net Jewish immigration (i.e.
the surplus of immigration over emigration) and the natural

increase of the Jews (the excess of births over deaths) since the
official census of 1931, and (6) the enumeration of the Jewish
population in all urban and rural districts carried out by the

Department in recent years. The number of non-Jews in Palestine
at the end of 1942 amounted to about 1,140,000 (including
992,000 Moslems, 127,000 Christians, and 13,000 Druses). Ac-
cording to this calculation the Jews, at the end of 1942, formed
3 1
.3 per cent, of the total population. The numerical increase of
the Jews in the course of twenty years is shown by the following
table:
Year Total population Number of Jews Jewish percentage

1922 . . . 752,000 83,000 11.1
1951 . . . 1,033,300 174,600 16.9
1942 . . . 1,657,000 517,000 3L3
Of
the 517,000 Jews, 340,000 (65.8 per cent.) lived in 6 cities,
45,500 (8.8 per cent.) in 22 urban settlements (Kiriath Hayim,

Kiriath Motzkin, Nethaniah, etc.), and 113,000 (21.8 per cent.)
in 241 villagesand small settlements, including large villages like
Rehovoth and Rishon le-Zion and small ones like Nahalal and
Ein-Harod. Up to the end of 1942, 20,000 Jews had volunteered
for military service, but 1,500 were discharged. At the end of
1944 there were 565,000 Jews, forming 31.8 per cent, of the total
the number of Jews
population of 1,739,600. At the end of 1945,
had increased to 570,000. It may, therefore, be reasonably assumed
that the total Jewish population is now close upon 600,000.
ANNUAL RATE OF BIRTHS AND DEATHS

PER 1,000 OF SETTLED POPULATION, 1922-44
Birth-rate
Year Moslems Jews Christians
1922-5 average . 50.09 34.81 36.37

" 34.29 38.55
1926-30 53.45
1931-5 50.24 35.84
1934 46.56 30.21 3355
1935 52.54 30.80 35.61
1936 . 53.14 29.74 36.34
1937 49.74 26.67 3355
51.15 32.21 36.47
Average, 1922-37
1938 47.25 26.26 34.35
1939 46.42 23.02 31.31
1940 . 47.42 23.72 31.11
1941 49,22 20.67 29.06
1942 45.16 22.73 27.79
1943 52.40 29.04 32.63
1944 53.66 30.22 30.99
Death-rate
1922-25 average. 26.83 13.62 16.13

" 11.66 17.91
1926-30 28.31
1931-5 25.34 9.32 15.04
1934 26.68 9.53 16.25
1935 23.46 8.58 13.99
1936 19.97 8.82 12.63
1937 24.82 7.78 13.91
26.14 10.78 15.89
Average, 1922-37
1938 . 18.71 8.11 12.51
1939 17.38 7.57 11.53
1940 24.74 8.18 12.21
1941 . 21.40 7.89 11.09
1942 19.85 8.60 12.13
1943 19.04 7.72 11.65
1944 17.30 7.14 10.06
ANNUAL RATE OF NATURAL INCREASE

PER 1,000 OF SETTLED POPULATION, 1922-42
1922-5 average . 23.26 21.19 20.24

" 20.64
1926-30 25.14 22.63
1931-5 24.90 21.01 20.80
1934 19.88 20.68 17.30
1935 29.08 22.22 21.62
1936 33.17 20.92 23.71
1937 24.92 18.89 19.64
25.01 21.43 20.58
Average, 1922-37
1938 28.54 18.15 21.84
1939 29.04 15.45 19.78
1940 22.68 15.54 18.90
1941 27.82 12.78 17.97
1942 25.31 14.13 15.66
1943 . 33.36 21.32 20.98
1944 . 36.36 23.08 20.93
APPENDIX IV
It willbe observed that the natural increase of the Jews is much

below that of the Moslems. According to their respective rates in
1944, the Moslems receive an addition of 43,000 a year, and
the
Jews only 13,000, a difference of over 30,000. This difference has
continuously to be made good by immigration before the Jews

can increase their proportion of the total population.
APPENDIX V
ARAB TERRITORIES AND PALESTINE
a memorable speech that the late Lord Balfour delivered at

INthe Royal Albert Hall in London, on July mh, 1920, he
dwelt on the vast Arab territories that had been liberated by the
Allied Powers and referred to Palestine as "that small notch
for it no more than that geographically, whatever it may be
is
historically," which he hoped

that the Arabs would not grudge
"being given to the people who for all these hundreds of years
have been separated from it." Lord Balfour's appeal was addressed
to the Arabs of the territories that were under Turkish domination
or suzerainty before the First World War. There are other ex-
tensive Arab territories stretching over the whole of North Africa
Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripolitania and Egypt.
almost impossible to give exact figures of the area and the
It is
population of the principal Arab countries formerly under

Turkish rule, as no reliable land survey or census has ever been
taken. The following data may be accepted as approximately
correct:
Approximate Area Approximate
in Square Miles Population
Syria (including Lebanon, Tebel Druze,
Latakia) 58,000 3,600,000
Iraq 116,000 2,860,000

Saudi Arabia 900,000 4,500,000
Yemen 75,000 3,500,000
Transjordan 35,000 300,000
Total 1,184,000 14,760,000
In 1942
Western Palestine 10,500 1,657,000
(1,140,000 Arabs
517,000 Jews.)
It will thus be seen that the area of Palestine of the Mandate

is
equal to less than i
per cent, of the Arab territories liberated
in 1918.
The number of delegates at the Congress from 1921 to
total
1929 includes the members of the Zionist General Council (whose

numbers rose from 42 to 68), but after 1929 the numbers represent
only delegates elected by Shekel-Payers. In 1933 the Revisionists
split intotwo sections: the minority (under the leadership of
Meir Grossmann) was at first called "Democratic Revisionists"
and afterwards adopted the name of "Jewish State Party/' The
"Others" included delegates who preferred to act independently
or who found it
expedient to conceal their identity or party
owing to the political conditions of the country from

affiliation
which they came (e.g. Nazi Germany). Since 1931 each delegate
had to represent a minimum of 3,000 Shekel-Payers, but a country
with a small Jewish population that was unable to dispose of
3,000 Shekalim was entitled to one delegate if it remitted not less
than 1,500, Palestine enjoyed the privilege of returning one
delegate for every 1,500 Shekalim until the Congress of 1939.

The question whether that privilege should be continued was
discussed at that Congress and then referred to the General Coun-
cil for decision.
APPENDIX VII
PRONOUNCEMENTS ON A JEWISH
COMMONWEALTH
(i)
Great Britain
A T the Annual Conference of the British Labour Party, held in
JL\ London, in December, 1944, Mr. C. R. Atlee, M.P., on
behalf of the National Executive of the Party, moved a special
resolution welcoming the Executive's statement on international
post-war policy, which was adopted. It contained the following
paragraph on Palestine:
"Here we have halted half way, irresolute between conflict-
ing policies. But there is surely neither hope nor meaning in
a 'Jewish National Home' unless we are prepared to let Jews,
if they wish, enter this
tiny land in such numbers as to become
a majority. There was a strong case for this before the war.
There is an irresistible case now, after the unspeakable atrocities
of the cold and calculated German Nazi plan to kill all Jews
in Europe. Here, too, in Palestine surely is a case, on human
grounds and to promote a stable settlement, for transfer of
population. Let the Arabs be encouraged to move out as the

Jews move in. Let them be compensated handsomely for their
land and let their settlement elsewhere be carefully organised
and generously financed. The Arabs have many wide territories
of their own; they must not claim to exclude the Jews from this
small area of Palestine, less than the size of Wales. Indeed, we
should re-examine also the possibility of extending the present
Palestian boundaries, by agreement with Egypt, Syria, or Trans-
jordan. Moreover, we should seek to win the full sympathy

and support of both of the American and Russian Governments
for the execution of this Palestinion policy."
(JB)
At the Conference of the British Labour Party held at
Blackpool, in Whit-Week, 1945, Mr. Hugh Dalton (now Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer), in his reply to the debate on behalf of
the National Executive, said:
"Having regard to the unspeakable horrors the Jewish people

have suffered,it is morally wrong and
politically indefensible
to restrict entry to Palestine of Jews desiring to go there. Not
all Jews may desire to go. It is for them to decide. The Pales-
tine problem does not concern the British Government alone.

There should be close agreement and co-operation between
Britain, America, and Russia, particularly if this can assure a
settlement not only in Palestine but in surrounding countries.
If the settlement is to stand firm and unshakable, it is indis-
pensable that steps be taken to get common support for policy

giving a free, happy and prosperous Jewish State in Palestine."
(C) The Board of Deputies of British Jews, the representative

organisation of the Jews in Great Britain, at a meeting held in
London on Nevember 5th, 1944, adopted the following declara-
tion of policy on Palestine:
"
(a) The Board of Deputies of British Jews looks to His
Majesty's Government to secure that the United Nations, in
laying down the policies governing the post-war settlement,

declare that undivided Palestine be designated to become, after
an agreed period of transitional government, a Jewish State or
Commonwealth. All Jews who wish to make their home in
Palestine shall have the right of entry, settlement and citizen-
ship in accordance with its laws, it being provided that nation-
ality of the Jewish State or Commonwealth shall be confined to
its own citizens, and shall not, in the terms of the Balfour
Declaration, prejudice 'the rights and political status enjoyed
by Jews in any other country/
"
That, having regard to the traditional sympathy of the
(&)
British people with the ideals and aspirations of the Jews in
relation to Palestine and Great Britain's historic role in creating
the Jewish National Home, the Board hopes that the Jewish
State or Commonwealth may find an appropriate and legally
secured place within the British Commonwealth of Nations.
"
(c)
That the Constitution of the Jewish State or Common-
wealth shall guarantee the equality of rights ofi all citizens of
Palestine irrespective of race religion or language, and this
equality shall be secured by international guarantee.
"
(d) That, during the transitional period, before the full
establishment of the Jewish State or Commonwealth, the Jewish
Agency, recognised under the Mandate as the authorised repre-
sentative of the Jewish people in relation to Palestine, be vested
with authority to direct and regulate immigration into Pales-
tine, to develop to the maximum the agricultural and industrial
possibilities and the natural resources of the country and to

utilise the uncultivated and unoccupied lands for Jewish colo-
nisation and for the benefit of the country as a whole.
APPENDIX vii 3(39
"
(e) That within the general scheme of post-war reconstruc-
tion the United Nations should take into account the needs of
the Jewish people and, upon the cessation of hostilities and the
liberation of the European territories, provide facilities for the
speedy transfer to Palestine of the Jewish survivors of Nazi

persecution who may wish to settle in Palestine, and grant, for
this purpose, appropriate financial and other help.
"
(/)
That the rights of the resepective religious authorities
with regard to the Holy Places shall be internationally guar-
anteed."
(ii)
United States of America
(A) On the
eve of the election for the Presidency of the United
States of America that took place in November, 1944, both the
Democratic and the Republican candidates made pronounce-
ments in favour of a Jewish Commonwealth.
President Roosevelt addressed his statement to Senator Wagner,
asking him to convey it to the 47th Annual Convention of the
Zionist Organisation of America, which met on October i4th,
1944, at Atlantic City. The President wrote:
"Knowing that you will attend the Z.O.A. Convention, I ask

you to convey to the delegates my cordial greetings. Please
express my satisfaction that in accord with the traditional
American policy and in keeping with the spirit of the Four
Freedoms, the Democratic Party has included the following
plank in its platform: We

favour the opening of Palestine for
unrestricted Jewish immigration and colonisation and such a
in the establishment there of a free and
policy as to result
democratic Jewish Commonwealth. Efforts will be made to find
appropriate ways and means to effectuate this policy as soon as
I know how long and ardently the Jewish people
practicable.
have worked and prayed for the establishment of Palestine as
a democratic Jewish Commonwealth. I am convinced that the
American people will give their support to this aim, and, if
re-elected, I shall help to bring about its realisation/'
Governor Dewey's statement was as follows:
"I heartily endorse the Palestine plank in the Republican

Party platform. Again repeat what
I I previously stated to the
great leader of the American Zionist

Movement and distin-
guished American, Dr. Abba Hillel Silver, that I am for the
reconstruction of Palestine as a free and democratic Jewish
Commonwealth in accordance with the Balfour Declaration of
in 1922.
1917 and the resolution of the Republican Congress
I have also stated to Dr. Silver that, in order to give refuge to
millions of distressed Jews driven from their homes by tyranny,
1 favour the opening of Palestine to their unlimited immigra-
tion and land ownership. The American people have time and
these principles. The
again declared themselves in favour of
Republican Party has at all times been
the traditional friend
of the movement. As President, I would use my best offices to
have our Government working together with Great Britain to
achieve this great objective for a people that have suffered so
much and deserve so much at the hands of mankind."
(J3)
At the American Jewish Conference, which was held in
New York from August sgth to September 2nd, 1943, and which
was attended by 500 delegates, of whom one-fourth represented
nation-wide organisations and the other three-fourths were elected
by Jewish communities throughout the United States, the most
important resolution adopted was one demanding the creation of
a Jewish Commonwealth in Palestine. This resolution, which
was carried by an overwhelming majority (only four delegates
voting against and two bodies abstaining), recited the tragic posi-
tion of Jewry due Nazi barbarity, recalled the issue of the
to
Balfour Declaration and the grant to Great Britain of the Mandate
for Palestine, summarised the progress achieved in Palestine,
of 1939, and continued as follows:
pilloried the White Paper
"The American Jewish Conference, meeting at a time when

the policies of the peace are in the making, and conscious of its
historic responsibility and of its position as representative of
American Jewry and spokesman for the silenced Jewish com-
munities of Europe, calls for the loyal and faithful fulfilment of
the covenant entered into between the nations of the world and
the Jewish people. We call for the fulfilment of the Balfour
Declaration and of the Mandate for Palestine, whose intent and
underlying purpose, based on the 'historical connection of the
Jewish people with Palestine/ was to reconstitute Palestine as
the Jewish Commonwealth.
"We demand the immediate withdrawal, in its entirety, of
the Palestine White Paper of May, 1939, with its unwarranted
restrictions on Jewish immigration and land settlement. The
APPENDIX VII 371
White Paper is a violation of the rights accorded to the Jewish

people under the Mandate for Palestine. It was characterised
by Mr. Winston Churchill in the House of Commons as a
breach and a repudiation of the Balfour Declaration. The
Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations
refused to recognise its
legality or its moral validity.
"The Conference demands that the gates of Palestine be
opened to Jewish immigration and that the Jewish Agency,

recognised under the Mandate as the authorised representative
of the Jewish people, be vested with authority to direct and
regulate immigration into Palestine, to develop to the maxi-

mum the agricultural and industrial possibilities and the nat-
ural resources of the country, and to utilise its uncultivated and
unoccupied lands for Jewish colonisation and for the benefit

of the country as a whole.
"The measures here urged constitute the essential prerequis-

ites for the attainment of a Jewish majority and for the recrea-
tion of the Jewish Commonwealth. In the pursuit of its objec-
tive of a Jewish Commonwealth, the Jewish people has stead-
fastly held before it the ideals which shall integrate Jewish

Palestine within the new democratic world structure. The
Jewish people pledges itself to scrupulous regard for, and
preservation of, the religious, linguistic and cultural rights of
the Arab population of Palestine, and to the civil and religious
equality of all its inhabitants before the law. The inviolability

of the Holy Places of the various religions shall be guaranteed.
"The Jewish people reaffirms its readiness and desire for full
co-operation with its Arab neighbours in Palestine, and in the

work of its own national redemption welcomes the economic
and political development of the Arab peoples of the Near East.
"On the basis, both of the part it has played in the history of
civilisation and of its present achievement in Palestine, the
Jewish people believes that the Jewish Commonwealth to be
established will represent another fundamental contribution to
the social and political ideals of the world. It will finally answer
the agonised cry of the most martyred of peoples and enable it
to take its rightful place in that progressive order of mankind
which, we pray, may issue from the present struggle/'
APPENDIX VIII
THE ANGLO-AMERICAN CONVENTION
The Anglo-American Convention, otherwise known as the con-

vention between the United States and Great Britain, was pro-
claimed by the President of the United States of America on
December 5th, 1925, and signed by Frank B. Kellogg, Secretary
of Foreign Affairs of Great Britain. After reciting the several
diplomatic and legal useages,

it cites in full the Mandate for
Palestine thus making the Mandate an integral part of the conven-
tion. It contains the following eight articles:
THE ANGLO-AMERICAN CONVENTION

ARTICLE 1
Subject to the provisions of the present convention the United

States consents to the administration of Palestine by His Britannic
Majesty, pursuant to the mandate recited above.
ARTICLE 2
The United States and its nationals shall have and enjoy all the
rights and benefits secured under the terms of the mandate to

members of the League of Nations and their nationals, notwitb
standing the fact that the United States is not a member of the
League of Nations.
ARTICLE 3
Vested American property rights in the mandated territory
shall be respected and in no way impaired.
ARTICLE 4
A duplicate of the annual report to be made by the Mandatory
under article 24 of the mandate shall be furnished to the United
States.
ARTICLE 5
local laws for the
maintenance
Subject to the provisions of any
of public order and public morals, the nationals of the United
States will be permitted freely to establish and maintain educa-
tional, philanthropic and religious institutions in the mandated
territory, to receive voluntary applicants and to teach in the
English language.
APPENDIX VIII 373
ARTICLE 6
The extradition treaties and conventions which are, or may be,
in force between the United States and Great Britain, and the
provisions of any treaties which are, or may be, in force between
the two countries which relate to extradition or consular rights
shall apply to the mandated territory.
ARTICLE 7
Nothing contained in the present convention shall be affected
by any modification which may be made in the terms of the man-
date, as recited above, unless such modification shall have been
assented to by the United States.
ARTICLE 8
The present convention shall be ratified in accordance with the
respective constitutionalmethods of the High Contracting Parties.

The ratification shall be exchanged in London as soon as prac-
ticable. The present convention shall take effect on the date of
the exchange of ratifications.
In witness whereof, the undersigned have signed the present

convention, and have thereunto affixed their seals.
Done in duplicate at London, this 3rd day of December, 1924.
(Seal)
Frank B. Kellogg
(Seal)
Austen Chamberlain
APPENDIX IX
THE PITTSBURGH PROGRAM

Adopted at the Convention of the Zionist Organization of
America June 1918
In 1897 the first Zionist Congress at Basle defined the object of

Zionism to be "the establishment of a publicly recognized and
legally secured homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine."
The recent declarations of Great Britain, France, Italy and others
of the allied democratic states, have established this public recog-
nition of the Jewish National Home as an international fact.
Therefore, we desire to affirm anew the principles which have
guided the Zionist movement since its inception and which were
the foundation of the ancient Jewish state and of the living
Jewish law embodied in the traditions of two thousands years of
exile.
FIRST We declare for political and civil equality irrespec-

tive of race, sex, or faith of all the inhabitants of the
land.
SECOND To insure in the Jewish National Home in Palestine
equality of opportunity we favor a policy which, with

due regard to existing rights, shall tend to establish
the ownership and control by the people of the land,
of all natural resources and of all public utilities.
THIRD All land, owned or controlled by the whole people,

should be leased on such conditions as will insure the
fullest opportunity for development and continuity
of possession.
FOURTH The cooperative principle should be applied so far

as feasible in the organization of all agricultural,
industrial, commercial, and financial undertakings.
FIFTH The system of free public instruction which is to be
established should embrace all grades and depart-

ments of education.
APPENDIX X
THE BILTMORE PLATFORM

Declaration Adopted by the Extraordinary Zionist Conference
May 11, 194^, at Hotel Biltmore, New York
1. The American Zionists assembled in this

Extraordinary
Conference reaffirm their unequivocal devotion to the cause of
democratic freedom and international justice to which the people
of the United States, allied with the other United Nations, have
dedicated themselves, and give expression to their faith in the
ultimate victory of humanity and justice over lawlessness and
brute force.
2. This Conference offers a message of hope and encourage-

ment to their fellow Jews in the Ghettos and concentration camps
of Hitler-dominated Europe and prays that their hour of libera-
tion may not be distant.
3. The Conference sends its warmest greetings to the Jewish

Agency Executive in Jerusalem, to the Was Leumi, and to the
whole Yishuv in Palestine, and expresses its profound admiration
for their steadfastness and achievements in the face of peril and
great difficulties. The Jewish men and women in field and factory,
and the thousands of Jewish soldiers of Palestine in the Near
East who have acquitted themselves with honor and distinction
in Greece, Ethiopia, Syria, Libya and on other battlefields, have
shown themselves worthy of their people and ready to assume the
rights and responsibilities of nationhood.
4. In our generation, and in particular in the course of the past

twenty years, the Jewish people have awakened and transformed
their ancient homeland; from 50,000 at the end of the last war
their numbers increased to more than 500,000. They have made
the waste places to bear fruit and the desert to blossom. Their
pioneering achievements in agriculture and in industry, embody-
ing new patterns of cooperative endeavor, have written a notable
page in the history of colonization.
5. In the new values thus created, their Arab neighbors in
Palestine have shared. Jewish people in its own work o
The
national redemption welcomes the economic, agricultural and
national development of the Arab peoples and states. The Con-
ference reaffirms the stand previously adopted at Congresses of
the World Zionist Organization, expressing the readiness and the
desire of the Jewish people for full cooperation with their Arab
neighbors.
6. The Conference the fulfillment of the original pur-
calls for
pose of the Balfour Declaration

and the Mandate which "recog-
the Jewish people with Pales-
nizing the historical connection of
tine" was to afford them the opportunity, as stated by President
Wilson, to found there a Jewish Commonwealth.
The Conference affirms its unalterable rejection of the White
Paper of May, 1939, and denies its legal validity. The
moral or
White Paper seeks to limit, and in fact to nullify Jewish rights to
immigration and settlement in Palestine, and, as stated by Mr,
Winston Churchill in the House of Commons in May, 1939,
constitutes "a breach and repudiation of the Balfour Declaration/'
The policy of the White Paper is cruel and indefensible in its
denial of sanctuary to Jews fleeing from Nazi persecution; and at
a time when Palestine has become a focal point in the war front
of the United Nations, and Palestine Jewry must provide all
available manpower for farm and factory and camp, it is in direct
conflict with the interests of the allied war effort.
7.In the struggle against the forces of aggression and tyranny,

of which Jews were the earliest victims, and which now menace
the Jewish National Home, recognition must be given to the
right of the Jews of Palestine to play their full part in the war
effortand in the defense of their country, through a Jewish mili-
tary force fighting under its own flag and under the high com-
mand of the United Nations.
8. The Conference declares that the new world order that will
follow victory, cannot be established on foundations of peace,

justice and equality, unless the problem of Jewish homelessness
is finally solved.
The Conferenceurges that the gates of Palestine be opened;
that the Jewish Agency be vested with control of immigration
into Palestine and with the necessary authority for upbuilding
uncultivated lands; and that Palestine be established as a Jewish
the country, including the development of its unoccupied and
Commonwealth integrated in the structure of the new democratic
world.
Then and only then will the age-old wrong to the Jewish
people be righted.
APPENDIX XI
AMERICAN JEWISH GIFTS TO AND INVESTMENTS IN

PALESTINE SETTLEMENT
As nearly as can be determined, American Jews have sent to

Palestine since 1917, in excess o f 1 10,000,000 in contributions.
The following table covers only sums transmitted through the
major organizations:
Keren Haytsod (Palestine Foundation Fund)
Keren Kayemeth (Jewish National Fund) ....
....
. . . $33,100,000
26,000,000
Hadassah, Women's Zionist Organization 20,000,000
Joint Distribution Committee 12,700,000
(The Central American Jewish Agency for Relief and
Reconstruction Work Abroad)
Palestine Restoration Fund-1917-1921 ....
.... 3,750,000
National Labor Committee Poale Zion
Pioneer Women-Poale Zion ...... 4,900,000
1,750,000
Hebrew University
Endowment Funds
Palestine
Emergency Fund
..... 4,000,000
800,000
2,100,000
American Funds for Palestine Institutions . . . 900,000
1110,000,000
On the basis of a careful and conservative on-the-spot survey

of private investment in Palestine made in 1936, the sum of
$39,000,000 was arrived at as follows:
Land and Buildings 117,640,000
'
Citriculture 9,415,000
General Investments, Mortgages and Credit Institutions . 9,240,000
Industry and Handicrafts, Commerce

Transportation and Service Businesses .... 3,095,000
There has been no census of American investments in Palestine

since 1936. On the basis of available data, an estimate of at least
$45,000,000 of American private capital invested in Palestine is
indicated.
American Jews have therefore made the following minimum

contribution to the financial development of Palestine since 1917:
Gift Funds $110,000,000

Investments 45,000,000
$155,000,000
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PART I
are the principal sources that have been con-

THE following
in
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 385
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3 86 THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT
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INDEX
AARONSON. Aaron, 106 Alschech, P. Moses, 42
Sara, 110 Altneuland, 82
Abel, Senior, 333 American Jewish Conference, 283
Abdalla, 45 American Jewry and Jewish Agency, 187
Abdul Hamid, Sultan, 80, 81, 83,93 American Zionist Medical Unit, 122
Abdul Medjid, Sultan, 48, 51 Amsterdam, 245
Abdullah, Emir, 145-6 Anatolia, 81
Absorptive capacity, economic, 151, 230 Anglo-Jewish Association, 92, 113-4, 172
Abu Isa, 43 Anglo-Levantine Banking Company, 93
Abulafia, Abraham, 43 Angola, 88
Abyssinia, 294 Anglo-Palestine Bank, 100, 101, 106, 110,
Achmed el-Djezzar, 45 136, 140, 210, 250-1
Acre, 39, 45, 49, 113 Anti-Semitism, 65, 72, 82, 278
"Actions Committee," 78, 85, 131, 138 Arab Agency, 154
Adams, President John, 52, 326 Arab Congress, 145, 160
Adler, Chief Rabbi Hermann, 91, 279 Arab Delegations, 144, 145, 146, 214, 229,
Chief Rabbi Nathan, 52 237
Dr. Cyrus, 331 Arab Executive, 155, 196, 213
Administration (of Palestine) 152, 157, Arab Higher Committee, 215. 224
194 Arab National Committee, 125
Administrative Committee (Jewish Agen- Arab Parties, 215, 230
cy), 187, 287 Arab Press, 213
Advisory Council, 143, 148, 154 Arabs, invasion of Palestine, 34; attitude
Afforestation, 105, 170, 243
of, 28, 293; political demands of,
Africa, 285
143-146, 151, 154, 213, 217-8, 320-1;
Afule, 105 relations with Jews, 190 seq., "dis-
Aga, Ibrahim, 42
placed", 201; "landless", 236; illegal
Othman, 42
immigration of, 240-1; benefits from
Agnon, S. I., 261 Jewish progress, 253; federation of
Agricultural Bank, 251 312-13
Agricultural Experimental Station, 106,
168, 256 Archaeological Society, 258
Agricultural Schools, 156, 256 Argentina, 73, 163, 284-5, 308
Arlosoroff, Dr. Ch., 207, 208
Agricultural settlements, 65, 69, 89-99,
104-5; types of, 167; progress of, Armenia, 121
245-249; population of, 161, 241 Armouries, sealed, 194
Arms, trials, 301-2
Agudath Israel, 155, 176, 268, 275
Ahad Ha-am, 67-8, 76, 80, 107, 116 Art, 263
Artisans Bank, 172
Ahduth, 103
Ahduth Ha-Avodah, 166 Artuf, 69
"Ahiasaf ', 69 Ascalon, 38
Air Force, Jews in, 293-5 Asch, Shalom, 187
Akaba, 124 Asefath Hanmharim, 124, 144, 176
Akiba, Rabbi, 43 Ashkenazim, 41,43, 46, 70, 75, 144, 176
Alexander II, 62 Ashman, 263
Alexandria, 286 Assimilation, 24,58, 59, 74
Al-Harizi, 39 Assyrian Christians, 213
Alien Immigration Commission, 81 Athletes, 266
Athlit, 106, 110, 242, 247
Ally ah (wave of immigration): First, 63;
Fourth, Atlantic (ship), 292
Second, 100; Third, 162;
Atlantic Charter, 307, 312
164; Fifth, 240
Attacks by Arabs, 127, 147, 194, 213,
Aliyah, Youth, 240
215-6, 223-4, 303
Ally ah Hadashah, 163
Allenby, General, 109-11, 120, 123, 125 Attias, Moshe, 176
Alliance Israelite, 55, 91, 106, 172, 256 Auja, River, 156
Alroy, David, 43, 49 Aurore, L' } 94
388 INDEX
Australia, 78, 281-2 Bir Jacob, 98

Austria, 85, 92, 277 Birnbaum, Nathan, 65-6, 337
Auto-Emancipation, 22, 59-60, 72 263

Bistritzky, N.,
Avigdor, EHm d', 66
"Black Cabinet," 91
Avigdor-Goldsmid, Sir O. d', 186 Blackstone, Rev. William E., 327, 330
Avukah, 282 Blaine, James G., 327
Ayanoth, 256 Bluestone, Joseph, 66, 328, 332
Ayubides, 39 Blum, Leo, 263
Azhar University, 145 Blum, Leon, 186, 279
"fine* Benjamin," 170
"fine" Moshe," 68
Board of Deputies, 51, 53, 115, 116, 178,
185, 280
BABYLON, 34, 36 Bodenheimer, Dr. Max, 90
Baden, Grand Duke of, 75, 80 Bokhara, 41, 70
Baghdad, 36, 286, 295, 313 Bols, General, 142
Balfour, Lord, 114, 115, 117, 19, 126, 149,
Bombay, 286
150, 196, 215
Borochow, Ber, 103
Balfour Declaration, 28-9, 51, 116-19,
Brandeis, Justice, L. D., 115, 117, 131,
122, 123, 126, 134, 146, 148, 149, 151,
134, 136, 282, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342
154, 190, 195, 236, 280, 281, 303, 309,
Brazil,284
315, 320
Brenner, J. H., 261
Balfour' Forest, 170
Brigade Group, Jewish, 303-4
Balfouria, 156
Broadcasts, 255
Banks, 250, 251-2; bank deposits, 251
Brod, Max, 263
Barash, A., 261
Brodetsky, Professor S., 183, 186, 208,
Bar Kochba, 32, 43
211, 280
Barth, Lazarus, 186
Brunton, C, D., 143
Basle, 77, 87, 96 Brussels Conference, 92
Basle Programme, 77, 88, 94, 118
Bucarest, 61, 164
Bayside Land Corporation, 261 Buchanan, Sir George, 114
Bedouin, 157, 220, 247, 297
Budgets (of Zionist Organization and
Belgium, 279
Jewish Agency), 136, 186, 207, 211,
Belkind, 110
227, 263
Ben-Gurion, D.,208, 211, 301 Buenos Aires, 285
Benjamin of Tuleda, 38 Bulgaria, Jews of, 69, 275, 276
Ben-Shemen, 101, 105, 247
Bundist, 275
Bentwich, Norman, 149, 195
Burla, Yehuda, 252
Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer, 59, 106, 255, 260
Butler, R. A., 228
Berab, Jacob, 42
Byron, 49
Berlin, Rabbi Meir, 166
Byzantine, 31, 33, 36
Berlin, Treaty of, 26, 65
Bermuda Conference, 306
Berne, 68
Bernstein, Z. Hirsch, 66
Bernstein, Dr. Simon, 337 CABBALISTS, 38, 40, 42, 43
Bertie, Lord, 113 Caesarea, 33, 35
Bessarabia, 129 Cairo, 36 (Genizah), 39, 145, 147, 286,
Beth Alfa, 33 313
Bethlehem, 38 Calcutta, 286
Betterton, Sir Henry, 195 Campbell, Sir John, 182
Beyrout, 38, 156, 224 Canada, 163, 281; Zionist Organization
Bezalel, 101, 256 of, 79, 281
Bezalel Museum, 259 Cantons, 219, 226
Bialik Foundation, 259 Cape Town, 281
Bialik Museum, 260 Capernaum, 33
Bialik, H. N., 208, 260, 269 Capital, Jewish, 171, 252
Bialystok, 62, 69 Capitulations, 46
Bibars, 39 Caplan, Samuel, 340
Bicheno, James, 49 Carlsbad, 134
Biltmore Platform, 317 Carmel Wine Company, 69
"Bilu," 63, 66, 99 Carpatho-Ruthenia, 275
Binational state, 221-2, 314 Caucasus, 70
INDEX 389
Cazalet, Sir Edward, 53, 63 Sixth (1903), 84-5

Cecil, Viscount (Robert), 121 Seventh (1905), 87, 89
Central Bank of Co-operative Institu- Eighth (1907), 94-5
tions, 172, 251 Ninth (1909), 94-5
Central Bureau for German Jews, 207, Tenth (1911), 96
233, 280 Eleventh (1913) 109 ,
Central Council, 138 Twelfth (1921), 134-8

Central Office of Zionist Organization, Thirteenth (1923) 179 ,
78, 89, 95, 96, 130, 132, 138 Fourteenth (1925), 1804
Fifteenth (1927), 183
Chamberlain, Joseph, 83
Sixteenth (1929), 185-6
Chamberlain, Neville, 230, 289, 290
Seventeenth (1931), 206
Chancellor, Sir John, 191, 213
Charter (for Palestine) 80, 81, 88, 94
,
Eighteenth (1933), 207
Nineteenth (1935), 209-10
Chasanowitch, Joseph, 174
Twentieth (1937) , 221
Chazars, 37
Cherki Ganem, 125 Twenty-first (1939) 223-6 ,
elec-
Chemical deposits, 246, 298 Congress Attorney, 138; Court, 138;
tions, 273; machinery and procedure,
Chicago, 66
286-7; Presidency, 95, 206
Child Welfare, 250
Chile, 285 Constantinople, 63, 64, 75, 81, 83, 84, 93,
94
China, 285
Constanza, 164
Chmielnicki, 43
Constitution of Zionist Organization,
Chosroes II, 34
77-8, 81, 138-9
Churchill, Colonel Charles, 51
Constitutional reforms. See Legislative
Churchill, Winston, 29, 121, 146, 148,
Council.
230, 310, 312, 315
Consulates, 46
Citizenship Order-in-Council, 158
Citrus fruit, 159, 244 Cooperative farms, 104, 166, 169, 248
Civil Service, 210 Copenhagen, Bureau, 110
Conheim, Herman, 341
Clayton, Sir Gilbert, 142
Clerk, Sir George, 134 Coupland, Professor R., 25
Court of Honour, 138
Close settlement, 203, 219, 237
Covenant of League of Nations, 148
Cohen, Jacob, 261
Cowen, Charles, 337
Cohen, Sir Leonard L., 117
Cowen, Joseph, 82, 134, 171
Coinage, 160
Cracow, 164
Collecting-boxes, 42
Crafts, 256
Collective settlements, 169
Crimea, 181
Cologne, 91, 96, 139
Cromer, Lord, 83
Colombia, 285
Cromwell, 47
Colonial Office, 146, 149, 151, 181, 188,
Crusaders, 31, 36, 37, 39, 43
195
Cultural Questions, 80
Colonial Secretary, 215, 216, 223, 236,
Cultural Zionism, 70
280, 306, 311
Curzon, Lord, 127
Commerce, 246
Commissions of Inquiry: Haycraft, 147; Cypress, 82
Cyrenaica, 88
Shaw, Dowbiggin, Strickland,
195-99;
Czechoslovakia, 131, 275, 278
O'Donnell, 205; Western Wall, 205-
Czernin, Count, 120
6; Royal Commission, 217
Czernowitz, 75, 92, 164
Committee of Jewish Delegations, 131
Commonwealth, Jewish, 121, 126, 153,
815
Community organization, 176
Compensation, workmen's, 159, 166 DAIRY-FARMING, 244, 297
Conder, Colonel C. R., 53 Damascus, 36, 39, 45, 56 (blood accusa-
Conference, Zionist, in 1919, 130-1; in tion), 127, 145, 296, 313
1920, 131-2; at St. James Palace, 228 Dancing (Hora) , 265
Congress, Zionist: Davar, 262
Deedes, Sir Wyndham, 142
First (1897), 23, 75-79
Second (1898) 79-80
,
Defence, cost of (in Palestine), 159
Third 80 De Cordova, Raphael J., 327
(1899) ,
Fourth (1900), 80 Degania, 102, 104

Fifth (1901), 80-1
De Haas, Jacob, 339
390 INDEX
"Democratic Zionist Faction/' 30 Eviction of tenants, 159

Diamond Polishing, 245 Executive (Zionist Jewish Agency), in
Diaspora, 34, 35, 40, 42, 47, 68, 76 London: 139, 179, 183, 186, 208,
Diseases, 175 211; in Jerusalem; 140, 161, 165,
Diving, 247 175, 179, 183, 186, 208, 211
Dkemal Pasha, 109 Exhibitions, 171
Dejezzar, 45 Exploration Society, Jewish Palestine,
"Doles/' 165 259
Dome of the Rock, 190 "Ezra" Society, 66, 99, 102
Dowbiggin, Inspector-General, 204
Drainage, 167
Drama, 263
FACTORIES, 171, 245
Dreyfus Affair, 267 Farbstein, H., 207
Drishath Zion, 57
Farhi, Haim, 45
Drugs, synthetic, 298 Farmers' Association, 256, 266
Druses, 45
Druskenik, 65
Farming, 97, 105; kinds of, 167; farm
"Dual Nationality", 25, 26, 129 products, 297
Federations, Zionist, 273
Duhring, Eugen, 72 Federation of Jewish Labour, General.
Duma, 91
See Histadruth.
Dunant, Jean H., 54
Feinberg, Joseph, 64
Feisal, Emir, 115, 124, 126, 145
Feiwel, Berthold, 81, 90
EARTHQUAKES, 41, 159 Fellaheen, 205, 242-4
East Africa, 84-7, 114 Felsenthal, Rabbi Bernhard, 330, 335
Economic Board for Palestine, 172, 252 Fichman, Jacob, 211, 261
Ecuador, 285 Fighting Force, Jewish, 293
Eddington, Professor, 259 Financial and Economic Committee, 139
Eden, Anthony, 223, 225 Financial institutions, 251
Eder, M. D., 183, 280 Finch, Sir Henry, 47
Edinburgh Review, 143 Finn, Joseph, 62
Eger, R. Akiba, 55 Fisher, H. A. L., 259
Egypt, 39, 41, 110, 193, 215, 264, 286, 294 Fishing Trade, 247
Egyptian Government, 83 Fishman, Rabbi J. L., 211
Ein Ganim, 99 Flag, Zionist, 192, 284, 293, 303
Ein-Zethim, 69 Flexner, Bernard, 180
Einstein, Professor Albert, 186, 259 "Folkists", 275
Eisendrath, Dr. Maurice, 345 Foreign Office, 146
Ekron, 64 Foreign Trade Institute, 247
El Alamein, 295 France, 26, 37, 39, 40, 54, 66, 278
El Arish, 83 Francis I, 44
Elected Assembly, 176 Frankel, Lee K., 182, 188
Electric Power-stations, 156, 245 Frankfort, 44
Elegies, 37 Frankfurter, Justice Felix, 126
Elijah,*265 Frank!, Ludwig A., 70
Elijah, Gaon Rabbi, 45 Freiburg, 87
Eliot, George, 50 French, Lewis, 293; reports of, 204
Emek, 266, 269. See also Valley of Jezreel French Government, 119, 145; French
Emigration, 62, 86, 92 Mandate, 151
Enclaves, 221-2 French Revolution, 71
Engels, Friedrich, 56 Friedemann, Adolf, 84
England, Hoveve Zion societies, 66; Zion- Friedenwald, Dr. Aaron, 335
ist Federation, 78-9; Zionist activi- Friedenwald, Dr. Harry, 333, 335, 340
ties^ Fromensen, A. H., 340
"Enlightenment" (Haskalah), 21, 57 Fuller, (Chief Justice) Melville W., 327
"Eretz Israel", 144
Eritrea, 294
Esdraelon, Valley of, 33, 156
Estonia, 129 GABRIEL, COLONEL VIVIAN, 143
Estori Farhi, 40 Gabrilowitsch, 264
Evelina de Rothschild School, 106 Galatz, 164
Evian Conference, 231, 307 Galicia, 26, 91, 92
INDEX 391
Galilee, 32, 34, 37, 39, 63, 69, 98, 167, 226 Hadassah Medical Organization, 174,
Sea 157
of, 250, 256, 265
Gallipoli, 111 Hadoar, 282
Galveston, 88 Haganah, 301
Garstang, Professor J., 143 Hague, The, 94
Gaster, Dr. M., 65, 115 Haham Bashi, 53, 144
Gawler, Colonel George, 51-2 Haifa, 107, 115, 157, 166, 172, 193, 213,
Gaza, 105, 235 216, 235, 247
Gederah, 64 Haifa Harbour, 246
Geiger, Abraham, 21 Hailsham, Lord, 202
Ludwig, 90 Hazaz, H., 261
Gendarmerie, 157, 159 "Hakoah", 277
General Council, 287 Halifax, Viscount, 228
General Federation of Jewish Labour. Halukah, 42, 46, 67, 101
See Histadruth. Halutzim, 133, 140, 164, 167
General Mortgage Bank, 251 Haluziut, 140
General Zionists, 135, 208, 211, 222, 271 Hamaggid, 58
Geneva, 66, 155, 192 Hamashkif, 262
Georgians, 70 "Hamashbir", 16 , 248
German Government, 120; implicated in Hamburg, 94
Arab revolt, 215, 231, 232 Hamelitz, 59, 67
Germany, 37, 39, 129; persecution of "Hanoteah", 170
Jews, 209-10, 240; immigrants from, Hantke, Dr. A., 120
240-2; growth of Zionism, 277-8 Hanukah, 270
"Geulah", 101 "Ha-Ohel", 166
Ginsberg, Asher. See Ahad Ha-am. Haolam, 139, 263
Ginsberg, Mordecai, 58 Ha-Peless, 91
Girl Guides, 266 Ha-Poel, 16
Godart, Justin, 279 "Hapoel Hamizrachi", 167
Golden Book, 139 "Hapoel Hatzair", 102-3, 140, 166
Goldberg, Abraham, 334, 341 Haram al-Sherif, 190-3
Goldberg, Israel, 337 Harbours, 246
Goldmann, Dr. Nahum, 211 Harding, President, 342
Goldsmid, Colonel Albert, 66 Harkavy, Alexander, 328
Goldstein, Israel, 343 Harrison, Benjamin (President) , 327,
Goodman, Paul, 47 330
Gordon, Aaron David, 103 Hashahar, 59
Gordon, David, 58 Hashiloah, 68
Gordon, Mrs. E. A., 85 "Hashomer", 104, 210
Gottheil, Rabbi Gustav, 66, 329, 330 Hashomer Hatzair, 140, 222, 2 8, 272
Professor Richard, 66, 331, 332, 333, Hasidim, 44, 45, 46
335 Haskalah, 57-9
Grabski, Minister, 164 Hassid, Jehudah, 44
Graetz, Heinrich, 57 Hatikvah, 53, 78, 234, 260, 284
Graz, 75 Hatzefirah, 90
Greece, 279, 296 Hatzofeh, 262
Greenberg, L. J., 83, 89 Hauran, 241; Hauranis, 241
Grey, Sir Edward, 113, Haycraft, Sir Thomas, 147, 195
Grossmann, Meir, 208 Hazman, 262
Gruenbaum, Isaac, 178, 208, 211 Health organizations, 174; resorts, 247;
Gruenhut, Dr. L., 41 services, 252, 265
Gutmacher, Rabbi Elijah, 55 Hebrew Authors* Association, 259
Hebrew Language, 58, 59, 79, 95, 96,
10 , 107, 136, 144, 153, 184, 210,
255, 282, 287
Haaretz, 262
Hebrew literature, 255
Haavarah, 210, 211

Hebrew 155, 255. See
University, 123,
also University of Jerusalem.
Habimah, 263
Haboker, 262 Hebron, 44, 45, 46, 193
Habonim, 280 Hechler, Rev. W., 75, 82
fladad Pasha, 115 Hederah, 69
Hadassah, 141 Hedjaz, 145
39* INDEX
Hedjaz Delegation, 124 240-1; categories of immigrants, 241;

"Hehalutz", 164, 276 in war-time, 291
Heifetz, J., 264 Immigration Ordinances, 162-3
Heller, Rabbi Max, 333 Incunabula, 259
Helsingfors Conference, 91 India, 286
Henderson, Arthur, 194 Industrial exhibitions, 245-6
Hertz, J. H., Chief Rabbi, 116, 279 Industries, 171; census of 171; kinds of,
Herzl, Theodor, early years, 71; The 245, 249; in war, 297-8
Jewish State, 72-4; convenes first Information Office, 300
Congress, 75-7; political negotiations, Institute of Jewish Studies, 174, 259
80-4; memorial gatherings, 272; 330, Iraq, 127, 130, 217, 228, 186, 295, 314
333 Irish Constabulary, Royal, 147
Herzl Forest, 106, 170 Israel's Messenger, 282
Herzl "Gymnasium", 100, 106 Italian Government, 119; implicated in
Hess, Moses, 22, 56, 72 Arab revolt, 216, 312
Hexter, M. B., 188 Italy, 41, 45, 127-9, 292
Hibbath Zion, 54, 59, 62-70, 74, 78 "I.T.O." See Jewish Territorial Organi-
High Commissioners, 128, 157 zations,
Hildesheimer, Rabbi Israel, 55
"Hilfsverein der deutschen Jedun", 92,
106-7
Hillel, 265
JABNEH, 32, 36 -
Hinden, Rita, 241
Jabotinsky, V., Ill, 134, 180, 206, 209
Hirsch, Baron M. de, 73, 284, 308 Victor, 66, 81, 93, 95, 110, 111,
Jacobson,
"Histadruth", 166, 207, 251, 267, 301
139, 208, 209
"Hitahduth", 140 147
Jaffa, 38, 63, 127,
"Hitahduth Olim", 268 170
Jaffa Plantations,
Hitler, 29, 207, 210, 230, 256, 279, 289,
306, 308
Jannai, 37
Jason, Rabbi Joseph, 334
Hodgkin, Thomas, 143 65
Jassy,
Holdheim, R. Samuel, 21 335
Jastrow, R. Marcus, 66,
Horowitz, David, 241
Terusalem, Roman conquest of, 32-3
Horowitz, R. Isaiah he-Levi, 43
(12th cent.), 39; (13th cent) , 40;
Horwich, Bernard, 330
(15th-16th cents.), 42; 16th cent.),
Hospitals, 177, 265 44; (18th cent.), 46; (19th cent.),
Hotels, 50, 247
House of Commons, of Lords. See Par- Mayor of, 144; disorders, 213; Jew-
ish population, 242
liament,
"Hoveve Zion", Jeune Turc, le, 93
62-70, 98-9
Hubermann, B., 264 Jewish Agency, extension of, 177-189,
283; Council of, 214; Executive of,
Hulda, 105, 303
263, 297; Administrative Committee,
Huleh, 204, 242, 247, 280
287
Hungary, 42 (Mediaeval), Zionist activ-
Jewish Brigade Group, 303
ity, 278
Hurva Synagogue, 158 Jewish Colonial Trust, 79, 81, 85, 86, 93,
96, 100, 138, 140
Hussein, King, 115, 145
Husseini, Haj Amin el, 145-6. See also Jewish Colonization Association, 73, 83,
92, 90
Mufti of Jerusalem,
Husseini, Kemal Effendi, 144 Jewish Commonwealth, 121, 153, 283
establishment
stations, 156 Jewish National Fund, 77;
Hydro-electric power of 81, 86; in Cologne, 90; capital in
1914, 95; activities of 100-21; Head
Office, 110; objects of, 132; relations
with Keren Hayesod, 133, 137;
"I.C.A." See Jewish Colonization Associa- transfer to Jerusalem, 135; area
tion. owned in 1929, 167; principles of,
Imber, Naphtali H., 53, 78, 260 168; relations to Jewish Agency, 184,
Immigration (into Palestine) , organiza- 186; area owned in 1944, 242; af-
tion of, 133, 136, 162; suspension of, forestation, 243; total income, 250;
199, 230, 232; official recognition of, land acquisitions during Second
151, 162-3, 239; Royal Commission's World War, 297
proposals, 221, 1939 White Paper Jewish Regiment, 11, 158
proposals, 229, 230, 305; "illegal", Jewish State, The (book), 72-74
INDEX 393
Jewish State,implied in Balfour Declar- "Knesseth Israel", 175-6, 208
ation, 121, 236; Royal Commission's Kobler, Dr. F., 47, 48
proposals, 2204; arguments in fa- Kohan Berstein, Dr. J., 89
vour of, 318 Kolelim, 46
Jewish State Party, 208-9, 211, 222 Kook, Chief Rabbi, 268
Jewish Territorial Organization, 88, 92, Kook Institute, 259
308 Koran, 258
Jezreel, Valley of, 105, 109, 135, 167, 235, Korasmians, 39
242 Kremenetzky, J., 90
Johannesburg, 139 Kupath Holim, 166, 174-5, 265
Joint Distribution Committee, 182 Kvutzah, Kvutzoth, 104, 169, 184
Joint Palestine Survey Commission, 182
Jonathan ha-Kohn, 39
Jordan, 156
Jordan Valley scheme, 324 LABORATORIES, 298
Jose ben Jose, 37 Labour depression, 165
Joseph, Dr. Samuel, 337 Labour exchanges, 166
Journalism, 262 Labour parties, 135, 208, 211, 268
"Judaeans", 111 Lachish, Letters of, 258
Judah ha-Levi, 37, 38 Laharanne, Ernest, 54, 58
Judische Rundschau, 277
Lamel Teachers' Seminary, 106
Judische Verlag, 90, 96 Land, in Jewish possession, 167, 237,
the Apostate, 33
242; cultivable, 201, 242; size of
uster, Jean, 324
{ulian
Jewish holdings, 244
Land policy, 132, 167-8
Land Transfers Regulations, 235-7, 320
Lands, State, 157, 161-2, 203
KABBARA MARSHES, 242 Langallerie, Marquis de, 47
"Kamldah," 59, 65, 75 Language Board, 255, 259
Kadoorie, Sir Ellis, 159, 256 Language Conflict, 106
Kadoorie Agricultural School, 256 Landsdowne, Lord, 79, 83
Kahn, Dr. Bernard, 187 Latvia, 129, 275
Kahn, Grand Rabbin Zadok, 66 Lawrence, T. E., 146
Kaiser, Alfred, 87 Lazarus, Emma, 67, 327
Kalischer, Hirsch, 22, 54-5, 57 League of Nations, 131, 139, 148, 151,
Kann, Jacobus, 80, 89, 96, 111 152, 154, 176, 191, 194, 203, 225,
Kaplan, Eliezer, 208, 211 226, 229, 234
Kaplansky, S., 186 Lebanon, 42
Karaites, 36 Lebensohn, Abraham, 58
Kami, Judah, 262 Lehman, Herbert H., 180
Karo, R. Joseph, 42 Lemmlein, Asher, 43
Katra, 73 Leszansky, 110
Kattowitz Conference, 64, 174 Levanda, Judah L., 62
Katzman, Boris, 337 Levant, 47
Kaufmann, Edmund I., 342 Levin, Shmarya, 66, 91, 95, 107, 110, 209
"Keren Geulah", 133 Levins, Dr. Caspar, 335
Keren Hayesod, 133-4, 136-7, 170, 173, Levinsohn, Isaac Beer, 58
187, 242, 250 Levontin, David, 63
Keren Kayemeth, See Jewish National Lewin-Epstein, E. W., 336
Fund. Library, Jewish National and University,
Kfar Saba, 99 174, 190, 258
Kharkov, 63, 85 Lichtheim, Richard, 134
Kibbush Avodah, 100 Lieme, Nehemiah de, 132, 134
Kibbutzim, 169 Ligne, Prince de, 47
Kindergarten schools, 106 Levinthal, Louis, 335, 343
Kinnereth, 102, 105 Lilienblum, M. L., 59, 64
Kisch, Fredk. H., 179, 183, 186, 205 "Lilith", 263
Kishinev, 83, 261 Lipman, Professor J. G., 182
Kishon Marshes, 159 Lipsky, Louis, 179, 183, 186, 208, 211,
Klausner, Professor J., 258 333, 338, 341
Klein, Rabbi Philip, 329, 332 Lisbon, 279
Kligler, Dr. J. J., 175 Literature, 260
394 INDEX
Lithuania, 129, 254 Marshall, Louis, 179, 180, 181, 184-5,
Liturgy, 19-20 186, 187, 188, 345

Lloyd George, David, 1124, 118, 127, 195, Marx, Karl, 56
202 Maskilim, 58
Lloyds Bank, 250 Massoretes, 36
Loans (for Palestine) , 157, 204 Mauritius Island, 292
Locker, Berl, 207 Masliansky, Reverend Hirsch, 335
Loewe, Heinrich, 66 Mayer, L., 49
Lofgren, Senator, 205 Mayerwitsch, Rev. H., 78
London, Congress in, 80 McKinley, William, President, 327, 331
Lot viable, 201 McMahon, Sir Henry, 124
Louis XIV, 47 McMahon pledges, 146, 149
Lourie, Dr. Hayim, 55 Mead, Professor Elwood, 182
"Lovers of Zion", 22, 23 Mecca, 313
Lowdermilk, W. C., 324 Medalia, Hyman Aaron, 329
Lowenthal, Marvin, 340 Medical Association, 262, 265
Lubarsky, Eliahu Abraham, 336 Medical Centre, 257, 266-7, 298
Ludd, 53 Medical services, 174, 257
Lueger, Karl, 71 Medical Unit, American Zionist, 122
Luria, R. Isaac, 42, 44 Medina, 313
Lurie, Joseph, 66 Mehemet AH, 45, 50, 51
Luxembourg, 279 Meir, R. Jacob, 94
Melchett, Lord (the first), 172, 182,
186, 202
Mendel, Rabbi (of Vitebsk), 45
Mendelssohn, Moses, 58
Mendes, Rabbi Pereira, 66, 335
Maaser, 136
Merhavia, 104
Maccabean, 73
Merriman, Lord (Boyd), 195-7
"Maccabiad", 266
MacDonald, Malcolm, 228, White Paper, Mesopotamia, 81
229 "Messengers of Zion", 40, 42
Messiah, 19, 20, 21, 23, 27, 37, 42, 43,
MacDonald, Ramsey (Prime Minister), 44, 48, 55, 72, 265
199
MacMichael, Sir Harold, 226 Metullah, 69, 127
Mack, Judge Julian W., 133, 136, 172, Mexico, 284
340, 341, 342 Midrash, 34
Mikveh Israel, 55-6, 256
"Maghrebim," 41
Magnes, Dr. Judah L., 257, 332-34 Military Administration, 126-7, 144, 146
Magnus, Laurie, 279 Military courts, 224; trials, 300, 302
Magnus, Sir Philip, 119 Military service (of Jews), 292-5
Maimonides, 39 Millennarians, 47
Main, Ernest, 124 Miller, David Hunter, 125
Malaria, 266 Milner, Lord, 117, 126
Malcolm, James A., 115 Mills, 170
Malta, 193, 215 Ministry of Information, 119

Mamelukes, 39 Minorities, protection of, 220
Manchester, 66, 112, 114 Minority rights, 131; Treaties, 131, 307
Manchester Guardian, 112, 114, 115, 122 Mintz, Dr. Moses, 329
Mandate (Palestine) , 129, 150, 214, 231; Mishmar, 262
primary purpose, 310; modification of, Mishnah, 33
31142 "Mission of Israel", 21, 68, 74
Mandates Commission, 27, 139, 154-5, Mitford, E. L., 52
194, 198-9, 209, 212, 223, 3334 Mithnaggedim, 46
Mandatory, obligations of, 311 Mizrachi,90, 135, 138, 173, 222, 262,269,
Mandelstanim, Max, 62, 82, 86 282
Manufacturers' Association, 247 Mohammed ibn Faruch, 42
"Mapai", 268 Mohilever, R. Samual, 62, 63, 64, 68
Mapu, A., 58 Molcho, Solomon, 43
Marine affairs, 247 Monash, Sir John, 282
Margolis, M. S. (Rabbi) 329 ,
Mongols, 31, 39
Marmorek, Dr. A., 82, 89, 94, 278 Montagu, Edwin, 117
Marranos, 41 Montefiore, Claude, 91, 116
INDEX 395
"New Zionist Organisation", 209
Montefiore, Sir Moses, 50-53, 55, 64, 257
Montgomery, Field Marshal, 295 Newspapers, 262
"Moriscos", 41 Nineteenth Century, 143
Moroccans, 70, 163 "Nir", 166, 248
Morris, Hopkin, 195 Noah, Mordecai M., 22, 52, 326
Morrison, Herbert, 309 Noar Haoved, 267
Morrison, Isadore D., 333 Nordau, Max, 72, 76, 84, 87, 94, 132, 278
Novelist, 259
Mortality rate, 175
Mortgage and Credit Bank, 251 Novomeysky, M., 246
Moscow, 263 Nuri Pasha, 217
Moser, Jacob, 100 Nurses, School for, 257
Moses of Crete, 169, 184
Moshav Ovedim, 169, 184
Moslem Council, Supreme, 145, 151, 192,
218, 224 OBADIAH OF BERTINORO, 40
Moslem courts, 145, 151 Observer, 124, 143
Mosque of El Aksa, 190 Occupations, Census of, 249
Mosque of Omar, 35, 192, 313 Occupied Enemy Territory
Administra-
Motor transport, 249 tion, 123
Motza, 69, 193 Odessa, 59, 62, 63, 65, 67
Motzkin, Leo, 66, 81, 92, 94, 111, 131, 208 Odessa Committee, 66, 67, 68, 70, 98, 102
Mount Scopus, 123, 257, 265 O'Donnell, Sir Samuel, 205
Mount Tabor, 256 "Ohel", theatre, 264
Mufti of Jerusalem, 144-5, 191, 192, 193, Oil pipe-line, 216, 246
196, 212, 215, 218, 224, 230 64
Oliphant, Laurence, 53, 59, 63,
Munich, 75; Agreement, 230, 310 Olympic Games, 266
214
Municipal Corporations Ordinance, Omar, Caliph, 34, 35
Municipal elections, 158 Omar ed-Dahr, 45
Musa Kazim, 196 Omar, Mosque of, 192
Museum of Archaeology, 288 Oneg Sabbat, 269
Music, Musical Conservatoire, 264 Opera, operettas, 264
Mussolini, 279, 286 337
Oppenheimer, Dr. Franz, 89, 95, 105,
Orange cultivation, 244
Order of Ancient Maccabeans, 272
NABLUS, 142, 213 Order-in-Council, Palestine, 154
137
"Nachshon", 248 Organization, Zionist, 77-8,
Nahalal, 169, 256, 281 Orient, 285
Nahmanides, 39 Ormsby-Gore, W. (Lord Harlech), 122,
123, 124, 223, 302
Nairobi, 79, 281
Ottoman Debt, 160
Napoleon, 22, 49
Nashashibi, 144-5 Ottoman Government, 28, 77, 81, 84, 144
Nasi, 32, 43 Outrages, Arab. See Attacks.
Nation, Jews as, 24-26 Oxford, Lord, 113
National Councils, Jewish, 131
149-
Nationality, meaning of, 25; Jewish
50; Palestinian, 159
Natural increase, 241 PAINTERS, 263
Naturalisation, 158 "Palcor", 263, 283
Nautical School, 247, 256 Palestine Corporation, 172
Palestine Economic Corporation, 180,
Navy, Jewish, 294
251
Naxos, Joseph, Duke of, 42
Nazi terror, 239, 257, 266, 271, 278, 289, Palestine Electric Corporation, 171, 172,
291, 300, 306-7 245, 251
Palestine Foundation Fund. See Keren
Nebi, Musa, 127
Nesher Cement works, 171 Hayesod.
Palestine Jewish Colonisation Associa-
Nethaniah, 245
tion (P.LC.A.), 157, 251
Netter, Charles, 56
Palestine Land Development Co., 95,
Neue Freie Presse, 75
333, 341 105, 242
Neumann, Emanuel, 207,
Palestine and Near East Magazine, 263
New Judea, The, 139
Palestine Office (Jaffa) , 95, 101, 109, 110
New York, 66, 110, 283
Palestine Post, 262
New Zealand, 78, 281-2
396 INDEX
Palestine Potash, Ltd., 246 Prague, 207

Palestine Review, 262 Preedy, Kenelm, 195
Palestine Royal Commission, 118, 120, Preparation Fund, 133
216, 223 Prime Minister's (Ramsay MacDonald's)
Palestine Water Company, 251 Letter, 203,4, 206, 309
Palmerston, Lord, 114 Printing Press, 42
Pann, Abel, 263 Procope, M., 200
Pardess Hannah, 256 Propaganda, 78, 82, 96
Paris, 66, 72, 81, 115, 133, 278 Proselytisation, 21
Parliament, debates in, (1922), 148, 151; Protest-Rabbiner, 74
(1930), 212;(1936), 216; (1937), Provence, 41
221,* (1939), 232; (1940), 236 Palmist, 20
Parliamentary Palestine Committee, 280 Pseudo-Messiahs, 43, 44, 47
Parliaments, Zionists in, 9-92, 275, 277 Purim, 260
Parties, in Asefath Hanivharim, 176, 268
Partition Commission, 225-6
Partition schemes, 22, 225, 227
Quarterly Review, 50
Passfield, Lord, 195, 202
"Quest of Zion", 55
Patria, 291
Patterson, Colonel J. H., Ill
Paulli, Oliger, 47 RABBINICAL ACADEMIES, 34
Peace Conference, 121, 126, 131, 149
Rabbinical Council, 144, 150, 176
Pearlman, Maurice, 167
Rabbis, attitude to Zionism, 23, 24, 55,
Peel, Earl, 216
74, 75, 81, 239; pilgrims to Palestine,
Pekiin, 32, 45
39
Periodicals, 262
Rabinowitz, Saul P., 62, 64
Perlman. See Ben- Yehuda, Eliezer
Rachel, 261
Permanenz Ausschuss, 287
Radicals, 135, 179, 180, 186, 187, 207
Persia, 41, 286, Jews of, 70, 163
Railway (Jaffa- Jerusalem), 156
Persians, 31, 34, 36
Ramath Hakovesh, 302
Peru, 385
Ramleh, 236
Perushim, 45 Rashid AH el-Khilani, 295, 314
Petah Tikvah, 63
Rate, municipal, 253
Petahya of Ratisbon, 38
Reading, Lord (first), 113; Marquess of,
Petlura, General, 180
195
Petrie, Sir Flinders, 35
Reclamation of Land, 297
Pharmaceutical products, 299
Recruiting, 292-3
Philadelphia, 66 Red Shield of David, 266
Philby, H, St. J., 143 Reform Jews, 75, 91; Reform Judaism,
PICA. See Palestine Jewish Colonization 21
Association
Refugees, 223,4, 245, 285, 291, 298,9;
Pichon, M., 119 refugee ships 291,2
Pilgrimages, 20, 33 Rehovoth, 257, 299
Pineles, Samuel, 65 Reines, R. Isaac, 90
Pinsker, Leon, 22, 60, 62, 64, 65, 72 Relativity, Treatise on, 259
Simha, 60 Religion, as basic element in Zionism,
Plehve, Von, 84, 85, 93 19, 21, observance of, 136, 268, 269
Plumer, 157-60, 190 Reorganization Commission, 134
Poets, 261-2 Rescue of Jews, 29809
Pogroms 54, 62, 67, 83, 92, 103, 29, 310 Research Institute, Daniel Sieff, 257, 299
Poland, 41,2 (mediaeval); 129, 164, 165, Restoration Fund, 133, 250
234, 293, 275 Reubeni, David, 43, 47
Police Forces 159, 196, 293 Revenue, of Palestine Government, 252
Political "high level", 221 Revisionists, 180, 208, 209
Political parties, 267,8 Richards, Bernard G., 340
Pope Benedict XIV, 115 Richmond, E. T., 143
Pope Piux X, 85 Riots. See Attacks.
Population, Jewish, of Palestine, 70, 105, Rishon le-Zion 63, 63, 69, 172
123, 157, 170,1, 241 Romans, 31, 32
"Poriah", 105 Rome and Jerusalem, 56,72
Potash Company, 235, 246, 251 Robinson, W. D., 326
"Practical" Zionists, 91, 94-6 Roosevelt, President, 231, 284, 306
INDEX 397
Rosenau, Professor Milton, 183 Schulman, Caiman, 58

Rosenblatt, Bernard A., 341 Schur, William 336
Rosenbleuth, Felix, 183, 186 Schweitzer Peter J., 341
Rosh Pinah, 63 Scott, C. P., 112
Scouts, 266
Rosovsky, 264
Sea Scout, 247
Rothenberg, Morris, 341
Rothschild, Baron Amschel, 55 Security measures, 302
Rothschild, Baron Edmond de, 23, 64, Sedjera, 98
60-70, 75, 98, 109, 167, 168, 172, 278 Segal, Hyman, 337
Rothschild James de, 122, 167 Self-defence organisation, 302
22,
Rothschild, Lord (first) 81 Self-government, 151, 153, 199, 212,
Rothschild, Lord (Walter) 117 312
Rottenstreich, F., 211 "Self-labour'*, 103, 168
Round Table Conference, 212, 228 Selim I, 41
310 Selim 42
Royal Commission, 216, 221,
II,
Senator, Werner, 187
Royal Society of England, 257
Rubinstein. 264 Separate Unions, 138, 271,2, 3
176
Ruelf, R. Isaac, 55 Sephardim, 43, 46, 70, 75, 144,
Ruhama, 105 Senerus of Syria, 43
Rumania, persecution in, 26, 74; Jews of, Seychelles Islands, 224, 228
63; Hibbath Zion movement, 65; Seym, 275
Zionist activity, 275; refugees from, Shaftesbury, Lord, 22, 50, 114
292 Shakespeare, 263
70, 95, 96, 99, 101, 110, Shalom, Abraham, 44
Ruppin, Arthur,
186, 208, 211, 242 Shanghai, 282
Russia, Tsarist: persecution in 22, 26, Sharon, Plain of, 242
62, 74; prohibition of Zionism, 83, Shaw, Sir Walter, 195
92, 93, 274; Zionists of, 84,5, 129 Sheep-breeding, 297
Russia, Soviet: 130, 274; Halutzim of, Shekel, 78, 93, 96, 173; disciplinary
164; banning of Zionism, 272, 276 clause, 209
245 Shekel-payers, 135,
138
Rutenberg, P., 156, 171,
Shemen Works, 171
Shertok, Moshe, 211
248,
Shipping, 249; shipping companies,
29607
SABBATAI ZEVI, 43, 44
Shofman, G., 261
Sabbath observance, 269
Shuchan Aruch, 42, 268
Sacharoff, E., 302
Siberia, 163
Sacher, Harry, 183, 186
Sick Benefit Fund, 166, 174, 265
Sacrifices, revival of, 55
Sidebotham, Herbert, 114
Safed, 41 (16th cent), 42, 43, 44, 46
Sidon, 38
Sailors, 247, 248 343
Silver, Abba, Hillel, Rabbi, 33, 342,
Saladin, Sultan, 39
Simon, Lord (Sir John), 202
Salvador, Joseph, 22, 54
Simon, Julius, 132, 134, 187
Samaria, 63, 69
Samarin, 63, 64 Simpson, Sir J. Hope, 200-201
Simson ben Abraham, 39
Sampter Jessie, E., 340
Simson, Brigadier H. J., 218
Samuel, Viscount (Herbert), 112-3, 121,
Sinai, 259
128, as high Commissioner, 142-159
Sinai Peninsula, 82, 83
342
Singapore, 79, 140, 282
Samuel, Sir Stuart, 116
Smallholders settlements, 168
Sanhedrin, 32, 36, 40
Smilansky, M., 261
San Remo, 127
Smolenskin, Perez, 58, 59, 65
Saudi-Arabia, 228
Smuts, General, 121, 195, 202, 281
Sazonoff, M., 113
78 Smyrna, 43
Schapira, Professor H., Snell, Lord (Harry), 195, 196-7
Scholem, Gerhard, 258
Socialism, Socialist parties, 90, 102, 103,
Schools, Arab, 156 140
Schools,Hebrew, 68, 99, 107, 172; gov-
ernment grant to, 173, 254; types of, Sokolow, Nahum, 90, 96, 114-115, 119,
126, 130, 131, 139, 179, 186, 188, 208.
173, 255
211, 280, 338
Schechter, Professor Solomon, 336
Soldiers Palestinian Jewish, 293-5
Schiff, Jacob H,, 336, 338, 345
398 INDEX
"Solel Boneh", 248, 301 Tenants' Protective Ordinance, 237

Solowoitohik, Max, 179 Territorial Federations, 271-2
Songs, 264-5, 272 "Territorialists", 88, 91
"Sons of Moses", 68 Terrorism, Arab. 213, 233,4
Soskin, S. E., 89 Theatres, 166
South Africa, 78, 163, 280 Theodosius II, 33
South America, 284-5 Thomas, Bettram, 124
Soviet Government, 276 Thon, Jacob, 110, 124
Spectators, 122 Tiberisa, 32, 33, 36, 38, 42,, 45, 46, 247
Sprinzak, J., 186 Tiberias, Lake, 247
St. James's Palace, 228, 310 Times, The, 50, 114, 115, 195, 198, 202
Stanislavsky, 263 Titus, 32
Stanley, Colonel Oliver, 305 "Tnuvah," 245, 248
State, Jewish, 120-21 Tolerance, 26
Stavsky, 208 Torczyner, Professor, 258
Stoker, W. H., K. C. 195 Toscanini, 264
Stolypin, M., 93 Tourist traffic, 247
Straus, Oscar, 331 Toure, Judah, 53
Strickland, C. F., 205 Tower of David, 38
Struma, 292 Trade, Foreign, 219
Suez Canal, 113 Trade Unions, 248
"Suicide squads," 295 Traditional Judaism, 24
Sulaiman, 42 Translations, 261
Sulzberger, Mayer, 331 Transport trade, 172; military transport,
Sweden, 289
Switzerland, 66, 279, 289 Transjordan, 32, 33, 39, 54, 112, 146,
Sykes, Sir Mark, 115 220, 225, 228, 36, 313
Sykes-Picot Agreement, 115 Transjordan Frontier Force, 159
Symphony Orchestra, 264 Trees, planting of, 224
Synagogues, 268 Trieste, 164
"Synthetic Zionism", 112 Tripolitania, 286
Syria, 81, 12, 146, 151, 158,269, 286,297, Trumpeldor, Joseph, 111, 121, 164
312,13 Tschlenow, Dr. Y., 96, 107, 11, 114, 130
Syrian delegation, 127 Tuberculosis, 266
Syrkin, Dr. N., 88 Tulloch, Major, 246
Szold, Rabbi Benjamin^ 66, 335 Tunis, 45. Tunisia, 295
Szold, Miss Henrietta, 66, 183, 186, 257, Turks, 31, 33, 39, 45, 123, Young Turks,
334, 340 93
Szold, Robert, 134
Turkey, 130, Sultan of, 75; banning of
Zionism, 272; Government of 63, 74,
95, 108, 152, 292
"Tushiyah", 68
TALAAT PASHA, 120 Tyre, 38
Talmud, 20, 33, 34
Talmud Torah schools, 172
Talmudical academies, 269
Talmudist, 38
Talpioth, 256
UGANDA, 84
Tamerlane, 39 Ukraine, 129
Tancred, 49 Ulema, 144
Tarbuth, 275, 287 Unemployment, 162-3
Taxation, 253 UnitedStates, Hoveve Zion societies, 66;
Taxes, 158-9 Zionist Organization, 78, 282; Poale
Tchernichowski, S., 260-1 Zion, 90; Provisional Executive in
Teachers' Union, 106, 173 First World War, 110; influence on
Technical Institute, 173, 247, 256, 298 Balfour Declaration, 118-9; expan-
Teheran, 296 sion of Zionist movement, 129; Gov-
Tel-Aviv, 101, 109, 110, 156, 164, 166, ernment, 117, 119, 157; Congress
170, 71, 172, 219, 241, 246,7, 269 resolution, 119 155; Convention with
Tel-Aviv Municipality, 241, 261, 265 Great Britain, 155; Zionist activities,
Tel Hai, 127 282; Government action in aid of
Temple, 20, 33, 35, 40, 192, 268 refugees, 306
INDEX 399
University of Jerusalem, 53, 77, 80, 96. thetic Zionism," 94; advocates Heb-
122, 155 (inauguration), 174, 267, rew University; 96; negociations for
280, 298 Balfour Declaration, 112-116; birth
University Press, 258 and education, 112; at Peace Con-
Usha, 32 ference, 125, 6, 149; agreement with
Ussishkin, M., Chairman of Odessa Com- Feisel, 124-5; elected in Zionist Exec-
mitte, 65, 70; Opposition to East utive, 130; President of Zionist Or-
Africa scheme, 85; member of Zion- ganization, 132, 139; activities for
ist executive, 89; founds Teachers' extension of Jewish Agency, 177-189;
Union, 106, head of Zionist Com- resignation of Presidency, of Zionist
mission; 132 at Peace Conference, Organization and of Jewish Agency,
126; member of Zionist Executive 202; discussions with Cabinet Com-
132; 159; Chairman of Jewish Na- mittee, 202; Director of Central
tional Fund, 139; at Jewish Agency Bureau for German Jews, 207; re-
inaugural session, 186; Chairman of election as President, 211; criticizes
General Council, 211, opposes parti- Palestine Administration, 221; ar-
tion, 221, closing speech at 1939 raigns British Government, 232; clos-
Congress, 234 ing speech at 1939 Congress, 233-4;
Director of Sieff Research Institute,
253; visits to United States, 283; let-
ter to Prime Minister Chamberlain,
Vaad Hahinnuch, 173 289-90; negociations for Jewish Fght-
Vaad Hair, 123 ing Force, 293; 341, 343, 345
Vaad Halashon, 255 Wellington, 79
Vaad Hazmani, 124 Wells, boring of, 297
Vaad Leumi, 124, 245, 161, 175-6,253,256 Welt, Die, 75, 96
Valley of Esdraelon, 156
Wertheimer, Wolf, 44
Western Desert, 295
Valley of Jexrcel, 104, 109, 167
Western Wall, 33, 35, 190-3, 197, 205
Vambery, Arminius, 81
Vatican, 151 White Papers: Churchill (1922) , 149-51,
180, 240; on Western Wall, 191, on
Vegetable cultivation, 244
Venice, 41, 42
Shaw Commission's Report, 195-6;
Lord Passfield's (on Hope Simpson's
Vespasian, 32
Viborg Manifesto, 91 Report, 1930), 199, 209, 212; on par-
Vienna, 66, 73, 74, 75, 78, 85, 89, 96, 164 tition, 220-1; on Technical Commis-
sion for partition, 226; MacDonald's
Vilna, 62, 65, 84, 90, 91, 139
Vital, Hiam, 42, 44 1939 on termination of Mandate,
Vocational training, 250 229, 237, 303, 306, 309, 319
Volunteers, registration of, 290 Wilbuschewitz, N., 87
William II (German Emperor) , 80
William III (of England), 47
Wilson, Sir Henry Maitland, 296
Wilson, President, 115, 117, 119, 121,
"WAILING WALL/' See Western Wall,
284, 315, 339
Wakf, 224 Winaver, M., 90
War, First World, 108-9, 130,304; Second Wine-cellars, 69
World, 253-4 289-90, 292, 306 Wine-trade, 172
War Refugees Board, 306
222 Winnipeg, 79
Warburg, Felix, 182, 187, 188,
Wise, Rabbi Aaron, 66, 329
Warburg, Professor Otto, 89, 94, 95
Wise, Dr., Stephen, 66, 119, 181, 182, 329,
Warren, Sir Charles, 53
332, 335, 340, 343
Warsaw, 62, 164
Washington, political bureau, 283 Witherby, Thomas, 49
Wassermann, Oscar, 182, 187 Witte, M., 84
Watchmen, 105 Wolf, Lucien, 91, 279
Sir Arthur, 213, 226 Wolffsohn, David, 79, 82, 89, 95, 96
Wauchope,
Wavell, General, 295 Wolman, Dr. Leo, 183
Webb, Women Zionists, 272
Sidney, 195
Women's International Zionist Organisa-
Weisgal, Meyer W., 340
tion, 141, 250, 256, 284
Weizman, Dr. Chaim, member of stu-
dents society, 66; leader of "Demo- Woodhead, Sir John, 226
cratic Fraction," 81; opposes East Worker's Bank, 166, 172, 251
Africa scheme, 87; advocates "Syn- Workers' Youth Movement, 267
INDEX
400
ZANGWUX, ISRAEL, 73, 87, 88, 89, 308
Workshops, 245, 297 Zebulun Seafaring Society, 247
World Congress, 177-8
Zederbaum Alevfnder, 59
"Zeire Zion", 140
Zichron Jacob, 64, 106, 110, 172
Zikr, 192, 206
v ... , efi Zion Mule Corps, 111
FaWwn, 166 ,
zione Uonr> 87> 88
Yarmuk, 156 171 or
zionism origin of ..term) 6 6; Cultural
Yemen, 41, 163, 228 68; hetic," 112
F iritualj Synt
Yemenites, 70 101, 266, 300 Bu 1M
H
YC
f^ ^
Yiddish,
^58, 79,
a
97?
275, 284
zionist Commission, 122, 123, 130,
Zollsohan, Dr., Ignatz, 337
133
?"ko *> 04
, n 9QO
, Zolotkoff, Leon, 330
J
Youth Ahyah, 240, 299 kh 185 189j 221
Youth Movement, 141
This is an up-to-date, comprehensive his-
tory of the Zionist movement from the
earliest times to the

present day. Its au-
thor has had the exceptional advantage
of a long and intimate connection with
the Zionist Organization, which began
35 years ago. THE ZIONIST MOVE-

MENT is an authoritative exposition of
all
aspects of a national movement of
far-reaching importance. In addition to
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special chapter on American Zionism
by B. G. Richards, it contains a full ac-
count of the evolution and activities of
Zionism throughout the world; of the
remarkable work of colonization and in-
tellectual renaissance in Palestine; of the
variations of British
policy since the first
World War; and of the relations be-

j
tween the League of Nations and the
Mandatory Government. It is
indispens-
able to all who are concerned about the
future of the Jewish

people or are inter-
ested in the aifairs and destinies of the
Near and Middle East.

THE PALESTINE YBAKBUUK
One of the most

important steps
the Zionist
of America has taken, through its

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Publication Program, is the

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of THE
PALESTINE YEARBOOK. The first volume
the next and

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editions are assured of equal, if not

subsequent
all.
greater, reception by
The second edition (1946) is a comprehensive
review of events from July 1945 to and including
It with "Political
September 15, 1946. opens
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In addition, lists of organizations,

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296

Keep Your Card in This Pocket

"Jewish Life in Modern Times (ist Edition, 1914;

The Journal of a Jewish Traveller (1925).

A Ghetto Gallery (1931)

Britain's Nameless Ally (1942).

The Jews in the War (ist Edition, 1942; 2nd Edition,

History of the Jews in Vilna (Philadelphia, 1943).

EDITED AND REVISED

ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. No part of this book may

be reproduced in any form without permission

in writing from the publishers; except by a

FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1945 IN

GREAT BRITAIN BY FREDERICK MULLER LTD.

BY MARSTIN PRESS, NEW YORK 17, N.Y.

years ago the only literature in English about Zionism

1!#J.',!,\V FEB 211949

quence, to provide both a history of the movement from the

fervour of the Jewish national aspiration and the extent to which

edge and understanding of an age-long ideal battling for fulfil-

typescript, for many valuable suggestions, by which I have bene-

reading the proofs and making additional useful suggestions.

this book went

London, February zznd, 1946.

Changes and revisions made in the text by the present editor

the events of the present year. At the suggestion of the author

ing to the unquenchable love of Zion and the matchless devotion

April 26, 1946

religious idealReform Judaism and the "Mission of Israel" Advocates

THE PERIOD OF ASPIRATION

CHAPTER II. THE ADVOCACY OF RESTORATION ... 47

Early secular proposals for restoration Napoleon's appeal An anonymous

THE PERIOD OF PREPARATION

Persecution in Russia-Hot/o/e Zion societies-The Bilu The first settle-

The advent of Theodor Herzl-Literary career-The Dreyfus Affair-

CHAPTER V. POLITICAL AND PRACTICAL ZIONISM ... 87

"politicals" and the "practicals" Transfer of Zionist headquarters

CHAPTER VI. THE BEGINNINGS OF ZIONIST COLONISATION . 98

Transfer of the Rothschild settlements to the "I.C.A." Colonising activity

THE PERIOD OF RESTORATION

Post-war growth of Zionism The Conference of 1919 Establishment of

CHAPTER IX. THE PALESTINE MANDATE . . . .142

CHAPTER X. BUILDING THE NATIONAL HOME 1919-29 . . 161

The Palestine Zionist Executive Immigration Ordinances Organisation

CHAPTER XI. EXTENSION OF THE JEWISH AGENCY . . .177

Relations between Jews and Arabs Right of Worship at "Wailing

CHAPTER XIII. THE ARAB REVOLT .... 212

Arab demand for self-government Disorders of 1933 Proposed Legis-

CHAPTER XIV. FROM PARTITION SCHEMES TO WHITE PAPER . 225

Government retreat from partition plan Partition Commission's Report

CHAPTER XV. PROGRESS IN THE NATIONAL HOME . . 238

Official obstructions toimmigration Illegality of "political high level"

CHAPTER XVII. ZIONISM IN THE DIASPORA ...

Conditions in Eastern EuropeZionism in political and cultural life