Lesson

39
Space Air Distribution

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The specific objectives of this chapter are to:
1. Requirements of a proper air distribution system, definition of Air Distribution
Performance Index and Space Diffusion Effectiveness Factor (Section 39.1)
2. Design of air distribution systems, buoyancy effects and deflection of air jets
(Section 39.2)
3. Behaviour of free-stream jets, definitions of drop, throw, spread and entrainment
ratio (Section 39.3)
4. Behaviour of circular jets (Section 39.4)
5. Behaviour of rectangular jets (Section 39.5)
6. Characteristics of different types of air distribution devices, such as grilles,
registers, ceiling diffusers, slotted diffusers etc. (Section 39.6)
7. Return air inlets (Section 39.7)
8. Airflow pattern inside conditioned spaces using different types of air distribution
devices (Section 39.8)
9. Stratified mixing flow (Section 39.9)
10. Cold air distribution (Section 39.10)
11. Displacement flow (Section 39.11)
12. Spot cooling/heating (Section 39.12)
13. Selection criteria for supply air inlets (Section 39.13)

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Explain the importance of proper air distribution in conditioned space and define
ADPI and SDEF
2. List the factors to be considered in the design of air distribution devices and
explain buoyancy effects and deflection of air jets
3. Estimate throw, drop, spread and entrainment ratio of circular and rectangular,
isothermal free jets
4. List different types of supply air outlet devices and their characteristics
5. Draw the airflow patterns for ceiling, sidewall and slotted diffusers
6. Explain stratified mixing flow, displacement flow, cold air distribution and spot
cooling and heating
7. List the criteria for selection of supply air outlets.

39.1. Introduction
After the required amount of supply air is transmitted to the conditioned
space, it is essential to distribute the air properly within the conditioned space. Thus
it is important to design suitable air distribution system, which satisfies the following
requirements:

a) Create a proper combination of temperature, humidity and air motion in the

occupied zone. The occupied zone is defined as all the space in the conditioned
zone that is from the floor to a height of 1.8 m and about 30 cms from the walls. In
the occupied zone, the maximum variation in temperature should be less than 1οC
and the air velocity should be in the range of 0.15 m/s to 0.36 m/s.

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b) To avoid draft in the occupied zone. Draft is defined as the localized feeling of
cooling or warmth. Draft is measured above or below the controlled room condition
of 24.4 οC and an air velocity of 0.15 m/s at the center of the room. The effective
draft temperature (EDT) for comfort is given by:

EDT = (DBT − 24.4) − 0.1276(V − 0.15) (39.1)

where DBT is the local dry bulb temperature (in oC) and V is the local velocity (m/s).
For comfort, the EDT should be within –1.7oC to +1.1oC and the air velocity should
be less than 0.36 m/s.

39.1.1. Air Distribution Performance Index (ADPI)

The ADPI is defined as the percentage of measurements taken at many

locations in the occupied zone of space that meets EDT criteria of –1.7oC to +1.1oC,
that is:

⎛N ⎞
ADPI = ⎜ θ ⎟ x100 (39.2)
⎝ N ⎠

where N is the total number of locations at which observations have been made, and
Nθ is the number of locations at which the effective draft temperature is within –1.7oC
to +1.1oC.

The objective of air distribution system design is to select and place the
supply air diffusers in such a way that the ADPI approaches 100 percent. The ADPI
provides a rational way of selecting air diffusers. Studies show that the value of ADPI
depends very much on space cooling load per unit area. A large value of space
cooling load per unit area tends to reduce the value of ADPI.

39.1.2. Space Diffusion Effectiveness Factor (SDEF)

The effectiveness of air distribution system is sometimes assessed using

Space Diffusion Effectiveness Factor (SDEF). It is defined as:

T − Ts
SDEF = ex (39.3)
Tr − Ts

where Tex is the temperature of the exhaust air, Ts is the supply air temperature and
Tr is the temperature of the room air (at the measuring point). A SDEF value of ≤ 1
implies that some amount of cold supply air has not mixed with the room air and is
leaving the conditioned space as exhaust. The space air distribution is considered to
be effective if SDEF ≥ 1.0.

Table 39.1 shows the recommended supply air velocities for diffusers. Since
the air velocity at the supply air outlet is normally much higher than 0.36 m/s and its
temperature is much lower than 24.4oC, it has to mix properly with the room air
before it reaches the occupancy level. This depends on the effective design of the air
distribution system.

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Criterion Application Supply velocity, m/s
Noise Studios, operating theatres 3 to 3.5
Apartments, office spaces 4.0 to 5.0
Restaurants, libraries 5.0 to 6.0
Supermarkets 6.0 to 7.5
Factories, Gymnasium 7.5

Table 39.1: Recommended air velocities for supply air diffusers

39.2. Design of air distribution systems

The objective of air distribution system design is to choose the location and
type of supply air diffuser and the location and type of the return air grilles. The
parameters that affect air velocity and temperature at a given point in the conditioned
space are:

a) Velocity of air at the inlet to the supply diffuser: Noise criteria to be observed

b) Supply to room temperature difference (Ts−Tr)

c) Geometry and Position of air supply outlet

d) Position of return air inlet

e) Room Geometry

f) Room surface temperature: Lower the surface temperature (e.g. with glass)
stronger are the natural convection currents.

g) Internal heat sources (e.g. people, appliances)

h) Room turbulence

The exact prediction of velocity and temperature profiles inside the

conditioned space requires simultaneous solution of mass, momentum and energy
equations for the conditioned space. However in general this task is extremely
complicated due to the several factors that affect airflow and heat transfer inside the
conditioned space. However, a basic understanding of room air distribution requires
the understanding of, buoyancy effects, deflection of air streams and behaviour of
free-stream jets. Normally the location and type of return air grilles do not affect the
air distribution significantly.

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39.2.1. Buoyancy effects:

Due to the buoyancy effects, a supply air stream that is cooler than the room
air will drop and supply air that is warmer than room air rises. However, from thermal
comfort point-of-view, it is important that the supply air stream does not strike at
occupancy level. Figure 39.1(a) shows the drop of a supply air jet that is cooler than
the room air.

Room
Beam

Room

Fig.39.1(a): Drop of a cool air jet Fig.39.1(b): Deflection of a cool air jet

It is understood that the buoyancy effects are due to temperature difference

prevailing between the supply air and the room air. It can be shown that the velocity
of an element at a height ‘h’ due to buoyancy is given by:

⎛ ΔT ⎞
Vt 2 = gh⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (39.4)
⎝ r⎠
T
where ΔT is the difference between the local temperature of the fluid (Tf) element
and the room air (Tr), Tr is the room air temperature in K, g is the acceleration due to
gravity and h is the height. For equilibrium at a height H, the velocity of the fluid
element should be equal to the entrance velocity of supply air (Vo), i.e.,

Vt = Vo at equilibrium (39.5)
Then from Eqn.(39.1):
⎛ ΔT ⎞
Vo 2 = gH ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟ (39.6)
⎝ Tr ⎠

where ΔTd is the difference between the temperature of air at supply outlet and the
room air.

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The Archimedes number, Ar is then defined as:

gH ⎛ ΔTd ⎞
Ar = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (39.7)
Vo 2 ⎝ T r ⎠

In the above expression for Archimedes number, H may be the height of the room or
the hydraulic diameter, Dh of the room given by:

4 WH
Dh = (39.8)
2( W + H)

where W and H are the width and height of the room, respectively. Archimedes
number conveniently combines the supply air velocity at the outlet, supply to room
temperature difference and the principle dimensions of the room- important factors
that define the air distribution in a room. Several studies show that the airflow pattern
in a room is largely dependent on the Archimedes number. The Archimedes number
can also be viewed as a ratio of Grashof number to the square of Reynolds number
(Ar ≈ Gr/Re2), thus combining the effects of natural convection due to buoyancy and
forced convection due to supply air jet. Archimedes number also affects the heat
transfer between the air inside the conditioned space and the surrounding surfaces.
To avoid cold drafts in the occupied zone, the Archimedes number should not
exceed a maximum value, which depends on the room dimensions. Table 39.2
shows the maximum Archimedes number values as a function of W/H ratio.

W/H 4.7 3.0 2.0 1.0

Armax 2000 3000 10000 11000

Table 39.2: Maximum recommended Archimedes number values to avoid draft

39.2.2. Deflection:

When an air stream strikes a solid surface such as a concrete beam or a wall,
it deflects. Again from comfort criteria, it is essential to ensure that due to deflection,
the supply air does not strike the occupants before it is diffused. Figure 39.1(b)
shows the deflection of a supply air jet as it strikes a solid beam.

39.3. Behaviour of free-stream jet:

The following aspects are important in understanding the behaviour of free-
stream jets:

Blow or throw:

It is the distance traveled by the air stream in horizontal direction on leaving

the supply air outlet and reaching a velocity of 0.25 m/s. The velocity should be
measured at a height of 1.8 m above the floor level. In air conditioning, the desirable
length of blow is upto 3/4th of the distance to the opposite side of the wall.

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Drop:

It is the vertical distance the air moves after leaving the supply outlet and
reaches the end of blow.

Figure 39.2 shows the meaning of drop and throw of free-stream jets.

Room

Fig.39.2. Definition of drop and throw

Entrainment ratio:

As the high velocity jet (called as primary air) leaves the supply air outlet, it
entrains some amount of room air (called as secondary air). Entrainment gives rise
to motion of room air. The entrainment ratio at a distance x from the supply outlet is
defined as the ratio of volumetric flow rate of air at x to the volumetric flow rate of air
at the supply air outlet (x=0), i.e.,

Qx
Entrainment ratio at x,R x = (39.9)
Qx = 0

Spread:

It is the angle of divergence of the air stream after it leaves the supply air
outlet as shown in Fig.39.3. The spread can be both horizontal as well as vertical.
Vanes are normally used in the supply air outlets. These vanes can be straight,
converging or diverging. Figure 39.3 shows the outlet with diverging vanes, for which
the horizontal spread is 60o as shown in the figure. For straight vanes and
converging the spread is equal to 19o both in horizontal and vertical directions.
Converging vanes yield a blow that is about 15% longer than that of straight vanes,
whereas for diverging vanes it is about 50% less than that of horizontal vanes.

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Outlet vanes
Room

Supply
air

Fig.39.3: Spread of an air jet with diverging vanes

39.4.Circular jets:
An understanding of the principle of the simple circular jet can be used to
understand the characteristics of most of the commercial supply air diffusers and
grilles. Figure 39.4 shows the airflow pattern in a circular jet. As shown in the figure,
supply air leaves the outlet at a velocity Vo. The velocity decays as the jet enters the
room and entrains the room air. Figure 39.4 also shows the velocity profile. It can be
seen that the velocity of air varies as a function of distance, horizontal x from the
opening along the centerline and the radial distance from the centerline.

Using the mass and momentum balance equations to the circular jet, it has
been shown by Schlichting that the velocity profile for the circular jet is given by:

7.41 Vo A o
V (x, r ) =
[ (
x 1 + 57.5 r 2 / x 2 )] 2 (39.10)

where Vo is the velocity at the outlet, m/s; V(x,r) is the velocity of air in the jet at x
and r, and Ao is the cross-sectional area of the outlet. From the above equation it is
easy to predict that the air velocity in the circular jet decreases as x and r increase,
and as Ao and Vo decrease. Thus a jet sustains its velocity better as the velocity at
the supply outlet increases and/or the area of opening increases. One can also
deduce that since the velocity decreases with x and r, the jet spreads as it flows, so
that the mass of air is always conserved. And from momentum conservation, it can
be deduced that entrainment of room air takes place as the jet moves away from the
supply air outlet.

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V

Vo centreline

Fig.39.4: Velocity distribution through a circular jet

From Eqn.(39.10), the velocity of air in the circular jet along the centerline (r=0) is
found to be:

7.41 Vo A o
V ( x , r = 0) = (39.11)
x
From the above expression, the entrainment ratio Rx for the circular jet can be
written as:
∞
∫ V(x, r ).2πr.dr
Qx r =0 0.405 x
Rx = = = (39.12)
Q x =0 A o Vo Ao

Large circular openings are rarely used in actual air distribution systems as
they travel long distances before mixing with room air. As this can cause discomfort
to the occupants, normally diffusers are used in circular jets. These diffusers provide
rapid velocity decay and large entrainment.

39.5. Rectangular jets:

Long, rectangular grilles are commonly used for distributing air in conditioned
space. These grilles can be modeled using equations of rectangular jet. It has been
shown that for a rectangular jet, the velocity distribution is given by:

2.40 Vo b ⎡ 2⎛ y ⎞⎤
V ( x , y) = ⎢1 − tanh ⎜ 7.67 x ⎟ ⎥ (39.13)
x ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

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where b is the width of the opening and y is the normal distance from the central
plane. A comparison between circular and rectangular jets shows that the centerline
velocity decreases more rapidly for a circular jet compared to a rectangular jet. The
rectangular jet entrains less air than a circular jet, as a result it decelerates more
slowly.

39.6. Types of air distribution devices:

Grilles and Registers: A grille is an outlet for supply air or an inlet for return air. A
register is a grille with a volume control damper. Figure 39.5 shows the front view of
a supply air grille with horizontal and vertical vanes. The vanes, either fixed or
adjustable are used for deflecting airflow. Grilles have a comparatively lower
entrainment ratio, greater drop, longer throw and higher air velocities in the occupied
zone compared to slot and ceiling diffusers. Manufacturers specify the performance
of the grill in terms of core size or core area, volumetric flow rate of air, effective air
velocity, total pressure drop, throw and noise levels. They can be mounted either on
the sidewalls or in the ceiling.

Fig. 39.5. Front view of a supply air grille with horizontal and vertical vanes

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Ceiling diffusers: A ceiling diffuser consists of concentric rings or inner cones made
up of vanes arranged in fixed directions. Ceiling diffusers can be round, square or
rectangular in shape. Figure 39.6 (a) shows square and rectangular ceiling diffuser,
and Fig. 39.6(b) shows a perforated diffuser. A square diffuser is widely used for
supply air. In the diffusers the supply air is discharged through the concentric air
passages in all directions. The air distribution pattern can be changed by adjusting
the adjustable inner cones or the deflecting vanes. Ceiling diffusers are normally
mounted at the center of the conditioned space. Ceiling diffusers provide large
entrainment ratio and shorter throw, hence are suitable for higher supply air
temperatures and for conditioned spaces with low head space. Ceiling diffusers can
deliver more air compared to grilles and slot diffusers.

Fig.39.6(a): Schematic of a ceiling diffuser

Fig.39.6(b): Schematic of a perforated ceiling diffuser

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Slot diffusers: A slot diffuser consists of a plenum box with single or multiple slots
and air deflecting vanes. These are mounted either on the side walls or in the ceiling.
Linear slot diffusers mounted on the sidewalls can be as long as 30 meters. These
are used for both supply air and return air. Linear slot diffusers are particularly
suitable for large open-spaces that require flexibility to suit changing occupant
distribution. Figures 39.7(a) and (b) show photograph of conditioned space with
linear slot diffusers mounted in the ceiling.

Slot
diffuser

Slot
diffuser

Fig.39.7(a) and (b): Photographs of conditioned space with linear slot

diffusers mounted in the ceiling

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Light Troffer-Diffuser: A light troffer-diffuser combines a fluorescent light troffer and
a slot diffuser. The slot can be used either as supply air outlet or return air inlet. Light
troffer-diffusers offer the following advantages:

a) The luminous efficiency of fluorescent lamps can be increased by maintaining

lower air temperature in the light troffer

b) An integrated layout of light troffer, diffuser and return slots can be formed on
suspended ceilings

c) Improved aesthetics

d) A combination of light troffer and return slot reduces the space cooling load as
the return air absorbs a part of the heat emitted by the lights. However, they
should be designed such that the return air does not come in direct contact
with the tube so that deposition of dust on the fluorescent tube is prevented

Figure 39.8 shows a light troffer-diffuser slot that combines the light troffer, supply air
diffuser and return air slot.

Fig.39.8: Light troffer-diffuser slot

In addition to the above air distribution devices, the floor mounted grilles
and diffusers, low-side wall diffusers, nozzle diffusers etc. are also used for
room air distribution.

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39.7. Return air inlets:
Different types of return air inlets are used to return the space air to the air
handling unit. Requirements of return air inlets are:

a) They should not lead to short-circuiting of supply air

b) Undesirable products such as tobacco smoke, odours etc. should be able to

move in their natural direction so that they do not stagnate in the occupied
space. To eliminate tobacco smoke, the return air inlets should be placed high
in the wall, whereas to remove dust particles etc. the return air inlets should
be placed in the floor so that these particles do not float in air.

Similar to supply air outlets, return air inlets can be classified as grilles, registers,
diffusers etc. In many commercial buildings the ceiling plenum is used as return air
plenum. In this case, return slots are used to draw the return air through the ceiling.
In return air inlets the air velocity decreases sharply as the distance from the inlet
increases. Based on noise criteria, the air velocity should be within 3 m/s if the return
air inlet is inside the occupied space and it should be less than 4 m/s if it is above the
occupied space.

39.8. Airflow patterns inside conditioned space:

In most of the air conditioned buildings air is supplied at a temperature
between 10 to 15.6oC and with a velocity in the range of 2 to 4 m/s. This air has to
mix thoroughly with the room air so that when it reaches the occupied zone its
temperature should be around 22.2 to 23.3oC and its velocity is less than 0.36 m/s to
avoid draft. The mixing airflow patterns should have the following characteristics:

a) Entrainment of room air to reduce the air temperature and velocity in the
occupied zone to acceptable levels

b) Reverse air stream in the occupied zone for an even velocity and temperature
distribution

c) Minimization of stagnant areas in the occupied space. A stagnant area is zone

in which the natural convective currents prevail and the velocity is less than
about 0.1 m/s. Reverse air stream reduces the stagnant areas in the occupied
zone

The airflow pattern in the conditioned space is influenced mainly by the type and
location of supply air outlets. The high side outlets, ceiling diffusers and slot diffusers
are most commonly used in air conditioned buildings.

Figure 39.9 shows the airflow pattern using high side outlets installed on a
high sidewall for cooling and heating applications. As the air is discharged from the
high side outlet, due to surface effect (Coanda effect) the air jet tends to stick to the
ceiling as shown in the figure. For cooling applications, the cold supply air entrains
the room air and deflects downwards when it strikes the opposite wall. The reverse

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air stream formed due to entrainment fills the occupied space as shown. If the throw
is longer than the length of the room and height of the opposite wall, then the air jet
is deflected by the opposite wall and the floor and enters the occupied zone with high
velocity. On the other hand if the throw is too small, then the air jet drops directly
into the occupied zone before it strikes the opposite wall. Thus both these i.e, a very
long or very short throw can cause draft. For heating, a stagnant zone may form as
shown due to buoyancy effect. However, if the throw is long, the reverse flow can
minimize the stagnant area during heating. For high sidewall outlet, the most suitable
location for return air inlet is on the ceiling outside the air jet as shown in the figure.

Total air = Primary air + room air

Cooling Cooling
Side view End view

Return air
inlet

Heating Cooling
Plan view

Fig.39.9: Airflow pattern using high side outlets for cooling and heating
applications
Figure 39.10 shows the airflow pattern using ceiling diffusers for both cooling
and heating applications. It is seen that ceiling diffusers produce a shorter throw, a
lower and more even distribution of air velocity and a more even temperature in the
occupied zone when used for cooling. However, when used for heating it is seen that
a larger stagnant area is formed due to buoyancy effect. Ceiling diffusers are widely

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used for conditioned spaces with limited ceiling height and are designed to have a
large entrainment ratio and are widely used in variable air volume systems.

Cooling
Side view Cooling
End view

Heating Cooling
Plan view

Fig.39.10: Airflow pattern using ceiling diffusers for cooling and

heating applications

Figure 39.11 shows the airflow patters obtained using slot diffusers installed in
the ceiling in the perimeter and interior zones. The slot diffusers installed in the
perimeter zone discharge air vertically downwards and also in the horizontal
direction. Due to its better surface effect, the air jet remains in contact with the ceiling
for a longer period and the reverse air stream ensures uniformity of temperature and
velocity in the occupied zone. Due to their superior characteristics and better
aesthetics, slot diffusers are widely used in large office spaces with normal ceiling
heights and with VAV systems.

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Fig.39.11: Airflow pattern for cooling using slot diffusers

39.9: Stratified mixing flow:

In buildings with a high ceiling, it is more economical to stratify the conditioned
space into a stratified upper zone and a cooled lower zone. In such cases the supply
air outlet is located at the upper boundary of the cooled lower zone and the air jet is
projected horizontally. The cold air supply takes care of the cooling load in the lower
zone due to windows, walls, occupants and equipment. Radiant heat from the roof,
upper external walls and lights installed in the roof enter the occupied zone and are
converted into cooling load with a thermal lag.

Stratified mixing flow for summer cooling offers the following advantages:

a) Convective heat transfer from the hot roof is effectively blocked by the higher
temperature air in the stagnant upper zone thus reducing the building cooling
load
b) Location of the return air inlets affects the cooling load only when they are
located in the upper zone

39.10: Cold air distribution:

When chilled water is available at a lower temperature of about 1 to 2oC (e.g.
using an ice storage system), the supply air temperature can be reduced to about
4.4 to 7.2oC, instead of the usual temperature of about 13oC. Such a system is called
a cold air distribution system. These systems offer the following advantaged when
compared with the conventional systems:

a) Due to the lower dew-point temperature, the space humidity can be

maintained between 35 to 45 %, as a result the occupied space can be
maintained at a slightly higher temperature without causing discomfort

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b) Due to the lower supply temperature, the flow rate of supply air can be
reduced significantly leading to smaller ducts and hence smaller building
space requirement and associated benefits
c) Due to lower flow rates, fan power consumption can be reduced by as much
as 40 percent
d) Noise levels in the conditioned space can be reduced due to reduced flow
rates

However, due to considerably reduced airflow rates, the air distribution and IAQ
may get affected, especially when using with VAV systems. Better insulation and
sealing of the ducts may be required to reduce losses and prevent surface
condensation.

39.11: Displacement flow:

Displacement flow is a flow pattern in which cold supply air supplied at a
velocity that is almost equal to the velocity in the conditioned zone and a
temperature that is only slightly lower than the occupied zone, enters the occupied
zone and displaces the original space air with a piston like motion without mixing
with the room air. Displacement flow when designed properly, provides better Indoor
Air Quality (IAQ) with lower turbulent intensity and lower draft in the occupied zone.
Displacement flow can be classified into downward unidirectional flow and horizontal
unidirectional flow. Figures 39.12(a), (b) and (c) shows the schematic of a downward
unidirectional flow system, a horizontal unidirectional flow system and a
unidirectional flow system for work stations, respectively. As mentioned before, due
to the possibility of achieving superior IAQ, displacement flow systems are used
widely in clean rooms, in operation theatres etc. Previously, displacement flow was
known as laminar flow. However, in an air conditioned building with forced air
circulation, the air flow in the occupied zone is turbulent everywhere except in the
boundary layers near the walls (where the flow is laminar), even when the velocities
are very low (Reynolds number is usually greater than 10000).

39.12. Spot cooling/heating:

In these systems cold or warm air jet is projected directly into a part of the
occupied zone, often called as target zone, so that thermal environment can be
controlled locally. Spot cooling/heating offers several advantages such as:

a) Better control of temperature, air purity and movement in a localized area,

thus improving the thermal comfort of the occupants
b) Possibility of using greater outdoor air for ventilation
c) Highly localized loads can be handled very efficiently
d) Occupants have greater control of their own personalized environment

However spot cooling/heating have certain disadvantages such as: possibility

of draft, discomfort due to air jet pressure, limited area of environment control and a
complex air distribution system. Spot cooling systems can be classified into industrial
spot cooling systems and desktop task air conditioning systems. As the name
implies, industrial spot cooling systems are used in large industrial areas such as

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large machine shops, steel plants etc. Desktop task air conditioning systems find
application in large office buildings.

Fig.39.12(a): Downward unidirectional flow

Fig.39.12(b): Horizontal unidirectional flow

Fig.39.12(c): Unidirectional flow for work stations

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39.13. Selection of supply air outlets:
Selection depends on:

1. Requirement of indoor environment control: If the indoor environment

requires controlled air movement, then a high side outlet should not be used

2. Shape, size and ceiling height of the building: Ceiling and slot diffusers are
ideal for buildings with limited ceiling height. For large buildings with large
ceiling heights, high side wall mounted outlets are recommended.

3. Volume flow rate per unit floor area: Sidewall outlets are limited to low
specific volume flow rates as they give rise to higher air velocities in the
occupied zone. Compared to slot diffusers, the ceiling diffusers can handle
efficiently a larger volumetric flow rates. Table 39.3 shows the specific volume
flow rate of different outlets

4. Volume flow rate per outlet: The volume flow rate per supply outlet depends
on the throw required to provide a satisfactory room air distribution. For linear
slot diffusers, the volume flow rate per unit length is important. Its value
normally lies between 23 to 62 L/s.m for linear slot diffusers. In a closed office
with a floor area of about 14 m2 and only one external wall, one ceiling diffuser
is normally sufficient

5. Throw: High side wall outlets have a longer throw than ceiling diffusers.
Square ceiling diffusers and circular ceiling diffusers have similar throw

6. Noise level

7. Total pressure drop: The total pressure loss of supply air as it flows through
a slot diffuser of 19 mm width is normally between 12 to 50 Pascals, whereas
it is between 5 to 50 Pascals for ceiling diffuser. Normally the pressure loss
across the supply outlet should not exceed 50 Pascals

8. Cost and Appearance: Finally the cost and appearance of the supply air
outlets also have to be considered depending upon the specific application

Performance of various types of supply air outlets are provided by the

manufacturers in the form of tables and charts, using which one can select a
suitable supply air outlet.

Type of outlet Specific volume flow rate Max. ACH for 3-m
L/s/m2 of floor area ceiling
Grilles 3.0 to 6.0 7
Slot diffuser 4.0 to 20.0 12
Perforated Panel 4.5 to 15.0 18
Ceiling diffuser 4.5 to 25.0 30

Table 39.3: Specific volume flow rates of different outlet devices

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Questions and answers:
1. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) The purpose of an air distribution system is to maintain comfort conditions in the

entire conditioned space
b) The purpose of an air distribution system is to maintain comfort conditions in the
occupied zone of the conditioned space
c) The effective draft temperature depends on dry bulb temperature and relative
humidity of air
d) The effective draft temperature depends on dry bulb temperature and velocity of
air

Ans.: b) and d)

2. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) The effective draft temperature increases as dry bulb temperature and air velocity
increase
b) The effective draft temperature increases as dry bulb temperature increases and
air velocity decreases
c) A good air distribution system should yield high value of ADPI and a small value of
SDEF
d) A good air distribution system should yield high values of both ADPI and SDEF

Ans.: b) and d)

3. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) Due to buoyancy effect a cold air stream rises and a hot air stream drops
b) The buoyancy effects become stronger as the temperature difference between the
supply air and room air increases
c) A high Archimedes number indicates a strong buoyancy effect
d) The design Archimedes number should increase as the height of the room
decreases

Ans.: b) and c)

4. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) The centerline velocity of air from a circular jet increases as the distance from the
outlet increases
b) The centerline velocity of air from a circular jet increases as the outlet area
decreases
c) The centerline velocity of air from a circular jet increases as the supply air velocity
at the outlet increases
d) All of the above

Ans.: c)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 21

5. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) Compared to other outlet types, a grille has lower entrainment ratio and greater
drop
b) Ceiling diffusers are recommended when the ceiling height is high
c) Sidewall diffusers are generally used in large spaces
d) All of the above

Ans.: a) and c)

6. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) A light-troffer-diffuser-slot improves the efficiency of the fluorescent lights

b) A light-troffer-diffuser-slot reduces the room sensible heat factor
c) To eliminate tobacco smoke, return air inlets should be located at a lower height
on the wall
d) Design of return air inlet is important from noise point-of-view

Ans.: a), b) and d)

7. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) Stratified mixing flows are recommended for buildings with high ceilings
b) Stratified mixing flow reduces the radiant heat load from the ceilings
c) Cold air distribution systems reduce the space requirement and fan power
d) Cold air distribution systems may lead to surface condensation

Ans.: a), c) and d)

8. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) Displacement flows are recommended in operation theatres due to better IAQ

b) In displacement flow system, supply air temperature is only slightly different from
comfort temperature
c) In displacement flow system, supply air velocity is low
d) All of the above

Ans.: d)

9. State which of the following statements are TRUE?

a) Spot cooling and heating systems are widely used in industrial applications
b) Spot cooling and heating systems provide better individual control
c) Spot cooling and heating systems reduce the total cooling load
d) All of the above

Ans.: d)

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10. The following table shows the measurements made at 9 points in the occupied
zone of an air conditioned building. Evaluate the design of the air distribution system.

Measuring point DBT (oC) Air velocity (m/s) EDT (oC)

1. 21.1 0.30 -3.32
2. 21.7 0.25 -2.71
3. 22.5 0.20 -1.91
4. 23.5 0.21 -0.91
5. 24.1 0.10 -0.29
6. 24.7 0.08 +0.31
7. 23.7 0.11 -0.69
8. 22.8 0.19 -1.61
9. 22.0 0.24 -2.41

Ans.: From the DBT and air velocity (V) data, the Effective Draft Temperature (EDT)
for each point is calculated using the equation:

EDT = (DBT-24.4) − 0.1276(V − 0.15)

The calculated EDT values are shown in the table. It is seen from the table
that the EDT value varies widely from −3.31oC to +0.3oC, indicating improper
distribution.

For this space the Air Distribution Performance Index (ADPI) is calculated
using the equation:

⎛N ⎞ ⎛5⎞
ADPI = ⎜ θ ⎟ x100 = ⎜ ⎟ x100 = 55.6 (Ans.)
⎝ N⎠ ⎝9⎠

where Nθ is the number of locations at which the effective draft temperature is within
–1.7oC to +1.1oC.

An ADPI value of 55.6 indicates the need for improving the design of the air
distribution system, as it indirectly indicates that only about 56% of the occupied
zone meets the comfort criteria, whereas the remaining space gives rise to drafts.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 23

11. The velocity of air issuing from a circular opening is given by the following
equation:

7.41 Vo A o
V (x, r ) =
2
⎡
x ⎢1 + 57.5⎛⎜ r
2 ⎞⎤
2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ x ⎠⎦
where Vo is the velocity at supply air outlet (x=0), Ao is the area of the opening, r is
the radial distance from the centerline and V(x,r) is the velocity at point (x,r). An
airflow rate of 0.12 m3/s is supplied through a circular opening at a velocity of 3 m/s.
Find the distance from the outlet at which the centerline velocity reduces to 1 m/s.
What is the total airflow rate (primary + secondary) at this point?

Ans.: The expression for centerline velocity (r=0,x) is given by:

7.41 Vo A o
V ( x , r = 0) =
x

Area of the opening, Ao = Qo/Vo = 0.12/3 = 0.04 m2

Substituting the values of V(x,r=0) = 1 m/s, Vo = 3 m/s and Ao = 0.04 m2 in the

above expression, we find the value of x as:

7.41 Vo A o 7.41 x 3 x 0.04

x= = = 4.446 m (Ans.)
V ( x , r = 0) 1.0

The total airflow rate at x = 4.446 m is obtained from the equation:

Qx = 4.446 m = Qx=0.Rx

Where Rx is the entrainment ratio, given by:

∞
∫ V (x, r ).2πr.dr
Q x = 4.446 r =0 0.405 x 0.405 x 4.446
Rx = = = = ≈ 9. 0
Q x =0 A o Vo Ao 0.04

hence, Qx = 4.446 = Qx=0 x 9.0 = 0.12 x 9.0 = 1.08 m3/s (Ans.)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 24

12. The velocity distribution of air from an air jet issued from a long, narrow slot is
given by the following equation:

2.4 Vo b ⎡ 2⎛ y ⎞⎤
V ( x , y) = ⎢1 − tanh ⎜ 7.67 x ⎟ ⎥
x ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

where Vo is the velocity at supply air outlet (x=0), b is the width of the slot, y is the
normal distance from the central plane and V(x,y) is the velocity at point (x,y). Find
the ratio of velocity V(x,y) to V(x,y=0) at a plane x at which the spread angle is 19o.

V(x,y)

2θ
Supply x
air

Definition of spread angle (2θ)

Ans.: The spread angle is given by 2θ as shown in the figure given above.

From the figure,

θ = tan-1(y/x) = (19/2) = 9.5o

∴ at θ = 9.5o, (y/x) = tan(9.5) = 0.1673

From the expression for V(x,y);

V ( x , y) ⎡ ⎛ y ⎞⎤
[ ]
= ⎢1 − tanh 2 ⎜ 7.67 ⎟ ⎥ = 1 − tanh 2 (7.67x0.1673 ) = 0.265
V ( x , y = 0) ⎣ ⎝ x ⎠⎦
(Ans.)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 25