CLARENDON LATER ANCIENT

PHILOSOPHERS
Series editors: Jonathan Barnes, Universit e de Paris IVSorbonne
and A. A. Long, University of California, Berkeley
SENECA
SELECTED PHILOSOPHICAL LETTERS
Senecas Letters to Lucilius are a rich source of information about
ancient Stoicism, an inuential work for early modern philosophers, and
a fascinating philosophical document in their own right. This selection
of the letters aims to include those which are of greatest philosophical
interest, especially those which highlight the debates between Stoics
and Platonists or Aristotelians in the rst century AD, and the issue,
still important today, of how technical philosophical enquiry is related
to the various purposes for which philosophy is practised. In addition
to examining the philosophical content of each letter, Brad Inwoods
commentary discusses the literary and historical background of the letters
and to their relationship with other prose works by Seneca.
Seneca is the earliest Stoic author for whom we have access to a large
number of complete works, and these works were highly inuential in
later centuries. He was also a politically inuential advisor to the Roman
emperor Nero anda celebratedauthor of prose andverse. His philosophical
acuity and independence of mind make his works exciting and challenging
for the modern reader.
Brad Inwood is Professor of Classics and Philosophy at the University
of Toronto.
PUBLISHED IN THE SERIES
Alcinous: The Handbook of Platonism
John Dillon
Epictetus: Discourses, Book +
Robert Dobbin
Galen: On the Therapeutic Method, Books I and II
R. J. Hankinson
Porphyry: Introduction
Jonathan Barnes
Seneca: Selected Philosophical Letters
Brad Inwood
Sextus Empiricus: Against the Ethicists
Richard Bett
Sextus Empiricus: Against the Grammarians
David Blank
SENECA
SELECTED PHILOSOPHICAL LETTERS
Translated with an
Introduction and Commentary by
BRAD INWOOD
1
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox: nr
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide in
Oxford New York
Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi
New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto
With ofces in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in the United States
by Oxford University Press Inc., New York
Brad Inwood :ooy
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
Database right Oxford University Press (maker)
First published :ooy
First published in paperback :o+o
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Data available
Typeset by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India
Printed in Great Britain
on acid-free paper by
CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire
ISBN y8o+8:8: (hbk)
y8o+jyj: (pbk)
+ j y +o 8 :
For my parents
PREFACE
In the course of my work on this book I have incurred more debts than I can
fully recall, let alone acknowledge here. It is a genuine pleasure to thank,
rst and foremost, the Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural
Sciences for their support during a sabbatical leave in :ooj. Without
the respite and stimulus provided by that unique institution this book
would never have been completed. I am also very grateful to the Canada
Research Chair program of the Canadian government and to my friends
and colleagues at the University of Toronto for invaluable and unstinting
support. I owe a great deal to the generous and careful work of my research
assistants in the Department of Classics, Vicki Ciocani and Emily Fletcher.
My initial work on Senecas letters was encouraged by an invitation from
the ancient philosophy group at Cambridge University to a workshop on
Senecas letters in May :oo+. The discussion at that workshop contributed
a great deal to several of the commentaries in this book. Later, students
in two of my graduate seminars (in :oo: and :ooj) at the University
of Toronto served as willing guinea pigs and ingenious collaborators. A
keen group of graduate students at New York University provided helpful
feedback on several letters during a series of visits in :oo:; I am grateful
to Phillip Mitsis for the invitation to NYU and for his encouragement and
advice on Seneca over many years. Tony Long has been both supportive
of and patient about this project for a very long time. His acute comments
and those of his fellow series editor Jonathan Barnes have improved the
commentary and translation at many points; no doubt I should have taken
their advice more consistently. David Sedleys work on the relationship
between Stoic physics and ethics in Senecas work (especially in his
article Stoic Metaphysics at Rome, Sedley :ooj) has been a valuable
source of stimulus. The need to respond to John Coopers challenging
discussion Moral Theory and Moral Improvement: Seneca (Cooper
:oo) provoked many fruitful lines of enquiry. The ancient philosophy
group at the University of Chicago has done a great deal for the study
of Seneca during the time when this book was under construction (not
least by organizing a key conference in April :oo) and their condence in
the value of Senecan studies in a contemporary philosophical setting has
fostered a great deal of work by many people from which I have been able
to benet.
viii rarr+cr
Some commentaries have benetted from work on papers originally
written for oral presentation and since published separately. The com-
mentary on Letter is intimately connected to a paper given at the
Universities of Buffalo, British Columbia, and Alberta, Reason, Ration-
alization and Happiness; it now appears as chapter of Reading Seneca
(Inwood :ooj). The commentary on Letter +:o began as a sketch for
Getting to Goodness, delivered to the Princeton Ancient Philosophy
Colloquium and at the University of Pittsburgh and now published as
chapter +o of Reading Seneca. The commentary on Letter 8y has been
enriched by discussion of an unpublished paper presented at Cornell
University, the University of Arizona, and UC Santa Barbara.
I owe a particularly concrete debt of gratitude to Margaret Graver, who
subjected the penultimate draft of my translation to an exacting scrutiny.
Her inuence has saved me from many errors and infelicities and I have
often accepted her suggestions for better wording; the remaining blunders
are my own fault. Margaret also read an early version of the commentaries
with a critical eye; her comments and suggestions have improved my
comment on almost every letter.
It is no mere clich e to say that without the encouragement, advice, and
loving support of my wife, Niko Scharer, I would not have been able to
write this book. An even older debt is owed to my parents, Marg and Bill
Inwood. For many decades they have provided a wonderful education,
both moral and intellectual. My brothers and I had the privilege of growing
up in a household where critical enquiry, teaching, intellectual challenge,
and a passion for fairness were in the fabric of daily life. It has taken me
a long time to see how precious a gift our parents gave us. Humbly, I
dedicate this book to them.
CONTENTS
Introduction xi
Abbreviations and Conventions xxv
TRANSLATIONS 1
Letter j8
Letter j +o
Letter +j
Letter y+ :j
Letter y
Letter 8j o
Letter 8y 8
Letter +o j
Letter ++ j
Letter ++y j
Letter ++8 y:
Letter ++ y
Letter +:o y
Letter +:+ 8j
Letter +:: o
Letter +: j
Letter +:
COMMENTARY 105
Group + (Letters j8, j, ) +oy
Letter j8 +++
Letter j +
Letter +jj
x co+r+s
Group : (Letters y+ and y) +8:
Letter y+ +8
Letter y :oo
Group (Letters 8j and 8y) :+8
Letter 8j ::o
Letter 8y :
Group (Letters +o, ++ and ++y) :+
Letter +o :+
Letter ++ :y:
Letter ++y :88
Group j (Letters ++8:) o
Letter ++8 o
Letter ++ +j
Letter +:o ::
Letter +:+ :
Letter +::
Letter +: jj
Letter +: +
Bibliography y8
Index Locorum 8j
General Index o+
INTRODUCTION
Senecas Life and Works
Lucius Annaeus Seneca, better known as Seneca the Younger, was a
complex gure. At some point between and + uc at Corduba in
Roman Spain, he was born into a prosperous and prominent provin-
cial Roman family. His father, Seneca the Elder, was an important
literary gure in Rome itself, famous as the author of the Controversi-
ae and Suasoriae, compilations of rhetorical declamations by the most
famous speakers of the day. Seneca the Younger was the middle of
three sons; while his older brother had a successful if convention-
al political career leading to a provincial governorship, the youngest
son lived a private life and did not achieve senatorial rank. Seneca
the Younger took an early interest in philosophy, oratory, and liter-
ature and over the course of a long career rose to become a seni-
or adviser to the emperor Nero and the most prominent literary
gure of his generation, publishing extensively in both prose and
verse.
Senecas early life is difcult to document, although his career becomes
easier to track after he was forced into exile in +n + owing to some sort
of court intrigue.' He was recalled to Rome and political inuence in
+n . For readers of this volume, the most important facts are his early
interest in philosophy, his lifelong commitment to philosophical study and
writing, and his determination to combine those interests with a long and
active political career as well as a major role as a prominent literary gure.
He was the author of many tragedies (whose relationship to philosophy
is a controversial issue) and a famous orator; his satirical work on the
emperor Claudius, the Apocolocyntosis, is yet another demonstration of his
virtuosity.
Senecas inuence at Neros court lasted for more than a decade, but
waned as the character of the emperor and his regime deteriorated. Having
withdrawn from public life in the period between +n : and , Seneca
was eventually forced into committing suicide in the spring of j because
' The best account of Senecas life and background is still Grifn +:: part I. See also
Inwood :ooj: ch. +.
xii r+aontc+ro
of the emperors suspicion that Seneca was involved with a conspiracy
against him.
The chronology of many of Senecas works is debatable, although
Grifn +:, Appendix A is a reliable guide. The Letters, however, are
securely datable to the period after +n : when Seneca, then in his mid-
sixties and at the end of a long career, was in retirement. This setting
for the composition of the Letters is often relevant to their tone and
themes.
The Nature of Senecas letters
It is nowwidely agreed that Senecas letters in their present form, whatever
their relationship might have been to a real correspondence, are creations
of the writers craft. Like the dialogues of Plato, Senecas letters create an
atmosphere of interpersonal philosophical exchange, with the difference
that the medium of this exchange is not face-to-face conversation but
intimate correspondence between friends. The contributions to this
conversation of Lucilius, a long-time friend of Senecas, must be inferred
from what Seneca says to him, but as all readers of the letters have
recognized, the assumption of a dialogue between the two friends is
an important factor shaping the way the letters are meant to work for
readers. For the most part the letters function as independent works
of philosophical literature and there is little reason to suppose that
readers of them were expected to have read the rest of Senecas works,
and almost certainly not his dramas. In commenting on them, though,
a certain amount of comparison with his other philosophical works is
desirable.
More detailed discussion of the issues raised here is given in The Importance of Form
in the Letters of Seneca the Younger in Morrison and Morel, forthcoming. Recent studies
from which I have benetted are Wilson +8y, and :oo+, and Teichert +o.
Note the promise of literary immortality to Lucilius at z1. (Letter :+, section j;
for reference conventions in this book, see below pp. xxiii, xxv). See the discussion by
Grifn +:, Appendix B . For a generous survey of earlier views see Mazzoli +8.
More particularly, see Leeman +j+, +j; Abel +8+; Cancik +y: j; and chapter + of
Margaret Gravers unpublished dissertation (+), Therapeutic Reading and Senecas Moral
Epistles.
See Teichert +o: y+:.
Teichert (+o: y+:) points out that the one-sidedness of the conversation between
Seneca the letter-writer and his silent partner Lucilius encourages a greater engagement on
the part of the reader, who can play both the role of reader and of recipient of the letters,
being addressed by the author in both modes. I am, however, sceptical about Teicherts
supposition that the authors philosophical experience is meant to be shaped by the nature
of the correspondence. As author Seneca is surely more in control than that.
r+aontc+ro xiii
Other essential facts about the letters can be summarized quickly.
Despite appearances, our corpus of letters is signicantly incomplete;
originally there were more than the twenty books which now survive; an
excerpt from a letter on style is preserved by Aulus Gellius (Gel. +:.:)
from Book ::. Among other things, this excerpt conrms that literary
themes remained important in later books of the letters; the appearance
in our twenty-book collection of an accelerating emphasis on tough
philosophical themes might to some extent be misleading. Furthermore,
the collection we do have circulated in at least two volumes in late antiquity
(Letters +88 and 8+:). The fact that the collection came to circulate
in separate components in antiquity is signicant for understanding its
structure. L. D. Reynolds once suggested that the incompleteness at the
end of our collection might be the result of an early loss of one entire
volume of letters. But it is also possible that small groups of letters have
been lost within the span of our transmitted collection, and the volume join
between 88 and 8 would be a particularly likely location for such a loss.
The letters are not alone in having been maimed; the Natural Questions
also suffered severe damage early in the history of its transmission.
The incompleteness of our collection is signicant when we consider the
issue of the internal articulation of the letters, how they were meant to be
grouped for reading or publication. The hermeneutical issues surrounding
this issue are perhaps insoluble, since we cannot any longer look at the
whole collection of letters as Seneca meant it to be read. Moreover, it has so
far proven difcult to separate philosophical interpretation fromquestions
of structure and literary form.' If ones ultimate goal is a philosophical
interpretation of the letters, it will not help much to seek guidance from a
Parts of what follows are adapted from The Importance of Form in the Letters of
Seneca the Younger (Inwood forthcoming).
Reynolds +j: +y.
See Cancik +y: 8+:, for sensible discussion of the internal completeness of our
collection. In n. +8, p. 8, she notes that Reynolds fails to consider the possibility that letters
may have been lost at the join between the two volumes of letters that came down separately
through the medieval manuscript tradition.
In addition to the loss of two half books, the order of the books in our NQ seems to
have become seriously confused in the course of transmission. It is likely that the original
order was , a, b, j, , y, 8, +, : and quite possible that the work was left incomplete on
Senecas death. For further discussion and references, see my God and Human Knowledge
in Senecas Natural Questions, ch. in Inwood :ooj.
' Virtually everyone who writes on Senecas letters has taken an at least implicit position
on their pedagogical or literary structure and a review of the issue would be both lengthy
and inconclusive. But some works stand out for their relative good sense. See Maurach
+yo; Cancik +y, who commits herself to the view that the organizational principle of the
collection is pedagogical rather than doctrinal, is unusually sensitive to the methodological
problems involved in discussing the plan and organization of the collection and emphasizes
xiv r+aontc+ro
view about their literary form which is itself partly shaped by an incipient
philosophical interpretation.
These are very serious challenges to the reader, and reection on these
difculties makes the decision to select groups of letters for philosophical
comment less unjustiable than it might otherwise be; it certainly makes
serious philosophical work on the letters a daunting prospect. But the
Letters to Lucilius remain Senecas masterpiece, and this is in part because
they are philosophical letters. We should, then, ask why he chose this form.
Why, at the end of a long life, a long and tumultuous political career, and
(perhaps most relevant) at the endof a brilliant literary career of unmatched
versatility, write letters? The answer is not immediately clear and Senecas
motivation was probably not simple. In the commentary I assume that the
choice of the letter as the literary form is in fact relevant to what Seneca
aimed to accomplish, and that his inspiration for writing philosophical
letters came from many sources, the most important of which was perhaps
Epicurus published philosophical correspondence, which was originally
much more extensive than and much of it different in character from
the letters preserved in Diogenes Laertius, book +o.'' At the same time,
Senecas self-conception as an author of Latin literature is relevant. Not
only should we assume (what can also be conrmed by observation) that
Ciceros philosophical works, especially the De Finibus and the Tusculan
Disputations, were a stimulus for his work, but it is also likely that the then
recent publication of Ciceros Letters to Atticus contributed to the decision
to add the literary epistle to the other genres in which Seneca chose to
write.' (Seneca had, after all, been a brilliantly successful author in more
genres than any other Roman writer one can think of: he was a poet,
dramatist, public speaker, and essayist in many styles.) The approach to
Seneca taken in the present commentary presupposes that his character as
the complexity of the techniques used by Seneca (in her view) to give unity and texture to
the work.
'' By Senecas time there had been a long tradition of philosophical letter-writing. There
were corpora of letters attributed to Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoreans, Cynics and others. For
a fuller discussion of Senecas place in this tradition and the inuence of the tradition on
the way his letters are written, see The Importance of Form in the Letters of Seneca the
Younger (Inwood forthcoming).
' See Grifn +:: +8. For background see Maurach +yo: +8+. The major
limitation of his assessment of generic inuence on Senecas letters is his nearly exclusive
concentration on literary formand his emphasis on Senecas situation within his Latin literary
tradition. Hence (pp. +y8) he downplays the importance of Epicurus letters and focusses
more on Horace and Lucilius. Similarly, his grudging concession of possible Ciceronian
inuence on the project of the letters (p. +y) seems to underestimate the motivational power
of authorial aemulatio.
r+aontc+ro xv
a man of letters is of great importance,' although this in no way detracts
from an appreciation of the philosophical intensity of Senecas project.
Senecas Motivation as Author
It is common, in the interpretation of Senecas letters, to emphasize the
apparent moral progress of Lucilius throughout the collection. There is
an increase in the philosophical intensity and difculty of the letters as
the reader proceeds from the rst letter to the more technical themes of
the letters which come latest in our surviving collection. It is, further,
common to emphasize the role Seneca apparently takes on, not just in
these letters, as a guide to and inspiration for the moral improvement
of his addressee. Sometimes this role is described as that of a spiritual
guide and often this characterization of Senecas nature as an author has
a powerful inuence on the interpretation of his letters. John Cooper, for
instance, has been inspired by Ilsetraut Hadots superb analysis of Seneca
in Seneca und die griechisch-r omische Tradition der Seelenleitung (Hadot
+) to treat him primarily as such a spiritual guide (Cooper :oo). This
is a risky characterization of Senecas central motivation as an author, and
some critics have tended to treat Senecas self-presentation (as an adviser
and correspondent) as though it were his fundamental philosophical
motivation. It is tempting but unwarranted to assume that virtually all of
Senecas philosophical activity, his interest in theory and argumentation,
his concern for understanding the phenomena of the natural and human
world and for convincing his readers of what is the case about it, should
be approached on the assumption that he is rst and foremost a spiritual
guide, someone whose interests, activity, and methods dominate over the
more theoretical aspects of philosophy.
Yet one of the most persistent problems in understanding Seneca has
always been the large number of roles he plays. In the corpus of his writing
and in the relatively rich historical record we possess about him we see
Seneca in many guises: as an occasionally Machiavellian political gure of
great but transient power, as an eloquent orator devoted to the artfulness
of ne speech as much as to its power to persuade, as a dark but brilliant
poet, as a friend, son, and brother, as a philosopher of surprisingly wide
interests, and as a moral adviser. The contradictions often seen in Senecas
life and works stem in part from this variety of roles, and it is obvious
' See the longer discussion in chapter + of Inwood :ooj.
xvi r+aontc+ro
that choosing one role or another as central has a considerable impact
on how one understands Seneca. Perhaps the chief frustration faced in
studying Seneca lies in the absence of condence about which role, if
any, should be treated as central. It would be a great help if we had a
fully reliable biography or autobiography of the man, but despite our
mass of information about his life we do not.' That is not to say that we
know nothing about the place of the letters in Senecas philosophical and
authorial careerfar from it. Grifns dating of the letters to the period
after his forced retirement in +n : is secure; since Seneca was forced to
commit suicide in +n j the letters can be dated fairly exactly. This means
that we must bear in mind that Seneca is at the same period working
on the Natural Questions and quite possibly had only recently completed
the large and frequently quite technical work On Favours.' In assessing
Senecas basic motivations as author of the letters, we should not neglect
these facts; the range of works he wrote at this stage of his career ought to
make us hesitate before assuming that Senecas main intention was to be a
spiritual guide for the reader. We should perhaps take a wider view of the
question.
In recent years two developments have occurred that bear on the
question of how to approach Senecas character as a philosophical writer.
Among students of ancient philosophy there has been a dramatic increase
of interest in and sympathy for the notion that moral guidance and moral
improvement are an important part of philosophy; many philosophers in
the English-speaking world generally have embraced the humanly practic-
al, political, and psychological functions of philosophy in a way that could
not have been predicted in +j or even +yj. The other development has
been in the study of literature. Students of ancient literature are nowmuch
more wary of relatively simple biographical claims based on the works
they study; there is a much greater appreciation now for the elusiveness
of the author behind the texts he or she wrote, for the complexity of
the roles one author may play, and for the difculty of isolating with
sufcient condence a central and determinative biographical fact which
might guide our understanding of literary works.
These two developments pull the study of Senecas philosophical works
in opposite directions. Philosophers are now much more likely to take
' See Edwards +y: :; this is true despite the magnicent work of Grifn +:.
' Grifn +:: appendix A; see especially n. G, p. . Here Grifn takes account of
Senecas lost work On Moral Philosophy, of which sparse fragments survive in Lactantius
(collected in F. Haases +8y+: Teubner edition of Senecas works, vol. , :). These
fragments do not suggest that the work was of the character indicated by Seneca in his
allusions to it as a work in progress in 1o6.1, 1o8.1, and 1oq.1y. See Leeman +j: o+o.
r+aontc+ro xvii
Senecas role as a moral (or spiritual) guide to be philosophically relevant,
to play a central role in the understanding of his philosophical works,
especially of his letters. Indeed, in light of the impact of Pierre Hadot,
Michel Foucault, and Martha Nussbaum we would hardly expect the
therapeutic capacities of philosophy to be of less interest than they were
a generation ago. And students of literature are now much less likely
to embrace any biographical facts or presumed motivations as central to
understanding Senecas works. In themselves, both of these developments
are welcome; it is now much less likely that philosophers will pass Seneca
by as having nothing of philosophical interest to say and students of
literature are less likely to marginalize for the wrong sort of reasons the
philosophically robust parts of Senecas corpus.
Nevertheless, in approaching Senecas letters philosophically, it is
surely a mistake to take it for granted that the authors central motivation
is to play the role of moral or spiritual guide for his readers. That is
often his persona, his authorial voice, to be sure. But it is as much a
mistake to take that authorial self-presentation as the key to philosophical
interpretation as it would be to begin from his role as political adviser
or tragic poet. The role of guide and adviser is one that Seneca adopts
to write the letters; it is apparently the voice which he often wishes to
be heard rst by his readers. But it does not follow that it represents his
basic authorial motivation or that our philosophical understanding of the
letters must begin from this alleged fact about Seneca. We should be no
readier to assume that the literary strategy Seneca chose denes his central
philosophical concerns than we are to assume that Platos choice of the
Socratic dialogue as a form denes his philosophical agenda. In both cases
it probably matters, but the way that it matters is not something to be
taken for granted.
This is especially important for the interpretation of Senecas letters,
many of which combine detailed and gritty philosophical discussion
with an apparent renunciation, halfway through the letter, of that very
discussion in the interests of what Seneca says is actually relevant to
moral improvement. For a philosophical reading of the letters perhaps the
main problem is Senecas internal self-criticism, his agrantly ambivalent
attitude towards philosophical detail and technicality.' If we begin from
the assumption that his central interest is spiritual guidance we will not
be able to understand why he bothered to give us so much more; we
often wont be able to ask the right questions about the letters; and
' On Senecas complex attitude to logic, see Barnes +y; for his attitude to physics see
most recently Wildberger :oo.
xviii r+aontc+ro
we are unlikely to persist in the close analysis of his arguments if we
are too ready to treat Senecas approach to his readers as pedagogical
rather than philosophical. We will nd ourselves unable to explain why
a Roman senator with these motivations bothered to write so much more
widely on various philosophical themes than, for example, Musonius
Rufus.
Inthe letters Seneca writes a great deal about physics, dialectic, andwhat
we would call metaphysics alongside of argumentation in ethics which is
far more technical than mere moral guidance requires. He didnt have to
do this, just as he didnt have to write the Natural Questions, or explore
at length the intractable ethical paradoxes of the De Beneciis, or write
tragedies and the satirical Apocolocyntosis. I assume, then, in writing the
commentaries which follow that the facts that we do know about Senecas
literary output and life history simply do not justify regarding himrst and
foremost as a moral or spiritual guide and as being motivated essentially
by that mission, any more than those facts would justify regarding him
fundamentally as an actor on the political scene who had literary ambitions
on the side.
Yet some stance must be taken in order to interpret the letters, a
philosophical work which has had persistent and profound impact on the
western philosophical tradition, and one of the largest and earliest works
by a Stoic philosopher to survive from the ancient world. If one is wary
of treating Seneca as a spiritual and moral guide, as a politician with
philosophical interests, as a poet or orator with anomalous enthusiasm
for philosophy, what stance should one take? The safest approach to
Senecas work is, as I have suggested, to regard him rst and foremost
as a man of letters, a litt erateur, as a writer whose rst concern is with
his art and his audience. This is a relatively neutral stance to take and
a relatively solid foundation for interpretation; it does not impose very
heavy constraints on how we interpret his works. We do, after all, know
with certainty that he wrote literary works of real distinction in a wider
range of genres than any other Latin author. His harshest critics, ancient
and modern, concede his stylistic accomplishments, his authorial eclat,
even if they deplore what they interpret as a certain self-indulgence and
lack of self-restraint. Moreover, literary ambition is compatible with many
different substantive motivationsmoral, metaphysical, poetic, political.
All such themes benet from, even require, literary skill if they are to
have impact on a wide audience as they were certainly meant to do. Hence
thinking rst of Senecas authorial ambitions will enable us to read each
letter with a more open mind.
r+aontc+ro xix
Senecas Approach to Writing Philosophy
It is still quite common to see Seneca treated as an eclectic philosopher,
someone who picks and chooses his inspirations not on the basis of a
commitment to the central doctrines of Stoicism and not on the basis
of a conviction about the intellectual coherence of the views he adopts.
This seems misguided. As I have tried to show in Reading Seneca (Inwood
:ooj), he is better characterized as a creative and engaged philosophical
writer, prepared to argue for the merits of the positions which he holds.
He writes in an intellectual environment where the inuence of Plato
and Aristotle and their schools cannot be neglected, and in which readers
interested in philosophy could be assumed to be comfortable in Greek as
well as in Latin.' Like Cicero a century before and like most outward-
looking philosophical writers in all eras, he writes with an eye to the
positions held by the signicant philosophical interlocutors with whom
he is engaged. On the internal evidence of the letters alone we can be
sure that these interlocutors included Epicureans as well as Platonists
and Aristotelians. Yet he never presents himself as anything other than
a Stoic. Seneca feels quite comfortable in taking independent and critical
stances about various of his Stoic predecessors and, as I shall argue in
the commentary, he seems to have particular sympathy on some issues
with the views of Aristo of Chios (while opposing him on others), with
those of Cleanthes, and those of Posidonius. Zeno takes pride of place
as founder of the school, of course. Chrysippus and other Stoics are
suitable targets of criticism when there is reason to object to their views,
yet that does not diminish Senecas commitment to Stoicism; nor should
this sort of criticism itself make us doubt his skill as a philosopher.
In many letters Seneca is notably concerned to emphasize the common
ground he shares with Epicureans; he is less vociferous about the fact
that his version of Stoicism often emphasizes approaches shared with
Platonism. But through all of this he thinks and speaks independently
as a Stoic. Perhaps a short extract from letter 8 (not included in this
selection) will serve as a helpful guide to interpreting the letters in
particular.
' Seneca writes determinedly in a Latin tradition, but does not hesitate to introduce
Greek terms when it is philosophically appropriate. Since the most important work in
philosophy had been done in Greek, Seneca, like Cicero, must often use Latin tech-
nical terms to represent Greek terms (such as commoda, advantages, for pro

egmena,
preferred indifferents). He is not, however, mechanical in so doing (see Inwood :ooj:
ch. +) and the relevant Greek background and terms are discussed in the commentary as
needed.
xx r+aontc+ro
In the case of our body we see that nature does this [produces a new unity out of
distinct inputs] without any effort on our part.
As long as the food which we ingest keeps its original character and sits intact
in our stomach, it is a burdensome lump. But when the food is transformed from
its original state it is then able to pass into the bloodstream and contribute to our
bodily strength. In the case of the nourishment we take for our intellects, we should
do the same thing and not permit what we consume to remain intactfor fear
that it should be foreign to us. Lets digest it. Otherwise, it will be remembered
but wont affect our intellect. Let us give these things our genuine assent and make
them our very own, so as to create a unity out of plurality, the way one total is
produced out of distinct numbers when a single calculation brings together several
different, lesser sums. This is what our mind should do. It should conceal the ideas
which have helped it along and display only the nal result. If your admiration for
someone leads to the appearance of a deep similarity to that person, Id want that
resemblance to resemble that of a son [to his father] and not that of a picture [to
its model]; a [mere] picture is something dead. (8.8)
Seneca thinks for himself and claims to produce something new and his
own from the sources of his inspiration; we should not expect him to
display all the joints of his intellectual physiognomy.
Perhaps the most engaging feature of Senecas letters is the directness
and urgency of the authors personal voice, that is, of the voice which
he chooses to let us hear. Since this aspect of his thought will not be
much emphasized in the letters chosen and in the comment on them, let
me round out this introduction with Senecas own introduction to the
collection, Letter +.
+. Do it, Lucilius my friend. Reclaim yourself. Assemble and preserve your time,
which has until now been snatched from you, stolen, or just gotten lost. Convince
yourself that what I say is true: some of our time is robbed from us, some burgled,
and some slips out of our hands. The most shameful loss, though, is what happens
through negligence. And if youre willing to pay attention: a good deal of life is
lost for those who conduct it badly; most of it is lost for those who do nothing at
all; but all of life is lost for those who dont pay attention.
:. Who can you show me who values his time? who knows what a day is worth?
who understands that he is dying every day? Our mistake, you see, is in looking
ahead to death. A good deal of death has already passed. The years which have so
far gone by are in the hands of death. So, Lucilius, do what you claim to be doing
and embrace every hour. In that way youll be less dependent on tomorrow if you
set your hand to today. Life its by while things get put off.
. Lucilius, everything belongs to someone else. Only our time is our own.
We have been sent by nature to seize this one possession, which is eeting and
slippery; we can be driven out of it by anyone who cares to do so. People are so
r+aontc+ro xxi
stupid that they let themselves go into debt by acquiring the cheapest and most
trivial things, which they could easily pay off. But no one who has received the
gift of time acknowledges the obligation, even though this is the one thing which
even a grateful man cannot repay.
. Maybe youre going to ask about my own behaviour, since Im giving you all
this advice. Ill make a clean confession. Like a careful spendthrift I keep good
records of my expenditures. I cannot claim that I dont squander anything. But I
could tell you what I squander and why and how. I can give a full account of my
poverty. My experience is like that of most people who are impoverished through
no fault of their own: everyone forgives, no one helps out.
j. So whats the situation? I dont think that anyone is poor if the little bit he still
has is enough for him. Nevertheless, Id rather see you preserve whats yours and
start in good time. For as our ancestors thought,' its too late to pour sparingly
from the bottom of the bottle. There is only a tiny bit left at that point, and that
bit is of the lowest quality.
Whatever his real feelings and motivations, Seneca presents himself in
the Letters as a philosopher in a hurry, as a man interested above all else
in the concrete result of making his life better, as a man with no time
to lose. Further, he presents himself as an imperfect man, someone with
many failings and at least able to claim awareness of his own failings.
There is an urgent sense of the importance of making progress in the
philosophical life, an awareness that the end of life is always near, and an
admission of his own ignorance. Seneca is certainly not a Socrates, but in
these letters we see a dramatic representation of many things which are
central to the Socratic tradition of philosophizing. In the letters which
follow we can see the argumentative and sometimes truculent side of
philosophy as well as its homiletic and self-reective aspects. It is the aim
of this book to emphasize the former, even at the expense of the latter.
The philosophical gain will be considerable, I hope, and if in the process
we can come to a better understanding of why he should have been such
an inuential philosopher for so many centuries that will be an historical
gain as well.
The Selection of Letters
This book represents an attempt to open up Senecas most inuential prose
work, the Letters to Lucilius on Ethics, to a larger and more philosophically
oriented readership than it nowenjoys. Limitations of space and time have
' Hes Op. .
xxii r+aontc+ro
required that only a small number of letters be selected for translation
and comment; this inevitably skews the portrayal of Seneca, but the
distortion will I hope be a useful corrective for the even more unbalanced
representation of Seneca and his philosophical works which prevails today.
Senecas letters form a large and varied corpus, much of which is of only
indirect philosophical interest, and yet the collection is put together in an
orderly and artistic way, with strong thematic interdependences among
the letters which inevitably affect the signicance of individual letters and
of sections within various letters. I have tried to keep such relationships
in mind throughout, but selection inevitably imposes limitations. Hence a
brief word about how the selection was made seems in order.
The integrity of each book of letters (twenty books survive and we
know that originally there were at least twenty-two) is an important fact
about the collection. Despite their outwardly casual manner, great care
went into the crafting of each book as a literary unity. As a representation
of this feature of the letters, Book :o, which contains a very high
concentration of philosophically important letters, is included in its
entirety, although some of its letters would not merit inclusion on their
own. On the other hand, two of the most important letters in the
collection, q and q, are omitted because of their sizeto include them
would make it impossible to include much else, and there is already
an abundant scholarly literature on them. Because Senecas relation to
other philosophical schools is of particular importance for establishing
the interest of his approach to various issues in Stoicism, I begin with 8
and 6, which engage in a very direct manner with issues in Platonism
and Aristotelianism. These letters too (or rather, select portions of them)
have generated a substantial amount of scholarly attention. But too little
of it, in my view, addresses the letters which as wholes are works of
philosophical interest. They have usually been regarded as evidence for
an attempted reconstruction of earlier and mostly non-Stoic philosophy.
My approach is to allow such questions to recede into the background
as I isolate what I take to be the main philosophical issues of these
letters themselves, unexcerpted. Letter 66 is not only of great interest
in connection with 8 and 6, but like several others (y1, y6, 8, 8y)
it tackles central issues in the Stoic theory of value. Consideration of
this set of letters permits an exploration of Senecas attitudes towards
Platonism and Aristotelianism, as well as to earlier phases in the schools
history.
Book :o, which contains seven letters, begins with 118, a letter which is
impossible to appreciate fully without a consideration of 11y, itself one of
r+aontc+ro xxiii
a group of letters that raise important questions about the balance between
technical philosophical writing and a more literary or popular approach
to the main issues of ethics and physics. Because I think that Senecas
position on and contribution to Stoic physics and even metaphysics has
been misunderstood I also include 1o6, 11, and 11y.
The nal tally, then, is seventeen letters, a number coincidentally the
same as that included in a literary collection compiled by C. D. N. Costa
(Seneca: ., Letters (Warminster: Aris and Phillips, +88) ) with which my
selection overlaps by only one letter, 1zz. For convenience I have divided
my seventeen letters into ve groups, but the reader should be warned
that this is a somewhat arbitrary procedure. What is not arbitrary, though,
is my determination to treat each chosen letter as an integral whole rather
than excerpting the parts of each which stand out for the intensity of
their philosophical merit. This kind of excerption has often been practiced
(especially with 8, 6, and 8y), but it inevitably prejudges the nature of
Senecas philosophical endeavour in an unproductive way. Whatever else
Seneca may have intended to accomplish in a given letter, he certainly
wrote each one as an artistic unity and any philosophical interpretation
should begin from a recognition of that fact.
Senecas letters are cited in boldface font (1.1 is Letter +, section +)
without the title of the work. In the translation I retain the section divisions
used in Reynoldss Oxford Classical Text and often the paragraphing as
well. Throughout I adopt Reynoldss text, except where I explicitly signal
disagreement in the notes or commentary; important textual variations
are mentioned briey in the commentary. With regard to gendered usages
(man vs human, for example) I have respected Senecas marked use of
the gendered term for man (vir) and the non-gendered term for humans
(homo) as consistently as I could manage; where the context seems to
demand a gendered interpretation I have used man rather than human
or person as appropriate. Throughout the masculine personal pronoun
is used for generic references to human beings.
A nal note. Each letter begins and ends with the conventional phrases
of Latin letter-writing: Seneca Lucilio suo salutem and Vale (Seneca wishes
health to his friend Lucilius and Farewell, a phrase which literally
means be strong but is also the standard way of saying goodbye in
spoken Latin). These are standard phrases, not personalized to reect
the writers feelings or attitude towards the recipient. Yet Roman letter-
writing conventions are not our own, so that a wholly modern Dear
Lucilius Yours truly would be almost as misleading as omission of
xxiv r+aontc+ro
the epistolary conventions altogether. It is easy to imagine Seneca being
aware at some level that these standard formulae do in fact wish Lucilius
health and strength, a sentiment he surely feels for his friend. Hence
these phrases are translated in a formulaic manner designed to reect
the conventional character of epistolary discourse and still to hint at the
nuances of the Latin: Seneca to Lucilius, greetings: and Farewell.
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS
Abbreviations generally follow the practice of LSJ (Liddell-Scott-Jones,
Greek-English Lexicon) and the OLD (Oxford Latin Dictionary), with the
exception of the following:
Acad. Academica
Ben. De Beneciis
Brev. Vit. De Brevitate Vitae
CHHP Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy
CIAG Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca
Clem. De Clementia
Cons. Helv. Consolatio ad Helviam Matrem
Cons. Marc. Consolatio ad Marciam
Cons. Polyb. Consolatio ad Polybium
Const. Sap. De Constantia Sapientis
Ecl. Stobaeus, Eclogae
E-K Edelstein-Kidd (+8)
KD Epicurus, Principal Doctrines
LS Long and Sedley (+8y)
NQ Naturales Quaestiones
Prov. De Providentia
SVF Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta
Tranq. An. De Tranquillitate Animi
TRANSLATIONS
LETTER j8
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. Today more than ever I understood how impoverished, indeed
destitute, our vocabulary is. When we happened to be discussing Plato,
a thousand things came up which needed names but lacked them; but
there were some which, though they used to have names, had lost them
owing to our fussiness. But who would tolerate fussiness in the midst of
destitution?
:. What the Greeks call the gady, which stampedes livestock and
drives them all over their pastures, used to be called asilus by Romans.
You can trust Vergil on the point:
There is, near the grove of the Silarus River and the Alburnus green with
holm-oaks,
A multitude of ies, whose Roman name is asilus but which the Greeks have
translated and call gady
harsh, with a strident sound, by which whole herds of cattle are terried and
driven throughout the forest.'
It can, I think, be understood that the word had become obsolete.
. Not to keep you unduly; certain non-compound verbs used to be
current; e.g., they used to say settle it [cernere] by the sword. Vergil will
prove this for you too:
Powerful men, born in various parts of the world,
Clashed and settled it by the sword.
We now say decernere for this. The currency of that non-compound verb
has been lost.
. The ancients said if I command, i.e., if I should command. I dont
want you to take my word for this, but Vergils again:
Let the rest of the soldiers charge alongside me, where I command.
' Vergil, Georgics .+jo.
Vergil, Aeneid +:.yo8.
Vergil, Aeneid ++.y.
+a+sr++ros
j. My present aim with this attention to detail is not to show how much
time I have squandered on grammatical commentators, but to help you
understand how many words in Ennius and Accius have been overtaken
by disusesince some terms even in Vergil, who is studied daily, have
been lost to us.
. Youre asking, What is the point of this introduction? Whats the
purpose? I wont hide it from you. I want, if possible, to use the term
essentia with your approval; but if that is not possible I will use the term
even if it annoys you. I can cite Cicero as an authority for this word, an
abundantly inuential one in my view. If you are looking for someone
more up-to-date, I can cite Fabianus, who is learned and sophisticated,
with a style polished enough even for our contemporary fussiness. For
what will happen, Lucilius [if we dont allow essentia]? How will [the
Greek term] ousia be referred to, an indispensable thing, by its nature
containing the foundation of all things? So I beg you to permit me to use
this word. Still, I shall take care to use the permission you grant very
sparingly. Maybe Ill be content just to have the permission.
y. What good will your indulgence do when I can nd no way to
express in Latin the very notion which provoked my criticism of our
language? Your condemnation of our Roman limitations will be more
intense if you nd out that there is a one-syllable word for which I cannot
nd a substitute. What syllable is this, you ask? To on. You think I am
dull-wittedit is obvious that the word can be translated as what is. But
I see a big difference between the terms. I am forced to replace a noun
with a verb. But if I must, I will use what is.
8. Our friend, a very learned person, was saying today that this term
has six senses in Plato. I will be able to explain all of them to you, if I
rst point out that there is such a thing as a genus and so too a species.
But we are now looking for that primary genus on which other species
depend and which is the source of every division and in which all things
are included. It will be found if we start to pick things out, one by one,
starting in reverse order. We will thus be brought to the primary [genus].
. Human is a species, as Aristotle says, horse is a species, dog is a
species. So we have to look for something common to them all, a linkage
which contains them and is ranged above them. What is this? Animal. So
there starts to be a genus for all those things I just mentioned (human,
horse, dog), viz. animal.
+o. But some things have a soul but are not animals. For it is generally
agreed that plants too have a soul, and so we say that they live and die.
Therefore ensouled [living] things will have a higher rank because both
rr++ra j8 j
animals and plants are in this category. But some things lack soul (rocks,
e.g.). Therefore there will be something more basic than ensouled things,
viz. body. I will divide it in such a way as to claim that all bodies are either
ensouled or soulless.
++. Furthermore, there is something superior to body; for we say
that some things are corporeal and some are incorporeal. So what will
the source of these things be? That to which we just now assigned the
inappropriate name what is. For it will be divided into species in such a
way that we can say: what is is either corporeal or incorporeal.
+:. This, therefore, is the primary and most basic genusthe generic
genus, so to speak. The others are genera, to be sure, but specic genera.
For example, human is a genus, since it contains within itself as species
nationalities (Greeks, Romans, Parthians) andcolours (white, black, blond-
haired); it also contains individuals (Cato, Cicero, Lucretius). So in so far
as it contains many, it is classied as a genus; in so far as it falls under some
other, it is classied as a species. The generic genus what is has nothing
above itself; it is the starting point for things; everything falls under it.
+. The Stoics want to put above this yet another genus which is more
fundamental. I will address this presently, once I have shown that it is
right to treat the genus I have already spoken of as primary, since it
contains everything.
+. I divide what is into these species: things are corporeal or incor-
poreal; there is no third possibility. How do I divide body? So that I can
say: they are either ensouled or soulless. Again, how do I divide ensouled
things? So that I can say this: some have mind, some merely have soul or
this: some have impulse, move, and relocate; and some are fastened in
the ground, nourished by roots, and grow. Again, into what species do I
divide animals? They are either mortal or immortal.
+j. Some Stoics think that the primary genus is something. I will add
an account of why they think so. They say, in nature, some things are,
some are not, but nature embraces even those things which are not and
which occur to the mind (such as Centaurs, Giants, and whatever else
is shaped by an erroneous thought process and begins to take on some
appearance, although it does not have reality).
+. Now I return to the topic I promised you: how Plato divides all the
things that are into six senses. The rst what is is not grasped by vision,
by touch, or by any sense. It is thinkable. What is in a generic way, e.g.,
generic human, is not subject to being seen. But a specic human is, such
as Cicero and Cato. Animal is not seen; it is thought. But its species, horse
and dog, are seen.
+a+sr++ros
+y. Plato puts second among things which are that which is outstanding
and surpasses everything. He says that this is par excellence. Poet is a
common descriptionfor this name is given to all who compose verses;
but among the Greeks it has yielded to the fame of one. When you hear
the poet you understand Homer. So what is this [which Plato says is
par excellence]? God, of course, greater and more powerful than everything
else.
+8. There is a third genus of things which are in the proper sense.
They are countless but located beyond our view. What, you ask, are they?
Its a bit of Platos personal baggage; he calls them ideas; they are the
source of everything we see and all things are shaped by reference to them.
They are deathless, unchangeable, immune to harm.
+. Listen to what an idea is, i.e., what Plato thinks it is. An idea is the
eternal model of those things which are produced by nature. I will add
to the denition an interpretation so that it will be clearer to you. I want
to produce an image of you. I have you as a model for the painting, from
which our mind derives a certain disposition which it imposes on its work.
In this way the appearance which teaches me and guides me, the source
of the imitation, is an idea. Nature, then, contains an indenite number
of such modelsof humans, sh, trees. Whatever is to be produced by
nature is shaped with reference to them.
:o. Form will have fourth place. You need to pay close attention to
the account of what form is. Blame Plato, not me, for the difculty of the
topic: there is no technicality without difculty. A moment ago I used the
example of a painter. When he wanted to render Vergil with colours, he
looked at Vergil himself. The idea was Vergils appearance, a model for
the intended work. The form is that which the artisan derives from the
appearance and imposed on his own work.
:+. You ask, what is the difference between idea and form? The one is
a model, while the other is a shape taken from the model and imposed on
the work. The artisan imitates the one and produces the other. A statue
has a certain appearancethis is its form. The model itself has a certain
appearance which the workman looked at when he shaped the statue. This
is the idea. If you still want a further distinction, the form is in the work
and the idea outside itand not only outside it but prior to it.
::. The fthgenus is of those things whichare inthe ordinarily accept-
ed sense. These begin to be relevant to us; everything is herehumans,
herds, possessions. The sixth genus is of those things which as it were
are, such as the void, such as time.
rr++ra j8 y
Plato does not count the things we see or touch among those that he
thinks are in the strict sense. For they are in ux and constantly engaged
in shrinkage and growth. None of us is the same in old age as in youth.
None of us is the same the next day as he was the day before. Our bodies
are swept along like rivers. Whatever you see runs with [the passage of]
time. None of what we see is stable. I myself, while saying that those
things are changing, have changed.
:. This is what Heraclitus says: we do and do not enter the same river
twice. The name of the river stays the same, the water has passed on. This
is more apparent in a river than in a human being, but a current no less
rapid sweeps us along too. And so I am puzzled by our madness, in that
we are so in love with a thing so eetingour bodyand fear that we
might die someday when in fact every moment is the death of a prior state.
You oughtnt to be afraid that what happens daily might happen once!
:. I referred to a human being, a uid and perishable bit of matter
prey to all sorts of causes. The cosmos too, an eternal, invincible object,
changes and does not stay the same. Although it contains within itself all
that it ever had, it has them differently than it did before. It changes the
order.
:j. What good, you ask, will this technicality do for me? None, if
you ask me. But just as the engraver relaxes, refreshes and, as they say,
nourishes his eyes, tired from lengthy concentration, so too we should
sometimes relax our mind and refresh it with certain amusements. But
let the amusements themselves be work and from them too, if you pay
attention, you will gain something which could turn out to be good for
you.
:. This, Lucilius, is what I normally do: from every notion, even if it
is quite remote from philosophy, I try to dig out something and make it
useful. What is more remote from the improvement of our habits than the
discourse I just gave? How can the Platonic ideas make me better? What
could I derive from them that might control my desires? Maybe just this,
that all those things which serve the senses, which ename and stimulate
usPlato says that they are not among the things which truly are.
:y. Therefore they are like images and have a merely temporary
appearance; none of them is stable and reliable. And yet we desire them
as though they would be forever or as though we would possess them
forever. We are weak and uid beings amidst emptiness. Let us direct
our mind to what is eternal. Let us soar aloft and marvel at the shapes of
all things and god circulating among them, taking care that he keep from
8 +a+sr++ros
death what he could not make immortal due to the impediments of matter
and that he conquer bodily defects with rationality.
:8. For all things endure not because they are eternal but because
they are protected by a rulers concern; immortal things would need no
protector. The craftsman keeps them safe by conquering the fragility
of matter with his own power. Let us despise all things which are
so far from being valuable that it is open to question whether they
even are.
:. Let us at the same time consider this, that if he by his foresight
protects the cosmos itself (which is no less mortal than we are) from
dangers, then to some extent by our own foresight our sojourn in this
pathetic body can also be prolonged considerablyif we can rule and rein
in the pleasures, by which most people perish.
o. Plato himself extended his life into old age by taking care of himself.
To be sure, he was fortunate enough to have a strong and healthy body
(his broad chest gave him his name), but his voyages and dangerous
adventures had greatly diminished his strength. But frugality, moderation
with respect to things that elicit greed, and attentive care for himself got
him through to old age despite many adverse factors.
+. For I think you know that thanks to his attentive care for himself
it was Platos fortune to die on his own birthday, having lived exactly
8+ years. So the magi who happened to be in Athens sacriced to him in
death, supposing that his fortune was superhuman in that he had lived out
the most perfect numberwhich they make by multiplying nine times
nine. I am pretty sure that you would be willing to give up a few days from
the total and also the cult offering.
:. Parsimonious living can prolong ones old age, and though I dont
think it should be longed for I also dont think it should be rejected either.
It is pleasant to be with oneself as long as possible when one has made
oneself worth spending time with. And so we will render a verdict on
the question whether it is appropriate to be fussy about the nal stages
of old age and not to just wait for the end but to bring it about directly.
Someone who sluggishly considers his approaching fate is close to being
fearful; just as someone who drains the wine jar and sucks up the dregs
too is immoderately devoted to wine.
. Still, we will investigate this issue: is the nal stage of life dregs
or something very clear and pureif only the intelligence is undamaged
and sound senses assist the mind and the body is not worn out and dead
before its time. For it makes a big difference whether it is life or death that
one is prolonging.
rr++ra j8
. But if the body is useless for its duties, why wouldnt it be appropriate
to escort the failing mind out the door? And perhaps it is to be done a little
before it needs to be, to avoid the situation where you are unable to do
it when it needs to be done. And since there is a greater danger in living
badly than there is in dying swiftly, he is a fool who doesnt buy out the
risk of a great misfortune by paying a small price in time. Few make it
to their deaths intact if old age is greatly prolonged; many have a passive
life, lying there unable to make use of themselves. In the end, there is no
crueller loss in life than the loss of the right to end it.
j. Dont listen to me reluctantly, as though this maxim already applies
to you, and do evaluate what I am saying. I will not abandon my old age
if it leaves me all of myself, but that means all of the better part. But if it
starts to weaken my intelligence, to dislodge its parts, if what it leaves me
is not a life but just being alive, then I shall jump clear of a decayed and
collapsing building.
. I shall not ee disease by means of death, as long as it is curable
and does not impede the mind. I will not do violence to myself because
of pain. Such a death is a defeat. But if I see that I have to suffer pain
ceaselessly, I will make my exit, not because of pain but because it will be
an obstacle for me with regard to the whole point of living. He who dies
because of pain is weak and cowardly, but he who lives for pain is a fool.
y. But I digress too long. It is still a topic one could spend the day
onbut how can someone put an end to his life if he cannot put an end
to his letter? So be well: youll be happier to read that than non-stop talk
about death.
Farewell.
LETTER j
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. I shared yesterday with my poor health. It claimed the morning for
itself and yielded to me in the afternoon. So I rst tested my mind by
reading; then, when it tolerated this activity I made bold to ask more of
itrather, to allow it more. I wrote a bit, more vigorously than usual,
in fact, since I was grappling with tough material and didnt want to be
beaten. I wrote until some friends interrupted me to bar me forcibly from
working, as though I were an obstreperous patient.
:. Talking replaced writing, and I will report to you the part of our
conversationwhichremains contentious. We have made youour arbitrator.
It is a bigger job than you think: the case has three parts.
As you know, those of our school, the Stoics, say that there are two
things in nature from which everything comes to be, cause and matter.
Matter is passive, suitable for anything and bound to remain idle if no
one moves it. But cause, i.e., reason, shapes matter, turns it wherever it
wishes, and generates from it a wide range of works. So a thing must have
a source of becoming and an agent of becoming. The former is its matter
and the latter its cause.
. Every craft is an imitation of nature, and so apply what I was saying
about the universe to the artefacts which humans make. A statue had
matter, to yield to the artisan, and an artisan, to give a shape to the matter.
So in the case of the statue the material was the bronze and the cause was
the workman. The same state of affairs holds for all thingsthey consist
of that which becomes and that which makes.
. The Stoic view is that there is one cause, that which makes.
Aristotle thinks that cause is said in three ways. The rst cause, he says,
is the material itself, without which nothing can be produced. The second
is the workman. The third is the form, which is imposed on each work as
it is on a statue. For Aristotle calls this the form. A fourth cause, he says
accompanies these: the purpose of the entire product.
j. I will explain what this is.
rr++ra j ++
The bronze is the rst cause of a statue; for it never would have been
made if there had not existed the material from which it could be cast or
shaped. The second cause is the artisan. For the bronze could not have
been shaped into the conguration of a statue unless skilled hands were
applied to it. The third cause is the form. For the statue would not be
called the spear-carrier or the boy tying up his hair unless this shape
had been imposed on it. The fourth cause is the purpose of making it. For
if there had been no purpose the statue would not have been made.
. What is the purpose? It is what motivated the artisan, what he sought
in making it. Either it is money (if he produced it for sale) or glory (if he
worked for renown) or piety (if he made it as a temple offering). Therefore
this too is a cause on account of which it is made. Or do you not think we
should count as a cause that in whose absence the artefact would not have
been produced?
y. To these causes Plato adds a fth, the model, which he himself
calls an idea. For this is what the artisan looked to in making what he
planned to make. And in fact it is not relevant whether he has an external
model to which he can direct his gaze, or an internal model which he
himself conceived of and placed there. God has within himself models
of all things and he has grasped with his intellect the aspects and modes
of every thing which is to be done. He is full of the shapes which Plato
calls ideas immortal, unchanging, and untiring. So humans pass away,
of course, but human-ness itself, with reference to which a human being
is shaped, persists. Human beings may struggle and die, but it suffers
nothing.
8. So, on Platos view, there are ve causes: that from which, that by
which, that in which, that with reference to which, that because of which.
Last of all is that which comes from them. For example, a statue (since
I have already begun to use this example). The from which is bronze,
the by which is the artisan, the in which is the form which is tted to
the matter, the with reference to which is the model which the maker
imitates, the because of which is the purpose of the maker, and what
comes from them is the statue itself.
. The cosmos too, according to Plato, has all of them: a maker (this is
god), a from which (this is matter), a form (this is the conguration and
order of the visible cosmos), a model (i.e., what god looked to in making
this vast and most beautiful work), and a purpose because of which he
made it.
+o. You ask, what is gods purpose? Goodness. So, to be sure, Plato
says, What was the cause for god making the cosmos? That he is good.
+: +a+sr++ros
A good person does not begrudge any good thing, and so he made it as
good as possible.
All right, then, you be the judge and give a verdict, proclaim which one
seems to say what most closely resembles the truth, not which one says
what is truestfor that is as far above us as is truth itself.
++. The swarmof causes which is posited by Plato and Aristotle includes
either too many or too few. For if they decide that the cause of making
something is anything whose absence means that the thing cannot be
made, then they have stated too few. Let them include time among the
causes; nothing can be made without time. Let theminclude place; if there
isnt a place for something to be made it surely wont be made. Let them
include motion. Nothing is either done or perishes without it; there is no
craft without motion, no change.
+:. But what we are now looking for is a primary and generic cause.
This should be simple, since matter too is simple. Do we ask what cause
is? To be sure, it is reason in action, i.e., god. For all those things you
people have cited are not many distinct causes; rather, they depend on
one, the active cause.
+. Do you say that the form is a cause? The artisan imposes it on
his work. It is a part of the cause, not the cause. The model too is not
a cause but a means necessary for the cause. The model is necessary for
the artisan just as the scraper and the le are necessary. Without these the
craft cannot make progress, but still they are not parts or causes of the
craft.
+. He says, The purpose of the artisan, because of which he proceeds
to make something, is also a cause. Granted that it is a cause, it is not an
efcient cause but a subsequent cause. But there are countless causes of
this sort, and we are asking about a generic cause. But they werent using
their customary sophistication when they said that the entire cosmos, i.e.,
the nished work, is a cause. For there is a big difference between the
work and the cause of the work.
+j. Either give a verdict, or, as is easier in such matters, say that it is
not clear to you and tell us to re-argue the case.
You say, What pleasure do you take in wasting time on those issues,
ones that do not strip you of any passion or ward off any desire?
In fact I am dealing with those more important issues, the ones that
soothe the mind, and I investigate myself rst and then this cosmos.
+. And I am not wasting time even now, as you think. For if all
those issues are not chopped up and dispersed into this kind of pointless
technicality, they elevate and relieve the mind, which, being burdened by
rr++ra j +
its great load, desires to be set free and to return to the things it used
to be part of. For this body is a burden and a penalty for the mind. It
is oppressed by its weight and is in chains unless philosophy comes to it
and urges it to take its ease before the sight of nature and directs it away
from what is earthly and towards the divine. This is its freedom, this is its
escape. From time to time it slips away from the prison in which it is held
and is refreshed by the [sight of the] heavens.
+y. Just as artisans who work on some quite detailed job which wearies
their eyes with concentration, if they have to rely on bad and uncertain
lighting, come out in the open and treat their eyes to the light in some area
devoted to the public leisureso too the mind, enclosed in this sad and
gloomy dwelling, seeks the open air and takes its ease in the contemplation
of nature as often as it can.
+8. He who is wise and pursues wisdom clings to his body, but even so
with the best part of himself he is elsewhere and focusses his thoughts on
higher matters. Like a soldier under oath he thinks of this life as a tour of
duty; and he has been trained to neither love nor hate life, and he puts up
with mortal matters though he knows that higher things await him.
+. Do you ban me from an investigation of nature, drag me away from
the whole and conne me to a part? Shall I not investigate the principles
of all things? Who gave them form? Who made distinctions among things
which were melded into one and enmeshed in passive matter? Shall I not
enquire who is the artisan of this cosmos? Howso great a mass was reduced
to lawlike structure? Who gathered the scattered bits, who separated what
was combined and brought shape to things lying in unsightly neglect?
Where did this great light come from? Is it re or something brighter than
re?
:o. Shall I not ask these questions? Shall I remain ignorant of my
origins? Am I to see these things just once or am I to be born many times?
Where am I to go from here? What residence awaits the soul when it is
freed from the laws of human servitude? You forbid me to meddle with
the heavens, i.e., you order me to live with bowed head.
:+. I am greater than that and born for greater things than to be a slave
to my body, which I think of as no different than a chain fastened about
my freedom. So I position it as a defence against fortune, so that she will
stop right there; I permit no wound to get through the body to me. This
is the only part of me which can suffer wrongs. A free mind lives in this
vulnerable dwelling.
::. That esh will never drive me to fear, never to pretence unworthy
of a good person; I shall never lie to show respect for this paltry body.
+ +a+sr++ros
When I see t, I shall dissolve my partnership with it. Even now, however,
while we cling together, we will not be partners on equal terms. The mind
will reserve all rights to itself. To despise ones body is a reliable freedom.
:. To return to my point, even the investigation we were just discussing
will make a substantial contribution to this freedom. To be sure, all things
are formed from matter and god. God regulates those things which
surround and follow him as guide and leader. But the active principle, i.e.,
god, is more powerful and more valuable than the matter which submits
to god.
:. The place which god occupies in this cosmos corresponds to minds
place in a human being. Matter there corresponds to the body in us. So
let the inferior serve the better. Let us be brave in the face of chance
circumstances; let us not tremble at wrongs nor at wounds, neither at
chains nor at want. What is death? Either an end or a transition. I am not
afraid to come to an endthat is the same as not having startednor to
move onbecause I will not be so conned anywhere else.
Farewell.
LETTER
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. Claranus was a fellow student of mine and I have seen him again
after many years. You dont have to wait, I think, for me to add that the
man I saw was old. But good heavens, he was youthful and vigorous in
mind even as he struggled with his frail body. For nature has been unfair
and found a poor location for a mind of his calibre. Or maybe she wanted
to demonstrate to us this very point, that a spirit of the greatest courage
and happiness can be concealed beneath any surface. Nevertheless, he has
conquered every obstacle and gone from despising himself to despising
everything else.
:. The poet who said virtue which radiates from a beautiful body
is the more pleasing' was wrong, in my opinion. For virtue needs no
embellishment. It is itself a signicant adornment and makes its body
blessed too. I certainly began to look at my friend Claranus in a new way:
I think he is attractive and as straight in body as he is in mind.
. A great man can come from a humble hut; an attractive and great
mind can come even from an ugly and modest body. And so I think that
nature produces certain such people just to conrm that virtue can come
to exist in any place. If she were able to create naked minds she would have
done so; now she does something better. She creates certain people who
are physically impeded but who nevertheless break through the obstacles.
. I think Claranus was created as an exemplar, so that we could know
that the mind is not deled by bodily impairment but that the body is
adorned by mental beauty. However, although we were together for only a
very few days, we nevertheless had many conversations which I promptly
wrote up and will pass on to you.
j. On the rst day our question was how all goods can be equal if
they come in three different kinds. Certain goods, as our school thinks,
are primary (e.g., joy, peace, the safety of the fatherland); certain goods
are secondary, being manifested in unfortunate circumstances (e.g., the
endurance of torture and self-control when seriously ill). We will wish the
' Vergil, Aeneid j.
+ +a+sr++ros
former goods for ourselves unconditionally and the latter only if necessary.
There are in addition tertiary goods (e.g., a decorous gait, an expression
which is sedate and proper, and a posture which is suitable for a man of
good sense).
. How can these be equal to each other when some are to be chosen
and others are to be avoided?
If we want to distinguish them, let us go back to the primary good and
reect on what it is like. It is a mind which (i) contemplates the truth, (ii)
is experienced in the matter of what should be pursued and what avoided,
(iii) assigns values to things in accordance with nature and not on the basis
of mere opinion, (iv) involves itself in the whole cosmos and directs its
reection to all of its [i.e., the cosmoss] actions, (v) is focussed on thought
and action in a balanced manner, (vi) is great, energetic, unconquered by
hardship and pleasures alike and submissive to neither circumstance, (vii)
rising above everything which happens to befall it, (viii) is very beautiful,
well ordered with regard to both charm and strength, (ix) is sound and
sober, undisturbed and fearless, immune to violent blows, neither elated
nor depressed by the events of fortune. Virtue is this kind of mind.
y. This is what it looks like if it is considered all at once and displays the
whole of itself. But it does have many appearances which are deployed in
accordance with different situations in life and its actions. Virtue itself does
not become either less or greater. For the highest good cannot shrink nor
can virtue backslide. But it is transformed into many different qualities,
shaped according to the disposition of the actions which it is to undertake.
8. Virtue colours and assimilates to itself whatever it touches; it adorns
actions, friendships, sometimes even whole households which it has come
into and regulated. Whatever it has handled it makes loveable, outstanding,
admirable. And so its power and magnitude cannot rise higher, since what
is greatest has no room for growth. You will nd nothing straighter than
the straight, nothing truer than the true, nothing more balanced than what
is balanced.
. Every virtue consists in a limit, and the limit has a xed measure.
Constancyhas noroomtoincrease anymore thanintegrityor truthor trust-
worthiness. What can accrue to the perfect? Nothing; otherwise, that to
which there was accrual wasnt perfect in the rst place. Therefore nothing
can accrue to virtue, which, if anything can be added, was defective in the
rst place. The honourable too admits of no increase, for it exists because
of the characteristics I have mentioned. What then? Dont you think that
the tting and the just and the lawful are of the same type, bounded by
denite limits? The ability to increase is a mark of something imperfect.
rr++ra +y
+o. Every good is subject to the same terms. Private and public utility
are linked, to the same extent, good heavens, as what is praiseworthy and
what is choiceworthy are inseparable. Therefore the virtues are equal to
each other and so are the works of virtue and all people who have attained
the virtues.
++. Since plants and animals are mortal, their virtues too are fragile,
transitory, and unstable. They leap forward and fall back and thus are not
given a consistent value. But we use one standard for the human virtues,
since right reason is one and straightforward. Nothing is more divine than
the divine, nothing more heavenly than the heavenly.
+:. Mortal things are depleted and pass away, they are worn down
and they grow, they are emptied out and relled; and so they have an
inconsistency which comports well with their unstable condition; divine
things have a single nature. But reason is nothing but a part of the divine
breath plunged into the human body; if reason is divine, and no good
is without reason, then everything good is divine. Further, there is no
distinction among divine things, and so there is also no distinction among
good things. Therefore joy and a brave, determined endurance of torture
are equal; for in each there is the same greatness of mind; in the one it is
calm and relaxed and in the other it is aggressive and tense.
+. What? Do you not think that the virtue of the man who bravely
storms the enemies walls and of the man who endures the siege with
tremendous long-suffering are equal? Great was Scipio, who surrounded
and blockaded Numantia and drove to suicide the enemy he could not
defeat; great too was the resolve of the besieged, which knew that someone
for whom death is an open prospect and who breathes his last in the
embrace of freedom is not completely surrounded. The other [virtues] are
just as equal to each other: tranquillity, straightforwardness, generosity,
constancy, equanimity, endurance. For one virtue underlies them all, a
virtue which makes the mind straight and unswerving.
+. What, then? Is there no difference between joy and the unbending
endurance of pains? None, as far as the virtues themselves are concerned,
but there is a very big difference between the circumstances in which each
virtue is displayed. In the one case there is a natural ease and relaxation
of the mind, and in the other an unnatural pain. Therefore those things
which admit of a very great difference are intermediates; virtue is the same
in both.
+j. The rawmaterial does not change the virtue. Tough and demanding
material does not make it worse, nor is it made better by cheerful and light-
hearted material; it must, therefore, be equal. In both cases what is done is
+8 +a+sr++ros
done with equal correctness, equal prudence, equal honour. Therefore the
goods are equal, and beyond these limits the one person cannot comport
himself better in his joy nor can the other comport himself better in his
pain. And two things than which nothing can be better are equal.
+. For if things extrinsic to virtue can either diminish it or enhance it,
then what is honourable ceases to be the sole good. If you grant this, then
the honourable has utterly perished. Why? I will tell you: because nothing
is honourable which is done by someone who is reluctant or compelled.
Everything honourable is voluntary. Mix it with foot-dragging, complaint,
hesitation, fearit has lost what is best in itself, its contentment. What is
not free cannot be honourable, for if something is afraid it is a slave.
+y. Everything honourable is untroubled, calm. If it rejects anything,
laments it, if it judges that something is bad, then it has admitted
disturbance and is enmeshed in great dissension. From one side the sight
of what is straight beckons, from the other unease about what is bad pulls
himback. And so he who is setting out to do something honourably should
not think that any of the obstacles is bad, even if he thinks it dispreferred,
but he should be willing and eager to do it. Everything honourable is
autonomous and uncompelled, pure and mixed with nothing bad.
+8. I know what the reply to me might be at this point. Are you trying
to persuade us of the proposition that it makes no difference whether
someone experiences joy or lies upon the rack and wears out his torturer?
I could reply that Epicurus too says that the wise person, even if he
is burned in the bull of Phalaris, will cry out, This is pleasant and it
is nothing to me! Why are you surprised if I say that the goods are
equal <of two people, the one reclining at a dinner party> and the other
standing most bravely amidst tortures, when Epicurus makes an even
more incredible claim, that it is pleasant to be tortured?
+. But I will in fact reply that there is a very great difference between
joy and pain; if someone were to ask me for my selection, then I would
pursue the one and avoid the other. The one is natural and the other
unnatural. As long as they are assessed in this manner, they differ from
each other by a big margin; but when it comes to virtue, each instance of
virtue is equal, the one accompanied by happy circumstances and the one
accompanied by regrettable circumstances.
:o. Aggravation and pain and anything else which is dispreferred have
no weight; they are overwhelmed by virtue. Just as the brilliance of the sun
obscures very small lights, so virtue, by its magnitude, crushes and sties
pains, annoyances, and injustices. And wherever virtue shines, anything
which appears without it is there extinguished. Dispreferred things, when
rr++ra +
they co-occur with virtue, make no more impact than a rain shower does
on the ocean.
:+. In order for you to see that this is so: a good man will rush into
every noble deed without any hesitation. Though the executioner might
be standing there, the torturer and his re, he will carry on and consider
not what he is about to suffer but what he is about to accomplish, and
he will entrust himself to an honourable situation as to a good man. He
will adjudge it a source of benet to himself, of safety, of prosperity. A
situation which is honourable, but at the same time bitter and harsh, will
play the same role in his thinking as a good man who is poor, or an exile,
<or starving> and pale.
::. Come then, put on the one side a good man overowing with wealth,
and opposite him a good man who has nothing, but with everything within
himself. Each man will be equally good, even if their fortunes are unequal.
As I said, we make the same judgement of situations as we do of people.
Virtue is equally praiseworthy when situated in a strong and free body
and when in one that is sick and in chains.
:. Therefore you wont praise your own virtue any the more if fortune
gives you a sound body than if it is maimed in some respect. Otherwise,
it will be like valuing the master on the basis of his slaves livery. For all
those things over which chance exercises power are servile: money, body,
public ofcethey are weak, transient, mortal, unreliable possessions.
On the other hand, the things which are free and invincible works of
virtue are those which are no more worth pursuing if they are treated
more kindly by fortune and no less worth pursuing if they are aficted by
some unfairness in the world.
:. Pursuit is to a situation what friendship is to people. You would
not, I think, love a good man who is rich more than one who is poor,
nor one who is strong and muscular more than one who is skinny and
weak. Therefore, you would not pursue or love a situation more if it were
light-hearted and trouble-free than if it were conicted and laborious.
:j. Or if this is the case, then of two men who are equally good you will
cherish more the one who is sleek and well groomed than the one who is
dirty and bristly; then by this route you will get to the point where you
cherish more the man who is sound in all his limbs and free of wounds
than one who is weak or blind in one eye; little by little your fussiness
will advance until, of two equally just and prudent men you will prefer
the one with the fancy haircut and curls. When virtue is equal in both,
the inequality of other factors disappears; for all these other things are not
parts but adjuncts.
:o +a+sr++ros
:. Surely no one will wield such unfair judgement with regard to his
children that he would cherish more a healthy son than a sick one, one who
is tall and striking than one who is short or middle-sized? Beasts do not
discriminate among their offspring and they give suck to them all equally;
birds share the food equally [among their chicks]. Ulysses hastened home
to the rocks of his beloved Ithaca just as Agamemnon did to the noble
walls of Mycenae; for no one loves his homeland because it is great, but
because it is his own.
:y. What is the relevance of this? To show you that virtue looks upon
all its works with the same eyes, as though they were its offspring, is
equally kind to all indeed, is more lavish to those who are struggling,
since parental love inclines more towards those whom it pities. It is not
that virtue has greater love for those of its works which it sees aficted and
oppressed, but like good parents it does embrace and cherish them more
warmly.
:8. Why is no good greater than any other? Because nothing ts better
than the tting, and nothing is atter than what is at. You cannot say
that one thing is more equal to something than another; therefore you also
cannot say that anything is more honourable than what is honourable.
:. But if the nature of all the virtues is equal, then the three kinds
of goods are on an equal footing. What I am saying is that rejoicing in a
self-controlled manner and feeling pain in a self-controlled manner are on
an equal footing. Light-heartedness in one context does not outweigh the
steadfastness of mind which swallows groans under torture. Those goods
are choiceworthy, these are admirable, but nevertheless both are equal,
because whatever in them is dispreferred is obliterated by the impact of a
much greater good.
o. Whoever thinks that these goods are unequal is turning his eyes
away from the virtues themselves and considering externals. True goods
have the same weight and the same extent; the false ones contain a
great deal of empty space, and so they are impressive and big when
you look straight at them, but when they are put on the scales they
disappoint.
+. So it is, Lucilius. Whatever genuine reason vouches for is solid and
long-lasting, strengthens the mind and raises it to great heights where it
will remain forever. The objects of empty praise, things which are good
only in the opinion of the crowd, produce conceit in those who rejoice over
vanities. Again, those things which are feared as being bad strike terror
into their mindsthey are driven by the mere appearance of danger, as
wild animals are.
rr++ra :+
:. Therefore each of these things groundlessly excites and depresses
the mind; those things are not worthy of joy nor are their opposites worthy
of fear. Only reason is unchangeable and rm in its judgement. For it
does not obey the senses but commands them. Reason is equal to reason,
just as the straight is equal to the straight. So too virtue is equal to virtue,
since virtue is nothing except straight reason. All the virtues are instances
of reason; they are reason if they are straight, and if they are straight they
are equal.
. The quality of actions is determined by the corresponding reasoning;
therefore all of them are equal. For since they are similar to the reasoning,
they are also similar to each other. But I say that actions are similar
to each other in so far as they are honourable and straight; still, they
will have signicant differences since the raw material varies; it is more
generous in one case and more constrained in another; high-born in one
case and base-born in another; affects many in one case, few in another.
Still, in all these circumstances that which is best is equal: the actions are
honourable.
. Similarly, all good men are equal in so far as they are good but
still have differences in age (one is older, another younger), in bodily
endowment (one is attractive, another ugly), and in circumstance (one is
rich, another poor, one is inuential and powerful, well known to various
cities and peoples, and another is unknown to most people and obscure).
But with regard to that because of which they are good they are equal.
j. The sensory capacity does not form judgements about good and
bad things; it doesnt know what is useful and what is useless. It cannot
reach a verdict unless it is brought to the scene of the action. It can neither
foresee the future nor recall the past. It has no inkling of consequence.
Yet from it are woven the order and sequence of events and the unity of
a life which will run straight. Hence it is reason which is the arbiter of
what is good and bad; it puts a low value on things which are foreign and
external and judges that things which are neither good nor bad are trivial
and frivolous add-ons, since for reason all good is situated in the mind.
. However, reason does regard certain goods as being primary, goods
which it approaches on purpose: for example, victory, good children, the
salvation of our fatherland; others it thinks of as secondary, goods which
only turn up in adverse circumstances: for example, suffering illness, re,
or exile with equanimity; yet others it thinks of as intermediate, things
which are no more according to nature than they are contrary to nature:
for example, prudent walking, orderly sitting. For it is no less according
to nature to sit than to stand or to walk.
:: +a+sr++ros
y. The rst two kinds of good are distinct. For the primary are
according to nature (rejoicing at the dutiful behaviour of ones children,
the preservation of ones fatherland), while the secondary goods are
contrary to nature (bravely resisting torture and enduring thirst when
disease burns up ones innards).
8. What then? Is anything which is contrary to nature good? Not at
all. But sometimes the circumstances in which the good arises are contrary
to nature. For being wounded and melting over the re and being aficted
with poor health are contrary to nature, but it is according to nature to
preserve ones mental vigour amidst them.
. To set forth my point briey: the raw material for the good is
sometimes contrary to nature, but the good never is, since no good exists
without reason and reason follows nature. So, what is reason? The
imitation of nature. What is the highest good for human beings? To
comport oneself in accordance with the will of nature.
o. The objection is put, There is no doubt that peace is happier if it is
never threatened than if it is regained by bloody battle. There is no doubt,
it is maintained, that unthreatened good health is a happier state of affairs
than health salvaged by special effort and endurance from serious illnesses
which threaten the most dreadful outcomes. In the same way there is no
doubt that joy is a greater good than a mind straining to endure the pain
of wounds or burns.
+. Not in the least. For the things which are subject to chance admit
of a very great deal of difference, since they are evaluated on the basis of
their use to those who choose them. Goods have but one purpose, to agree
with nature. This is equal in them all. When we concur with someones
opinion in the senate it cannot be said that one senator gave assent more
than another did. All supported the same opinion. I say the same for the
virtues: they all assent to nature. I say the same for goods: they all assent
to nature.
:. One man dies in youth, another in old age, another right in infancy
with no chance to do more than to glimpse life. All of them were mortal
in equal measure, even if death allowed the lives of some to carry on for
quite a while, cut short the lives of others at the height of their powers,
and cut off others right at the beginning.
. One man is released in the middle of dinner; someone elses death
was a mere extension of sleep; having sex snuffed out another. Contrast to
them men who are run through by the sword, who perish by snake bites,
who are crushed by a collapsing building, or who are twisted up little by
little as their sinews slowly contract. One can say that some people have a
rr++ra :
better death and that others have a worse end. But nevertheless death is
equal for all. The way they get there varies, but their destination is one.
No death is greater or lesser; in all cases it has the same boundary: it has
put an end to ones life.
. I am telling you the same thing about goods. One good is situated
amidst unadulterated pleasures, another amidst harsh and bitter circum-
stances; the former guides fortunes favour, the latter masters her violence.
The two are equally good, although the former goes along a smooth and
gentle path and the latter along a difcult one. All have the same end: they
are good, they are praiseworthy, they accompany virtue and reason; virtue
makes equal everything it acknowledges as its own.
j. You have no good reason to be astonished that this is one of our
doctrines. In Epicurus there are two goods which make up that highest
and blessed state: that the body be free of pain and the mind free of upset.
These goods do not get bigger once they are complete: for how could
what is complete grow? The body is free of pain; what can be added to
this painlessness? The mind is consistent with itself and calm; what can
be added to this tranquillity?
. Just as a clear sky, once it is cleansed and has an unalloyed splendour,
does not admit of any further brightness, so too a persons condition is
perfect if he cares for his body and mind and blends his good from both;
and he achieves his greatest wish if his mind is free of storms and his
body free of pain. If any additional enticements come along, they do not
increase the highest good but they spice it up, so to speak, and provide
seasoning. For the unqualied good of human nature is satised by peace
in body and mind.
y. I will point out to you even now that in Epicurus there is a division
of goods which is quite similar to the one in our school. In Epicurus there
are some things which he would prefer to have come to him (such as ease
in the body, free from all discomfort, and a relaxation of the mind as it
rejoices in the contemplation of its own goods) and others which, though
he would rather they did not happen, he nevertheless praises and approves
oflike that endurance of poor health and most grievous pains which I
was mentioning just now. That is how Epicurus spent that nal and most
blessed day of his life! For he said that he was enduring the torments of
his bladder and an inamed stomach which did not admit of any further
increase in pain but that it was a happy day despite it all. However, one
cannot be having a happy day unless one is in possession of the highest
good.
: +a+sr++ros
8. Therefore there are even in Epicurus theory the kind of goods
which one would rather not experience but which are worth embracing
and praising and treating as equal to the highest goods, since that is how
things worked out. It cannot be denied that the good which put the nal
touch on a happy life and for which Epicurus expressed his gratitude in
his last breath is equal to the highest good.
. Allow me, my excellent Lucilius, to say something even bolder. If
any goods could be greater than others, then I would have preferred those
which seem harsher to those which are soft and effeminate, I would have
said that they were greater. It is a greater thing to demolish hardships than
it is to regulate good fortune.
jo. I knowthat it is by the same rationality that one takes prosperity well
and misfortune bravely. There can be equal courage in him who sleeps
condently outside the walls when there are no enemy raids and in him
who lands on his knees after his hamstrings have been severed and does
not abandon his weapons: bravo for your courage is something we say to
those covered in blood even as they return from battle. And so I would
rather praise those goods which are tested and courageous and which have
been brawling against fortune.
j+. Should I hesitate over whether to give greater praise to that mangled
and burned hand of Mucius than to the healthy hand of even the bravest
man? He stood there, holding in contempt the enemy and the ames and
he watched his hand melting away in the enemys stove, until Porsenna
envied the glory of the man whose punishment he had urged and ordered
that Mucius hand be removed from the re against his will.
j:. Howcould I not count this good among the primary ones and regard
it as being greater than the goods which are safe and untried by fortune
by as big a margin as it is rarer to conquer the enemy by a ruined hand
than it is to do so by an armed one. What, then, you say, are you going
to wish for this good for yourself ? Why not? Such a deed cannot be done
by anyone who cannot also wish for it.
j. Or should I rather wish that I might hold out my hands so that
my male sex toys can massage them? That some woman (or somebody
turned into woman from a man) might stroke my ngers? Why shouldnt
I think that Mucius is luckier because he handled the re as though he
had entrusted that very hand to a masseur? He restored to integrity all
his previous errors: unarmed and maimed he ended the war and with that
mangled hand he conquered two kings.
Farewell.
LETTER y+
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. You often ask my advice about particular matters, forgetting that
we are separated by a wide ocean. Since the most important part of
advice depends on the circumstances, it must follow that on certain
matters my opinion reaches you when the opposite advice has already
become preferable. For advice is adjusted to situations; our situations are
in movement, or rather in ux. Therefore advice should be generated
immediately beforehand. And even this is too late. Let it be generated, as
they say, right on the spot. However, I will show you how advice can be
found.
:. Whenever you want to know what is to be avoided or what is to
be sought, look to the highest good, the purpose of your entire life. For
whatever we do ought to agree with that. Only someone who has before
him a general purpose for his whole life will put individual things in
order. No matter how ready ones paints might be, no one will produce a
likeness unless he has a clear notion of what he wants to paint. So we make
mistakes because we deliberate about the parts of life; no one deliberates
about the whole.
. He who wants to shoot an arrow ought to know what he is aiming
at and then direct and guide the weapon with his hand. Our counsels go
astray because they do not have a target to be aimed at. If you dont know
what harbour you sail for, no wind is favourable.
Because we live by chance, chance necessarily has great power over our
lives.
. However, it turns out that certain people do not know that they in
fact know certain things. Just as we often look for the very people we are
standing beside, in the same way we generally do not know that the goal
and highest good is right in front of us. You dont need many words or a
roundabout path to infer what the highest good is. If I may say, it should
be pointed out with ones nger and not scattered all around. For what is
the point of breaking it up into small bits when you can say, the highest
good is that which is honourable, and (you will be even more struck by
: +a+sr++ros
this claim) the only good is what is honourable; all the others are false and
counterfeit goods.
j. If you convince yourself of this and fall passionately in love with
virtue (just loving it is not enough), then whatever befalls because of virtue
will bring good fortune and happiness to you, no matter what others may
think of it. Torture (if only you lie there more serene than the torturer
himself) and sickness (provided that you dont curse your luck and give
in to the illness) and in a word everything which other people think of as
badall of these things will be tamed and turn out for the best, if you
rise above them. Let this much be clear: that there is nothing good except
the honourable. Everything which is inconvenient in its own right will
be labelled good provided that virtue brings it honour.
. Many people think that we are promising more than human nature
can handleand not without reason. For they are considering the body.
Let them turn their attention to the mind and they will soon be measuring
humans by the standard of god. Raise yourself up, my excellent Lucilius,
andleave behindthose grammar-school philosophers who bring something
which is truly splendid down to the level of syllables and, by teaching
petty matters, depress and wear out the mind. You will come to resemble
those who discovered those things, not those who teach them and make
philosophy difcult rather than great.
y. Socrates, who brought all of philosophy back to ethics and said that
the highest wisdom is to distinguish good from bad, said If I have any
inuence with you at all, follow them in order to be happy, and let some
think you a fool. Let whoever wishes insult you and harmyou, but you still
wont suffer at all provided that you have virtue. If, he says, you want to
be happy, if you want to be a genuinely good man, let someone hold you
in contempt. No one will achieve this if he hasnt himself held all things
in contempt rst and come to treat all goods as equal. For there is no good
without the honourable and the honourable is equal in all instances.
8. What, then? Is there no difference between Cato winning the election
for praetor and his losing it? Is there no difference between Cato being
defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus and his winning? Is the good he gets
frombeing unconquerable when his faction is conquered equal to the good
he gets fromreturning to his homeland as victor and making arrangements
for a peace settlement? Why shouldnt they be equal? For it is by the
same virtue that bad fortune is overcome and good fortune is regulated.
But virtue cannot be greater or lesserit is of uniform standing.
. But Gnaeus Pompeius will lose his army, and that most splendid
glory of the state, the aristocracy, and the front line of the Pompeian
rr++ra y+ :y
faction, the Senate bearing arms, will all be crushed in one battle and the
remains of so great a power will scatter all over the worldpart of it will
collapse in Egypt, part in Africa, part in Spain. The wretched state cannot
even manage to collapse only once.
+o. Suppose all of this happens: familiarity with the terrain in his own
kingdom doesnt help Juba, and neither does the determined courage of
his people ghting for their king; the loyalty of the citizens of Utica fails,
beaten down by misfortunes; and the fortune of his family heritage deserts
Scipio in Africait was determined long ago that Cato should suffer no
harm.
++. But still, he was beaten. Count this too among the defeats suffered
by Catohe will bear the obstacles to his victory with the same spirit that
he bears the obstacles to his praetorship. On the same day that he lost the
election, he played; on the night when he was about to die, he read. He
put the same value on losing the praetorship and on losing his life. He was
convinced that everything which might happen should be endured.
+:. Why wouldnt he endure that political change with a brave and
steady mind? For what is there which is immune to the risk of change?
Not the earth, nor the sky nor the whole structure of this cosmos, even
though it is guided by the agency of god. It will not always preserve its
present order; some day it will be driven out of this path.
+. All things develop at xed times. They have to be born, to grow, and
to pass away. Whatever you see pass by over our heads and all things we
rely on and stand on, as though they were completely stable, these things
will waste away and come to an end. Everything gets old in its own way.
Nature sends them to the same destination at different rates; whatever is
will someday not be, but it wont perishit will be dissolved.
+. For us, being dissolved is to perish, for we limit our gaze to what is
right next to us and our mind, which is dull and has devoted itself to the
body, does not look ahead to things further off. Otherwise, if it expected
that (<like> everything else) life and death take turns, that what is put
together dissolves and that what is dissolved is put together, and that in
this work the eternal craft of a god who governs all things is at work, then
it would endure with greater courage the death of itself and those dear
to it.
+j. And so like Marcus Cato, when it has thought its way through
life, it will say, the whole human race, present and future, is doomed to
death. Of all the cities which ourish anywhere and are great adornments
for foreign empires it shall be asked where were they? and they will
be eliminated by various kinds of destruction. Some will be destroyed by
:8 +a+sr++ros
wars, others eaten up by laziness, by peace which has degenerated into
sloth, and by luxury, a thing which is pernicious even to great wealth and
power. A sudden ooding of the sea will carry off all these fertile elds, or
they will be carried off by the sudden subsidence as the ground falls into a
subterranean cavern. So why should I get outraged or grieve if I meet the
fate shared by all just a little ahead of the rest?
+. Let a great mind obey god and let it endure without hesitation
whatever the law of the universe commands. Either it is released into a
better life, to live more clearly and calmly among the divine, or at least it
will be free of any future inconvenience if it is mixed again with nature
and returns to the cosmos. Therefore the honourable life of Marcus Cato
is no greater good than his honourable death, since virtue cannot be
increased. Socrates said that truth and virtue are the same thing. Just as
the former does not become greater so too virtue does not either. It has its
complement; it is full.
+y. Therefore there is no reason for you to be amazed at the claim that
all goods are equal, both those which are to be chosen on purpose and
those which are only to be chosen if circumstances dictate. For if you
admit that goods are unequal, so that you count courageous endurance of
torture among things which are lesser goods, then you will also count it
among things which are bad and you will say that Socrates was unhappy
in prison, that Cato was unhappy when he tore open his wounds more
courageously than he had inicted them in the rst place, that Regulus
was most unfortunate of all when he paid the penalty for keeping his word
even to the enemy. But no one has had the nerve to say this, not even the
most degenerate of men; they say that he isnt happy, but still they say
that he isnt miserable either.
+8. The Old Academics concede that he is happy even amidst these
tortures, but not completely or absolutely happybut this cannot be
accepted. Unless he is happy he is not in the highest good. But the highest
good has no level above it, provided that it contains virtue, provided
that adverse circumstances do not diminish it, provided that it remains
safe even as the body is shattered; it still remains. I understand by
virtue something that is bold and lofty, which is stimulated by whatever
threatens it.
+. Certainly it is wisdom which pours into us and passes on to us this
spirit, which young men of noble temperament, inspired by the beauty
of an honourable deed, often adopt, with the result that they hold all
contingency in contempt. Wisdom will convince us that the only good is
what is honourable and that this cannot be lessened or intensied any more
rr++ra y+ :
than you can bend the ruler which is normally used to test straightness.
Whatever you change in it is a detriment to its straightness.
:o. We will make the same claim about virtue. This too is straight; it
does not admit of bending. It is rigid. What could be made more taut? It is
virtue which passes judgement on everything; nothing passes judgement
on it. If it cannot itself be any straighter, then neither can any of the things
which are straight because of it be straighter than the others. They must
match virtue and so they are equal.
:+. What, then? you say, are reclining at a dinner party and being
tortured equal? Does this seem remarkable to you? You might be more
amazed at the following: reclining at a dinner party is bad and reclining
on the rack is goodif the former is done shamefully and the latter
honourably. It is not the raw material which makes them good or bad, but
the virtue; wherever it appears, everything is of the same dimensions and
of the same value.
::. The person who assesses everyones mind on the basis of his own is
now shaking his sts in my face, because I claim that the goods of one who
sits honourably in judgement are equal to those of <someone who behaves
honourably as a defendant>, because I claim that the goods of him who
holds a triumph are equal to those of the person who is carried before
his chariot with unconquered mind. They think that anything that they
cannot themselves do cannot be done. They pass judgement on virtue by
the standards of their own weakness.
:. Why are you surprised if it is useful, sometimes even pleasant, to be
burned, wounded, slaughtered, or imprisoned? Frugality is a punishment
for someone addicted to luxury, for the sluggard work is like a penalty,
the fop takes pity on the hard-working man, and it is sheer torture for
the slothful person to study. In the same way we think that the things at
which we are all weak are harsh and intolerable, and we forget that for
many people it is torment to do without wine or to be awoken at dawn.
Those things are not difcult by nature, but we are soft and weak.
:. One must pass judgement on great things with a great mind;
otherwise what is actually our own defect will seem to be the defect of
those things. It is thus that some things which are absolutely straight,
when they are put into water, appear to observers as being curved and
bent. It doesnt just matter what you look at, but how. Our mind has weak
vision when it comes to looking at the truth.
:j. Give me a young man unspoiled and with a lively wit; he will say
that he thinks that the person who bears all the burdens of adversity with
neck unbowed and who rises above fortune is the more fortunate. It is not
o +a+sr++ros
surprising if he is not troubled amidst tranquillity; be amazed at the fact
that one person is in excellent spirits where everyone else is downcast,
that he stands where everyone else is prostrate.
:. What is it that is bad in torture, what is bad in the other things
which we call adversities? Just this, I think, that the mind capitulates,
bends under the load and caves in. None of this can happen to the wise
man: he stands up straight under any weight. No situation diminishes
him; none of the things which are bearable upsets him. For he does not
complain that whatever can befall a person has befallen him. He knows
his strength; he knows that he is built for carrying burdens.
:y. I do not deny that the wise person is a human being nor do I
exempt him from pain like some rock which has no feeling. I remem-
ber that he is made up of two parts, one irrational this is bitten,
burned, painedand the other rational this has unshaken convictions,
is fearless and unconquered. The highest good of a human being is
located in the latter. Before it is lled out, there is an unstable rest-
lessness in the mind; but when it has been completed its stability is
immovable.
:8. And so the beginner and he who makes maximal progress and
cultivates virtue, even if he approaches the complete good but has not
yet put the nishing touches on it, will sometimes backslide and slacken
somewhat his mental concentration; for he has not yet gotten past the
uncertain territory and even nowis on slippery ground. But he who is truly
happy and whose virtue is fully developed loves himself most when he has
made the bravest efforts, not only bears but even embraces things which
others would fear, if they are the price to be paid for some honourable and
appropriate action; he greatly prefers to hear how much better you are
than how much luckier you are.
:. Now I come to the point to which your anticipation summons me.
So that our virtue should not seem to roam beyond the nature of things,
[we admit that] the wise person will tremble and feel pain and grow pale.
For these are all bodily feelings. So where is misfortune, where is the true
badness? Obviously, it will be there if these feelings drag down the mind,
if they bring it to an admission that it is enslaved, if they inict on it regret
for being what it is.
o. The wise person indeed conquers fortune with his virtue, but many
who claim to have wisdom have often been terried by the most trivial
threats. Here the fault is our own, since we demand the same thing
of a wise person and of a progressor. I am still urging on myself the
things which I praise, but I dont yet convince myself about them. Even
rr++ra y+ +
if I had convinced myself, I would not yet have things in readiness or
so thoroughly practiced that they could successfully confront all chance
events.
+. Just as wool accepts some colours on one dipping but cannot
absorb others unless it has been repeatedly steeped and boiled, so too our
temperament immediately shows the results of some studies as soon as
it has been exposed to them, but this one shows none of the results it
promises unless it penetrates deeply and settles for a long time, unless it
doesnt just colour the mind but dyes it.
:. The point can be communicated quickly and in a very few words:
the only good is virtue (certainly there is no good without virtue), and
virtue itself is located in our better part, that is the rational part. So what
will this virtue be? A true and immovable judgement; for from this come
the impulses of the mind, and by this every presentation which stimulates
impulse is made transparent.
. It will be in accordance with this judgement to make the judgement
that all things touched by virtue are both good and equal to each other.
The goods of the body are certainly good for the body, but they are not
good overall. They will have a certain value, but they will not possess
excellence: they will differ from each other by substantial margins, and
some will be smaller, others greater.
. And we must also admit that there are big differences among those
who pursue wisdom. One person has already made so much progress that
he can lift his eyes against fortune, but not with resolute consistency (for
his eyes are downcast when stunned by excessive brightness); another has
progressed so much that he can meet her gazeunless he has already
reached perfection and is full of self-condence.
j. Things which are incomplete must totter and alternate between
making progress and sinking or collapsing. But they will sink, unless they
have made a rm resolution to go forward and press on. If they slacken
their zeal and their rm concentration even a bit, they must backslide. No
one nds moral progress where he last left it.
. So let us press on and persevere; more remains than we have
squandered, but a great part of progress consists in the desire to make
progress. I am fully aware of this, that I want it and want it with my whole
mind. I see that you too are enthusiastic for it and hastening towards the
nest destination with a great impetus. Let us hurry. This is how life at
last becomes a benet; otherwise it is just waiting arounda shameful
kind of stalling by people who pass their time amidst shameful practices.
: +a+sr++ros
Let us strive to make all of our time our own. But it will not be our own
unless we ourselves start to belong to ourselves.
y. When will it come about that we hold both good and bad fortune
in contempt, when will it come about that all our passions are suppressed
and brought under our own control and we can utter this claim, I have
conquered? Whom do you wish to conquer? Not the Persians nor the
remote Medes nor any warlike peoples there may be beyond the Dahae,
but greed, ambition, and the fear of death which has itself conquered those
who conquer foreign races.
Farewell.
LETTER y
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. You threaten me with hostility if I leave you in the dark about any
of my daily activities. Look how straightforwardly I share my life with
you. I will entrust you with this information too. I am studying with a
philosopher, and indeed I have been attending his school for ve days
now and hearing his lectures starting in the early afternoon. You say, Its
a great time of life for that! Well of course its a great time of life. What
could be more foolish than not to learn just because you havent been
learning for a long time?
:. What? ShouldI do the same as the gildedyouthdo? Imingoodshape
if this is the only disgrace that mars my old age. This school accepts people
of all ages. Are we to grow old only to follow the young? Ill go to the the-
atre in my old age and Ill ride to the circus. I wont miss a single gladiatorial
ght. Am I supposed to blush about attending on a philosopher?
. You have to learn as long as youre ignorant; if we believe the maxim,
thats as long as you live. This maxim coheres best with the following: you
have to learn how to live as long as you live. Anyway, I also teach them
something at the school. You ask what I teach? That even an old man has
to learn.
. But every time I go to the school I feel ashamed of the human race.
As you know, while going to the house of Metronax one has to pass
right by the Neapolitan theatre. It certainly is packed and there is hotly
contested debate about who is a good piper. Even a Greek trumpeter and
an announcer draw a crowd. By contrast, in the place where the good man
is the topic of discussion, where the good man is what they learn about,
there is a tiny audience and most people think that the students have no
proper business to conductthey are called useless and lazy. Let their
mockery hit me too. I have to listen to the abuse of the ignorant with
equanimity, and since I am going about honourable business I have to
hold their contempt in contempt.
j. Carry on, Lucilius, and hurry up, so you dont get into my situation
and wind up learning as an old man. Actually, hurry all the more since
+a+sr++ros
youve already started in on a topic which you could scarcely master as
an old man. How much progress will I achieve? Only as much as you
attempt.
. What are you waiting for? Wisdomdoesnt come to anyone by chance.
Money will come on its own; high ofce will be handed to you; maybe
favour and rank will be heaped on youbut virtue will not drop into
your lap. Nor is it learned by just a bit of work or by a small effort; but
the work is worth it for someone aiming to possess every good thing all at
once. For the honourable alone is goodyou wont nd anything true or
reliable in the things that public opinion approves.
y. I will explain to you why only the honourable is good (since you think
I didnt accomplish very much with my earlier letter and believe this point
was approved rather than proven) and I will condense what has been said
on the topic.
8. Everything depends on its own good. Productivity and the avour of
the wine commend a vine, speed commends a stag; you ask how strong a
back draught animals have, for their sole function is to haul a load; in a
dog the most important thing is keen smell if it is supposed to track beasts,
running if it is supposed to catch them, boldness if it is to attack and bite
them. In each thing, that for which it is born and by which it is judged
ought to be its best.
. What is best in a human being? Reason. By this humans surpass the
animals and follow the gods. Therefore perfected reason is our proper
good; humans share all other traits to some degree with animals and
plants. A human being is strongso are lions. He is handsomeso are
peacocks. He is swiftso are horses. I dont say that he is outdone in
all these respects; I am not asking what his greatest feature is, but which
one is his very own. He has a bodyso do trees. He has impulse and
voluntary motionso do beasts and worms. He has a voicebut how
much more ringing is the voice of dogs, how much sharper that of eagles,
how much deeper that of bulls, how much sweeter and more exible that
of nightingales.
+o. What is proper to human beings? Reason. This, when it is straight
and complete, has lled out the happiness of a human being. Therefore if
each thing, when it has perfected its very own good, is praiseworthy and
attains the goal of its own nature, and if reason is a human beings very
own good, then if he has perfected this he is praiseworthy and has reached
the goal of his own nature. This perfected reason is called virtue and this
same thing is what is honourable.
rr++ra y j
++. Thus the unique good in a human being is that which uniquely
belongs to humans. For at this point we are asking not what is good but
what is the good of a human being. If there is no other [unique trait] in
human beings except reason, this will be their sole good, but it should be
treated as offsetting everything else. If someone is bad, he will, I guess,
meet with disapproval; if good then with approval, I guess. Therefore
in human beings this is the primary and only thing by which he is both
approved and disapproved of.
+:. You do not doubt whether this is good; you doubt whether it is
the only good. If someone has everything elsehealth, wealth, many
ancestral busts, a crowded foyerbut is admittedly bad, then you will
disapprove of him. Similarly, if someone has none of the things I have
mentioned, if he is lacking in money, in clients, in the nobility which
derives from a long string of ancestorsbut is admittedly good, then you
will approve of him. Therefore, the sole good of a human being is that
which, by its possession, makes himpraiseworthy even if he is bereft of the
rest and which by its absence causes condemnation and rejection despite
an abundance of everything else.
+. The situation for people is the same as it is for things. A ship is
called good not if it has been painted with expensive colours or if its ram
is covered with silver or gold or if its gurehead is inlaid with ivory or if
it is heavily laden with treasure and regal wealth; but rather if it is stable,
solid, tightly built with seams that keep water out, sturdy enough to resist
the seas attack, easy to steer, swift, and not swayed by the wind.
+. You will say that a sword is good not if it has a gilded belt or its
scabbard is studded with jewels; but rather if it has a ne cutting edge and
a point which can pierce any armour. We dont ask how beautiful a ruler
is, but how straight. Each thing is praised with reference to that against
which it is judged and that which is proper to it.
+j. Therefore in a person too it is quite irrelevant how much land
he tills, how much money he has invested, how many clients greet him,
how expensive a couch he reclines on, how translucent a cup he drinks
from; what matters is how good he is. But he is good if his reason is fully
deployed, straight, and adapted to the inclinations of his nature.
+. This is termed virtue, that is, the honourable and the sole good of a
human being. For since only reason completes a human being, only reason
makes him perfectly happy. But this is the only good thing and the only
thing by which he is made happy. We also say that those things which
originate in virtue or are caused by it are good, i.e., all of its products. But
it alone is good precisely because there is no good without it.
+a+sr++ros
+y. If every good is in the mind, then whatever strengthens, exalts, or
expands it is good. But virtue makes the mind stronger, loftier, and fuller.
For other things which stimulate our desires also degrade the mind and
make it weak; when they seem to raise it up, they are inaming it and
tricking it with their profound emptiness. Therefore the only good thing
is that which makes the mind better.
+8. All our actions throughout our life are regulated by a consideration
of what is honourable and shameful. Our reasoning about doing and not
doing is guided by reference to them. Ill tell you what this is. A good
man will do what he believes would be honourable for him to do, even if
it is hard work; he will do it even if he suffers a loss; he will do it even
if it is dangerous. Conversely, he will not do what is shameful, even if it
gets him money, pleasure, or power. Nothing will keep him from what is
honourable; nothing will entice him to shameful actions.
+. Therefore, if he is going to pursue the honourable unconditionally
and avoid the shameful unconditionally; and if he is going to look to these
two things in every action of his life; and if there is no other good except
the honourable nor anything bad except what is shameful; if only virtue
is uncorrupted and it alone adheres to its course, then virtue is the only
good and it cannot come to pass that it is not a good thing. It is immune
to the risk of change. Folly creeps towards wisdom. Wisdom does not fall
back into folly.
:o. I said, if you happen to recall, that many people impetuously have
scorned the things which are generally desired or feared. A person has
been found who would reject wealth; a person has been found who would
put his hand in the ames, whose laughter the torturer could not stop,
who would shed no tear at his childrens funeral, who would meet his own
death untrembling. It was love, anger, and desire that insisted on courting
dangers. Short-lived stubbornness driven on by some stimulus can do it.
How much more can virtue do! Its strength is not impulsive or sudden,
but consistent; its strength is long-lasting.
:+. It follows that the things which are often despised by the reckless
and always by the wise are neither good nor bad. Therefore virtue itself
is the only good; it walks proudly amidst good and bad fortune with deep
contempt for both.
::. If you do adopt the view that anything is good except what is
honourable, then every virtue will be vulnerable; for no virtue can be
secure if it looks to anything beyond itself. If this is the case, then this view
conicts with reason (the source of the virtues) and truth (which is nothing
without reason). But any opinion which conicts with truth is false.
rr++ra y y
:. You might grant that a good man must have the greatest piety
towards the gods. Therefore he will endure with equanimity whatever
happens to him; for he will know that it happened under the divine law
according to which all things progress. If this is so, his only good will be
what is honourablefor in this lie his obedience to the gods, not aring
up in anger at unexpected events and bewailing his lot in life, but accepting
fate with patience and obeying its commands.
:. If anything except the honourable is good, then greed for life will
dog us, and so will a greed for the things which equip our lifeand that
is unsustainable, limitless, unstable. Therefore the honourable, which has
a limit, is the only good.
:j. We said that human life would turn out to be happier than that of
the gods if things which are of no use to the gods are good, such as money
and public ofce. Now add to that argument the consideration that if souls
do persist when released from the body a condition awaits them which is
happier than what they have while they sojourn in the body. Yet if the
things we use by means of our bodies are good, then liberated souls will be
worse off. But it violates our condent belief if souls which are enclosed
and besieged are happier than those which are free and entrusted to the
universe.
:. I had also said that if those things are good which fall to the lot of
men and brute animals alike, the brute animals will live a happy life. And
that is absolutely impossible. All things are to be endured for the sake of
what is honourable; but one would not have to do so if anything except
the honourable were good.
Although I had gone over these points quite fully in my earlier letter, I
have here condensed them and given them a quick run-through.
:y. But this sort of view will never seem true to you unless you arouse
your mind and ask of yourself: if circumstances should demand that you
die for your country and purchase the well-being of all the citizens at the
cost of your own, would you be ready to extend your neck not just with
endurance but even cheerfully? If you are ready to do this, there is no
other good; for you are giving up everything in order to have it. Consider
how much being honourable commits you to: you will die for the state
even if it means being ready to do so the minute you know it should be
done.
:8. Sometimes one can take great pleasure from a splendid action, even
if it is only for a very short time. Although no enjoyment derived from
the action once done can reach someone who is dead and nished with
human experience, nevertheless mere reection upon the future action
8 +a+sr++ros
gives satisfaction, and when a man who is brave and just sets before
himself as the reward for his death the freedom of his homeland and the
well-being of everyone on whose behalf he sacrices his life, he has the
highest pleasure and gets enjoyment from his own danger.
:. But even someone who is deprived of the joy which comes from
reection upon his last and greatest deed will plunge into death with no
hesitation, content to act correctly and piously. Confront him even now
with the many considerations which might dissuade him, tell him Your
deed will be quickly forgotten and the citizens will be ungrateful to you
when they think of you. He will answer you All of that is beyond my
job, and I only consider that; I know that this is honourable, and so I go
wherever it leads and summons me.
o. So this alone is good and it is not only the perfected mind which is
aware of it but also a mind which is noble and talented. Everything else is
ckle andchangeable, andso one worries evenwhile possessing them. Even
if fortune smiles and they are all heaped together, they weigh heavily on
their masters and always oppress them; sometimes they even crush them.
+. None of those whom you see clad in purple is happy any more than
those who are given a sceptre and robe on stage in order to play their
roles in a tragedy. As soon as they make their entrance, carried along by
the throng and wearing the high boots of tragedy, they immediately exit:
they remove their boots and return to their normal size. None of those
whom wealth and ofce elevate is actually tall. So why does he seem tall?
You measure him together with his pedestal. A dwarf isnt tall though
he stands on a mountaintop; a giant will retain his height even if he is
standing in a well.
:. We suffer from this mistake, this is how we are duped, because we
dont evaluate anyone by what he is but we add to him the things by which
he has been decorated. But when you want to undertake a true valuation
of a person and want to know what he is like, do the inspection when he is
naked. Let him set aside his inheritance, set aside his public ofces and the
other trickeries of fortune, let him shed his very body. Inspect his mind,
what it is like, how great it iswhether it is great by its own resources or
someone elses.
. If he looks at the ashing swords with unswerving eyes and if he
knows that it makes no difference whether his lifes breath exits through
the mouth or the throat, call him happy. If, when he is threatened with
physical tormentsboth those inicted by chance and those inicted by
the injustice of the powerful if he hears about prison, exile, and the
empty fears of human minds calmly and says,
rr++ra y
Maiden,
no prospect of hardship comes to me new or unexpected
I anticipated it all and have rehearsed it in the privacy of my mind.
You make these threats todayI have always threatened myself and prepared my
human self for human possibilities.'
. Gentle comes the blow of misfortune that has been anticipated. But
to fools who trust fortune every prospect seems new and unexpected.
For the inexperienced a great part of the misfortune lies in the novelty. To
understand this, reect that people can endure what they thought were
hardships more bravely when they have gotten used to them.
j. And so a wise person gets used to future misfortunes and what other
people make bearable by long suffering he makes bearable by prolonged
thinking. Sometimes we hear the voices of inexperienced people saying, I
knew this was in store for me. The wise person knows that everything is
in store for him. Whatever happened, he says I knew it.
Farewell.
' Vergil, Aeneid .+oj.
LETTER 8j
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. I had been sparing you and passing over all the knotty problems
which still remained, satised with giving you a taste, as it were, of what
our school says to prove that virtue alone is effective enough to complete
the happy life. You are urging me to include all of the arguments which
have been either devised by our school or thought up in order to ridicule
us. If I can bring myself to do that, this wont be a letter but a whole book.
I swear, over and over again, that I take no pleasure in proofs of this type;
I am ashamed to go into a battle engaged on behalf of gods and humans
armed with nothing but an awl.
:. (a) He who is prudent is also self-controlled; (b) he who is self-
controlled is also steadfast; (c) he who is steadfast is undisturbed; (d) he
who is undisturbed is free of sadness; (e) he who is free of sadness is happy.
(f) Therefore the prudent person is happy and prudence is sufcient for a
happy life.
. CertainPeripatetics respondtothis inference as follows: theyinterpret
undisturbed and steadfast and free of sadness as though we called
undisturbed someone who is disturbed seldom and moderately, not
someone who is never disturbed. Similarly they say that someone is
said to be free of sadness if he is not a prey to sadness and doesnt
suffer from this vice frequently or to excess; for it is a denial of human
nature that someones mind be immune to sadness; the wise person is not
overwhelmed by grief but is touched by it. They also add other points of
this sort, in accordance with their own school.
. With these points they do not eliminate the passions but moderate
them. But how little we grant to the wise person if he is stronger than
the very weak, is more happy than the very sad, is more temperate than
those who are totally uncontrolled and rises above the most lowly. What
if Ladas were to admire his own swiftness by comparing himself to those
who are lame and weak?
She might zoom over the tips of the leaves of a graineld without touching them
And would not harm the tender ears in running,
rr++ra 8j +
Or she might journey across the sea hovering above the swelling waves,
And never taint her swift feet with wetness.'
This is an example of swiftness measured in its own right, rather than
swiftness praised by comparison with those who are very slow. What if
you were to call someone with a mild fever healthy? Moderate sickness
is not good health.
j. The objection is, the wise person is said to be undisturbed in the
same way that some pomegranates are said to be seedlessnot if its seeds
are not hard at all, but if they are less hard. But that is false. For my
meaning is not that a good man has a reduction in bad qualities but an
absence of them. There ought to be none, not small ones. For if there are
any at all, they will grow and at some time get in his way. Just as a large
and complete cataract blinds the eyes, so a limited one impairs them.
. If you allow some passions to the wise person, his reason will be
no match for them and will be swept away as though by a kind of
torrentespecially since you are giving him not just one passion to
struggle against, but all of them. A group of passions, no matter how
modest in power, has more impact than the violence of one big one.
y. He has a desire for money, but limited desire. He has ambition,
but not agitated ambition. He is irascible, but can be pacied; he is not
steadfast, but is not too unstable and ckle. He suffers from lust, but not
insane lust. The situation is better for the person who has one vice in its
entirety than it is for the person who has them all, though they are less
severe.
8. Next, it makes no difference how big the passion is; no matter what
its size, it doesnt know how to obey and cannot take advice. Just as no
animal obeys reason, neither the wild beast nor the domesticated and tame
animal (for their nature is deaf to its persuasion), so too the passions do
not obey and do not listen, no matter how small they are. Tigers and lions
never cast off their ferocity, though sometimes they moderate it, and when
you are least expecting it their tempered savagery ares up. One can never
be condent that vices have been gentled.
. Next, if reason is effective then the passions dont even get started; if
the passions get going despite reason then they will persist despite it. For
it is easier to check their beginnings than to control their attack. Therefore
that so-called moderation is bogus and useless, and should be treated in
the same way as if someone said that one must be moderately insane or
moderately sick.
' Vergil, Aeneid y.8o8++.
: +a+sr++ros
+o. Only virtue possesses mental balance; bad characteristics dont
admit of it, and you could eliminate them more easily than you could
control them. Surely there can be no doubt that the long-standing
and seasoned vices of human intelligence, the ones we call diseases,
are uncontrolledfor example, greed, cruelty, fury. It follows that the
passions too are uncontrolled, since one slides from the passions to the
diseases.
++. Next, if you grant any authority to sadness, fear, desire, and the
other wicked motions, then they will not be in our power. Why? Because
the things which stimulate themare outside us; so they growin accordance
with the size of the causes which stimulate them. The fear will be greater
if the object of our terror is greater or is seen from closer up; desire will be
sharper to the extent that it is summoned up by a hope for greater gain.
+:. If it is not in our power whether or not we have passions, then
certainly their magnitude isnt either. If you have let them get started,
they grow along with their causes and their magnitude will be what it will
be. Add to this the fact that these things, though they start out tiny, grow
bigger. Destructive things do not observe a limit. No matter how minor
the starting point for diseases, they sneak up on you and sometimes a very
small increase overwhelms ailing bodies.
+. How crazy it is to believe that things whose starting points are
beyond our authority can have end points that are within our authority!
How can I be strong enough to put an end to something which I wasnt
strong enough to prevent from starting, considering that it is easier to bar
them than it is to repress them once they have gained entry?
+. Certain people have made a distinction which leads them to say,
The temperate and prudent person is tranquil with regard to the state and
condition of his intellect, but not with regard to what actually happens.
For as far as the condition of his intellect is concerned he is not disturbed
nor is he saddened or afraid, but many external causes impinge from the
outside which inict disturbance on him.
+j. What they want to say adds up to this: he is not irascible but
nevertheless he gets angry sometimes; and he is not fearful, but gets afraid
sometimes, i.e., he is free of the vice of fear but is not free of the passion.
But if it is allowed in, fear will by frequent occurrence turn into the vice
and anger, once admitted into the mind, will undermine that disposition
of a mind which is free of anger.
+. Moreover, if he does not hold in contempt the causes which come
from the outside and if he fears something, when he has to go bravely
against weapons and re on behalf of his fatherland, the laws, and freedom,
rr++ra 8j
then he will go forth hesitantly and with a sinking spirit. But this mental
deviation does not afict the wise person.
+y. Moreover, I think that one ought to watch out that we not confuse
two things which ought to be proven separately. For there are independent
lines of inference which show (a) that the only good is what is honourable
and (b) that virtue is sufcient for a happy life. If the only good is what
is honourable, everyone grants that virtue sufces for living happily. But
the converse is not conceded, that if only virtue makes one happy then the
only good is what is honourable.
+8. Xenocrates and Speusippus think that one can be happy even if
all one has is virtue, but not that the only good is what is honourable.
Epicurus also holds that when one has virtue one is happy, but that virtue
itself is not sufcient for a happy life, because it is the pleasure produced
by virtue that makes one happy and not the virtue itself. This is a clumsy
distinction. For Epicurus also says that one never has virtue without
pleasure. So, if it is always conjoined with it and is inseparable, it is also
sufcient on its own. For it brings along with itself pleasure, and it is
never without pleasure even when it is on its own.
+. But the further point they make, that one will be happy even if all
one has is virtue, but that one will not be perfectly happy, is ridiculous. I
cannot gure out how this could be the case. For the happy life has within
itself a good which is perfect and unsurpassable. And if this is the case,
then the life is perfectly happy. If the life of the gods has nothing greater
or better, and the happy life is divine, then there is no higher state to
which it could be raised.
:o. Moreover, if the happy life is in need of nothing, then every happy
life is perfect and the same life is both happy and most happy. Surely
you do not doubt that the happy life is the highest good. Therefore, if
a life has the highest good it is supremely happy. Just as the highest
good does not admit of an addition (for what is above the highest?)
then neither does the happy life, which cannot exist without the highest
good. But if you introduce someone who is more happy, then you can
also introduce someone who is much more happy. You will generate
countless distinctions within the highest good, when on my understanding
the highest good is that which has no level above it.
:+. If one person is less happy than another, it follows that he will
have a stronger desire for the life of the other person than for his own;
but a happy person prefers nothing to his own life. Either of these two
propositions is unbelievable: (a) that there is something left for the happy
person to prefer to be the case than is already the case; or (b) that he
+a+sr++ros
does not want what is better than he is. For certainly the more prudent a
person is the more he will strive towards what is best and desire to achieve
it in any way possible. But how can someone be happy if he canindeed,
shoulddesire something even now?
::. I will tell you the source of this error. They do not know that there
is only one happy life. It is its quality not its magnitude that puts it in the
position of being best. And so it is in the same state whether it is long
or short, expansive or constrained, spread through many locations and
parts or conned to one. He who assesses the happy life with respect to
its number, measurement, or parts strips it of its excellence. But what is
it that is outstanding in a happy life? The fact that it is full.
:. In my opinion, the goal of eating and of drinking is satiety. One
person eats more, another less. What difference does it make? Both are
now sated. One person drinks more, another less. What difference does
it make? Both are not thirsty. One person lives for many years, another
for fewer. It makes no difference if the many years have made the former
person as happy as the few have made the latter. The man whom you call
less happy is not happy. This predicate cannot be reduced.
:. He who is brave is without fear. He who is without fear is
without sadness. He who is without sadness is happy. This is our [i.e.,
Stoic] argument. Against it, they try this response: we are claiming that
something false and controversial is generally agreed on, that he who is
brave is without fear. What then? is the reply, will a brave person not
be afraid if bad things threaten? That is the mark of a crazy lunatic, not of
a brave person. Rather, they say, he will fear very moderately; but he is
not completely free of fear.
:j. Those who argue thus fall back into the same problem all over
again: for them, smaller vices count as virtues. For the person who fears,
but rarely and less severely, does not lack the vice but is bothered by a
less serious vice. But I think that someone who does not fear when bad
things threaten is a madman. What you say is trueif they really are bad
things. But if he knows that they are not bad and takes the view that only
baseness is bad, then he ought to gaze upon dangers with calmness and
to despise things which are fearsome to others. Or, if it is the mark of a
fool and madman not to fear bad things, then the more prudent one is the
more one will fear.
:. The reply is, On your view the brave person will expose himself to
dangers. Not at all. He will not fear them but he will avoid them. Caution
suits him but fear does not. What, then? is the reply, will he not fear
death, chains, re, and the other weapons of fortune? No. For he knows
rr++ra 8j j
that they are not bad but only seem so; he considers all those things mere
bugbears of human life.
:y. Present him with imprisonment, beatings, chains, starvation, and
bodily torture by means of sickness or injury or whatever else you can
inict on him. He will regard them as delusional fears. They are objects of
fear only for the fearful. Or do you think something which we sometimes
embrace of our own free will is bad?
:8. You ask what is bad? Yielding to the things which are called bad and
surrendering to them ones freedomfor the sake of which all of those
afictions should be borne. Freedom dies unless we despise the things
which place the yoke on our necks. They would not have doubts about
the behaviour which bets a brave man if they knew what bravery is. It is
not unthinking rashness nor a love of danger nor a pursuit of frightening
things. It is the knowledge of how to distinguish between what is bad
and what is not. Bravery is very careful about protecting itself and at the
same time is strong in its endurance of those things which give a false
impression of badness.
:. What then? If a sword is held to the neck of a brave man, if his
body is pierced again and again in one part after another, if he sees his
bowels lying on his own lap, if he is attacked again and again after a rest, so
that he might feel the torment more vividly, and if wounds newly scabbed
over are made to bleed afresh, is he not afraid? Will you say that he is not
feeling pain? Yes, he feels pain (for no virtue strips a human being of his
ability to feel), but he does not fear; he gazes upon his own pains from on
high, unbeaten. You ask what kind of mind he has? Like the mind of those
who comfort an ailing friend.
o. What is bad does harm. What does harm makes one worse. Pain
and poverty do not make one worse. Therefore they are not bad things.
The reply is, Your claim is false. For it is not the case that if something
does harm it makes one worse. A storm or a squall do harm to the
ship-captain, but do not for all that make him worse.
+. Certain Stoics reply to this as follows: a storm or a squall do make
the ship-captain worse because he cannot carry out what he intended to
do and hold his course. They make him worse in his work but not in his
art. To them the Peripatetic replies, Therefore poverty will also make the
wise person worse, as will pain and other things of the sort. For they do
not take away his virtue, but they do hinder his work.
:. This would be well said, if not for the fact that the situation of a
ship-captain and that of a wise person are different. The purpose of the
latter in living his life is not to carry out what he undertakes no matter
+a+sr++ros
what, but to do everything properly. The purpose of the ship-captain is
to bring his ship to port no matter what. The arts serve us and ought to
carry through on their promises; wisdom is a sovereign director; the arts
help with life, wisdom gives the orders.
. I think that one should reply differently to the objection. The art of
the ship-captain is not made worse by any storm nor is the performance
of the art. The ship-captain did not promise you success, but a useful bit
of work and knowledge of how to steer a ship. And this becomes more
apparent as some violent chance event gets in his way. The person who
can say, Neptune, you will never [sink] this ship except when it is well
sailed is doing all his art demands. The storm does not impede the work
of the ship-captain but his success.
. What then? is the reply, does the situation which prevents the
ship-captain fromreaching port, which makes his efforts vain, which either
carries himback out to sea or detains himand unmasts his shipdoes this
not harm him? Not qua ship-captain, but it does harm him qua person
sailing. Otherwise <he isnt a ship-captain at all>. So far from impeding
the art of the ship-captain, it actually demonstrates it. As the saying goes,
anyone can be a ship-captain when the sea is calm. Those things impede
the ship, not its steersman qua steersman.
j. The ship-captain has two roles, the one shared with all those who
boarded the same ship. He too is a passenger. The other role is unique to
him. He is a ship-captain. The storm harms him qua passenger not qua
ship-captain.
. Next: the art of a ship-captain is someone elses good. It relates to
those whom he conveys, just as the good of a doctor relates to those whom
he treats. The good <of the wise person> is shared. It both <belongs>
to those with whom he lives and is proper to himself. And so perhaps
there is harm done to the ship-captain, whose service pledged to others is
hindered by the storm.
y. But the wise person is not harmed by poverty, not harmed by
pain, not harmed by the other storms of life. For not all of his works are
hindered but only those which relate to others. He is himself always in
action and he has the greatest impact when fortune is ranged against him.
For he is then doing the work of wisdom itself which we said is both his
own good and that of others.
8. Moreover, he is not hindered from benetting others when certain
inevitabilities oppress him. He is hindered from teaching how the state
should be managed because of his poverty, but he does teach how poverty
should be managed. His work extends throughout his entire life. And so
rr++ra 8j y
no fortune and no circumstance bar the wise person from acting. For the
obstacle by which he is hindered from doing other things is something
which he is actively engaged with. He is well suited for both kinds of
situation. He manages good situations and vanquishes bad ones.
. He has trained himself, I claim, to display virtue just as much
in favourable situations as in adverse ones and to consider not the raw
material of virtue but virtue itself. And so poverty does not hinder him,
nor does pain nor all the other things which deter the inexperienced and
drive them headlong.
o. Do you think that he is oppressed by bad circumstances? He makes
use of them. Phidias didnt just know how to make statues out of ivory; he
also made them from bronze. If you had offered him marble, if you had
offered him some material still cheaper than that, he would have made
the best statue that could have been made from it. It is thus that the wise
person will, if he has the chance, display his virtue in his wealth; but if he
does not have the chance he will display it in poverty. If he can he will
display it in his homeland; if not, in exile. If he can he will display it as
commander of the army; if not as a foot-soldier. If he can he will display
it while sound of body; if not while crippled. Whatever lot he receives he
will make something of it worth remembering.
+. Wild beast tamers can be counted on; they train the ercest animals,
the ones whose attack is fearful, to obey people. They are not content with
conquering their ferocity; they tame them so thoroughly that they can live
with us. The trainer puts his hand into the lions mouth, the tigers keeper
gives him kisses, the tiny Ethiopian orders his elephant to kneel and to
walk a tight-rope. In this way the wise person is a craftsman at mastering
misfortune: pain, hunger, humiliation, prison, and exile are everywhere
regarded with dread, but when they come up against him they are gentled.
Farewell.
LETTER 8y
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. I suffered shipwreck even before I got on board. I wont add how this
happened for fear that you might think that this too should be counted
among the Stoic paradoxes. When you want I will prove that none
of these paradoxes is false or so amazing as it seems at rst sight to
beactually, I will do so even if you dont want me to. Meanwhile, this
journey has taught me how many superuous possessions we have and
how easily we could choose to put aside those things whose loss we do not
feel if necessity at some point takes them from us.
:. My dear friend Maximus and I are now passing an extremely happy
couple of days with a very few servantsno more than would t in a
single carriageand with no possessions except what we could carry on
our persons. The mattress lies upon the ground and I upon the mattress.
I have two cloaks, one used as a spread, the other as a cover.
. The lunch was minimal. It had been prepared in under an hour. I
go nowhere without dried gs (and am never without writing tablets). If
I have bread, the gs serve as a relish; if I dont have bread, they serve
as bread. They make every day a New Years Day for me, which I make
blessed and fortunate with good thoughts and greatness of mindand
the mind is never greater than when it puts aside what is foreign to it
and makes itself calm by fearing nothing and makes itself rich by desiring
nothing.
. The carriage I travel in is rustic. The only evidence that the mules are
even alive is that they are walking, and the mule driver is shoelessbut
not because of the summer heat. I can scarcely bring myself to want that
the carriage seem to be minemy twisted sense of modesty about what
is right is still hanging on, and whenever we meet some more fashionable
party I blush unwillingly. This is an indication that the views which I prove
and approve of do not yet have a stable and unmovable home. Someone
who blushes at his lowly carriage will take false pride in a costly one.
j. I have made insufcient progress so far. I do not yet dare to go
public with my frugality. I am still concerned about the views of other
travellers.
rr++ra 8y
I should have cried out against the views of the entire human race,
You are mad, you are wrong, you are gawking at superuous things, you
dont value anyone at his true worth. When it comes to personal wealth,
the most careful accountants set the credit of individuals to whom one
might extend a loan or a favour (for favours too are carried on the books
as expenditures) as follows: he has big estates, but owes a lot;
. he has a beautiful house, but it is heavily mortgaged. No one can
quickly put up for sale a more attractive set of house-slaves, but he cannot
meet his debts. If he pays off his creditors, he will have nothing left.
In other matters too you will have to do the same thing and to examine
critically how much of his own each person really has.
y. You think he is rich because he even brings gilded furniture with
him when he travels, because he has estates in every province, because he
reads from a fat account book, because his suburban estate is so big that
it would provoke resentment even if it were located in the wastelands of
Apulia. When you have said all of that, he is still poor. Why? Because he
is in debt. How much does he owe? Everythingunless you happen to
suppose that it makes some difference whether he has borrowed from a
person or from fortune.
8. How is it relevant that ones well-fed mules are all of a uniform
colour? How are those carriages with embossed ornament relevant?
And those fast steeds covered with purple and embroidered cloths:
Golden collars hang down on their chests,
And covered in gold they hold golden bits in their teeth.'
These things improve neither the master nor the mule.
. Cato the Censor, whose existence was as benecial to the state as
Scipios was (for the one waged war on our enemies, the other on our
characters), rode an old nag equipped with saddlebags so he could bring
along what he needed. How I would love him to meet up with one of
these young dandies who travel like rich men, herding his runners, his
Numidian slaves and a cloud of dust before him! No doubt he would seem
to have a better outt and a better retinue than Marcus Cato hadthis
man who amidst all that fancy gear hesitated whether he should take a
position as a gladiator or as a beast-ghter.
+o. What a credit to his time, that a commander, winner of a triumph,
a censor, and (what is greater than all of this) a Cato should be satised
with one old horse, and not even all of that, since part of the horse was
taken up with his saddlebags hanging down on either side. So, wouldnt
' Vergil, Aeneid y.:yy:y.
jo +a+sr++ros
you rank that one lonely horse, rubbed down by Cato himself, ahead of all
those plump ponies, Asturian horses, and high-stepping trotters?
++. I can see that there wont be any end of this subject unless I put an
end to it myself. So here I will be silent with respect to those things which
are called impedimenta no doubt the termwas coined by someone who
foresaw that they would turn out as they have in fact turned out. Now I
want to set out for you the arguments, still just a very few, dealing with
virtuewhich we maintain is sufcient for the happy life.
+:. What is good makes people good (for in music too what is good
makes a person musical); chance things do not make a person good;
therefore they are not good.
The Peripatetics respond to this by claiming that our rst premiss is
false. They say, people do not always become good because of what is
good. In music there are goods (for example a reed-pipe or string or an
organ used to accompany singing); and yet none of these makes a person
musical.
+. Our reply to them will be, You dont understand how we meant
what is good in music. For we are not referring to what equips the
musical person but to what makes him musical. You are turning to the
equipment used by the art, not to the art. However, if there is something
good in the musical art itself, that will certainly make him musical.
+. I want to make that point even clearer. Good in the art of music is
used in two senses, one according to which the musicians performance is
assisted, the other according to which the art is assisted; the instruments
(pipes, organs, strings) bear on the performance but not on the art itself.
For he is an artist even without them, though perhaps he cannot practice
his art. But this dual meaning does not apply to the case of a human being.
For the good of a person and of a life are the same.
+j. Something which the basest and most despicable person can have
is not good; but pimps and gladiators can have riches; therefore riches are
not good.
They reply, Your premiss is false. For both in grammar and in medicine
or navigation we see that the lowliest people can have good things.
+. But those arts never promised greatness of mind, they do not rise
to great heights nor do they turn up their noses at the works of chance.
Virtue elevates a human being and places him above the things which
are dear to mortals. It neither desires nor fears excessively those things
which are called good and those things which are called bad. Swallow,
one of Cleopatras degenerates, had a huge estate. Recently Natalis, whose
tongue was as wicked as it was unclean and whose mouth was used for
rr++ra 8y j+
feminine hygiene, was the heir to lots of people and had lots of heirs
himself. So what? Did the money make him unclean, or did he sully the
money? Money falls to some people the way a penny falls into the sewer.
+y. Virtue takes its stand above all such things. It is assessed at
its own value and judges to be good none of those things which can
turn up just anywhere. Medicine and navigation do not bar them-
selves and their practitioners from admiring such things; someone
who is not a good man can nevertheless be a doctor, can be a nav-
igator, can just as well be a grammarian, by God, as he can be a
cook. Someone who cannot have just anything is not just any sort of
personthe kind of things a person can possess show the kind of
person he is.
+8. A money bag is worth as much as it contains; rather, it counts as an
adjunct to what it contains. Who puts any value on a full purse except the
value of the amount of money it contains? The same thing applies to those
who command great personal fortunes; they are adjuncts and appendages
of their fortunes. So why is a wise person great? Because he has a great
mind. Therefore it is true that what even the most despicable person can
have is not good.
+. So I will never say that freedom from pain is a gooda grasshopper
and a ea have that. I wouldnt even say that calmness and the absence of
trouble are a goodwhat is more at leisure than a worm? You ask what it
is that makes someone wise? The same thing that makes him a god. You
have to give him something divine, heavenly, and splendid. Good does
not come to everyone nor does it allow just anyone to possess it.
:o. Consider
both what each region produces and what each declines to produce.
In one region there are grain crops, in another the grape harvest is richer;
In some place else fruit trees grow and grasses thrive
Without cultivation. Dont you see how the Tmolus produces fragrant saffron,
India produces ivory, the gentle Sabaeans produce their frankincense,
And the unclad Chalybes produce iron?
:+. Those products are allocated by region, so there is reciprocal trade
in the products people need if each group takes its turn in importing
something from the others. But the highest good we are talking about also
has its very own regionit is not produced where ivory or iron come
from. You ask, what is the region of the highest good? The mind. Unless
it is pure and sacred, it cannot receive god.
Vergil, Georgics +.j8.
j: +a+sr++ros
::. Good does not come from bad; but riches come from greed;
therefore riches are not good.
The reply is, It is not true that good is not produced from bad; for
money is produced as a result of temple robbery and theft. And so temple
robbery and theft are certainly bad, but precisely because they produce
more bad things than good. For they produce gain, but along with fear,
worry, and anguish both mental and physical.
:. Whoever says this must accept the proposition that temple robbery
is partly good, since it produces some good, just as it is bad because it
produces many bad outcomes. But what could be more monstrous than
this? And yet we have in fact completely persuaded people that temple
robbery, theft, and adultery should be counted as goods. Think of all
the people who do not blush at theft, who boast of adultery! After all,
small-scale temple robbery is punished, but large-scale temple robbery is
celebrated with a triumphal parade.
:. Add to this the fact that an act of temple robbery, if it is in any
degree good, will also be honourable and will be called a straight deed (for
it is an action of our own). But no human beings thought can accept that
proposition. Therefore good things cannot be produced from something
bad. For if, as you say, temple robbery is only bad because it causes a great
deal of bad, then if you eliminate the punishment for it and guarantee its
safety, then it will be completely good. And yet the greatest punishment
for crimes is in the crimes themselves.
:j. You are wrong, I say, if you postpone punishments until execution
or imprisonment. The deeds are punished as soon as they have been done,
in fact, while they are being done. Therefore good is not produced out
of bad any more than a g is produced from an olive tree: the seedlings
correspond to the seed and good things cannot betray their lineage. Just
as the honourable cannot be produced out of the shameful, so too good
cannot be produced from what is bad; for the good and the honourable
are the same.
:. Certain Stoics reply to this as follows: Let us suppose that money
is a good no matter what its source; still, it does not follow that the money
comes from temple robbery even if its source is temple robbery. Think of it
like this. There is some gold and a viper in the same jar. If you take gold
from the jar, you do not take the gold because there is a snake in there too.
It is not, I say, because it contains a snake that the jar yields me gold, but
it yields gold even though it also contains a snake. In the same way gain
comes from temple robbery not because temple robbery is shameful and
criminal but because it also contains gain. Just as the snake in that jar is
rr++ra 8y j
something bad, while the gold which lies alongside the snake is not, so too
in the case of temple robbery it is the crime which is bad, not the gain.
:y. I <disagree>with these Stoics. For the two cases are very different.
In the one case I can remove the gold without the snake, but in the other I
cannot get the gain without the act of temple robbery; the gain in question
is not lying alongside the crime, but is in fact mixed in with it.
:8. Something which, when we desire to get it, leads us to many bad
outcomes is not a good. But when we desire to get riches we are led to
many bad outcomes. Therefore riches are not good.
The reply is, Your proposition has two meanings. One: when we desire
to get riches we are led to many bad outcomes. But we are also led to many
bad outcomes when we desire to get virtue. One man is shipwrecked while
travelling for the purpose of study, and someone else might be kidnapped.
:. The other meaning is like this: that through which we are led to
bad outcomes is not good. It will not follow from this proposition that we
are led to bad outcomes through riches or pleasures; or if we are led to
many bad outcomes through riches, then not only are riches not good, but
they are bad. But you say only that they are not good. Moreover, goes
the reply, you concede that there is some use in having riches: you count
them among the advantages. But by the same argument they will <not>
even be advantageous, since through them many disadvantageous things
happen to us.
o. Certain people reply to themas follows: You are wrong to blame the
disadvantageous outcomes on the riches. The riches dont hurt anyone.
The harm is done either by each persons own stupidity or by someone
elses wickedness, just as no one is killed by a swordthe sword is merely
the weapon of the killer. Therefore the riches do not harmyou just because
harm is done to you on account of the riches.
+. In my view Posidonius has a better reply. He says that riches are
the cause of the bad outcomes, not because riches themselves do anything
but because they instigate people to action. For there is a difference
between the efcient cause (which must do harm immediately) and the
antecedent cause. Riches have this antecedent causality; they iname our
minds, they breed pride, they attract envy, and they so disturb the intellect
that a reputation for wealth gives us pleasure, even when it is bound to
harm us.
:. But it is appropriate that all good things should be free of blame; they
are pure, they do not corrupt our minds, they do not tempt us. To be sure,
they uplift us andexpandus, but without making us self-important. Things
which are good produce condence; riches produce boldness; things which
j +a+sr++ros
are good give us greatness of mind; riches produce arrogance. However,
arrogance is nothing but a false semblance of greatness.
. The reply is, Looked at that way, riches are also bad, not just not
good. They would be bad if they could themselves do harm, if, as I said,
they had efcient causality. But as it is they have antecedent causality,
which not only stimulates the mind but even attracts it. For riches produce
a plausible appearance of goodness which is credible to the many.
. Virtue too has antecedent causality with regard to envy; for many
people are envied because of their wisdom and many because of their
justice. But it does not have this causality from within itself nor is it a
plausible cause. In fact, the more plausible appearance is presented to
human minds by virtue, which summons them to love and awe.
j. Posidonius thinks one should make the following argument: those
things which do not produce greatness or condence or calmness in
the soul are not good; but riches and good health and things like them
produce none of those results; therefore they are not good. He further
intensies this argument in the following manner: those things which do
not produce greatness or condence or calmness in the soul, but rather
arrogance, self-importance, and presumption, are bad. But we are driven
to these states by chance things. Therefore they are not good.
. The reply is, By this argument, those things are not even advan-
tageous. Advantageous things are of one kind, goods of another. The
advantageous is that which has more usefulness than inconvenience. Good
must be unalloyed and completely free of harm. The good is not what
yields more benet, but rather that which produces nothing but benet.
y. Furthermore, advantage applies to animals, to imperfect humans,
and to fools. And so what is disadvantageous can be mixed in with it, but
it is labelled advantageous because of its greater part. Good only applies
to the wise person and it must be unsullied.
8. Cheer up. Only one knot remains, though it is Herculean. The
good is not made up of what is bad. But riches are made up of many
instances of poverty. Therefore riches are not good. Our school does not
accept this argument, but the Peripatetics both pose the argument and
solve it. However, Posidonius says that this sophism, which circulates in
all the schools of dialectic, is refuted as follows by Antipater.
. Poverty is said not with regard to possession but with regard to
removal (or, as the ancients said, privation; the Greeks say kata ster

esin);
it states not what it has but what it does not have. And so nothing can
be lled up by many instances of emptiness; many things create riches,
not many instances of want. Your understanding of poverty, he says,
rr++ra 8y jj
is inappropriate. For poverty is not the state which possesses just a few
things, but the state which does not possess many things. So it is not called
poverty because of what it has but because of what it lacks.
o. I could express my meaning more easily if there were a Latin word by
which one could express anhuparxia. This is the word Antipater reserves
for poverty. I do not see what poverty could be except the possession
of just a little. When we have lots of free time we will consider what
is the essence of riches and of poverty. But then we will also reect on
whether it might not be better to assuage poverty and to strip wealth of its
haughtiness than to go to court over the wordsas though a judgement
had already been reached about the things.
+. Let us suppose that we have been summoned to an assembly. A law
is proposed to abolish riches. Will we convince people for or against by
using these arguments? Will we, by using these arguments, bring it about
that the Roman people should seek out and praise poverty, the foundation
and basis of its empire, but stand in fear of its own wealth; that it should
reect that it has discovered riches among the vanquished, that riches are
the source of the bribery, corruption, and civil strife which have invaded a
city of surpassing piety and self-control, that the spoils of foreign peoples
are displayed with excessive luxury, and that what one people has taken
from everyone else can even more easily be taken away by everyone from
that one? It is better to argue in favour of this law, and to conquer the
passions rather than to limit them. If we can, let us speak more bravely; if
we cannot, let us at least speak more plainly.
Farewell.
LETTER +o
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. I am rather slow in replying to your letter, not because I am
bogged down with business. Dont listen to that excuseI am at leisure,
and so is everyone who wants to be. Activities do not pursue people,
people embrace activities and suppose that being busy is a proof that
one is happy. So why is it, then, that I did not write back right away?
Your query t right into the framework of the project on which I am
labouring.
:. For you know that I am eager to write a comprehensive work on
ethics and to articulate all the questions which pertain to it. And so I
hesitated about whether I should put you off until the appropriate time
came along for your topic or whether I should give you my judgement out
of sequence. It seemed more civilized not to keep waiting someone who
has come so far.
. And so I shall pluck this too out of the established sequence of
connected issues and if there are any others of the same sort I shall send
themalong to you on my own, even if you dont ask. What are these issues,
you ask? Things which it is more pleasant than benecial to know, like the
one you are asking about: is the good a body?
. The good does something, since it provides benet. What does
something is a body. The good stimulates the mind and, in a way, gives
it shape and cohesion; and these are characteristics of body. The goods
of the body are bodies, and so, therefore, are those of the mind. For the
mind too is a body.
j. The good of a human being must be a body, since he is himself
bodily. And I miss my mark if the things which nourish him and either
preserve or restore his health are not also bodies. Therefore his good is
also a body.
I dont suppose that you will doubt that the emotions are bodies (to
stick in a new point which you arent asking about)for example anger,
love, sadnessunless you doubt that they change our expression, furrow
our brow, relax our face, summon a blush, or induce pallor. Well, then?
rr++ra +o jy
Do you think that such obvious marks on the body can be inicted by
anything other than a body?
. If the emotions are bodies, so too are the ailments of our souls, such
as greed and cruelty, defects which have hardened and reached the state
of incorrigibility. So too, then, are vice and all its species, malice, envy,
and pride.
y. So too, then, are the good traitsrst because they are their
contraries, and second because they will produce in you the same signs.
Or do you not see how much energy is given to the eyes by courage?
How steady a gaze is given by practical wisdom? How much mildness and
calmness is given by reverence? Howtranquil a demeanour is given by joy?
Howmuch rmness is given by strict self-discipline? Howmuch relaxation
by gentleness? So, the things which alter the colour and disposition of
bodies and exercise their dominion in bodies are themselves bodies. But
all the virtues which I have mentioned are goods, and so is whatever comes
from them.
8. Surely it is not in doubt that that by which something can be
touched is a body? For no thing can touch or be touched except a
body, as Lucretius says.' But all those things which I have mentioned
would not alter the body unless they touched it. Therefore they are
bodies.
. Moreover, whatever has enough power to set something in motion
and drive it, or to hold it back and restrain it, is a body. Well, then? Does
fear not hold us back? Does boldness not set us in motion? Does courage
not send us forward and give us drive? Does temperance not restrain us
and call us back? Does joy not lift us up and does sadness not depress
us?
+o. Finally, whatever we do we carry out at the command either of vice
or of virtue. What commands the body is a body, what brings force to
bear on a body is a body. The good of the body is bodily and the good of a
human being is the good of a body. And so it is bodily.
++. Since I have indulged you as you wished me to, I shall now
say to myself what I can see you are going to say to me: were play-
ing checkers here. Technical precision is being worn away in pointless
superuities. These things do not produce good people, merely learned
ones.
+:. Being wise is a more accessible matter, rather, a more straightforward
matter. To produce a good mind it <sufces> to use just a bit of
' Lucretius, De Rerum Natura +.o.
j8 +a+sr++ros
scholarship, but we squander philosophy itself on superuities, as we
do everything else. We suffer from a lack of self-control when it comes
to scholarship, just as we do in everything. We are learning for the
schoolroom, but not for real life.
Farewell.
LETTER ++
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. You want me to write and tell you what I think about this question
which is bandied about within our school, whether justice, courage,
practical wisdom, and the rest of the virtues are animals. My dear
Lucilius, it is this technicality which has made us seem to be giving our
wits a workout on pointless topics and frittering away our leisure on
debates which will do no one any good. I will do as you wish and explicate
the views of our school; but I confess that I am myself of another opinion.
I think that there are some topics which are appropriate to those who wear
Greek-style shoes and cloaks. So anyway, I will tell you what the topics
were which stirred up the ancientsor rather what topics the ancients
stirred up.
:. It is agreed that the mind is an animal, since the mind itself makes
us animals, and since they have derived the term animal from it; virtue,
however, is nothing but the mind in a certain disposition; therefore it is
an animal. Next, virtue does something; but nothing can be done without
an impulse; and only animals have impulse, so if it has an impulse it is an
animal.
. He objects, If virtue is an animal, then virtue itself has virtue. Why
shouldnt it have itself? Just as the wise person does everything through
his virtue, so virtue does everything through itself. So, he says, all the
skills are animals too and all of our thoughts and mental conceptions. It
follows that many thousands of animals dwell within this narrow breast
and that each of us is or has many animals. You ask what response can
be given to this objection? Each and every one of those things will be an
animal, but there will not be many animals. Why is that? I will tell you, if
you give me your focussed attention.
. Individual animals should have individual substances; all of them
have one mind; and so they can be individuals but they cannot be many
individuals. I am both an animal and a man, but for all that you will not
say that we are two. Why is that? Because we would have to be separated
from each other. My claim is this: in order to be two, one thing must be
o +a+sr++ros
distanced from the other. Whatever is multiple within a single object falls
under one nature and so is one.
j. My mind is an animal and so am I, but we are not two. Why? Because
my mind is part of me. Something will be counted by itself only when it
stands by itself. But when it is a component of something else, it cannot
seem to be other than it. Why is that? I will tell you: because what is other
ought to be distinctly its own, entire and complete within itself.
. I have declared that I hold a different view; for if this is accepted not
only will the virtues be animals but the vices which are their opposites will
be too and so will the passions, such as anger, fear, grief, and suspicion.
The matter will keep on going: all opinions and all thoughts will be
animals. And this can in no way be acceptable; for it is not the case that
everything which comes from a person is a person.
y. He asks, What is justice? The mind in a certain disposition. And
so if the mind is an animal, justice is too. No, not at all. For justice is a
disposition and a kind of property of the mind. The same mind takes on
different congurations and it is not the case that it becomes a different
animal every time it does something different, nor is what is done by the
mind an animal either.
8. <If> justice is an animal, <if> courage is, if the other virtues are
animals, do they intermittently cease to be animals and then start up
again, or are they always animals? Virtues cannot cease. Therefore many
animalsinnumerable animals, in factroam around in this mind.
. They are not many, he says, because they are linked to one thing
and they are parts and limbs of one thing. So we are supposing that our
mind has an appearance like that of the hydra, which has many heads,
each one of which ghts on its own and inicts its own harm. But yet
none of those heads is an animal, rather it is the head of an animal,
while the hydra itself is one animal. No one has said that in a chimaera
the lion or the dragon is an animal; they are its parts and parts are not
animals.
+o. How do you conclude that justice is an animal? He says, It does
something and is benecial; but what does something and is benecial has
an impulse, <and what has an impulse> is an animal. This is true if it
has its own impulse; <but it does not have its own impulse> but rather
that of the mind.
++. Until it dies, every animal is what it started out as. A human being
is a human being until it dies, a horse is a horse, a dog is a dog; it cannot
become something different. Justice, i.e., the mind in a certain disposition,
is an animal. Let us believe that; then courage is an animal, i.e., the mind in
rr++ra ++ +
a certain disposition. Which mind? The one which was justice a moment
ago? It is retained in the previous animal and it cannot become a different
animal. It must remain in the animal in which it rst began.
+:. Furthermore, there cannot be one mind for two animals, let alone for
several. If justice, courage, self-control, and the other virtues are animals,
how can they have one mind? They ought to have individual minds of
their own or they wont be animals.
+. There cannot be one body for several animals. Even they will admit
that. What body belongs to justice? The mind. Well, what body belongs
to courage? The same mind. But there cannot be one body for two
animals.
+. But the same mind acquires the disposition of justice and that of
courage and self-control. This could happen if at the time when it was
justice it was not courage, and at the time when it was courage it was
not self-control. But now, all the virtues are together. So, how will the
individual virtues be animals, when there is but one mind, which cannot
produce more than one animal?
+j. Finally, no animal is a part of another animal; but justice is a part of
a mind; therefore it is not an animal.
But I think I am wasting my efforts on a pretty obvious point. The
issue is a better subject for outrage than for debate. No animal is equal to
another. Look at the bodies of every thing. Each has its very own colour
and shape and size.
+. This, I think, is yet another of the reasons for holding that the
intellect of the divine craftsman is awesome: that it never repeats itself
throughout the vast multitude of things that exist. Even things which look
similar are, when you compare them, quite different. He has created so
many kinds of leaves, each marked out with its own distinctive features; so
many animals, each of a different size from the otherscertainly there is
some difference. He demanded of himself that things which were distinct
must also be dissimilar and unequal. All the virtues, as you say, are equal.
Therefore they are not animals.
+y. Every animal acts on its own; virtue, however, does nothing on
its own, but in conjunction with a human being. All animals are either
rational, like human beings and gods, <or non-rational, like beasts and
cattle>; the virtues are certainly rational; but they are neither human nor
gods; therefore they are not animals.
+8. No rational animal acts unless it is rst stimulated by the appearance
of something, then has an impulse, and then assent conrms this impulse.
I will tell you what assent is. It is tting that I walk; I do not walk until I
: +a+sr++ros
have said this to myself and given my approval to this opinion. It is tting
that I sit; then alone do I sit. This assent does not occur in a virtue.
+. Suppose that the virtue is practical wisdom. How can it assent that
it is appropriate for me to walk? Nature does not allow this. For practical
wisdom looks out for the person to whom it belongs, not for itself; for it
can neither walk nor sit. Therefore it does not have assent, and what does
not have assent is not a rational animal. And virtue, if it is an animal, is
rational. But it is not rational, therefore it is not an animal.
:o. If virtue is an animal, and every good is virtue, then every good
is an animal. Our school concedes this. Saving your father is a good and
giving a wise opinion in the Senate is a good, and coming to a just verdict
is a good. Therefore saving your father is an animal and giving a wise
opinion in the Senate is an animal. They take the point so far that one can
scarcely stop from laughing: being prudently silent is a good < dining
is a good>; so being silent and dining are animals.
:+. My Lord, I wont stop tickling and amusing myself with this techni-
cal silliness. Justice andcourage, if theyare animals, are certainlyterrestrial.
Every terrestrial animal gets cold, hungry, and thirsty. Therefore justice
gets cold, courage gets hungry, and clemency gets thirsty.
::. More? Shouldnt I ask them what shape those animals have, that of
a human or of a horse or a beast? If they give them a round shape like the
one god has, I will ask whether greed and luxury and madness are just as
round. For they too are animals. If they make them round too I will carry
on and ask whether wise walking is an animal. They have to agree that it
is and then to say that walking is an animal, and a round animal at that.
:. You shouldnt think that <I> am the rst of our school to speak
independently of established doctrine and to form my own opinion;
Cleanthes and his student Chrysippus did not agree on what walking
is. Cleanthes says that it is the pneuma extended from the leading part
of the soul all the way to the feet, while Chrysippus says that it is the
leading part of the soul itself. So why shouldnt one follow the example of
Chrysippus himself and speak for oneself, ridiculing the view that those
goods are animals, and so many of them that the cosmos itself cannot
contain them?
:. He says, The virtues are not many animals, but for all that they are
animals. For just as someone is both a poet and an orator and is for all
that one person, so too those virtues are animals but they are not many
animals. The mind and the mind which is just and wise and brave are the
same thing, being in a certain disposition with respect to the individual
virtues.
rr++ra ++
:j. That eliminates the <controversy> and we can agree. For I too
concede for the time being that the mind is an animal; I can leave to a later
time the question of what settled judgement I come to on that issue, but
I deny that its actions are animals. Otherwise every word and every line
of poetry will also be an animal. For if wise conversation is a good and
every good is an animal, then <conversation> is an animal. A wise line
of poetry is a good and every good is an animal; therefore a line of poetry
is an animal. Thus I sing of arms and the man is an animal but they
cannot get away with saying that it is round since it has six feet!
:. You say, The whole business that is at issue right this minute is a
tangled web. I split my sides with laughter when I entertain the notion
that a solecism, a barbarism, and a syllogismare animals, and I put suitable
faces on them as a painter would. Is this what we debate with furrowed
brows and creased foreheads? Here I cannot even use that quotation from
Caelius, what solemn silliness! The silliness is just ridiculous.
So why dont we rather deal with something which is useful and
productive for us and investigate how we can attain the virtues and what
road will guide us to them?
:y. Teach me not whether courage is an animal, but that no animal
is happy without courage, unless he has fortied himself against chance
events and through mental training has mastered every accident before
it hits him. What is courage? An unassailable fortication for human
weakness which, when one surrounds oneself with it, enables a person to
live safely in this lifes siege. For he makes use of his own strength and his
own weapons.
:8. At this point I want to cite for you the view of the Stoic Posidonius:
You can never think yourself safe with the weapons given to you by
fortune; ght with your own. Fortune does not arm a man against herself;
and so they stand in battle array against the enemy but are unarmed in the
face of fortune.
:. Certainly Alexander laid waste to and routed the Persians, the
Hyrcanians, the Indians and all the peoples between the rising sun and
the shores of Ocean, but he himself lay in darkness because he killed one
friend and lost another, lamenting in alternation his crime and his loss;
the conqueror of so many kings and peoples caved in to anger and sorrow,
since he brought it to pass that he could control everything but his own
passions.
o. What massive error grips those men who want to project their
right of conquest across the seas and judge themselves most happy if
they control many provinces by military might and add new provinces to
+a+sr++ros
the oldunaware of that grand kingdom which is equal to the gods: the
greatest empire is to command oneself.
+. Let him teach me how sacred a thing justice is, justice which looks
to the good of others and seeks nothing from itself but the use of itself.
Let it have nothing to do with ambition and glory; let it be satised with
itself. Let each person convince himself of this above all: I should be just
without reward. Thats not enough. Let himalso convince himself of this:
let me even enjoy spending freely on this most splendid virtue; let all my
thoughts be as remote as possible from matters of personal convenience.
You shouldnt consider what the reward is for a just action; there is a
greater reward in justice itself.
:. Hold before your eyes what I was saying a short while back, that
it makes no difference how many people are aware of your fairness. The
person who wants to advertise his virtue is working for glory rather than
virtue. Are you unwilling to be just without glory? My Lord! you will
often have to be just even if it means suffering disgrace and then, if you
are wise, you would derive satisfaction from that bad reputation as long as
it has been honourably earned.
Farewell.
LETTER ++y
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. Youre going to stir up a lot of trouble for me and, though you dont
realize it, youll get me into a huge and bothersome quarrel by posing for
me the kind of minor questions on which I can neither disagree with my
own school without jeopardizing my good relations nor agree with them
in clear conscience. You ask whether it is true, as the Stoics hold, that
wisdom is a good but that being wise is not a good. First I will set out the
Stoic view; then I shall make bold to announce my judgement.
:. My school holds that what is good is a body, since what is good does
something and whatever does something is a body. What is good benets;
but something should do something in order to confer benet; if it does
something, it is a body. They say that wisdom is a good. It follows that it
is necessary that they also say that wisdom is bodily.
. But they do not think that being wise is of the same kind. For it is
incorporeal and an attribute of the other, i.e., wisdom. And so it neither
does anything nor does it confer benet. What, then? he says, Do we not
say it is good to be wise? We do, but only by reference to that on which it
depends, i.e., by reference to wisdom itself.
. Before I begin to withdraw from them and take up a distinct position,
listen to the rejoinder delivered to them by others. They say, Looked at
that way, it is not even good to live happily! Like it or not, they have to reply
that the happy life is something good but that living happily is not good.
j. Furthermore, my school also faces this objection: you want to be
wise; therefore being wise is something worth choosing; if it is a thing
worth choosing, it is a good thing. My school is forced to twist words
and to insert an extra syllable into choose which our language does
not recognize. If you permit, I will add it. They say, what is good is
worth choosing, and what we get when we have achieved the good is
choiceworthy. It is not pursued as being good, but it is an adjunct of the
good pursued.
. I do not hold the same view and I think that our school resorts to
this position because they are still impeded by their initial commitment
and they are not permitted to change their formula. We are accustomed to
+a+sr++ros
give considerable weight to the preconception of all people and our view
is that it is an argument that something is true if all people believe it; for
example, we conclude that there are gods for this reason among others,
that there is implanted in everyone an opinion about gods and there is no
culture anywhere so far beyond laws and customs that it does not believe
in some gods. When we debate the eternity of souls, it has considerable
weight with us that there is a consensus among people who either fear
the gods of the underworld or worship them. I use this public mode of
persuasion: you wont nd anyone who does not think that both wisdom
and being wise are good.
y. I am not going to do what defeated [gladiators] do, appeal to the
people. Lets start to ght with our own weapons. Is the attribute of
something outside that of which it is the attribute or is it within that of
which it is the attribute? If it is within that of which it is the attribute,
then it is every bit as much a body as that of which it is the attribute. For
nothing can be an attribute without touch, and what touches is a body.
Nothing can be an attribute without an action, and what acts is a body.
If it is outside, then its withdrawal comes after its arrival as an attribute.
What withdraws has motion and what has motion is a body.
8. You expect me to deny that a run is one thing and running something
different, or that heat is one thing and being hot something different, or
that light is one thing and being light is something different. I concede that
they are different, but not that they are in different categories. If health is
an indifferent, then being healthy is <also> an indifferent; if beauty is an
indifferent, then being beautiful is also an indifferent. If justice is good,
then so is being just; if disgrace is bad, then so is being in disgracejust
as much, in fact, as having a diseased eye is bad if eye disease is bad. To
see this point, [reect that] neither can exist without the other: he who is
wise is a wise person; he who is a wise person is wise. It is beyond doubt
that the quality of one correlates with the quality of the other, so much so
that some people even think that the two are one and the same.
. But I would like to ask, since everything is either bad or good or
indifferent, which group do you put being wise in? They say that it is not
good; it is certainly not bad; it follows that it is in-between. But we call
in-between or indifferent those things which can occur to a bad person
just as well as to a good person, such as money, beauty, and high birth.
But this being wise cannot occur except to a good person; therefore it is
not indifferent. And yet it is not bad, certainly, since it cannot occur to a
bad person; therefore it is good. That which only a good person can have
is good; only a good person can have being wise; therefore it is good.
rr++ra ++y y
+o. He says, It is an attribute of wisdom. So, this thing you call being
wise, does it bring about wisdom or does it suffer wisdom? Whether it
brings it about or suffers it, either way it is a body; for both what suffers
and what acts are body. If it is a body it is good, since the only thing
lacking, which prevented it from being good, was its incorporeality.
++. The Peripatetics hold that there is no difference between wisdom
and being wise, since in each of them the other is also present. For surely
you dont think that anyone is wise except him who has wisdom and surely
you dont think that anyone who is wise lacks wisdom.
+:. The early dialecticians distinguished these things, and the division
was inherited from them by the Stoics. I will tell you what this division
is. A eld is one thing, and possessing a eld is something different, isnt
it? since possessing a eld pertains to the person who possesses the eld,
not to the eld itself. In this way wisdom is one thing and being wise is
something different. You will, I think, concede that these are two distinct
things, what is possessed and he who possesses it. Wisdom is possessed,
and he who is wise possesses it. Wisdom is a mind made complete, that
is, brought to its highest and best condition. For it is the art of life. What
is being wise? I cannot say a mind made complete, but rather it is that
which is a feature of someone who possesses a mind made complete; in
this sense a good mind is one thing and it is something distinct to, as it
were, possess a good mind.
+. He says, There are bodily natures, such as this human being is and
this horse is; they are then accompanied by motions of the mind which
express the bodies. These motions have something about them which is
distinctive and is abstracted from the bodies. For example, I see Cato
walking; sense perception showed this and the mind believed it. What I
see is a body and I directed my eyes and my mind to the body. Then I
say: Cato walks. He says, What I am now saying is not a body but
something expressible about the body and some people call this an effatum,
others call it an enuntiatum, still others call it a dictum. Thus when we
say wisdom we understand something which is bodily; when we say
is wise we are talking about a body. It makes an enormous difference
whether you mention the person or talk about the person.
+. Let us suppose for the present that those are two distinct things (for
I am not yet announcing my own opinion); what is to prevent there from
being something which is distinct but nevertheless good? I was saying just
a moment ago that a eld is one thing and that it is something else to
possess a eld. Well, of coursefor the possessor is of a different nature
than the thing possessed. The one is land and the other is a human being.
8 +a+sr++ros
But in the case we are discussing, both wisdom itself and he who possesses
it are of the same nature.
+j. Moreover, in that case what is possessed is something different
from the possessor; in this case the possessor and the possessed are in
the same object. A eld is possessed in accordance with legality, wisdom
in accordance with nature. The former can be alienated and given over
to another person, but the latter never leaves its master. So you have no
reason to compare things which are so different from each other.
I had begun to say that the things in question could be two and yet both
could be good; for example, wisdom and the wise person are two and you
agree that both are good. Just as there is nothing to prevent both wisdom
and he who possesses wisdom from being good, in the same way there
is nothing to prevent both wisdom and having wisdom (i.e., being wise)
from being good.
+. I want to be a wise person for this reason, in order to be wise. What
then? Is the thing without which the other thing is not good, not itself
good? You people certainly say that wisdom is not worth accepting if it is
not exercised. What is the exercise of wisdom? Being wise! That is what is
most valuable in wisdom; without it wisdom is empty. If tortures are bad,
being tortured is also bad, so much so that the former wouldnt be bad
if you eliminated the consequences. Wisdom is the condition of a mind
brought to completion; being wise is the exercise of a mind brought to
completion; how can the exercise of something not be good, when that
thing is itself not good unless it is exercised?
+y. I ask you whether wisdom is worth choosing and you say yes. I ask
whether the exercise of wisdom is worth choosing and you say yes. For
you say that you would not accept wisdom if you were prevented from
exercising it. What is worth choosing is good. Being wise is the exercise
of wisdom, just as speaking is the exercise of eloquence and seeing is the
exercise of the eyes. Therefore being wise is the exercise of wisdom; but
the exercise of wisdom is worth choosing. Therefore being wise is worth
choosing; if it is worth choosing it is good.
+8. For some time now I have been condemning myself and behaving
like those whom I criticize, wasting words on an obvious issue. Who could
be in any doubt that if heat is bad then being hot is bad? If cold is bad then
being cold is bad? If life is good then living is good? All of that concerns
wisdom but is not in wisdom. But we must spend our time in wisdom.
+. Even if we want to digress a bit, wisdom has lots of room for
quiet retreats. Let us investigate the nature of the gods, the nourishment
of the heavenly bodies, the various paths of the stars, whether our
rr++ra ++y
affairs are moved in accordance with their motions, whether they are the
source of movement for the bodies and souls of all things, whether even
the things which are called fortuitous are actually bound by a denite
law and nothing in this cosmos unfolds without warning or without
order. These issues are already somewhat removed from the education
of our characters, but they do uplift the mind and draw it towards the
grandeur of the very things which it is considering. But the issues which
I was discussing just a moment ago reduce the mind and degrade it.
They do not, as you people think, sharpen the mind; they just make it
thinner.
:o. I implore you, do we exhaust the concern, which is so vital, that we
owe to topics which are greater and better by dealing with an issue which
may well be false and is certainly useless? What good will it do me to know
whether wisdom is one thing and being wise something else? What good
will it do me to know that the former is good <and the latter is not>? Ill
take my chances and leave it to the dice whether the following wish comes
true: that I get wisdom and you get being wise. We will be even.
:+. Better yet, get going and show me how to attain them. Tell me
what I should avoid, what I should pursue, what I should focus on in
order to strengthen a failing mind, how I might drive away and ward off
things which make a surprise attack on me and afict me, how I might be
equal to so many misfortunes, how I might eliminate the disasters which
have burst in on me, how I might eliminate the ones which I myself have
burst in on. Teach me how to sustain grief without groaning myself, good
fortune without groaning from others, how not to wait around for the nal
and inevitable moment, but to take refuge there myself when the time
seems right.
::. Nothing seems more shameful to me than to wish for death. For if
you want to live, why wish to die? Or if you do not want to live, why ask
the gods for something which they gave you at your birth? For they have
arranged it so that you will die someday, even if you dont want to, and
so that when you do want to the matter is in your own hands; the one is
necessary for you, the other permitted.
:. I have read an opening statement by a very eloquent man indeed,
one which is extremely shameful in these days. He said, So, let me die as
soon as possible! Madman, you are asking for what is already yours. So,
let me die as soon as possible! Perhaps you have grown old while saying
such things; otherwise, what point is there in delay? No one is holding
you back. Escape as you think t; choose any part of nature and tell it to
give you a way out. Certainly these things are also the elements through
yo +a+sr++ros
which the world is governed: water, earth, air; all those things are just as
much reasons for living as they are paths to death.
:. So, let me die as soon as possible? Just what do you mean by as
soon as possible? What day have you got planned for it? It can be carried
out faster than you might like. Those are the words of a weak mind,
angling for pity with that piece of self-loathing. Someone who wishes for
death doesnt really want it. Ask the gods for life and health; if youve
decided to die, there is this benet in death, that one ceases to wish for it.
:j. Lucilius my friend, let us mull over these thoughts, let us shape our
minds with these reections. This is wisdom and this is being wise, not
stirring up utterly pointless technicality in empty little debates. Fortune
has put so many questions to you which you have not yet resolved. Are
you still joking around with sophisms? How foolish it is to swish your
weapons in the air when you have been given the signal to ght! Get rid
of those toy weapons; you need the kind of weapons which settle things.
Tell me how my soul can be free of the upsets of sadness and fear, by
what means I might purge this burden of hidden desires. Let something be
accomplished.
:. Wisdomis good, but being wise is not good. This is the way to have
people say that we arent wise, so that this entire practice gets ridiculed
for busying itself with frivolities.
What if you heard that there are also debates about whether a future
wisdom is something good? What doubt can there be, I ask you, that
the granaries do not yet perceive that the harvest is coming nor does
childhood yet understand through any strength or power that maturity
is approaching. Health which is still to come is, in the meantime, of no
benet to the patient any more than a rest many months after the fact
refreshes a runner or a wrestler.
:y. Who does not know that something in the future is not good
precisely because it is in the future? For what is good certainly brings
benet; but only present things can bring benet. If it does not benet, it
is not a good; if it does benet, it is automatically a good. I am a future wise
man. This will be a good when I am wise; meanwhile it is not. Something
must exist before it can have a quality.
:8. So how, I beg of you, can what is still nothing already be good?
What clearer proof could you want that something does not exist than if I
say of it it is in the future? For it is obvious that what is going to come has
not arrived. Spring will be along so I know that it is winter. Summer
will be along so I know that it is not summer. I think the best argument
that something is not present is the fact that it is future.
rr++ra ++y y+
:. I will be wise, I hope, but in the meantime I am not wise. If I had
that good, I would already be free of my present bad state. It lies in the
future that I might be wise; on this basis you may gather that I am not
yet wise. Those two things, good and bad, do not converge nor do they
coexist in the same person.
o. Let us pass over all these excessively clever trivialities and hurry on
to things which will bring us some help. No one who is running, worried,
to summon a midwife for his daughter in labour stops to read carefully
through the proclamation and schedule for the games. No one who is
running home to a house on re scans the checkers board to see how he
can free his trapped piece.
+. But, good Lord, all these things are trumpeted for you from all
sides: your house on re, your children in danger, your homeland under
siege, your possessions pillaged. Add to that shipwrecks, earthquakes, and
anything else one might fear. While preoccupied by such things, do you
have the leisure for things which do no more than amuse the mind? Are
you asking what the difference is between wisdom and being wise? Are
you tying knots and then untying them, while such a massive threat hangs
over your head?
:. Nature did not give us such a generous supply of free time that we
have the luxury of letting any of it go to waste. And consider how much
is lost even to those who are most careful; some is taken from each of us
by our own health, some by the health of our friends and family; some is
taken up by unavoidable business, some by public affairs; sleep takes its
share of our lives. With such a limited and fast-moving supply of time,
time which sweeps us away, what good does it do to squander pointlessly
the majority of it?
. And add to this the fact that the mind is in the habit of amusing itself
rather than healing itself and turning philosophy into a leisure activity
when it is really a cure. I do not know what the difference is between
wisdom and being wise. But I do know that it makes no difference to me
whether I know or not. Tell me, when I have learned what the difference
is between wisdom and being wise, will I be wise? Why, then, do you
tie me down with the words of wisdom instead of with its deeds? Make
me braver, make me more condent, make me equal to fortune, make me
superior to it. But I can be superior if I direct all of my learning to that end.
Farewell.
LETTER ++8
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. You demand fromme more frequent letters. Lets compare accounts:
youll be in no position to pay your debt. Our agreement was that your
contributions would come rst, that you would write and I would reply.
But I wont be intransigent; I know you are a good credit risk. So I will
give in advance and will not do what Cicero, an extremely eloquent man,
asks Atticus to do, that is to jot down whatever came into his head, even
if he had nothing to say.
:. There can never be a lack of things for me to write about, even
though I pass over all those things which ll Ciceros letters: who is having
trouble with his election campaign, who is campaigning with someone
elses resources and who with his own, who relies on Caesar in seeking
the consulship, who relies on Pompey, and who relies on money, what a
heartless loan shark Caecilius isthose near and dear to him cannot get
a penny out of him at less than one percent a month! It is better to deal
with ones own faults than those of other people, to examine oneself and
to see how many things one is campaigning for, and not to canvass for
someone else.
. Lucilius, it is a splendid thing, a source of tranquillity and inde-
pendence, to seek nothing and to ignore completely fortunes political
campaigns. Dont you think it delightful to stand by at your leisure and
to watch the electoral marketplace without having to buy or sell any-
thingwhile the candidates wait anxiously in their precincts and one
promises money, another works through an agent, someone else smothers
with kisses the hands of people whose hands he will refuse even to touch
once he is elected, all of themwaiting open-mouthed for the announcement
of the results?
. How much greater the pleasure enjoyed by the man who watches
in tranquillity not the praetorian or consular elections but those greater
contests in which some people seek annually recurring honours, or seek
permanent political power, or successful outcomes for their military
campaigns and triumphal parades, or wealth, or marriage and children, or
rr++ra ++8 y
health for themselves and their families! It takes a truly great character just
to seek nothing, to ask for no ones support, and to say I have no business
with you, fortune; I am not letting you get at me. I know that you permit
people like Cato to lose at the polls and people like Vatinius to be elected.
I ask for nothing. This is what it means to reduce fortune to the ranks.
j. So one can write about these things back and forth and set out
this material it is always fresh and newsince we look around and
see so many thousands of people who are troubled. In order to achieve
a disastrous result, they struggle to overcome hardships on their way to
misery and pursue things which they will soon have to ee fromor sneer at.
. Who has ever been satised by getting something which was too
much to hope for? Prosperity is not insatiable, as people think; it is puny.
So it doesnt satisfy anyone. You think those things are lofty because you
are situated far below them. The person who has reached them thinks
they are small. I guarantee you that he will try to climb higher still. What
you think of as the top is a mere step to him.
y. But ignorance of the truth puts everyone in a bad way. They are
misled by false report and so rush off towards what they think are good
things; then, when they have suffered so much to get them, they see that
they are actually bad or empty or less important than they had hoped. The
majority of people admire things which deceive from a distance; what the
crowd thinks good is the standard of importance for them.
8. Lets enquire what the good is, so that this doesnt happen to
us. There are several accounts of it, and different people articulate it
differently. Some dene it thus: the good is what entices our mind, what
draws it to itself. Right away there is an objection to this account: what if
it entices our mind, but entices it into ruination? You know how many bad
things are alluring. What is true and what is merely similar to the truth
are different. So, what is good is linked to what is true; for it isnt good
unless it is true. But what entices us to itself and lures us is merely like the
truth. It insinuates, it pesters, it leads us on.
. Some people have dened it thus: the good is what stimulates desire
for itself; or, what stimulates an impulse of the mind which strives towards
it. The same objection is made to this formulation. For many things which
stimulate a mental impulse are pursued to the detriment of those pursuing
them. Those who dened the good as follows did a better job: the good is
that which stimulates a mental impulse towards itself in accordance with
nature and is worth pursuing only when it begins to be worth choosing.
Right away this is something honourable, for the honourable is what is
completely worth pursuing.
y +a+sr++ros
+o. This point reminds me to mention the difference between the good
and the honourable. They do share something with each other which is
inseparable from them. Only what has something honourable in it can
be good, and the honourable is certainly good. So what is the difference
between them? The honourable is the perfected good, by which the happy
life is made complete and by contact with which other things are also made
good.
++. Here is the kind of thing I mean. There are certain things which are
neither good nor bad, like military service, diplomatic service, and service
as a judge. When they are conducted honourably, they start to be good
and make the transition from being uncertain to being good. Alliance with
the honourable makes something good, but the honourable is good all on
its own. Good ows from the honourable; the honourable depends only
on itself. What is good could have been bad. What is honourable couldnt
have been otherwise than good.
+:. Certain people have advanced this denition: the good is what is
according to nature. Note what I am saying: what is good is according
to nature, but it is not automatic that what is according to nature is also
good. Indeed, many things agree with nature but are so petty that the
label good is not appropriate to them; they are trivial, even contemptible.
There is no such thing as a miniscule and contemptible good, since as long
as it is small it is not good. When it starts to be good, it is not small. How
is the good recognized then? If it is completely according to nature.
+. You say, You admit that what is good is according to nature.
This is its characteristic feature. You admit that other things are certainly
according to nature but not good. So how can that be good when these are
not? How does it attain a different characteristic feature when both have
that one outstanding feature in common, being according to nature?
+. Because of the magnitude itself, of course. And this is nothing new.
Certain things change by growing. He was an infant and became an adult.
He has a different characteristic feature. For the infant lacked reason and
the adult is rational. Certain things dont just become bigger by growing;
they become different.
+j. He says, It doesnt become different because it becomes bigger.
Whether you ll a bottle or a barrel with wine makes no difference; in each
there exists the characteristic feature of wine. A small and a large amount
of honey both taste the same. The examples you adduce are not of the
same kind; for in those cases they do have the same quality; however much
they increase, it persists.
rr++ra ++8 yj
+. Certain things when made bigger do retain their own type and
characteristic feature. But certain things, after many increases, are nally
converted by the nal addition, which imposes on them a condition
different from the one they were in before. One stone makes an arch,
the one which wedges against the sloping sides and binds them by being
placed between them. Why does the nal addition, even if it is miniscule,
make such a big difference? Because it does not increase something but
lls it up.
+y. Certain things slough off their previous shape as they advance and
make the transition to a new shape. When the mind extends something
for a long time and has become worn out by tracking its magnitude,
then it starts to be called innite. It becomes very different from what
it was when it looked big, but nite. In the same way we got the idea
that something was difcult to cut; as this difculty grew, in the end the
uncuttable was discovered. This is how we progressed from what could
barely be moved with great effort to that which is unmovable. In the same
way something was according to nature; it was its own magnitude that
gave it a new characteristic feature and made it good.
Farewell.
LETTER ++
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. Whenever Ive found something, I dont wait for you to tell me
share it!; I say it to myself. What is it that Ive found, you ask? Open
your wallet: it is pure prot. Ill teach you how you can get rich very
quickly. You are really eager to hear this, and rightly soIm going to
take you on a short cut to enormous riches. Still, you will need a nancial
backer; to do business you need to take out a loan, but I dont want you
to borrow through an agent nor do I want the brokers to be tossing your
name around.
:. Ill give you a ready-made backer; in the famous phrase of Cato, bor-
rowfromyourself. No matter howsmall the loan, itll be enough if we seek
from ourselves whatever we lack. Lucilius, my friend, it makes no differ-
ence whether you feel no need of something or you have it already. In either
case the upshot is the same: you will not be in anguish. Nor do I instruct
you to deny something to natureshe is unyielding, she is unbeatable,
she demands her duebut rather I instruct you to be aware that whatever
goes beyond nature is at the whim of others and not necessary.
. I am hungry; I must eat. It makes no difference to nature whether this
bread is coarse or ne; she wants the stomach to be lled, not pleasured. I
am thirsty. It makes no difference to nature whether this water is some I
have drawn froma nearby cistern or water I have kept on snowto be chilled
with a coolness not its own. All she asks is that thirst be extinguished; it
makes no difference whether the cup is made of gold or crystal or agate or
whether it is a travertine goblet or a cupped hand.
. Look to the goal of all things and you will eliminate the superuous.
Hunger summons me; my hand reaches out for whatever is closest; hunger
itself will recommend whatever I take hold of. Someone who is hungry
despises nothing.
j. You ask, then, what it is which has caught my fancy? I think it a splen-
did maxim, that a wise person is the keenest pursuer of natural wealth.
You reply, You are presenting me with an empty platter. What is this? I
already had my account book ready and was considering what sea I might
sail to do business, what public contract I might take on, what merchandise
rr++ra ++ yy
I should be acquiring. It is deceit to preach poverty after promising pros-
perity. So do you think someone poor if he lacks nothing? You reply,
No, but that is due to himself and his endurance, not due to fortune. So
do you think that he isnt rich just because his riches can never cease?
. Would you rather have a great deal or enough? Someone who has a
great deal desires more and that is an indication that he does not yet have
enough; someone who has enough has acquired what no rich person has
attained, his goal. Or maybe you think that this isnt real wealth because
no one was proscribed for it? Because no one was poisoned by his son
or his wife on account of it? Because it is safe in wartime? Because it is
unused in peacetime? Because it is neither dangerous to possess it nor
burdensome to spend it?
y. But the person who merely avoids cold, hunger, and thirst just
has too little! Jupiter has no more. What is sufcient is never too little,
and what is not enough is never a great deal. Alexander is poor after
[conquering] Darius and the Indians. Am I wrong? He seeks something
to make his own, he scours unknown seas, sends new eets out into the
ocean and, as I might put it, bursts the very ramparts of the world.
8. What is enough for nature is not enough for a human being. Here
we have someone who would lust for something after he has everything.
Mental blindness is so profound and each person so thoroughly forgets
his own origins once he has made some progress. Having begun as the
master of an obscure patch of land (and not even its undisputed master),
he reaches the ends of the earth and is on the point of returning home
through a world he has made his own, but Alexander is grief-stricken.
. Money never made anyone rich. On the contrary, it has made
everyone long for yet more money. You ask what causes this? A person
whos got more starts to be able to get more. To sum up the point: you
can name anyone you like of those who are ranked alongside Crassus and
Licinus; let him state his wealth and add together all that he has and all
that he expects to get. If you accept my view, he is poor, but even on your
own view he can be poor.
+o. The person, however, who has set himself up in accordance with the
demands of nature is not just free of the feeling of poverty, he is free of the
fear of it. But to let you know how hard it is to conne ones possessions to
the limits of nature, this very person whom we are so constraining, whom
you call poor, he not only has something, he even has something to spare.
++. Riches blind people, though, and attract them if a great deal of
money is paraded out of some house, if all its ceilings are richly gilded,
if the house-slaves have been chosen for their physical attributes or are
y8 +a+sr++ros
dressed in splendid livery. The prosperity of all those people has an eye to
public display. The person whom we have insulated from the public and
from fortune is happy on the inside.
+:. For as far as concerns those for whom a frantic poverty has usurped
the name wealth: they have wealth in just the same way that we are
said to have a fever, when in fact the fever has us. We are accustomed to
put it the other way around: a fever grips him, and in the same way we
ought to say wealth grips him. The advice I would most like to leave you
with is the advice that no one hears enough: to measure all things by ones
natural desires, which can be satised for free or for very little. Just dont
mix vices with your desires.
+. You ask what sort of table your food is served on, on what sort of
silver plates, how uniform and elegant the servants who bring it? Nature
desires nothing beyond the food.
Surely you dont ask for a golden cup when your throat is burning with thirst.
Surely when you are starving you dont reject everything
except peacock and turbot.'
+. Hunger has no ambitions. It is content if it stops. It doesnt much
care what makes it stop. Those things are the torments inicted by
wretched luxury. Luxury looks for a way to be hungry even after it is
full, for a way not to ll the stomach but to stuff it, for a way to revive
the thirst which has been slaked by the rst drink. So Horace made an
excellent claim, that it doesnt matter to thirst what sort of cup the drink
is served in or by how sophisticated a hand. If you think it matters to you
how nicely curled the boys hair is and how translucent the cup he offers
to you is, then you arent really thirsty.
+j. Along with everything else, nature has given us this one most impor-
tant gift: she has purged necessity of any fussiness. What is superuous
leaves room for choice. This isnt stylish enough, thats not fancy enough,
that offends my eyes. The great builder of the cosmos, who set forth the
laws of living for us, has made it possible for us to attain well-being, not to
be pampered. Everything neededfor our well-being is ready andwaiting; to
be pampered, everything has to be acquired with wretched care and worry.
+. So let us take advantage of this gift of nature, which is t to be
numbered among her greatest blessings, and let us reect that she has
done us no better service than this: whatever one desires out of necessity
one accepts without fussiness.
Farewell.
' Horace, Satires +.:.+++.
LETTER +:o
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. Your letter rambled through many minor questions, but settled on
one and asks that it be dealt with: how we have acquired the concept of the
good and the honourable. These two are, in the view of others, different;
in our view they are merely distinct.
:. I will explain. Some think that the good is that which is useful.
Therefore they apply this term to wealth, to a horse, to wine, and to a
shoe. That is how cheap they think the good is and how utterly they think
it descends into vulgarity. They think that the honourable is that which
is characterized by a reasoning out of ones correct responsibility; e.g.,
the faithful care of ones father in old age, relief of a friends poverty,
courageous behaviour on campaign, the utterance of sensible and moderate
views [in the Senate].
. We contend that these are indeed two things, but that they are rooted
in one. Nothing is good except what is honourable; what is honourable
is certainly good. I think it unnecessary to add what distinguishes them,
since I have said it often. I will say just this one thing, that we believe that
nothing is <good> which someone can also use badly; however, you see
how many people make bad use of wealth, high birth, and strength.
So now I return to what you want me to discuss, how we have acquired
our initial concept of the good and the honourable.
. Nature could not have taught us this; she has given us the seeds of
knowledge but has not given us knowledge. Certain people say that we
just happened on the concept; but it is implausible that anyone should
have come upon the form of virtue by chance. We believe that it has been
inferred by the observation and comparison of actions done repeatedly.
Our school holds that the honourable and the good are understood
by analogy. (Since this term [analogia] has been naturalized by Latin
grammarians, I think it need not be condemned; rather, it should be
promoted to full citizenship. So I will use it not just as an acceptable word,
but as a common one.) Let me explain what this analogy is.
8o +a+sr++ros
j. We had a familiarity with bodily health; from this we realized that
there is also a certain health of the mind. We had a familiarity with bodily
strength; from this we inferred that there is also mental power. Certain
generous deeds, certain kindly deeds, certain brave deeds had amazed us;
we began to admire them as though they were perfect. There were hidden
in them many failings which were concealed by the form and splendour of
some outstanding deed; these failings we pretended not to notice. Nature
orders us to exaggerate what is praiseworthy, and there is no one who
hasnt elevated glory beyond the truth. Hence it is from these actions that
we have derived the form of some great good.
. Fabricius rejected the gold of King Pyrrhus and thought that being
able to depise royal riches was more important than a kingdom. When
Pyrrhus physician promised to administer poison to the king, Fabricius
warned Pyrrhus to beware the treachery. It was a mark of the same
character that he was not won over by gold and would not win by poison.
We admired the great man who was swayed neither by the promises of a
king nor by promises to harm the king, a man with a rm grip on sound
precedent and (something very hard to achieve) blameless during war, a
man who still thought that there was such a thing as an outrage committed
against an enemy, a man who in the midst of the poverty which his honour
had inicted on him avoided riches just as he avoided poison. He said,
Pyrrhus, live thanks to me, and rejoice at the fact which used to cause
you griefthat Fabricius cannot be corrupted.
y. Horatius Cocles stood alone blocking the narrow part of the bridge
and ordered that his line of retreat be cut off behind his back, provided that
the enemy be deprived of their route; he stood against his attackers until
the timbers were torn apart and thundered massively as they collapsed. He
looked behind himself and saw that his own danger had put his country
out of danger and then he said, Come on, if any of you wants to pursue
me on this escape route! Then he threw himself headlong into the river;
in the raging current of the river he was just as concerned to get out with
his armour as he was to get out safe, and with the honour of his victorious
armour intact he got back to his camp as safely as if he had crossed the
bridge.
8. These deeds and ones like them have shown us the likeness of virtue.
I shall add a point which might perhaps seem remarkable: that sometimes
bad deeds have presented us with the appearance of the honourable, and
that what is best has shone forth from its opposite. As you know, there
are vices which are similar to virtues and a resemblance between what
is right and what is corrupt and shameful. Thus a spendthrift falsely
rr++ra +:o 8+
resembles a generous person, though there is an enormous difference
between knowing how to give and not knowing how to save. Lucilius, I
say, there are many people who do not give money but toss it around; I
dont call a person who is angry at his own money generous. Carelessness
imitates easy-goingness, recklessness imitates bravery.
. This resemblance forced us to pay attention and to distinguish
things which are similar, in appearance at any rate, but which in fact
differ enormously from each other. While watching those whom some
outstanding act made famous we began to notice who did some action
with a noble spirit and great elan, but only once. Here we saw a man
brave in war but fearful in political life, taking poverty with courage and
disgrace with humility. We praised what he did but held the man himself
in contempt.
+o. We saw another man who was kind to his friends and self-controlled
towards his enemies, managing public and private affairs with piety and
faithfulness; he did not lack endurance in situations which called for
putting up with things, nor good sense in situations which called for
action. We saw him providing generously where giving was called for and
where struggle was called for we saw him determined, striving, and
supporting his weary body with his courageous mind. Moreover, he was
always the same and consistent with himself in every act; not good by
design, but so thoroughly habituated that he not only could act rightly but
could not act other than rightly.
++. We understood that in him virtue was complete. We divided it into
parts: it was appropriate to curb desires, suppress fears, show good sense
in action, distribute what ought to be allotted; we grasped self-control,
bravery, good sense, and justice, and assigned to each its own sphere.
On the basis of what, then, did we come to understand virtue? It was
shown to us by this mans orderliness and ttingness and consistency, the
mutual agreement of all his actions and the greatness which rises above
everything. This is the source of our understanding of the happy life,
which ows smoothly and is completely autonomous.
+:. How, then, did this very thing become clear to us? I will tell you.
That man, the one who is complete and has attained to virtue, never
cursed fortune, was never gloomy in his acceptance of what happened;
believing that he is a citizen and soldier of the cosmos, he took on difcult
tasks as though commanded to do so. He did not reject what happened to
him as though it were something bad which fell to his lot by chance, but
[accepted it] as though it had been assigned to him. He said, No matter
8: +a+sr++ros
what this is like, it is mine; it is harsh, it is tough, but lets get to work on
it.
+. And so someone who never moaned over his misfortune and never
complained about his fate necessarily appeared to be great. He provided
an understanding of himself to many people and shone forth like a light
in the darkness, turning the minds of all to himself, since he was calm and
gentle, equally at ease with divine and human things.
+. He had a mind which was complete and brought to its own best
conditionthere is nothing higher than this except the mind of god, from
which some part has owed down even into this mortal breast, which is
never more divine than when it reects on its own mortality and knows
that human beings were born in order to live and be done with life, that
the body is not a home but a guest-houseand a short-stay guest-house
at that, which you must leave when you notice that you are a bother to
your host.
+j. Lucilius my friend, the most powerful indication that a mind comes
from some loftier place is if it judges the things it deals with to be base and
narrow, if it is not afraid to take its leave. For the mind which remembers
where it came from knows where it is going to go. Dont we see how many
troubles plague us and how badly this body suits us?
+. We complain about headache sometimes, stomach ache other times,
and again about chest troubles or a sore throat. Now our muscles trouble
us, now our feet, then diarrhoea, then a runny nose. Sometimes our blood
is too thick, sometimes too thin. We are besieged from all sides and then
driven out. This is normally the experience only of those living in a foreign
environment.
+y. But even though we are stuck with such a crumbling body we
nevertheless aim at the eternal and with our ambition we seize the full
extent of what the length of a human life can accommodate, not content
with money or power in any amount. What could be more outrageous or
more stupid than this? Nothing satises those who are about to die, indeed
who are dying already. Every day we stand closer to the end and each day
pushes us towards the place from which we must fall.
+8. See what blindness aficts our minds! What I refer to as future
occurs at this very moment and most of it is already in the past. For the
time that we have lived is in the same place as it was before we lived. So we
are wrong to fear our nal day, since each and every day contributes just
as much to our death. The step during which we collapse is not the one
which makes us tired; it just announces our fatigue. The nal day reaches
death; each day approaches it. Death plucks at us; it does not grab us all at
rr++ra +:o 8
once. So a great mind, one aware of its better nature, certainly takes care
to comport itself honourably and industriously in the post to which it is
stationed, but it does not judge that any of its surroundings are its own. A
traveller hurrying by, it uses them as though they are on loan.
+. Whenwe see someone withthis degree of consistency, why shouldnt
we get the impression of an exceptional talent? especially, as I said, if this
greatness is shown to be genuine by its uniformity. Continuity is a stable
companion of what is genuine; what is not genuine does not last. Some
people take turns being Vatinius and Cato: one moment Curius isnt strict
enough for them, Fabricius not poor enough, Tubero not parsimonious
enough, not sufciently satised with simple things; the next minute they
rival Licinus for his wealth, Apicius for his dinner parties, and Maecenas
for his luxuries.
:o. The clearest proof of a bad character is restlessness and constantly
bouncing back and forth between pretending at virtue and loving vice.
Often he had two hundred slaves
but often he had only ten; sometimes he spoke of kings and tetrarchs,
and all manner of greatness, but sometimes he said All I want
is a small table, a pinch of plain salt, and a cloak, no matter how coarse,
to ward off the cold. If you had given this parsimonious man,
content with little, the sum of +,ooo,ooo sesterces, in ve days
hed have had nothing.'
:+. Many people are like the one Horace describes here, never the same
as himself, not even similar; thats how far off course he goes. Many, did
I say? Virtually everybody. There isnt anybody who doesnt change his
advice and his wishes every day. First he wants a wife, then a mistress;
rst he wants to be king; then he behaves in such a way that no slave could
be more fawning; rst he puffs himself up in order to attract envy, and
then backs down and sinks below the level of the genuinely humble; at
one moment he scatters money around, and the next minute he steals it.
::. This is the most powerful proof that a mind is unwise. It goes
around as one person after another and is inconsistent with itself, and I
think nothing is more shameful than that. Consider it a great thing to play
the role of one person. But except for the wise person, no one plays a single
role; the rest of us are multiple. At one point we will seem prudent and
serious to you, at another nancially reckless and frivolous. We change
roles frequently and put on a mask opposite to the one we just removed.
So demand this of yourself. You undertook to present yourself in a certain
' Horace, Satires +..+++y.
8 +a+sr++ros
way; keep yourself in that condition right through to the end. Make it
possible that you can be praised, or at least that you can be identied. It
could fairly be said of the person you saw yesterday, Who is he? That is
how much he has changed.
Farewell.
LETTER +:+
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. I can see that you will haul me into court when I set out for you
todays little question, one that has engaged us for quite a while now.
Once again you will shout, What does this have to do with ethics? Shout
away, then, while I, rst of all, give you other opponents to prosecute,
Posidonius and Archedemus (theyll accept the courts jurisdiction), and
then say to you, It is not the case that everything which is ethical makes
our character ethically good.
:. Some things bear on human nutrition, some on exercise, some on
clothing, some on teaching, some on pleasure. But they all bear on human
beings even if not all of them make humans better. Different things have
different impacts on our character. Some things improve our character
and make it orderly, while others investigate the nature and origin of our
characters.
. When <I ask>why nature made humans, why she made us superior
to the rest of the animals, do you think I have left character far behind?
Not so. For how will you know what character you should have unless you
nd out what is best for a human being, unless you look into its nature.
You wont really understand what you should do and what you should
avoid until you have learned what you owe to your own nature.
. You reply, I want to learn how to reduce my desires and to reduce
my fears. Rid me of superstition; teach me that what is called happiness is
frivolous and empty, that it can very easily have one syllable prexed to
it [viz. un-]. I will satisfy your desire; I will both encourage the virtues
and beat down the vices. Though someone might judge me excessive
and immoderate in this area, I will not give up attacking wickedness,
restraining the wild passions, reining in pleasures which are bound to end
in pain, and railing against wishes and prayers. Why not? We have wished
for the greatest evils and the source of all that demands consolation is what
we give thanks to the gods for.
j. Meanwhile, allow me to scrutinize some matters which seem a little
more removed from our concerns. We were investigating whether all
8 +a+sr++ros
animals have an awareness of their own constitution. The main reason
why it seems that they do have such an awareness is that they move their
limbs easily and effectively just as if they had been trained for doing so.
Each of them is nimble with regard to its own parts. An artisan handles his
tools with ease, the helmsman of a ship directs the rudder with skill, the
painter arranges many different pigments to help him make a likeness and
applies them with great rapidity, cheerfully and efciently moving back
and forth between the palette and his canvas. An animal is comparably
agile in all the ways it makes use of itself.
. We are regularly amazed at skilled dancers because their hands are
able to represent all kinds of subjects and emotions and because their
gestures are as quick as the words. What technique provides for them,
nature provides for animals. No one has trouble moving its limbs; no one
hesitates in making use of its parts. And they do so just as soon as they are
born. They arrive with this knowledge. They are born fully trained.
y. The reason, he replies, that animals move their parts appropriately
is because if they moved them otherwise they would feel pain. So, as you
yourselves say, they are compelled and it is fear rather than their wish
which puts them on the right path. But that is false. For things which are
driven by necessity move slowly and what moves on its own has a certain
nimbleness. Anyway, animals are so far frombeing driven to this action by
painthat they strive for their natural motionevenwhenpainimpedes them.
8. Thus a baby who practices standing and getting used to moving
around falls as soon as it begins to tax its strength. Over and over again it
cries as it gets up again until despite the pain it works its way through to
what nature asks of it. When certain animals which have a hard shell get
turned upside down they twist themselves around and wave their legs and
wrench them until they are again in an upright position. An upside-down
turtle feels no pain, yet it is disturbed by a desire for its natural position
and will not give up struggling and ailing itself until it gets onto its feet.
. Therefore all animals have an awareness of their own constitution
and that is the reason why they are so ready at managing their limbs;
we have no better evidence that they come into life equipped with this
knowledge than the fact that no animal is clumsy at using itself.
+o. He objects, According to you, the constitution is the leading part
of the soul in a certain disposition relative to the body. How can a baby
comprehend this, which is so complicated and sophisticated that even you
can scarcely explain it? All animals would have to be born dialecticians
to understand that denitionwhich the majority of adult Romans nd
obscure.
rr++ra +:+ 8y
++. Your objection would be sound if I were saying that all animals
understand the denition of their constitution rather than the constitution
itself. Nature is more easily understood than explained. And so that baby
does not know what a constitution is yet knows its constitution; and it
does not know what an animal is yet is aware of being an animal.
+:. Moreover, it does have a crude, schematic, and vague understanding
of the constitution itself. We too know that we have a mind. But we do
not know what the mind is, where it is, what it is like or where it comes
from. Although we do not know its nature and its location, our awareness
of our mind stands in the same relation to us as the awareness of their own
constitution stands to all animals. For they must be aware of that through
which they are aware of other things. They must be aware of that which
they obey and by which they are governed.
+. Every one of us understands that there is something which sets in
motion his own impulses, but does not know what this is. And he knows
that he has a tendency to strive, though he does not know what it is or
where it comes from. In this way too babies and animals have an awareness
of their own leading part, though it is not adequately clear and distinct.
+. He objects, You say that every animal has a primary attachment
to its own constitution, but that a human beings constitution is rational
and so that a human being is attached to himself not qua animal but qua
rational. For a human is dear to himself with respect to that aspect of
himself which makes him human. So how can a baby be attached to a
rational constitution when it is not yet rational?
+j. There is a constitution for every stage of life, one for a baby, another
for a boy, <another for a teenager>, another for an old man. Everyone is
attached to the constitution he is in. A baby has no teethit is attached
to this constitution, which is its own. Teeth emergeit is attached to this
constitution. For even the plant which will one day grow and ripen into
grain has one constitution when it is a tender shoot just barely emerging
fromthe furrow, another when it has gotten stronger and has a stemwhich
though tender is able to carry its own weight, and yet another when it
is ripening, getting ready for harvest and has a rm head: but whatever
constitution it has reached, it protects it and settles into it.
+. A baby, a boy, a teenager, an old man: these are different stages of
life. Yet I am the same human as was also a baby and a boy and a teenager.
Thus, although everyone has one different constitution after another, the
attachment to ones own constitution is the same. For nature does not
commend me to the boy or the youth or the old man, but to myself.
Therefore the baby is attached to that constitution which is its own and
88 +a+sr++ros
which the baby then has, not to that constitution which the youth will
one day have. For though there remains something greater to grow into,
it does not follow that the condition it is born into is not natural.
+y. An animal has a primary attachment to itself; for there must be
something to which other things can be referred. I seek pleasure. For
whom? For myself. Therefore I am taking care of myself. I avoid pain.
For whom? For myself. Therefore I am taking care of myself. If I do
everything because I am taking care of myself, then care of myself is prior
to everything. This care is a feature of all other animals; it is not grafted
onto them but born in them.
+8. Nature brings forth her offspring, she does not toss them aside.
And because the most reliable form of protection comes from what is
closest, each one is entrusted to itself. And so, as I said in earlier letters,
young animals, even those just born from their mother or freshly hatched,
immediately recognize what is threatening to them and avoid deadly
dangers. Animals which are vulnerable to raptors tremble at the shadows
of birds which y overhead. No animal comes into life without a fear of
death.
+. He objects, How can a newborn animal have an understanding of
things which protect it or threaten death? First, the question at issue is
whether it understands, not how it understands. And that they actually do
have this understanding is obvious from the fact that they would not do
anything more if they did understand. Why is it that a hen does not ee
from a peacock or a goose, but does ee from a hawk, though it is so much
smaller and not even familiar to them? Why do chicks fear a cat but not
a dog? It is obvious that there is within them a knowledge of what will
cause harm which has not been derived from experience, for they display
caution before they get the experience.
:o. Next, so that you dont conclude that this happens by chance, they
do not in fact fear anything other than what they should nor do they ever
forget this form of responsible guardianship. Flight from danger is their
lifelong companion. Further, they dont become more fearful as they live,
which makes it obvious that they dont acquire this trait by experience but
by a natural love of their own safety. What experience teaches is both slow
and varied; what nature gives is uniform for all and immediate.
:+. If, however, you demand it of me, I will tell you how it is that
every animal is compelled to understand what is dangerous. It is aware
that it is constituted of esh, and so it is aware what can cut esh, what
can burn it, what can crush it, which animals are equipped to do it harm;
it regards their appearance as hostile and threatening. These things are
rr++ra +:+ 8
interconnected; for as soon as each animal is attached to its own safety it
also pursues what will help it and fears what will harm it. Its impulses
towards what is useful are natural, as are its avoidances of the opposite.
Whatever nature taught occurs without any thinking to prescribe it and
without any deliberation.
::. Do you not see how technically sophisticated bees are at making
their hives, how harmoniously they share the labour of the whole task?
Dont you see how far beyond any human rivalry the spiders web is,
how much work is involved in organizing the threads, some positioned in
straight lines as stabilizers, others arranged in circles which become less
closely spaced as one goes further from the centre, all in order to catch
smaller animals (the intended victims of the web) as though in a net?
:. That skill is born, not learned. And so no animal is more learn` ed
than any other. You will notice that all spiders webs are the same, that
the cells of honeycombs are the same in every corner. What art teaches
is variable and inconsistent. What nature hands out is uniform. She has
given out nothing more than protection of oneself and skill at that, and
that is why they also start life and learning simultaneously.
:. And it isnt surprising that the things without which an animals
birth would be pointless are born along with the animal. Nature has
bestowed on animals this primary tool for survival, attachment to and
love for oneself. They could not have been kept safe unless they wanted
to benot that this alone would have done them any good, but rather
without it nothing else would have done them any good either. You wont
nd contempt for itself in any animal, <nor> even neglect of itself. Even
mute and stupid beasts, sluggish in every other respect, are skilled at
staying alive. You will notice that those which are useless to others do not
let themselves down.
Farewell.
LETTER +::
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. Already the day is getting shorter. It has diminished a bit, but even so
there is still a generous amount left if one arises with the day, so to speak.
But you are more responsible and even better if you get ahead of the day
and catch the rst light. The person who lies in bed half asleep while the
sun is high and whose day doesnt start till noon is shameful. And still this
counts as pre-dawn for many people.
:. Some people have reversed the functions of day and night and dont
pry open their eyes, heavy with yesterdays hangover, before night begins
to fall. The situation of those whom nature, as Vergil says, located beneath
our feet on the other side of the world:
when rst the rising sun breathes on us with his gasping horses
for them rosy sundown kindles his lagging lights'
that is what life (rather than their location) is like for these people; they
are opposite to everyone else.
. There are some antipodeans, [living] in the same city [as we do],
who, as Marcus Cato said, have never seen the sun either rising or setting.
Do you suppose that those people know how one ought to live, when they
dont even know when? And do these people fear death, when they have
buried themselves alive in it? They are as ill-omened as night birds. Let
them pass their dark periods amidst wine and perfume, let them drag
out this whole period of perverted wakefulness with feastseven feasts
cooked separately in several courseseven so they arent banqueting,
they are conducting their funeral rites. The Feast of the Dead, at least, is
held in the daytime.
But, my Lord, no day is long when one is doing something. Let us
lengthen our lifeaction is both our responsibility in life and an indication
that we are alive. Lets put a limit to night and shift part of it into the
daytime.
. Birds which are being readied for the feast are caged in darkness so
that they can easily fatten up when they arent moving. In the same way
' Vergil, Georgics +.:jo+.
rr++ra +:: +
the lazy bodies of those who lie about without any exercise puff up a
slothful stufng sets in. But the bodies of people who dedicate themselves
to darkness appear revolting. Their skin colour is more disturbing than
that of pasty invalids. They are pale, lazy, and feeble. Their esh is
cadaverous although they are still among the living. But this, I would say,
is the least of their failings. There is far more darkness in their minds!
One of them is stunned, anothers eyes go dark and he envies the blind.
Who has ever had eyes for the sake of darkness?
j. Do you ask about the cause of this mental depravity, avoiding day
and shifting ones whole life into the night? All vices rebel against nature;
all of them abandon the proper order of things. This is the purpose that
luxury aims at, to rejoice in what is twisted and not just to deviate from
what is straight but to get as far away fromit as possible, and stand directly
opposed to it.
. Dont you think that people are living contrary to nature if they
drink on an empty stomach, take wine when they are hungry and then
move on to eating when they are drunk? And yet this is a common failing
of young peoplethey build up their strength <so that> they can do
their drinking amidst the naked bathers pretty much on the threshold
of the bathhouseworse, so that they can steep themselves and then
immediately clean off the sweat stimulated by their constant and feverish
drinking. Drinking after lunch or dinner is just banal that is what old
farmers do, people who just dont understand real pleasure. Straight wine
is enjoyed when it isnt awash in food, when it can get straight to the brain.
Drunkenness is really fun when it occupies a vacuum.
y. Dont you think that men who wear womens clothes are living
contrary to nature? Arent men living contrary to nature when they aim to
gleam with youthful good looks when they are well past it? What could be
more cruel or more wretched? Will he never be taken for a man, though
he can be taken by a man for a good long time? And when his sex ought to
have exempted him from abuse, will not even his age liberate him from it?
8. Dont people who long for roses in winter live contrary to nature,
and those who force lilies in mid-winter with baths of warm water and
careful changes of location? Dont people who plant apple trees at the
top of towers live contrary to nature, people whose groves wave in the
wind up on the rooftops, with roots planted where it would have been
presumptuous for treetops to have reached? Do they not live contrary to
nature when they build foundations for baths in the sea and when they
dont think they can have a sophisticated swim unless their warm pools
are rocked by wind and waves?
: +a+sr++ros
. When they have made up their minds to want everything contrary to
natures custom, at last they totally defect from nature. It is daytime
for sleep! It is night-timelets get some exercise, lets go for a drive, lets
have lunch. Its nearly daylighttime for dinner. It wont do to do what
ordinary people doliving in a hackneyed and vulgar style is revolting.
Daytime can be for ordinary peoplelets do something unique and
special today.
+o. In my view, those people are as good as dead. How far are they,
really, from their own genuinely untimely funeralsafter all, they live by
torchlight and candlelight! I recall that many people lived this lifestyle all
at the same time, among them Acilius Buta, the praetorian; he is the one
to whom Tiberius said, after he had squandered his enormous inheritance
and was pleading poverty, You have woken up a bit late.
++. Julius Montanus was giving a poetic recitation, an acceptable poet
and one known both for his friendship with Tiberius and for the chill in
their relationship. He used to ll his poems with sunrises and sunsets;
so, when some people complained that his recitations lasted all day and
said that one should not attend them, Pinarius Natta said Surely I
cannot be more generousI am ready to listen to him from sunrise to
sunset.
+:. When Montanus had recited these verses:
Phoebus begins to send forth his burning ames,
Rosy day begins to spread, and already the sad swallow
Returning to her nest begins to feed her shrill nestlings
And shares it out with gentle beak
Then Varus, a Roman knight, a friend of Marcus Vinicius, and a
devotee of high-class feasts (a privilege earned by his cutting wit) shouted
out Buta is ready for sleep!
+. Then, when Montanus had later recited:
Already the shepherds had bedded down their ocks in the fold
Already slow night begins to grant quiet to the sleepy lands
the same Varus said What are you saying? Is it night already? I must go
to make my daily visit to Buta! Nothing was more famous than this mans
inverted lifestyleone which, as I said, many people lived at that same
time.
+. Now the reason why some people live this way is not that they think
that night itself has something particularly pleasant about it, but that they
arent satised by anything ordinary; and that daylight is burdensome to
rr++ra +::
a guilty conscience; and that daylight, because it costs nothing, is a bore
for someone who desires or despises everything depending on how much
or how little it costs. Moreover, extravagant people want their life to be
talked about as long as they live. For if they arent talked about they think
they are wasting their effort. And so from time to time they do something
to stir up rumour. Many gobble up their fortunes, many keep mistresses.
To earn a reputation among people like that you need not just something
extravagant but something notorious. In a city preoccupied with this sort
of thing, run-of-the-mill bad behaviour does not get you a scandal.
+j. I had once heard Albinovanus Pedo (and he really was a very
sophisticated storyteller) relate that he used to live above the house of
Sextus Papiniushe was one of these daylight avoiders. He said At the
third hour of the night I hear the sound of whips, so I ask what he is doing.
The answer is that he is reviewing the household accounts. At the sixth
hour of the night I hear an excited uproar, so I ask what is going on. The
answer is that he is doing his voice exercises. At the eighth hour of the
night I ask what the noise of wheels is supposed to mean. The answer is
that he is going for a drive.
+. At dawn there is a lot of scurrying about, slaves are summoned,
the storekeepers and cooks are in an uproar. I ask what is going on. The
answer is that he has asked for a sweet drink and some porridge, since
he has just nished his bath. The comment was made, his feast took up
more than a day! Not at all. For he lived very frugally and consumed
nothing except the night. And so when some people said that Sextus was
a stingy miser, Pedo rejoined You would even say that he lives on lamp
oil.
+y. You should not be surprised if you nd so many distinct kinds of
vice. They are quite varied and have many manifestations; one cannot
grasp all their types. Concern for what is straight is a simple matter;
concern for what is crooked is complex and admits of as many new
deviations as you could want. The same thing applies to character. The
character of those who follow nature is easy and unrestricted, with few
variations. The perverted are in great conict with everyone else and with
themselves.
+8. But I think that the chief cause of this disorder is a fussiness
about the ordinary lifestyle. Just as they mark themselves off from other
people by their dress, by the sophistication of their dinner parties, by the
splendour of their vehicles, they also want to be marked off by the way
they use their time. People who regard notoriety as the reward for going
astray do not want to commit ordinary mistakes.
+a+sr++ros
+. All those who live backwards, if I can put it that way, are looking for
notoriety. And so, Lucilius, we must cling to the life which nature has laid
down for us and not deviate from it. If we follow nature everything is easy
and unimpeded, but if we struggle against it then our life is no different
than that of men who are trying to row against the current.
Farewell.
This is an allusion to Vergil, Georgics +.+:o:. Compare at 1zz.z above. My thanks
to James Ker for pointing this out.
LETTER +:
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+. I have arrived late at night at my Alban estate, worn out by a journey
that was uncomfortable rather than lengthy. I nd nothing prepared
except myself. And so I repose my weariness on a small couch and am in
fact content with the fact that the cook and the baker are delayed. For I
can discuss with myself this very matter: that what you take lightly is not
burdensome, that nothing is worth being upset about, <as long as you
dont> make it worse by getting upset all on your own.
:. My baker has no bread; but my house-manager does, and so do my
steward and the tenant-farmer. You say, But its poor-quality bread. Just
waitit will turn into good bread. Hunger will make even this into soft,
white bread. That just shows that one should not eat until hunger says to
do so. Therefore I will wait and wont eat until I either start to have some
good bread or cease to be fussy about the bad bread.
. It is essential to get used to modest food; even people who are wealthy
and well equipped meet with many difculties due to the circumstances
of time and place No one can have whatever he wants, but one can have
this: not to want what one does not have and to make cheerful use of what
is on offer. A well-behaved stomach which is tolerant of insult makes a
major contribution to freedom.
. You could not imagine how much pleasure I derive from the fact
that my weariness is content with itself. I dont go looking for masseurs, a
bath, or any other remedy but time. For rest relieves what hard work has
accumulated. The meal before me, such as it is, is more satisfying than an
inaugural banquet.
j. You see, I have undertaken a kind of impromptu trial of my mind;
this kind of test is more candid and revealing. For when the mind has
prepared itself and commanded itself to endure, then it is not so obvious
how much real rmness it has. The most reliable proofs are those which
the mind gives without warning, if it contemplates troubles not just with
equanimity but with contentment; if it does not are up in anger, does not
quarrel; if it makes up for the lack of something which it ought to have
+a+sr++ros
been given by not wanting it and if it reects that although there might
be something missing from what it is accustomed to, the mind itself lacks
nothing.
. With many things we dont realize how superuous they are until we
begin to lack them. We made use of them not because we were supposed
to have them but because we did have them. And how many things do
we acquire just because others have done so, because most people have
them! One cause for our troubles is that we live by the example of others;
we do not settle ourselves by reason but get swept away by custom. If
just a few people did something we would not want to imitate it, but
when many people start to do it then we pursue itas though it were
more honourable because it is more common. Once a mistake becomes
widespread we treat it as being right.
y. Nowadays everyone travels with a guard of Numidian horsemen or a
phalanx of runners ahead of them; it is shameful to have no one to shove
passers-by out of the way and to indicate by big clouds of dust that a
high-ranking man is approaching. Nowadays everyone has mules to carry
their glassware, their agate, and their collection of vessels engraved by
famous artists; it is shameful for people to see that the only baggage you
have is what can be knocked around with impunity. Everybodys retinue
rides along with faces covered in creams so that the sun and the cold
dont harm their tender skins; it is shameful that among the boys who
accompany you there should be not one whose healthy face is free of
cosmetic ointments.
8. You must avoid conversation with all these people. These are people
who pass on their vices and transfer them from one place to another. We
used to think that the worst people were those who bandy words, but
there are some now who bandy vices. Their conversation does a lot of
harm, for even if it has no immediate effect it leaves seeds in our mind and
pursues us even when we have left them behind, a bad inuence which
will re-awaken later on.
. Just as those who have heard a concert carry away with them in their
ears that tone and the pleasure of the songswhich hinders their thoughts
and wont let them focus on serious mattersso too the conversation of
atterers and those who praise their vices lingers long after the talking has
stopped. Nor is it a simple matter to drive the pleasant sound from ones
mind; it presses on, it endures, and it comes back after a break. So one
must close ones ears against harmful voices, especially at rst. For once
they have started and been allowed in they become bolder.
rr++ra +: y
+o. This is how one arrives at this kind of speech: Virtue, philosophy,
and justice are just the babble of empty words. The only happiness is doing
well by your life. Eating, drinking, spending ones inheritancethis is
living, this is what it means to remember that you are mortal. The days
pass by and life which cannot be reclaimed slips away. Are we hesitating?
What good does it do to be wise and to heap frugality onto a lifespan
which will not always be able to absorb pleasures[do so] now, anyway,
while it can, while it must. Get ahead of death and for yourself whatever
death will take away. You dont have a mistress, nor a boy who can make
your mistress jealous.You go around sober each and every day. You dine
as though you had to have your account-book approved by your father.
This isnt living; its helping out with someone elses life.
++. It is madness to take care of your heirs estate and deny yourself
everything, so that your huge inheritance might turn your friend into your
enemy; for the more he inherits, the more he will rejoice at your death.
Dont give a damn for those grim and censorious critics of other peoples
lives who hate their own and act like public school-marms. Dont hesitate
to put a good life ahead of good reputation.
+:. You must ee from these voices as from those which Ulysses
did not dare to sail by unless lashed to the mast. They have the same
powerthey draw you away from your country, from your parents, from
your friends, fromthe virtues, and entice you into a life which is shameful,
and if shameful then wretched. How much better it is to pursue the right
path and to bring yourself to the point where only what is honourable is
satisfying to you.
+. We will be able to accomplish this if we are aware that there are two
kinds of things which can either entice us or repel us. The enticements
come from wealth, pleasure, beauty, ambition, and everything else which
is attractive and appealing. The repulsions come from effort, death, pain,
public shame, and a restricted lifestyle. Hence we ought to train ourselves
not to fear the latter and not to desire the former. Let us work against our
inclinations, withdraw from what is attractive and rouse ourselves against
what assails us.
+. Do you not see the difference in posture of those going downhill
and those going uphill? Those who descend lean their bodies back; those
who are climbing lean forward. For if you are going downhill, Lucilius,
then throwing your weight forward is going along with vice, and if you are
going uphill then leaning back is doing the same. It is downhill towards
pleasure, but one must go uphill towards what is harsh and tough. When
8 +a+sr++ros
climbing we must drive our bodies onwards, when descending we must
hold them back.
+j. Do you now think that I am saying that the only people who are
dangerous to hear are those who praise pleasure and stimulate the fear of
painwhich is daunting enough on its own? I also think that we can be
harmed by those who, in the guise of the Stoic school, urge us on to vices.
For they claim that only the wise and learned man is a lover. He alone
is suited for this art. Similarly, the wise man is most skilled at drinking
and banqueting. So let us explore the question, up to what age youths are
proper objects of love.
+. These are concessions to Greek custom, and we would do better to
pay attention to the following: No one is good by accident; virtue must
be learned. Pleasure is a lowly and weak thing, worthless, shared with
brute beasts; the most paltry and contemptible animals ock to it. Glory
is something empty and unstable, more ckle than the wind. Poverty is
only bad for you if you resist it. Death is not evil do you ask what <it
is>? Death alone is the even-handed law which governs the human race.
Superstition is an insane mistake; it fears those it should love and offends
those it reveres. For what difference does it make whether you deny that
the gods exist or slander them?
+y. This is what you must learnno, learn by heart. Philosophy should
not provide excuses for vice. The sick man has no prospect of health if his
doctor exhorts him to dissipation.
Farewell.
LETTER +:
Seneca to Lucilius, greetings:
+.
I can recount for you many precepts from earlier generations
If you dont recoil and it isnt repellent to learn such trivial matters.'
But you do not recoil and no amount of technicality drives you away. Your
technical sophistication does not limit you to pursuing the big questions;
similarly, I approve of the fact that you judge everything by whether it
makes any contribution to moral progress and only get annoyed when the
extremes of technicality accomplish nothing. I will try to make sure that
doesnt happen even now.
The question is whether the good is grasped by sense perception or by
reasoning. Connected with this is the fact that the good is not present in
dumb animals and in infants.
:. All those who treat pleasure as the most important thing take the view
that the good is perceptible; but we, who locate what is most important
in the mind, think it is intelligible. If the senses passed judgement on the
good then we would never reject a pleasure, for every pleasure entices
us and all of them please us. And conversely we would never willingly
undergo any pain, for every pain hurts our senses.
. Moreover, people who get excessive satisfaction from pleasure and
those whose fear of pain is extreme would not deserve our condemnation.
But in fact we do disapprove of those who are enslaved to gluttony and
lust and we hold in contempt those whose fear of pain prevents them from
ever undertaking a manly endeavour. Yet what is their offence if they are
just listening to their senses, that is, to the judges of what is good and bad?
For you have surrendered to the senses the power to decide about what to
pursue and what to avoid.
. But of course it is reason which is in charge of that business. Just as
reason decides about the happy life and about virtue and about what is
honourable, so too reason decides about what is good and what is bad. For
on their view jurisdiction over the better part is granted to the part that
' Vergil, Georgics +.+yy.
+oo +a+sr++ros
is least worthy: sense perception, a dull and blunt sort of thing, and even
more sluggish in humans than in the other animals, passes judgement on
the good.
j. What if someone wanted to distinguish among very small objects not
with his eyes but with the touch. For this task no discrimination is keener
and more focussed than that of the eyes, to distinguish good and bad.
You see that someone whose sense of touch makes the judgements about
what is good and bad in the most important area of life is wallowing in the
depths of ignorance about the truth and has tossed to the ground what is
lofty and divine.
. He replies, Just as every science and art ought to have something
self-evident and grasped by the senses from which it may arise and grow,
so the happy life derives its foundation and starting point from what
is self-evident and subject to sense-perception. Surely you say that the
happy life takes its starting point from what is self-evident.
y. We say that what is according to nature is happy, and that it is obvious
and immediately apparent what is in fact according to nature, just as it is
evident what is unimpaired. I do not claimthat what is natural and is imme-
diately present to a newborn is good, but rather the starting point for the
good. You grant to infancy the highest good, pleasure, and the result is that
the newborn starts out in the situation which the fully developed human
being eventually attains; you put the treetop down where the roots belong.
8. If someone were to say that the foetus lurking in its mothers womb
with its sex still undened, soft, incomplete, and unformed, was already
in possession of something good, then he would be blatantly in error. But
there is an awfully small difference between the one who is just receiving
the gift of life and the one who is lurking like a lump in its mothers
innards. As far as understanding what is good and bad is concerned, both
are equally mature, and an infant is no more capable of the good than is a
tree or some speechless animal. But why is the good not present in a tree
and in a speechless animal? Because reason is not there either. This is why
it is also not present in the infant, since it too lacks reason. It gets to the
good when it gets to reason.
. Some animals are non-rational; some are not yet rational; some are
rational but still incomplete. The good is in none of these; reason brings
the good along with itself. So what is the difference between the things I
have listed? The good will never be in an animal which is non-rational;
the good cannot now exist in an animal which is not yet rational; the good
can now exist in an animal which is rational but still incomplete, but it is
not actually present.
rr++ra +: +o+
+o. This is my point, Lucilius. The good is not to be found in just any
body nor in just any age, and it is as far removed from infancy as the last is
from the rst, as what is complete is from its starting point. Therefore it
is not present in a body which is soft and just starting to become unied.
Of course it is not present, any more than it is present in the seed.
++. You might put it this way. We are familiar with a kind of good for
a tree and for a plant. But it is not present in the seedling at the moment
when it rst breaks through the soil. There is a kind of good for wheat.
But it is not yet present in the young green shoot nor when the tender
head of grain rst pokes out from the husk, but when the summer sun
and the appropriate passage of time have brought the grain to ripeness.
Every nature only produces its own good when it is fully developed, and
so likewise the good of a human being is not present in a human being
except when his reason has been completed.
+:. But what is this good? I will tell you: an independent mind, upright,
subordinating other things to itself and itself to nothing. Infancy is so far
from having this kind of good that even childhood cannot aspire to it, and
adolescence can only aspire to it with impudence; things are going well in
old age if it is achieved after prolonged and focussed attention. If this is
good, then it is intelligible too.
+. He says, You said that there was a kind of good for a tree, a kind
of good for a plant; so there can be a kind of good for an infant too. The
genuine good is not present in trees, nor in dumb animals. What is good
in them is called good by courtesy. You say, What is it? That which is
in accordance with the nature of each thing. Certainly the good cannot in
any way occur in a dumb animal; it belongs to a better and more fortunate
nature. There is no good except where there is room for reason.
+. Here are four natures: tree, animal, human, god. The latter two,
which are rational, have the same nature, different only in that the one
is immortal and the other is mortal. So of these two, nature completes
the good of one (god, that is), and effort that of the other (human). The
others, the ones which lack reason, are only complete in their own nature,
not genuinely complete. In the end the only complete thing is that which
is complete in accordance with the nature of the cosmos; but the nature of
the cosmos is rational; the rest can be complete in their own kind.
+j. In natures where there cannot exist the happy life, there also cannot
exist that which produces the happy life. But the happy life is produced
by good things. The happy life does not exist in dumb animals <nor does
that which>produces <the happy life>: the good cannot exist in a dumb
animal.
+o: +a+sr++ros
+. A dumb animal grasps things which are present by means of sense
perception; it recalls past events when it encounters something that can
remind sense perception, just as a horse recalls the road when it is brought
to the starting point of the road. Certainly when it is in the stable it has no
recollection of the road, no matter how often it has travelled it. The third
part of time, the future, is utterly irrelevant to dumb animals.
+y. So how can we think that the nature of animals is complete when
they do not have access to the complete range of time? For time consists of
three parts, past, present, and future. Animals have only the part which is
shortest and most transitory, the present. They rarely remember the past
and even it is never recalled except by the stimulus of things which are
present.
+8. So the good of a complete nature cannot exist in an incomplete
nature. Alternatively, if that sort of nature has the good, then so do
plants. I do not deny that there are in dumb animals powerful and
energetic impulses towards what seems to be according to nature, but
those impulses are disorderly and confused. The good, however, is never
disorderly or confused.
+. What, then? you say, are dumb animals moved in a disturbed
and disorganized manner? I would say that they move in a disturbed and
disorganized manner if their nature were capable of order. But as it is,
they move in accordance with their own nature. For something can be
disturbed if it can sometimes be undisturbed; something can be worried
if it can sometimes be free of worry. Vice is only present in what can
have a virtue. Dumb animals have this sort of movement by their own
natures.
:o. But to avoid detaining you too long: there will be a kind of
good in a dumb animal, there will be a kind of virtue, there will be
something complete, but not the good or virtue or something complete in
an unrestricted sense. For these attributes only inhere in rational things,
who are granted the ability to know why, to what extent, and how. So, the
good is in nothing which does not have reason.
:+. What, you ask, is the relevance now of this debate, and how will
it benet your own mind? Ill tell you. It exercises and sharpens the
mind and, at the least, since the mind is bound to be doing something in
any case, keeps it busy with an honourable employment. And it is also
benecial in that it slows down people who are rushing into moral error.
But I will <also> say this: I can in no way be of greater benet to you
than if I show you what your good is, if I distinguish you from the dumb
animals, if I place you alongside god.
rr++ra +: +o
::. Why, I say, do you nourish and exercise the strength of your
body? Nature has given greater strength to cattle and beasts. Why do
you cultivate physical beauty? Whatever you do, you will be outdone in
attractiveness by dumb animals. Why do you pour enormous effort into
doing your hair? Whether you have it owing in the Parthian style or
bound up in the German mode or in disarray as the Scythians wear it,
still, any horses mane will be thicker and the mane on a lions neck will
be more beautiful. Though you train yourself for speed, you wont be as
fast as a hare.
:. You ought to give up on competitions you are bound to lose, since
you are striving for goals that are not yours, and turn back to your own
good. What is it? Obviously, it is a mind improved and pure, rivalling god,
rising above human limitations, regarding nothing that is beyond itself as
its own. You are a rational animal. So what is the good in you? Reason
brought to completion. Challenge reason to go from where it is now to its
own nal goal, <allow> it to grow as great as it can.
:. Decide that you are happy when all of your joy comes from within
you, when you gaze upon the things which people seize, wish for, protect
and yet nd nothing which you wouldI dont say prefer, but nothing
you would want. Ill give you a brief guideline by which you can measure
yourself, by which you can tell that you have become complete: you will
only have what is yours when you come to understand that the least
fortunate are fortunate.
Farewell.
COMMENTARY
GROUP +
(LETTERS j8, j, )
The commentary on Letters 8 and 6 benetted especially from remarks
by Nick Denyer, David Sedley, and Robert Wardy. I am also grateful for
advice and encouragement from John Magee.
The three letters in this group share a focus on themes in Platonic and
to a lesser extent Aristotelian philosophy. 8 and 6 have commonly been
treatedtogether, not just because of this intrinsic similarity but also because
they have been regarded as a valuable source for information about the
early development of middle Platonism. The focus on the possible roles
of Posidonius, Antiochus of Ascalon, Eudorus of Alexandria, and others as
source (direct or indirect) for Senecas views on Platonic and Aristotelian
doctrine has sometimes drawn attention away from careful analysis of the
letters themselves. It has been unusual for each letter to be analyzed in its
entirety and in its own right. When this is done it becomes less plausible to
separate out the intractable problems of source criticismfromother aspects
of the letters. Scholarship on 66 has been less enmeshed in source-critical
debates but is in other respects similar to 8 and 6. Although each letter
is discussed separately in the commentaries which follow, a few general
remarks about method and current literature may be helpful.
The basic literature includes Bickel +o; Dillon +; Donini +y;
D orrie and Baltes +y:oo:: vol. ., esp. :+ ff. and +o ff.; Mans-
feld +:; Rist +8; Sch onegg +; Sedley :ooj; Theiler +; and
Whittaker +yj.
The best sustained account of 8s contribution to the understanding
of earlier Stoic theory is provided in Brunschwig + (with useful
elaboration in Barnes :oo: +++8); Brunschwig :oo; Caston +; and
Long and Sedley +8y: ch. :y.
For discussion of the place of 8 and 6 in the Platonic and Aristotelian
school traditions see Mansfeld +:: 8+o; Sedley :ooj: n. + gives a
resum e of other pertinent literature. See also D orrie andBaltes +8y:oo::
vol. , commentary on +oj.+, +o.+, ++.+, and ++8.+. Barnes :oo is the
+o8 cor++av
current last word on the later ancient method of collection and division
for which this letter is often the earliest source; concern with collection
and division in general goes back to Plato.
In this commentary I shall be more concerned with giving an account
of Senecas letter in its own right rather than in terms of its usefulness as a
source for earlier Stoicism or (possibly later) Platonism. This is closest to
the general intent of D. Sedley (:ooj) who employs 8 and 6 to shed light
on the character of Senecas relationship with the reinvigorated Platonism
of his day.
The starting point for recent discussion of the letter is (as Mansfeld
says) Donini +y. Donini tends to see Seneca as being absorbed (in
part for personal and emotional reasons) by the attractions of an already
highly developed scholastic form of middle Platonism, a philosophical
model which stands in strong opposition to the Stoicism to which Seneca
normally adheres. The result of this general interpretation is that he
detects commitments to scholastic middle Platonism in much of 8 and
6 where one might just as easily see no more than Senecas interest in
aspects of Platos dialogues. Donini (+y: +j+ and +y, n. +) regards it
as beyond question that Seneca can have done no more than turn a few
pages of a few Platonic dialogues and begins his entire exposition from
the belief that the Platonism which Seneca presents in these two letters
is that which was current in the handbooks and philosophical schools
of his time, the era of middle Platonism. (A more open-minded view
about Senecas possible use of Platonic dialogues is articulated by Currie
+: 8.) Similarly, Whittaker (+yj: +) rests his condence that
the key parts of 8 are directly dependent on written middle Platonic
doctrines on the hypothesis, no longer widely accepted, that there existed
a full Greek commentary on Platos Timaeus, esp. :yd-:8a, in the century
before Seneca. Bickels argument that the key sections of these letters are
a mere translation of a source text (like his argument that the friend of
8.8 is Annaeus Amicus, a freedman working in Senecas own library),
has not carried much conviction, though Whittaker (+yj: +j) is
supportive of the claim. Given the state of our knowledge about organized
schools of Platonism before Senecas day, these are unprovable claims
which should not be used preemptively to control the interpretation of
these two letters. That said, it is certainly true that similarities between
the content of the Platonic portions of these letters and later Platonist
treatises can tell us a good deal about the development of Platonism in
the rst century +n. D orrie-Baltes provides a discussion of some aspects
of these letters from this point of view; while not fully convincing, they
oaotr + (rr++ras j8, j, ) +o
at least avoid the excesses of Bickels approach. For a balanced view of
how Seneca proceeded, see Sch onegg (+: 8y), who argues that in 8
Seneca drew on Platos work directly and took advantage of the existing
Platonist commentaries and excerpts (such as they may have been) and
also on actual discussions with friends. Considerable weight is given to
the independence of mind which Sch onegg (soundly in my view) suggests
was a source of pride for Seneca.
Letter 8 purports to be a report to Lucilius about a discussion among
Seneca and some friends about Platonic themes. At least one friend (amicus
noster 8.8) is an expert in Platonic metaphysics and seems also to be well
versed in the corresponding theories of Aristotle. Seneca is silent about
the identity of these philosophical companions, though he is prepared to
name the Romans Fabianus and Cicero (8.6), also philosophical writers,
as authorities for the use of essentia as a translation for the Greek term
ousia. Since Seneca is elsewhere ready to name Greek philosophers and
to discuss their views, his silence about the identity of the Platonist(s) he
reports here is intriguing. (The closest parallel for Senecas practice here
which comes readily to mind is Ciceros designation of the possibly Stoic
sources for De Legibus I as learned men rather than as Stoics, let alone
named individual Stoics.)
Sedley (:ooj; see below on 6) suggests that Senecas connections with
the contemporary Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus might be
relevant; he also argues for the possibility that a Platonist (whose date is
otherwise hard to determine) named Severus is part of the Stoic-Platonic
syncretistic atmosphere which inuences the letter. Cornutus wrote in
Greek and seems to have published on Aristotles Categories as well as
on Stoic theology. But it is worth recalling that he is never mentioned
by Seneca in any work. Rist (+8: :o+o++) reviews the wide range
of earlier suggestions about the sources for the Platonic themes in these
letters and himself thinks there is a single Platonizing source for both
letters and that Arius Didymus is most likely, though Eudorus not to be
ruled out. Dillon (+: +jy) also sees substantial Platonic inuence
here and considers Philo before settling on Eudorus as the likeliest source
for 8, 6, and other Platonizing doctrines in Seneca. Theiler + devotes
a lengthy discussion to showing the relationship of Senecas views in 8
and 6 to various Greek sources for Platonism and argues that Antiochus
is the source (yjj); Donini +y also argues at length (appendice A) for
Antiochus on different grounds from Theilers.
But no matter who (if anyone) is to be thought of as the Platonic friend,
Seneca did not need to have a single source (and certainly not necessarily
++o cor++av
a written source: see the sensible remarks of Sedley :ooj: +j) for the
views he reports. Awidely read and discerning man like Seneca could have
derived these views on the basis of diffuse reading of Plato and Platonists
over a long period of time; lectures by philosophers are another obvious
source; and it is always possible that the truth about the sources for 8 and
6 is exactly what Seneca says it is: conversations with friends. In y6 Seneca
reports that he was still attending a school, no doubt Stoic, but there is
no reason to doubt that he also heard Platonists lecture from time to time;
in yy.6 a Stoic friend is given a signicant role. 8, 6 and many other
letters establish that Seneca was comfortably familiar with an atmosphere
of Stoic-Platonic debate and discussion. Source-critical reconstructions
and arguments about the identity of the philosophers will inevitably be
speculative; it is most clear that Seneca as the author of these letters
wants his readers to see him as operating in an atmosphere of friendly and
collegial philosophical exchange. Unlike Victor Caston (+: +j+, n. +o),
who follows Mansfeld (+:: 8j, n. ::), I can see no reason to doubt
that when Seneca says I he is speaking for himself. Our primary interest
should be in Senecas own interests and commitments and that will be the
primary focus in this commentary; see Sedley :ooj: +:j and n. +.
The themes of 8 suggest that Seneca was interested in the Apology
(though it seems to contribute only the reference to the gady, but see also
6.z and note) as well as the Timaeus, the Phaedrus, the Phaedo, and quite
possibly the Sophist. Seneca knows a great deal about Platonism (there
is certainly abundant indication of his interest in the Phaedo and other
dialogues) and chooses to portray himself as part of a group which can
productively (but not professionally) discuss Platonic as well as Stoic ideas.
Whether he (as opposed to those who inuenced him) held strong views
about the relationship of Plato to Stoic thought is less clear, though (as
Robert Wardy has observed) at 1o8.8 Plato is invoked in close connection
with leaders of the Stoic school. Such signs of a deep interest in Platonism
should not be taken as decisive in an assessment of Senecas afliation
to other schools, for in many places Epicureanism attracts an equally
sympathetic attention from Seneca. If any school is most commonly
opposed by Seneca it is the Peripateticarguably the most plausible and
therefore threatening opponent of Stoic moral theorybut that does not
deter Seneca from a serious discussion of Aristotles causal theory in 6 or
from recounting a version of Platonism inuenced by Aristotle in 8.
Perhaps the best general view about Seneca and his relations with other
schools is this: that he knew a great deal about many schools and was
interested in them; that he consistently preferred the central doctrines
rr++ra j8 +++
of Stoicism and regarded it as his own school; that he had no reason
to assume that Stoics were right about all the important questions or
free of serious limitations, any more than he thought that other schools
had nothing to contribute to the intellectual and moral growth at which
philosophy aims. Seneca chooses to emphasize relations with different
schools in different connections and may even have had a general plan to
display for his readers the relationship of Stoicism to the main schools of
his day. In Natural Questions y.: Seneca offers general reections on the
state of philosophy at Rome, an indication of his interest in the subject
generally rather than just his own school.
Commentary on j8
Thematic division
+: A discussion of Plato leads to reections on Latin as a
language for philosophy and the wastefulness of turning up
ones nose at archaic terms which might be useful.
jy: Even the use of articial terms can be justied if the meaning
requires it. The topic is being in Plato (to on) and Seneca
renders it what is.
8+:: Understanding Platos six senses of what is requires
an explanation of hierarchical classication by genus and
species. What is is the highest and most general classica-
tion.
++j: The competing Stoic theory that the highest genus is
something.
+::: Platos six senses of what is.
::: The impermanence of all material being.
:j+: The benet to be had from such technical discussion.
:y: Death and the mind-body relation.
Sevensections (nearlya fthof the letter) are devotedtothe introductory
discussion about language; eighteen sections (about half of the letter) are
devoted to the ostensible main theme, the six modes of being according to
Plato; the balance of the letter is devoted to reections (mostly on the value
of external goods) provoked by the metaphysical discussion. Perhaps the
most striking feature of the letters general strategy is the way it draws
an essentially Stoic conclusion on the basis of a fundamentally Platonic
metaphysical discussion. As Seneca says with regard to Epicureanism,
what is true is ones own (1z.11).
++: cor++av
8.1 For the familiar theme of lexical limitations of Latin as a vehicle
for philosophical discussion and the difculty of nding the appropriate
translation for Greek philosophical terms, see, for example, Lucretius,
DRN +.+j, +.8+, .:o; Quint. Inst. :.+; Seneca, De Ira ..:,
Ben. :.., Tranq. An. :., q.z, 11y.. At y.1y Seneca discusses preferred
indifferents, Greek pro

egmena, and says let them be called commoda and,

to use our own tongue, producta. Producta is a calque translation of
the Greek term, unlike commoda, a term Cicero used as a translation
for a different technical term (euchr

est

emata, Fin. .) while rendering

pro

egmena as praeposita. At 111.1 Seneca cites with approval Ciceros

translation for sophismata cavillationes. Senecas particular interest in
8 is with the translation of the Greek term to on (being). See also
Sch onegg +: y88. (For other examples in Seneca see Seneca in his
Philosophical Milieu, ch. + of Inwood :ooj.)
Seneca here objects to the fastidium (fussiness, but the term has a
strong overtone of aesthetic contempt as well) with which certain words
are treated. His viewis that fussiness about language and style is counter-
productive when there is a need for clarity to promote understanding. Here
the need comes from a discussion of various aspects of Platos thought
(hyperbolically, a thousand things) but in what follows immediately the
need arises from consideration of earlier Latin poetry. Both philosophical
topics and ancient literature lie outside the range of contemporary style
and so require a certain tolerance. Seneca himself is a literary master and
a self-conscious stylist in Latin prose. That he urges aesthetic latitude in
both literary and philosophical contexts is noteworthy.
8.z Mentionof the Apology wouldbe anobvious prompt for a discussion
of how to translate the Greek word for gady. Seneca and his friends
are to be understood as discussing Platonic ideas in a Greek context and
the Greek text of at least one dialogue in some detail, but doing so in
Latinhence the need for an original Latin term rather than a borrowing
from Greek. Given what follows in the rest of the letter, we should,
no doubt, think of their discussion as covering a number of Platonic
doctrines, whether or not dialogues such as the Phaedo, Phaedrus, Sophist,
and Timaeus are to be thought of as explicit subjects of the discussion.
8.z Three quotations establish that asilus is the obsolete Latin
term for gady and that Latin has a number of obsolete terms whose
loss obscures the meaning of poets as recent and popular as Vergil
(not to mention ancient poets such as Ennius and Accius). For the
rr++ra j8 ++
interest in antiquated Latin diction Seneca has a precedent in Horace
(Ep. :.:.++j+8), an author often cited in the letters. In 8. Seneca
defensively insists that his discussion should not be taken as an indication
that he is wasting time on philology for its own sake, but rather making a
general point about how linguistic change threatens our comprehension
of important texts, such as Vergils. The suggestion, perhaps, is that the
philosophical discussion which follows needs no more justication than
does an appreciation of Vergil and should not be dismissed for being as
irrelevant to contemporary interests as is archaic Latin literature. On the
gady and Senecas approach here, see Henderson :oo: +y8.
8. how much in Ennius and Accius has been obscured by the disuse
of words. Alternative translation: how many words in Ennius and Accius
have been overtaken by disuse.
8.6 essentia. Cicero is cited as an authority for the legitimacy of the
term since he is an authority for proper use of Latin prose (as Vergil is
for verse). However, essentia is not known from the surviving works of
Cicero and this text of Seneca seems to be our only evidence that he used
the term. Commentators have assumed that Seneca is here claiming that
Cicero coined the term as a translation of ousia. But that is probably not
what it means to say that he is the authority (auctor) for it. It makes less
sense to describe him as inuential (locuples) if it is a matter of coining
the term, and in this paragraph Fabianus (a favourable stylistic model
for Senecasee o.1z, z.11, 1oo) is also said to be an auctor recentior
for the term. Seneca can hardly have thought that it was coined twice.
The point, rather, is that if Cicero isnt a sufciently modern stylistic
paradigm, then Fabianus will do; in 1oo Fabianus seems to be a preferred
model for style. Quintilian (:.+.: and ..:) attributes use of the term
essentia to one Sergius Plautus (presumably the same Plautus described
in +o.+.+: as in Stoicis rerum cognitioni utilis) but does not say there that
Plautus coined it; at 8.. Quintilian does cite ens and essentia as being
new formations by Plautus. We do not know Plautus date. Calcidius, in
his commentary on the Timaeus :o, apparently uses essentia for ousia
in a Stoic sense (SVF +.8, 88 and LS DE).
Indispensable thing (res necessaria) is a difcult phrase. Nicholas Denyer
has suggested a topic we must deal with. (See also Sedley :ooj: +:
and n. +j.) In fact it can be interpreted in both ways without conict and
the Latin supports both translations. Essentia is an indispensable thing
++ cor++av
in the sense that as a universal substrate (the foundation of all things) it
is a component of the world and all its contents and therefore it is also
indispensable in the sense that any proper account of physics must include
it. The Latin Platonist Apuleius of Madaura (Pl. +.) uses essentia as a
translation for ousia and says that there are two essentiae, one intelligible
and one perceptible by the senses. He also uses substantia as a synonym for
essentia. (Donini +y: +o+ argues for more similarity between Apuleius
and Seneca than seems plausible.)
by its nature containing. Alternatively, if natura is nominative, a nature
containing .
8.y one-syllable. To on is obviously two syllables. To, though, is the
denite article while on is the participle of the verb to be in the neuter
singular form. Senecas interest is in the substantive word, not in the
article (for which there is no counterpart in Latin). For Seneca, syllable
often has a metaphorical signicance. In 8.6 a semantic paradox turns in
part on the use of syllable. In y1.6 pedants reduce philosophical substance
to mere syllables. In 11y. and 1z1. Seneca refers to altering Latin terms
by slipping in unnatural extra syllables. In 88. and 88.z syllables are
the stuff of philological pettiness unconnected to moral substance. See
Henderson :oo: +8.
noun with a verb. Perhaps better: a substantive [the participle used as
a noun] with a verb phrase, since quod est (what is) is a noun clause
containing a relative pronoun and a nite verb.
In 8.11 the term what is is referred to as inappropriate ( parum
proprium). We might ask in what sense this is so. The idea seems to
be that Seneca uses quod est because it is more or less natural Latin,
unlike the coinage essentia, but that somehow it is not as suitable a term
as essentia would be; perhaps this is because of its unfamiliarity. (Note
that Seneca asks permission to use essentia and then does not do so.)
That may also be why he does not use ens, a term which he might have
tried as a translation for to on (Quint. Inst. 8.. mentions ens alongside
essentia as having been coined by Sergius Plautus). He may, indeed, be
making the point that one can often get at the key ideas of even quite
subtle discussion without resorting to stylistically disruptive coinages; if
so, then he is also allowing that a philosophically adequate translation is
still less than ideal if it loses the exotic quality of the original technical
term. Margaret Graver has suggested that parum proprium indicates that
rr++ra j8 ++j
the term is not sufciently exact, too broad in its meaning, with proprium
being equivalent to the Greek idion. Jonathan Barnes has suggested that
Seneca merely repeats in 8.11 his sensitivity to the lack of grammatical
correspondence between the Greek (a nominalized participle) and the
Latin (a noun clause), as in 8.y.
8.8 Having settled on what is as the topic, Seneca explicates Platonic
doctrine on how the term is used. It is worth observing that the way he
has chosen to designate the topic (what is) reinforces the implication of
the Greek term (to on): that the subject is not being as a feature of things
which are or as an aspect of the world more generally, but rather that the
subject is dened extensionallyall those things which, in fact, are. This
is to be the kind of ontology which starts from an inventory approach
(setting forth all the things which purport to be) and then moves on to
grapple with the common features of those things. Donini (+y: +8, n. )
thinks that Seneca is confused in the way he sets out the problem.
The idea that what is has six senses in Plato will strike readers of Plato
as surprising. First, it is not obvious to modern readers that Plato at any
point takes the view that the senses of being can be enumerated, let alone
that the number of relevant senses would be six. (See below on 8.16zz.)
The phrasing here provides a clue. Literally, Seneca reports that what is
is said in six ways by Plato and the idea that an item of philosophical
interest is said in several ways, two ways, or more than two ways is familiar
from Aristotles works rather than Platos. In fact, the claim that being is
saidinmany ways is fundamental to Aristotles basic approachto ontology.
It is hard, then, to repress the thought that this presentation of Platonic
ontology is mediated by a familiarity with Aristotles metaphysics and by
an at least passive conviction that Aristotles method in metaphysics is
compatible with Platonismif not required for it. Speculation about the
source of such a mediating inuence is characteristic of most scholarship
on this letter, but such speculation has proven to be indecisive and it seems
less protable than a simple acknowledgement that an interesting form
of philosophical fusion (involving Stoicism, Platonism, and Aristotelian
ideas) is in play.
Seneca attributes to his learned friend the view that being is said in
six ways in Plato, but it is Senecas claim that an explanation of these six
senses of what is requires that he rst establish the existence of genera
and species. Nevertheless it seems fair to attribute that view to the friend
as well, since the actual classication of senses which follows mentions
them explicitly.
++ cor++av
Senecas starting point is to isolate the most basic use of the term, which
he assumes to be its use to pick out the highest genus in a hierarchical
classicatory account (a divisio, diairesis) of all things. He proposes to work
from the bottom up (pick things out starting in reverse order) and
in that way to arrive at the primary genus. Since the highest term in
such a classication turns out to be something relatively abstract, there
are epistemological advantages in starting at the bottom with things closer
to us (in the sense of being more familiar to our ordinary perceptions of
the world). This methodological preference is reminiscent of Aristotles
distinction between what is more knowable to us (gn

orimon h

emin) and
what more knowable in itself (gn

orimon hapl

os), but Plato himself treats

collection as a necessary preliminary to division (e.g., Phaedrus :b). See
D orrie-Baltes, vol. (+): ++.
8.q1z Seneca begins with species rather than individuals (horse, dog,
human, etc.) and ascends in the direction of the summum genus what
is. He could, in fact, have begun with a lower level of classication,
individuals: Dobbin, Rover, Cato, and so forth. But it is only when he has
described this highest genus that Seneca turns to consider existent items
below the species level such as individual human beings and various non-
arbitrary subgroups (nationalities and physical types). We may conclude,
then, that Seneca is not driven by a programmatic commitment to an
epistemology founded in particular acts of sense-perception of individuals
(as Aristotle may have been and Plato was not). But neither is he presenting
systematically a kind of top-down metaphysical derivation from a highest
entity (as some later Platonists do). Perhaps he is wise to avoid both
extremes. After all, it is not particularly a matter of common sense to insist
that one start with concrete individuals (since one can quite reasonably
hold that what we see is rst and foremost a kind: What do you see? A
horse. Epicurean epistemology may have taken such perception by kinds
as fundamental: D.L. +o. with Asmis +8: ch. +). And it is certainly
not obvious to anyone (let alone Lucilius or the assumed readers of this
letter) that there even is a summum genus of beingso it wouldnt make
sense to begin an exposition by demanding an acceptance of such an
abstraction. This suggests, then, that Seneca is showing a sensitivity to
the need to bring his readers along somewhat gently as he moves into
relatively difcult new themes.
8.q The rst step in the ascent is to pick out species which are
coordinate with each other and have something important in common.
rr++ra j8 ++y
(Cf. D.L. y.+ on Stoic theory; the issues of Aristotle Cat. j are relevant
background to Senecas discussion here, though it is not clear howdirectly
he was aware of them.) Seneca chooses the least controversial kind of
case in which the species are biological kinds: human, horse, dog. The
common feature is described as a linkage (vinculum), a difcult term to
interpret (perhaps inspired by desmos at Platos Philebus +8cd). Minimally,
it is a common feature which justies us in linking them together under
a higher classication. A more robust account of what linkage means
would interpret it as a real shared essence which is in fact identical in each
of the species and provides a causal explanation of their shared observable
features. Senecas language here (contains, ranged above) is not precise
enough to indicate how strong an account he has in mindif, indeed, he
is thinking about such questions.
Starts to be (coepit). Seneca often uses (see e.g., Ben. +.++., j.+.,
8.zz, 118.11, incipit at NQ +..8) this kind of phrasing without making
it clear whether the relation he has in mind is causal or epistemic. In
this passage, though, the ascent is most likely epistemic, so no doubt he
intends something like: when we see the common features linking the
various species together then we start to get a notion of the genus which
contains them. Compare the remarks of Mansfeld +:: 8j ff.
8.1o At the same level as animal we nd plants. The feature plants
and animals share is having a soul and so the higher category which
contains plants and animals is ensouled or living things. It is important
to observe here that in Stoic doctrine plants do not have soul; Aristotle
clearly holds that they do (De An. ++b:yo, +a:). Plato does not
normally take this view (except perhaps when he treats them as animals at
Timaeus yyab; cf. oa-c). This is a reminder, then, that Seneca is discussing
a distinctive strand in Platonism that is open to Aristotles ideas.
Here we must take note of a small textual issue. We need to read
animam, soul (which seems correct in the context), not animum, mind,
with the OCT. Hense (:nd edn.) has a note in the critical apparatus
animum L, the rest of the mss having animam. The Loeb and the Bud e
follow Hense and print animam. Either Reynolds has slipped up, or there
is a typographical error in the OCT, or the collations on which Hense
relies were in error. If, however, Reynolds is correct in his report of the
mss it would, I think, still be necessary to emend the text to animam.
Seneca does not repeat the details of the process involved in generating
higher levels of being sketched in the previous section (and explicated
++8 cor++av
there with the term linkage). Note that the language of containment
continues (plants and animals are in the form living things) as does the
idea that a more general category is higher.
At the next higher level Seneca takes all living things as one group and
pairs them with inanimate things like rocks. Interestingly, he gives only
this one example of soulless bodily objects. Rocks are an obvious example
of inanimate material objects and the normal example of the lowest level
of the scala naturae characterized by mere hexis (Origin, On Principles
.+.:, On Prayer .+ = SVF :.88 and discussion at Inwood +8j:
:+; see also Philo, Allegory of the Laws :.:: and Gods Immutability
j = LS yP, Q and SVF :.8j). The scala is not particularly germane
to the concerns of this letter; the main focus here is on the common
features which ground the upwards movement of the classication scheme
being developed.
The feature shared by living and inanimate things is body and so the
next higher genus is body. It is worth noting, though, that the language
of containment and height is now omitted; body is antiquius, a term
with richer metaphorical overtones. It suggests not just more basic but
also older and more worthy of respect (it is quite reasonably rendered
ant erieure by the Bud e translation, the sense being prior to). These are
hints that a hierarchy of value is also in play. Note as well that Seneca
begins to express himself in a top-down idiom: he refers to dividing
body, the new term at a higher level of abstraction, into these two species
as well as to having body emerge as a genus from consideration of its
species.
8.1o ensouled [living] things. The Greek term empsucha is clearly
behind this phrasing. For animantia in this sense see also NQ pref. j.
and Clem. +.+8.
8.11 Just as body is the super-type above ensouled and soulless things,
so there are both incorporeal things in contrast to the corporeal and a
super-type above them. This is where Seneca locates what is, whose six
modes are being explicated. The hierarchy of value persists with the
term superior (superius), which sustains the connotations of antiquius,
even though on its own it need mean no more than higher. The term
deducantur suggests a top-down movement and also has causal overtones;
it suggests that the higher entity is in some way the source of the lower.
Nevertheless, Seneca refers here (as above) to dividing the higher genus
into species rather than to the emergence of a genus from its species.
rr++ra j8 ++
The language of emergence or causality recurs at the end of 8.1z. On
balance one must say that the context is not purely epistemic; the language
strongly suggests that in the background to this exposition there lies a
theory of top-down metaphysical generation, even if that is not the focus
of Senecas interest.
8.1z The distinction Seneca draws here between a generic genus and a
specic genus seems to turn wholly on inclusiveness. (There is a helpful
discussion of generic objects at Caston +: +8y:o.) What it means
to be a genus is to include other entities; what it means to be a species
is to be included. This makes room for an orderly hierarchy of classes,
since some classes both include others and are included by others. (This
seems to be a normal Stoic usage: see D.L. y.+ where the most generic
genus is said to be what is and the most specic species is said to be an
individual, e.g., Socrates.) Having concluded here (as is also done at D.L.
y.+) that what is (the genus for body and non-body) is the highest genus,
Seneca turns rather casually to things below the level of the species with
which he began. Biologically natural kinds contain species or subtypes,
but the three kinds of subtypes mentioned here are not homogeneous.
Nationalities might be thought a poor choice for a species (though see
Mansfeld +:: j, n. :), for they are plausibly considered to be
conventional traits and may be affected by various sorts of contingent
events. The difference between a Greek, a Parthian, and a Roman is not
on the same level as that between a horse and a dog, even to those who
saw a fundamental difference between civilized and barbarian peoples.
If the reference to colour differences were an indication of racial sub-
types then this division might be more like that between biological natural
kinds. It would also be a highly unusual reference to races in antiquity.
More plausible, given the combination of skin tone and hair colour as
criteria, is that colour represents a merely qualitative sorting principle.
The fact that individuals of the same nationality are also be treated as
species ranged under the genus human being (Seneca does not point out
that Cato, Cicero, and Lucretius are all Romans and so could represent
another, intermediate level of classication) conrms that Seneca is not
particularly interested in the theory of subtypes below the level of the
biological species and so has no coherent criterion for these divisions as he
does for those above them in the hierarchy.
For what is as the highest genus see also S.E. M. 8.:, which shows
that the question of the highest genus was (at least by the time of Sextus
source) a standard aporia.
+:o cor++av
8.11 This short section has been the subject of a large litera-
ture (see especially Sedley +8j, LS :y commentary, and Brunschwig
+, esp. ++o+j, H ulser +8y8: text y+j, vol. :) because of what
it tells us about Stoic metaphysics; it (like 6) is also discussed exten-
sively as evidence for the history of Platonic thought (see, e.g., Theiler
+: Erster Teil passim, Dillon +: +j, P. Hadot +8: vol. +,
+j, all cited by Brunschwig +: ++o, n. 8 and Sedley :ooj: +::,
n. +; Mansfeld +:: y8+o; D orrie-Baltes, vol. (+): +o+j on
Baustein +o.+).
But in the context of Senecas discussion this section is only used to
conrmthe soundness of the classicatory division just sketched for Plato
and here we need to consider it primarily in that light. (On pp. +:+
D orrie-Baltes sketch the tree implied by 8.1, back-translate its terms
into Greek, and then compare it to the so-called Porphyrian tree known
fromthe much later commentary tradition. On p. + they note pertinently
some decisive differences from Senecas division; the Neoplatonic system
and Senecas are incompatiblethey share no common denominator.
Hence it is preferable to set aside this later Platonic history and focus on
Senecas own exposition.)
First Seneca conrms the division by working from the top down in
diairetic fashion. What is is divided into corporeal and incorporeal by
exhaustive contradiction. Body is similarly divided into ensouled and
soulless (tertium non datur since ensouled and soulless are exhaustive
within their domain). Ensouled things can be divided by whether or not
they also have a mind and also by whether they are capable of self-motion.
Here the exposition seems muddled, since the division into self-moving
and xed (roughly, animals and plants) is prior to that between the self-
moving (animals) with minds and those without. The further division into
mortal and immortal is presented as a division of animals, but in fact is
a familiar subdivision of rational animals. Seneca presents a division of
physical entities which uses exhaustive dichotomous division as its basic
principle and so generates the scala naturae which is fairly widely shared in
the Hellenistic period (certainly shared by the Stoics). That the principles
of division capture this completely and economically is, in fact, a good
reason for adopting it. Seneca has fullled his stated goal of justifying the
adoption of what is as the primary and highest genus.
8.1 Seneca outlines a competing classication which Seneca attributes
to some Stoics rather than to the whole school. The value of this short
section as a source for Stoic metaphysical theories is questionable. The
rr++ra j8 +:+
most recent and balanced consideration of these extremely vexed issues
can be found in Brunschwig :oo.
Despite the wording at 8.1 (the Stoics want ), Seneca does
not present it as the standard Stoic view (although modern scholarship
correctly recognizes it as the mainstream Stoic view: see esp. Brunschwig
+: ++j). And Seneca personally rejects the view he presents on the
grounds that the highest genus he advocates is adequate, in that it contains
everything. This, I take it, is the mainrequirement of theory inthis context,
and if what is is adequate as a supreme genus, there is no good reason to
join the Stoics in positing a higher level which could only be explanatorily
redundant. Hence I disagree with Brunschwig (+: ++++) who holds
that Seneca fails in 8.1 to establish his goal of showing why the Stoic
classication is wrong and looks immediately to 8.zz.
Doubts about our ability to use this text as a reliable source for
mainstream Stoic theories are reinforced by the observation that the not-
beings mentioned in 8.1 (ctions such as Centaurs and Giants) are not
among the four standard incorporeals (place, void, time, sayables, two of
which are in fact mentioned at 8.zz)and these incorporeals are what
mainstream Stoics treat as not-beings. It is not clear what status Seneca
intends Centaurs and Giants to have. Caston (+: +yj) suggests that
imaginem (appearance) warrants the identication of such ctional entities
with mental gments, objects of thought which lack an objective correlate
in the real world of material objects (enno

emata, phantasmata). This, he

says, would enable us to give Seneca the same view as was held by Zeno
and Cleanthes. This is an attractive suggestion, but we should note that
we do not have independent evidence that either Zeno or Cleanthes held
that Centaurs or Giants are concepts or gments, and that the Stoics
Seneca cites here need only to emphasize the non-reality of Centaurs
and Giants in order to motivate positing something; they do not really
need to deal with epistemological issues; nor does Seneca, although even
sceptics must concede that in this passage Seneca does use some language
drawn from the Stoic theory of concept development to talk about the
Centaurs and Giants: falsa cogitatio suggests a malfunctioning or misuse of
our ordinarily veridical perceptual apparatus. When Seneca says that such
a notion begins to take on some appearance (habere aliquam imaginem
coepit) despite its lack of substantia he appears to be engaging with the
general theory of empirical concept formation which he also develops
for his own purposes in 1zo; see commentary below and Getting to
Goodness, ch. +o of Reading Seneca.
+:: cor++av
What matters for present purposes is how this point is meant to work
in Senecas present exposition. He gives no explicit refutation of the Stoic
alternative to the division he defends. Yet its function is clear enough. If
this particular Stoic theory is wrong, then it is all the more appropriate
to accept the division he has advanced as a preliminary to the Platonic
categorization of what is. We need to note, rst, that Senecas own
division is never said to be Platonic; Seneca presents it as the necessary
preamble to explaining the Platonic ontology of his friend rather than as
a Platonic division in its own right. Further, Senecas division, while not
orthodox, is compatible with the key tenets of Stoic corporealism. While
it allows for incorporeals in the classication it adheres to the Stoic notion
of a corporeal soul and makes no allowance for incorporeal forms (which
only appear after Seneca returns to the overtly Platonic theory at 8.16).
How, then, does Senecas rapidsketchof the alternative divisionsupport
his own? The most charitable account of the implicit argument is this. If
something is the highest genus, with what is and what is not as its
subtypes, then the principles used in the division require that there be at
least one member of the class what is not. Since incorporeals are already
accounted for under what is in Senecas division (8.11, re-conrmed by
the appearance of two Stoic incorporeals in the Platonic account of what
is in 8.zz: see Brunschwig +: ++), the only candidates for being what
is not would be products of mental error, items which have no reality
(substantia) whatsoever, such as the Centaurs and Giants mentioned in
8.1. (On the sense of substantia cf. Sedley :ooj: +:, n. +8.) Through
its error theory, Stoic epistemology can account for the fact that we think
about such things without supposing that they have any form of reality.
Since Seneca is only interested in their unreality the further question of
their status as intentional objects (which is so interesting to us) is not
addressed by Seneca. So the postulate that what is not should be part
of the classicatory scheme is redundant. If so, then the requirements
for moving to a genus higher than what is (viz. something) are not
met. Hence the principles of theoretical economy count against the Stoic
postulate that something is the highest genus.
The key point here is that on Senecas view there exists no entity
properly described as what is not. For the mainstream Stoic theory,
what is is simply identied with body so that what is not must be
identied with the incorporeal. If the incorporeal just is what is not
then it would be classed as coordinate with what is rather than as
coordinate with the corporeal. Seneca does not engage critically with the
mainstream Stoic theory, according to which body is what is and the
rr++ra j8 +:
incorporeals are four: place, void, time, lekta. He does not, for example,
address directly the Stoic arguments for the claim that only the bodily can
be. But if one sets aside the question of how useful Senecas discussion
here is for the reconstruction of other Stoic (or even middle Platonic)
theories and focusses on the question, which classication is intrinsically
better (the one that coordinates incorporeals with bodies or the one
that coordinates them with what is not), it is not clear that the theory
Seneca presents is philosophically inferior, certainly not for his present
purposes.
For the use of the indenite sense of the pronoun quid to render the
Greek term ti (something) see OLD quis
:
sense . Sedley (:ooj: +:y8)
argues for retention of the standard interrogative sense of the word.
reality renders the Latin word substantia. Sedley (:ooj: +:) suggests
subsistence, suspecting a translation for the Greek termhupostasis; others
have supposed that the term translates the Greek ousia (which one would,
rather, expect to be rendered as essentia). Whether or not Seneca thinks
of substantia as a technical translation, it seems clear that he regards
Centaurs and Giants as lacking any kind of realityunlike even the Stoic
incorporeals, they have no correlate in the world and can be accounted
for completely by an error theory. Sedley introduces Stoic theories about
concepts (enno

emata) into his discussion, but Seneca himself does not

raise the question of the status of concepts.
8.16 Returning to the Platonic account of the senses of being, Seneca
sets them out in the framework of the division he has just outlined and
defended. The subtype of what is which is incorporeal was not lled in
above, merely provided for, so it is available as part of the framework. In
fact, two of the conventional Stoic incorporeals are included as the sixth
modus of being according to Plato (see 8.zz below).
Note that here Seneca speaks of a division of all things which are into
six modi rather than giving an account of how Plato talks of being in six
ways (in sex modos, sex modis dici above). The Bud e translation has: Platon
distingue six degr es dans la totalit e des etres, but nothing in Senecas
language requires (or even suggests) that we introduce the idea of degrees
of being even if it is a feature of the ontology of the historical Plato.
Nevertheless, Senecas phrasing (in sex modos partiatur) is curious
and conrms the suspicion that he is insensitive to the philosophical
possibilities inherent in a careful distinction between an account of how
we talk about the world and an account of how the world is. (Cf. Sedley
+: cor++av
:ooj: +:.) A relevant philosophical precedent for such blurring might be
found in the work of Aristotle, but in much of ancient philosophy a hasty
commitment to the correspondence theory of truth and to a casual realism
encourages this sort of confusion.
8.16zz The six modes of being. For suggestions about how these
modes might be related to actual Platonic doctrine, see Sedley :ooj:
+:j; his own suggestion, that the Divided Line inspired modes , is
more plausible than previous speculations, but no mapping of the modes
onto actual Platonic doctrines is close enough to inspire condence and
we need not interpret Senecas theory under the constraint of nding an
actual Platonic model.
Mode 1: non-sensible being which can be thought about. This rst
mode is, of course, primus, the same term used to describe the prima-
ry genus above. The contrast between the sense-perceptible and the
thinkable is featured in Ciceros Orator in very similar terms (section 8:
it cannot be grasped with the eyes, the ears or any other sense; we
embrace it only with thought and mind). The examples of such being
are generic human or generic animal. In contrast to the generic human
which cannot be seen we can perceive the specic Cicero and Cato.
The contrast of generic animal with its species (horse and dog) is not
obviously the same as that of the generic human with Cicero and Cato,
though one can make it cohere by means of a daringly charitable assump-
tion. We could, then, interpret thus: What is generic, e.g., generic
human, is not subject to being seen. But a specic human is, such as
Cicero and Cato. A [generic] animal is not seen; it is thought. But its
species, [a specic] horse [say, Dobbin] and [a specic] dog [say, Fido],
are seen.
In this interpretation, species has the same sense that it has for Cicero
and for Fido and Dobbin. But that is hardly the most obvious meaning of
the text and it is no doubt simpler to suppose that Seneca is hasty with his
illustrations. Above (8.1z, e.g.) Seneca shows a similar looseness in his
conception of what is generic and what is specic. What is most important
in connection with this mode is that it is dened in epistemological terms:
what is is the thinkable rather than the perceptiblea fundamentally
Platonic idea. Donini (+y: +j) treats Senecas account here as a
complete muddle, largely because he judges it exclusively by the standards
of later Platonist textbooks, making no effort to grasp Senecas point in its
own right. Sedley (:ooj: +) supposes that Seneca has here been hasty in
rr++ra j8 +:j
condensation of his Platonic source (for the character of which he makes
some rather attractive but speculative proposals).
D orrie-Baltes (vol. , ::) interpret this text solely in the context
of middle-Platonic doctrine. They construct a Greek original from which
Seneca may be supposed to have derived this theory, but which he
misunderstood. Where Seneca refers to a thinkable but not perceptible
animal, with species ranged under it, they suppose that Seneca has missed
the obvious reference to the intelligible animal of the Timaeus (for which
there is no direct evidence in Senecas text).
generic human. This is, in fact, the earliest reference to this eventually
widespread idea, but similar phrasing is also attested for Chrysippus
(Stobaeus, Ecl. +.yy.+: Wachsmuth). It need not have any particular
ontological force. See Barnes :oo: ++.
Mode z: what is par excellence is a paradigm or perfect instance of the
type in question. We are accustomed to think that Plato holds that a
paradigm horse (e.g.) just is the thinkable and non-perceptible horse. But
that is not Senecas view here, and he offers us a view of Platos ontology
which is striking: what is par excellence is not a Form but god. For readers
of Plato this view would need considerably more explanation than Seneca
provides here. Evidence that Platonists before Seneca thought that what
is par excellence is god is limited: D orrie-Baltes (vol. , :, n. ) cite
what little there is; only Philo Quod deterius +o antedates Seneca but the
passage fails to bear on the question.
Mode : the Platonic ideas are a third sense. Although all six modes
are intended as an account of what Plato meant, this one is singled out
as distinctively and personally Platos. This means either that this is a
Platonic view that Platonists regard as Platos personal contribution (in
contrast to other parts of the theory which are broadly Platonic but not
personally Platos) or that this mode is Platonic and not shared by any
other school; mode + and mode : are perhaps to be thought of as being
recognized by other schools as well.
The emphasis here is on forms as models for making something and so
the role of the Timaeus :8a and other passages which emphasize that forms
are what one looks to in making or doing something may be suspected
here (e.g., Euthyphro e, Cratylus oe, Hippias Major :e, Republic
y:c, yyc, 8c). The ideas govern only natural kinds on this theory,
not artefacts (such as the bed or the shuttle) and the examples offered here
are biological kinds (humans, sh, trees). Puzzles about the scope of the
+: cor++av
theory of forms raised by, e.g., the Parmenides are not considered here.
The example of painting is only an analogy for the meaning of idea here,
though it is one familiar from Platonism. Cicero uses painting as well
as sculpture at Orator 8+o to capture this sense of idea, which Cicero
translates as forma, a term avoided by Seneca here.
D orrie-Baltes (vol. :) discuss this mode and claim (:j) that
Seneca is here following a Platonic school tradition distinct from that of
Xenocrates.
8.18 countless and 8.1q indenite number. Obviously not innite
in number. See Barnes :oo: +:8 and n. +o.
Mode : the idos (eidos in our customary transliteration) seems to be what
is normally called an immanent form. The illustration of the exemplar
(mode ) drawn from portrait painting is applied here to underline
the distinction between the idea and the idos. For the example drawn
from painting, see above on mode and Orator 8+o. The inuence of
Aristotelian concepts is detectable here. See also D orrie-Baltes, vol. , :
with parallels from later Platonic sources.
8.zo derives. The suggested alternative derived might be right:
the proposed emendation of Gemoll is traxit for trahit; accepting the
emendation would give us the same tense for the two verbs in the
sentence.
8.z1 On the difference between mode and mode , compare 6.y.
Cicero Orator 8+o uses forma for the Platonic idea or exemplar, while
at Acad. +.o and Tusculan Disputations +.j8 he uses species. Compare also
Plato Timaeus :8:, a text which is certainly in Senecas mind here.
Mode : ordinary, perceptible, middle-sized objects are said to be in
a weaker sense. It is not clear what Seneca means by saying that these
begin to be relevant to us. If (as Brunschwig +: ++: suggests) the
us refers to his own position, then the point is that it is only with the
recognition of ordinary physical objects conceptualized in an ordinary
manner that Platonic and Stoic theories nd common groundthis
would be supported by the inclusion of an apparently Stoic meaning in
the next mode. But in fact this degree of common ground with Stoicism
was present in mode + (compare 8.1z and 8.16) if 8.1z is offered
as a view shared by some Stoics (like Seneca). Compare the remarks of
D orrie-Baltes, vol. , :.
rr++ra j8 +:y
Mode 6: This includes quasi-beings, exemplied by two out of the
four Stoic incorporeals. It is especially noteworthy that lekta are omitted.
Spatial concepts and time, as Denyer observes, are just the aspects of being
which connect most closely with the shared Platonic and Stoic themes of
ux which emerge in the second half of this letter.
as it were. This corresponds to the Greek expression h

osanei, used to
indicate a diminished sense in which a term applies (cf. h

osanei ti, h

osanei
poion at D.L. y.+ and Stobaeus Ecl. +.+.:++.+y. (= SVF +.j and
LS oA,C), though no Stoic source applies it to being as is apparently
done here.
D orrie-Baltes (vol. , :y) deny that as it were being is a Stoic concept
and so suggest that here we see evidence of a Platonist exploiting a Stoic
concept against them.
Donini (+y: +8, n. ) regards the entire classication as being
ontological and treats Senecas talk of ways in which Plato speaks of
being as a result of confusion. D orrie-Baltes also take the classication as
being solely ontological, agreeing with Dillon that this passage is a coherent
scheme drawn directly from a middle Platonic handbook and suggesting
further that it was preoccupied with interpretation of Platos Timaeus.
This approach seems insufciently sensitive to the details of Senecas text
and to be motivated in part by the desire to nd early evidence for both this
preoccupation with the Timaeus and for fully worked-out handbooks of
doctrinal Platonism. In both respects this may be anachronistic; it certainly
does not strengthen the case for this view of the history of Platonism to
invoke this letter in favour of it.
On balance the catalogue of modi given here seems to be heterogeneous
rather than fully systematized on any one set of principles. The classica-
tion given here is a mixture of an account of the ways Plato talks and of an
independently grounded ontological classication. Numbers + and j are
clearly quomodo dicitur (these really are ways that Plato talks) and the others
seem more like bins in an ontological classication scheme. It remains
contentious how those two ways of classifying are related. A mixed set
of considerations is at work, but then perhaps this is not surprising if we
regard the entire classication as a preparation for the question what is
the use? in 8.z ff.
8.zz This is an important transitional passage. Having rst outlined
(in his own voice) an ontological classication to support the Platonic list
of the senses of what is (reported from the account of his philosophical
friend), Seneca now (unambiguously in his own voice) reects on what
+:8 cor++av
Plato and Heraclitus say about the transience of ordinary things, including
persons. The fth sense of what is included individual human beings,
who were explicitly denied being in the rst sense (8.16) and are
evidently excluded from senses two, three, and four. Perhaps, then, the
central purpose of the account of the six senses of being is to locate
human individuals in a larger ontological scheme. Despite the differences
between Stoic ontology (in either the mainstream version or the version
Seneca apparently advocates), Platonic and Stoic philosophers agree on
the position of human individuals within nature: we are among the uid
and transient things of the world. If this is so, then the philosophical
looseness of the exposition may be the result of Senecas own strategy
of presentation rather than direct evidence for some lost early middle
Platonic source.
The extension of the term whatever (quaecumque) in 8.zz is clearly
the items mentioned in mode j, things which exist in the ordinary sense of
the word. The observations here about the ux and instability of ordinary
things introduce the theme of the concluding phase of the dialogue which
is its moral lesson. (See also 8.zy; compare also what Seneca says in
1zo.1y18.) If that is so, then an effort is being made to suggest shared
ground between Stoic and Platonic theories precisely on the point of
metaphysics which motivates a sense of detachment from the importance
of the physical world to ones moral situation. It is worth noting that it
is tied fairly closely to the Cratylean themes in Plato and also integrated
very closely to the not necessarily Platonic conclusion of the letter.
8.zz in the ordinarily accepted sense. For this relatively unusual use
of communiter compare Cicero, De Ofciis .+y. On the meaning of in
the strict sense ( proprie) see 8.18 proprie sunt, propria supellex (and 8.11
proprium nomen).
Things which are in the strict sense seem to be in senses one, two,
and three of the Platonic ontology. Things which are in the fourth
sense are probably not included, though Seneca does not emphasize their
instability but rather their relationship to the Forms. Seneca attributes to
Plato views about the instability of everything tangible and visible, but
seems himself exclusively interested in the status of humans. (In 8.z he
compares the mutability of human beings to that of the entire physical
cosmos.) His focus here is on the constancy of corporeal change (physical
objects lose and add material stuff constantly). Though he says that it is
our bodies which are swept along like rivers, he includes our whole selves
in the impermanence of things: ego ipse, nemo nostrum. Mainstream Stoics
rr++ra j8 +:
certainly take the view that our souls are corporeal and fused intimately
with our bodies (see Body and Soul in Stoicism, ch. +o of Long +)
and there is no sign here that Seneca believes in souls that are our true
selves in that they outlast the body. The I is not saved from instability
by being identied with a soul which is separate from its bodyin this
respect the view taken here is unlike the Platonism of the Phaedo. See also
z.1qz1 for the theme we die day by day (cotidie morimur).
The mention of constant loss and replacement of the material compo-
nents of things suggests the inuence of the so-called growing argument,
on which see Sedley +8:. Platonic interest in this form of material ux is
also manifest in the Theaetetus +j:o, Symposium :oy,' Sophist :: (the
Ionian and Sicilian muses), and in Aristotles account of Platonic ontology
(Metaphysics 8yab). See also Theiler +: +, Epicharmus fr. :.
8.z Heraclitus plays animportant role inthe story of Platonic emphasis
on material instability. He is also widely regarded as an important inuence
on Stoic physics and metaphysics (and on Cleanthes version of Stoic
theology). Hence this passage, which appears as Heraclitus B a in
Diels-Kranz +, suggests strongly that Heraclitus was at some point a
focus of dialogue or debate between Stoics and Platonists. It is not obvious
that this dialogue was at all extensive or explicit before Seneca wrote this
passage. For a full but highly speculative source-critical account of the
history of the river fragment, see Marcovich +y: :o+; he suggests,
not implausibly, that Platos version of the fragment lies ultimately behind
this passage. But at best Seneca gives us here an indirect reection of a
long tradition of attempts to interpret and criticize Heraclitus fragment.
In assessing how much of Senecas discussion here might be owed to
earlier sources, we should recall that at this point he has nished his
report of what his Platonic friend said and is himself making a transition
to the moral application of the doctrines which occupy the last third of the
letter. Admittedly, it would be surprising if Stoics and Platonists had not
debated Heraclitean themes earlier; but it is hardly necessary that Seneca
be drawing on some specic source reporting a particular debate. Nothing
is said here that could not be Senecas own work.
8.z There is a large literature on the Heraclitean doctrine about
rivers. In addition to Marcovich +y: +:+, see Kahn +y, on his
fragments L and LI, and Hussey +, ch. j in Long +. For Seneca,
' Thanks to Gur Zak for suggesting the relevance of the Symposium here and for other
stimulating discussion.
+o cor++av
the stability of the river is found in its name we call it the same river
despite the passage of constantly different waters. When Seneca says that
this phenomenon is merely more apparent in the case of a river than in
that of a person, this raises an interesting question about his views on
the constancy of a human individual. What is there which grounds our
unity over time beyond our mere name? Is it merely the fact that we
keep referring to John Doe by the same name that constitutes his unity?
This would be a much weaker view of human unity over time than the
one suggested in 1z1 and even weaker than the view expressed in this
section. For here there is a we (no doubt our rational soul) that adopts
a particular view about its relationship to the body: loving it excessively
and fearing death (i.e., the separation of soul and body) as some major
event in life when in a very important sense it is a constant feature of our
existence. (Every moment is the death of a prior state can be compared
to 1zo.1y18.) Nevertheless, Seneca describes the views we take about
the body as erroneous (dementiam nostram). Thus we cannot assume that
Seneca adopts a Platonic view identifying the self with an immortal soul
(a view which would conict with 8.zz); it is left an open question what
we truly are, where the locus of our diachronic unity is to be found. It
is surely more than the mere name which constitutes the unity over time
of a river, but something less than a Platonic immortal soul as assumed in
the Phaedo. 1z1 is perhaps the fullest account of Senecas metaphysics of
personal identity, but apparently he does not think it essential to provide
full clarication in this context.
8.z Here Seneca emphasizes again that he is speaking primarily of the
uidity of individual human beings; the vulnerability and changeability
of the entire cosmos are also mentioned. However, he seems not to be
asserting that they form a microcosm and macrocosm with the same kind
of instability. For a human being is perishable (caduca) while the cosmos is
eternal and invincible. The cosmos changes its conguration (ordo) but
cannot perishafter all, it contains within itself all that it ever had. The
position taken here on the mutability of the cosmos is phrased in such a way
that there could be agreement between a mainstreamStoic (whose belief in
the eventual conagration and reconstitution of the cosmos is rm) and a
Platonist who thinks that according to the Timaeus the world is eternal but
changing in its conguration and details; Senecas view is frankly incom-
patible with belief in the perishability of the cosmos (but see 8.zq below).
Comparable reections are aired by Seneca in less clearly Platonic
contexts: o.11, 6.1o; see also Marcus Aurelius :.+y ff. where themes of
rr++ra j8 ++
a vaguely Platonic and Heraclitean character are harnessed to a broadly
Stoic message.
Although 8.z is clearly far more accessible than the classications
discussed earlier in this letter, it is still technical and so the abrupt change
in theme at 8.z sweeps it into the category of subtilitas.
8.z As often in the letters, Seneca self-consciously marks a major
break in the themes and point of view taken. As also happens frequently,
the motivation here for the break is a concern for the practical or
moral utility of the discussion. Despite the apparent naturalness of such a
pragmatic break it is important to recall that this is a deliberate structural
and thematic feature of the letter. We need to ask not just about its
signicance within the framework of the letter-writing persona (Seneca the
correspondent) but also from the point of view of Seneca as an author. To
do otherwise would be akin to neglecting the difference between Socrates
as a character and Plato as an author. Hence the self-conscious general
statement about his practice (8.z6) has a programmatic force: This,
Lucilius, is what I normally do: from every notion, even if it is quite
remote from philosophy, I try to dig out something and make it useful.
Seneca writes, it seems, for an audience aware that philosophy is a fully
developed professional calling, even aware of a fair bit of philosophical
doctrine; yet the audience he seems to envisage is rightly sceptical about
the utility of philosophy. By portraying himself as struggling with the same
issues he guides his readers towards seeing how philosophy (if properly
employed) can be an appropriate and productive part of their lives.
8.z This marks the beginning of phase : of the letter. The question
(8.z6) as to how the Platonic ideae can make one better is perhaps meant
to recall Aristotle in EN + (esp. +ob:+oya) on the Form of the
Good. But now there is an answer to the challenge to nd utility in Platos
Forms. Beyond the recreational benets of such philosophical activity
(8.z), Seneca points to the value of becoming more aware of the low
ontological status of physical objects. Why is that so useful? Such things
are the focus of morally unstable desires, so that regarding themas to some
extent unreal will, he thinks, make it easier to resist desire for them. Since
Stoicism itself does not regard any physical object as less real because it
is corporeal (indeed, just the opposite), this would appear to be a case of
intellectual opportunism: the reason for valuing a view is independent of
its perceived truth. In the previous section Seneca clearly preferred to
apply the doctrine that the less permanent is less real to human bodies
+: cor++av
rather than to the full range of physical objects, so this application of the
doctrine is more of a Platonic intrusion.
The idea that ones intellectual activity should be useful to the conduct
of ones life in general is ultimately Socratic and it naturally pervades
Senecas own works. The reader of 8 will recall .; the theme is also
important in 6 and will emerge again later in the collection of letters (e.g.,
1oq.1y).
8.zy Here Seneca juxtaposes the unreality of the objects of desire with
the character of our desire for them. We desire them as though they were
permanent and so our achievement of them could be a long-lasting benet
to us. But in fact our desire to possess them in this way is tainted not
just because of the defect in the objects of our desire, but because we
ourselves are impermanent; even if we got them, we would not enjoy them
for long. Despite our unstable nature (we are weak and uid beings) we
sense the appeal of nding satisfaction among things which are, in fact,
permanent: god and the heavenly bodies (see 8.z: aeterna res et invicta).
The underlying notion is that true fullment of desire can only be found
with an object which has permanence. Note that the resort to cosmological
perfection envisaged in 8.zy8 is Stoic in its cosmology and theology.
The demiurge here is as Stoic as it is Platonic, as is the idea that the
divine creator is limited in what he can achieve by the defects of the raw
material he works with. However, at the end of 8.z8 Seneca reverts to
the markedly Platonic notion that impermanent things are less than real.
8.zy soar aloft. volitantes could be taken with we or with the shapes
( formas). I prefer the image of the human mind soaring aloft to see the
shapes or forms (as in the myth of the Phaedrus), but one could also
suppose that Seneca imagines the forms or shapes as what is aloft for us
to contemplate. Donini (+y: +8) suggests that the reference here is to
the theory that the forms are the ideas in gods mind, but god circulating
among them is ill phrased to express that notion.
8.zy taking care translates providentem and a suggestion of divine
foresight or providence would not be out of place.
For comparable cosmologically inspired ights of the imagination, see
Cons. Polyb. , NQ + pref. esp. +y, Cons. Helv. :o, and 6.16zz.
8.z8 rulers concern renders cura regentis. The inuence of the Timaeus
is obvious, but there is a hint also of monarchical responsibilities for the
rr++ra j8 +
well-being of his people. See Clem. +.: (in terris deorum vice fungerer), +.j
(omnia quae in dem tutelamque tuam venerunt), +.y.
8.zqz Rational care and its relation to longevitythe biographical
example of Plato reveals another reward to be derived fromPlatonic reec-
tions. This argument involves an explicit comparison of the microcosm
of the human body with the macrocosm of the cosmos. Our intelligence
stands to the body as the intelligence which is god stands to the cosmos.
Rational care and foresight always need to be exercised to extend the life
of something which is intrinsically weak and perishable. Plato showed this
in his own case, extending his life to an ideal age by curbing his desires.
Compare NQ .o.j for the parallel of the world to the human body
and for the importance of diligentia.
8.zq By saying that the cosmos itself is no less mortal than we are,
Seneca appears to be in conict with his own account of the cosmos in
8.z where it is said to be eternal and invincible, merely changing its
conguration. Two solutions suggest themselves. If cosmos (mundus) here
designates not the physical world as a bodily object but the particular
conguration that it has, then the two passages can be compatible.
Alternatively, Senecas point may be that the world, if considered without
the intelligent planning power of god ( providentia), is as mortal as we are
but that god and matter (the two Stoic archai) are inseparably fused so
that the eternity of the world proclaimed in 8.z is guaranteed. Human
intelligence is, by contrast, less integrated with our bodily nature. Sedley
(:ooj: +:) interprets 8.z8q as being about the Platonic cosmology of
the Timaeus on the literal creationist interpretation and implicitly takes
8.z to refer to a different cosmological theory. But Seneca does not
indicate that his remarks belong to different cosmological perspectives,
which perhaps counts for more in the interpretation of this letter than a
desire to map its doctrine onto the spectrum of known Platonist views.
8.o The ancient legend (D.L. .+, .) was that Plato was a nickname
given to Aristocles on account of his sturdy physique ( platus is Greek for
broad or wide). See also Theiler +: +j.
8.1 The manuscripts are corrupt here; with hesitation I follow
Reynolds in his acceptance of Madvigs emendation ( paratus sis et).
On this reading, Seneca is making the sly suggestion that, in return for not
having to restrain his desires as fully as did Plato, Lucilius would settle for a
+ cor++av
life shorter and less perfect than Platos and the cult recognition merited
by such perfection. Perhaps to feel otherwise would be little short of
hybristic, but Senecas main point seems to be that the choice about length
of life lies to a great extent with the agent.
For Platos death at the age of 8+ cf. D.L. .:. For Platos voyages, see
for example D.L. .:, Cicero Rep. +.+, Fin. j.8y.
8.z Reection on the trade-offs which might be made between the
length of life and the way it is led brings Seneca to the general theme of
the value of prolonging life into old age. A long old age is certainly not to
be grasped at (concupiscendam), since that would be to aim ones desires
at something inherently unstable and unachievable (see 8.zy), but it is
not to be rejected. A grasping attachment to life is as much a matter of
excessive desire as is an excessive dedication to wine.
Hence the key thing is to come to an explicit judgement about the
quality of life when dealing with the issue of how long one wishes to hold
on. If the quality of life (which is the determining factor in such matters)
is low, then the decision not to wait for death but to take matters into ones
own hands is reasonable. Since living can be thought of as keeping oneself
company (secum esse) or spending time with oneself, the decisive factor
here (as in ordinary social relations) is the quality of ones companionship.
Compare 6.y on becoming a friend to oneself.
pleasant to be with oneself . Cf. z.1, 6.y, 1o.1, NQ a pref. +:. The
maxim of Antisthenes the Cynic may be behind such reections: D.L. ..
bring it about directly. On self-inicted death see, e.g., D.L. y.+o,
1z.1o, z6.1o, yo.y, yo.zo, yy.1, q8.118. For an autobiographical reec-
tion on the factors which might contribute to such a decision see y8.z,
a text which also supports the conclusion in 8.6 that to choose death
solely because of pain is a form of defeat. Also Seneca on Freedom and
Autonomy, chapter ++ in Inwood :ooj.
8.y Hence it is a question worth debating whether the nal stretch
of life is worth living or notthis will surely vary from case to case. The
contrast of body and mind in 8. might seem to suggest that the mind
survives without the body, but a close reading shows that this is not the
case. See also z6.z, y8.z.
On the image of the failing body as a collapsing building, see De Ira
:.:8., 1zo.1y.
no crueller loss. The integrity of the text has been challenged here, as
by Shackleton-Bailey +yo: j, and there is no doubt that the phrasing of
rr++ra j8 +j
the Latin seems slightly awkward. But if interpreted sensitively the force
of the rhetorical question gives excellent sense: literally, by how much
do you judge it crueller to have lost anything from life than the right
to end it.
Seneca recommends a calculation of risk and the reward: a bit of extra
time is worth little (though not nothing) while the penalty of losing the
ability to choose the time of ones death is great. Hence the idea that
one might consider suicide before the quality of life declines below the
tolerable level is not an unreasonable or morbid desire. It is, rather, a
reection of the relative values placed on self-determination and on being
alive. It is evident that in this passage Seneca is outlining a framework
for making choices about when and how to die rather than establishing a
doctrine about the right time to die which could be applied to all cases.
needs to be. Both occurrences of this phrase render the Latin word
debere. ought to be might be a more conservative translation, but
misleading if taken to indicate a moral obligation. debere indicates being
under an obligation or having to do something either for legal/moral
reasons or for reasons of efciency, convenience, etc. (OLD s.v. c).
(The obligation can also be logical, but that is not to the point here.)
Here it would be absurd to think that Seneca is claiming that one should
commit suicide before the time when one is morally obliged to do so; as
the context indicates, his concern is with our inability to carry out the
suicide when the appropriate time comes, that is, when one can no longer
live an appropriately human life. Seneca doesnt think we are morally
obliged to kill ourselves then, only that it is permissible and sensible to do
so. Anticipating that nal moment is worth doing for practical rather than
moral reasons.
make use of themselves, i.e., deal with oneself and ones situation with
a normal form of agency. See B enatoul :oo at n. j. See also 6o. for a
similar turn of phrase. This phrase is rather more what we would expect
of Epictetus.
8.6 Having offered this general recommendation about how to
decide when life is worth giving up, Seneca turns to his own case and
that of Lucilius. It is appropriate in the epistolary context to anticipate
the unease his correspondent might be feeling at this discussion of how
and when to die. It is reassuring for Lucilius to be told that Seneca is not
applying this view pointedly to Lucilius, and Seneca gives his personal
assessment of his own situation and the views he will bring to bear on his
own decision when the time comes. It is clearly very important that the
+ cor++av
decision about death is to be taken by the individual. At the same time, it
is important to note here that Senecas view on suicide and the value of
living long into old age is compatible with the general Stoic view about
suicide. The prospect of a life containing nothing but pain is grounds for
suicide not because of the pain itself but rather because the entire goal of
life, the whole point of living, ones propositum, is impaired by such pain.
Pain in itself should not be decisiveit is, after all, an indifferent (see
Cicero Fin. .j+)in ones decision. The decision to live or die is made
in accordance with ones ability or inability to carry out the function and
goal of a human being.
8.y digress too long (in longum exeo). Sch onegg +: +oj suggests
a double entendre: I am taking a long time to die is the other suggested
sense (exploiting two senses of exire, to go out).
Commentary on j
For the relation of this letter to contemporary Platonism, see the intro-
duction to 8 and Inwood forthcoming (:). Once again Senecas letter to
Lucilius is an account of a days intellectual activity (though this time it
is a debate rather than an exposition by a friend). This kind of setting will
appear again in 66. Sedley (:ooj, see on 8) argues that the friends in 6
are supposed to be Platonists, since the theory is eventually illustrated by
reference to the Timaeus (6.1o). But the views of Aristotle and those of
Plato are clearly distinguished by Seneca in 6.1o, so perhaps it is better
to say that the group of friends included Platonists open to integration with
Aristotelian theory and also some who spoke for Aristotle alone. Sedleys
consolidation of the friend of 8 and all of the friends in 6 yields an unnec-
essarily narrow picture of the circles in which Seneca presents himself as
moving. The fact that this is a three-way debate or case at law(triplex causa
6.z) among Stoics, Plato, and Aristotle also suggests that Seneca wants
to mark a difference among his friendsthe atmosphere is one of debate
rather than mere exposition. This aspect of Senecas letter is needlessly
deemphasized if one treats it (following D orrie-Baltes) as being funda-
mentally dependent on the use (by Seneca or his allegedly unique source)
of doctrinal summaries rather than original works or actual conversation.
Additional literature in this vein includes Scarpat +yo; Donini +y: :y8; Maurach
+yo: +:y; Timpanaro +y: :oj and response by Guida +8+: 8+; Sch onegg
+: +oo.
rr++ra j +y
In general, we may note (following Sedley) the emphasis here and in
8 on ascertaining the correct number of something in the discussions
of physics, although the thing counted in 8 was entities rather than
causes. In the doxographical tradition this is common, perhaps only
because doxographies provide summary lists as an organizational device.
But the play with numbers has a clear precedent in fourth-century
philosophy. NB Platos Philebus : ff., the role of divisions in Academic
philosophy, and Aristotles concern with how many senses there are of
various things.
The metaphor of legal debate is persistent through the letter. This is
a natural enough metaphor in any philosopher, especially a Roman one,
and Seneca is very prone to its use. Note also the use of the metaphor
of litigation in Ciceros De Legibus +.j (where Cicero the character
says (+.j), But I would like to have been assigned as arbitrator (arbiter)
between the Old Academy and Zeno, trans. Zetzel). Here, Lucilius is
cast in the role of arbitrator (6.z), but is pointedly encouraged (6.1o)
not to hold out for a true verdict but one which is most like the truth
(verisimilethis is the language of Academic scepticism in Ciceros
formulation); he is even invited (6.1) to avoid coming to a judgement
and to ask for further arguments. The progression is towards avoidance
of judgement and maintenance of ongoing debate on the issue. Normally
Seneca is impatient with programmatic scepticism (actually holding that
nothing can be known), but here the scepticism seems procedural rather
than dogmatic. The process of investigation seems to be the source of
much of the benet to the enquirer, a benet which comes ultimately
in the form of a view which the mind takes with regard to the body,
a view which frees it from fear (see the helpful remarks of Maurach
+yo: +).
Thematic division
+:: Setting the scene. A group of friends debated causation and
left the issues unresolved.
:: The Stoic position is that there is only one cause, the active
principle = reason.
: Aristotles four causes.
y+o: Plato adds a fth (and sixth) cause to Aristotles.
+o+j: Lucilius invited to adjudicate the debate; Seneca argues the
Stoic case again.
I discuss other uses of legal metaphors in my Natural Law in Seneca, ch. 8 of Inwood
:ooj.
+8 cor++av
+j::: Seneca defends such discussion about issues in physics.
:: Application of this discussion to ones whole life.
6.1z On Senecas illness, see also .1. Here Seneca portrays a
continuous progression of intensity in his activity the day before the
letter is written. First bed rest, then reading, then writing. We are then
told that the writing was of unusual intensity because of the difculty
of the material and his own determination to master it (vinci nolo). The
interruption (donec intervenerunt) comes as a climax to this process, and
we are to think of his friends as extracting him for their debate when
he was already at the peak of his own labours. What was Seneca writing
about? The only clue is in 6.1, though the remark there may reect
general habits rather than the present event: I investigate myself rst and
then this cosmos. We are perhaps to suppose that Seneca had willed his
mind (note imperare) to address a serious question about himself, found
himself so drawn in that an overt act of will power was no longer needed
( permittere). His concentration was at its height, so that force and coercion
were needed to impose on himthe less demanding activity of philosophical
conversation. It is not clear whether Seneca still was a patient or whether
he had recovered from his illness (note as though I were an obstreperous
patient). The fact that Seneca reports only the controversial part of the
conversation suggests that even on the next day Seneca is focussing on
contentious matters (the areas of agreement and any small talk among
friends are not reported, only the unresolved disagreements); the warning
that the role of arbitrator will be unexpectedly demanding is another
indication of the seriousness of the conversation.
obstreperous renders the Latin intemperans. I owe the translation to
Doug Hutchinson.
6.z The debate among Senecas friends was about causes in nature
as a whole (in rerum natura, de universo). Seneca expounds his own schools
position rst and presumes upon Lucilius familiarity with it (ut scis).
Although the explicit topic is causation and it turns out that only god is a
cause, Seneca outlines both principles of Stoic physics. (For a suggestion
about why, see below on 6.z). The two basic principles of Stoic
physics are the active and the passive, god and matter, the cause and that
on which it acts (LS , jGH, D.L. y.+jo; also SVF +.8, :.++o8). Taken
in isolation matter (hul

e) is without qualities (apoios) and inert (argos);

See my The Will in Seneca, ch. j of Inwood :ooj.
rr++ra j +
but except perhaps for the moment of cosmogenic conagration (LS )
there is no actual separation of the active and passive. The distinction
is conceptual and serves among other things to isolate the features of
the world which are causes from those which are acted upon. That the
causes are rational and therefore divine (identiable ultimately with god)
is a reection of the Stoic commitment to the view that the world is
an orderly and explicable system. The personal aspect of the cause (the
active principle is god, i.e., Zeus) is reected in the claim in 6.z that
matter is bound to remain idle if no one (rather than nothing) acts on
it. This turn of phrase, innocent though it seems, reveals that Seneca is
presupposing that personal agency is the basic model for causation, even
if he is not also assuming (in accordance with Stoic theory) that the active
principle is Zeus.
Curiously, after outlining this anthropocentric cosmology Seneca
applies it explicitly (transfer) to human actions (using the statue example
whichwill recur inthe expositionof Aristoteliantheory), andthenreasserts
the applicability of this model to the cosmos (eadem condicio rerum omnium
est).
6. For the example used here of a statue and its sculptor, compare
Cicero Orator 8+o, a highly Platonizing passage which Seneca may well
have in mind as he writes. The statue is also a favourite example of
Aristotles in the Physics and Metaphysics.
The idea that craft imitates nature was Aristotles (Physics +a:8,
+a+j+y), but it is adopted in Stoic physics (compare also Marcus
Aurelius ++.+o). It also appears to have been the doctrine of Plato in the
Timaeus since the creator of nature is there portrayed as a craftsman. For
the Stoics Nature was a craftsman-like re proceeding methodically to
genesis (D.L. y.+j, A etius +.y.).
The terms artisan and workman represent artifex and opifex respec-
tively. There seems to be no important difference in sense, and both
capture different connotations of the Greek term d

emiourgos which Plato

uses inthe Timaeus (for Stoic use of the Platonic metaphor, see D.L. y.+).
6. The exposition concludes with a clear statement of the count:
there is one cause, even though the exposition of the Stoic theory dwelt
on the two elements of Stoic cosmology more than on the simple question
about numbers of causes.
In the account of Aristotles views the words he says could indicate
either Aristotle himself or the anonymous spokesman.
+o cor++av
6.6 The move from three causes (cause is said in three ways)
to four (a fourth cause accompanies these) is curious. The simple
explanation is (as so often) Senecas adoption of a deliberate casualness
to create an epistolary atmosphere. But it is also possible that the fourth
cause is one which Aristotle did not want to say was normally called
a cause; that is, Seneca may be portraying Aristotle as distinguishing a
more general usage of the term cause from his own special sense (the
nal cause or propositum), the one which he himself contributed to the
philosophical repertoire. On this question, see Guida (+8+: y8), who
regards Senecas move here as a device for emphasizing the added item and
drawing attention to its distinctive Aristotelian character. Guida (+8+:
yy) claims that the nal cause is marked out as Aristotles contribution in
the same way that the paradigmatic form (idea) is signalled as distinctively
Platonic in 6.y. Cf. Sedley :ooj: + n. .
For the phrasing (is said in three ways) cf. 8.8.
6. form here translates idos (eidos in the more familiar transliteration).
As in 8.18z1 idos is used in contrast to idea to represent an immanent
form in contrast to a transcendent or separate form (cf. D orrie-Baltes,
vol. , +); in 8.zo the term is attributed to Platonic not Aristotelian
usage. In both letters idos picks out the form which is imposed on
the matter by an artisan, not the model to which an artisan looks as
he works. The model (idea) is introduced in 6.y as an addition to
Aristotles theory made by Plato. Hankinson (+88: y) refers to this as
cheerful anachronism. The order of presentation is, however, scarcely
meant to be historical. Rather, since Plato is presented as believing in a
superset of Aristotles causes it is merely convenient to portray him as
adding an additional cause. Seneca draws attention to the distinctively
Aristotelian avour of the nal cause even though he treats it as also
being thoroughly Platonic. Here as in 8.18 Platos doctrines are alleged
to include Aristotles. Aristotle, who thought of his nal cause as his own
contribution not fully anticipated by anyone, including Plato, would not
perhaps have been pleased at being subsumed in this way.
In this letter Seneca does not apologize for the use of Greek terms such
as idos and idea (as well as the names of the statues: doryphorus, diadumenos,
which would no doubt be familiar to his audience of aristocrats, many
of whom no doubt collected statues). We are to suppose that Lucilius
remembers the handling of the issue in 8; Cicero did not apologize for
using idea and doryphorus in Orator j and +o. The matter-of-fact use
of Greek terms here is not Senecas normal practice; see Seneca in his
rr++ra j ++
Philosophical Milieu, ch. + of Inwood :ooj, and note also on 1zo. with
regard to analogia.
6.6 Note the prominence of causes understood as necessary condi-
tions (id sine quo) in this section. In 6. this is a feature of the rst three
causes; at the end of 66.6 it is explicitly stated to be a feature of the fourth.
This emphasis on necessary conditions is reminiscent of the theory which
is rejected in Phaedo (one of Senecas favourite Platonic dialogues) and
this way of understanding causes sets the theory up for refutation below
(6.111z). The theory which holds that one kind of cause is a necessary
condition for an event or object is treated as unobjectionable in 6.6, so
the reasons for rejecting it below are both revealing and important. (On
the absence of Phaedo from Senecas overt discussion of causes, see Sedley
:ooj: n. 8. On the prominence of themes fromthat dialogue in the second
half of this letter, see below.)
6. spear-carrier or boy tying up his hair. These are two famous
statues by Polyclitus. In Orator 8+o Cicero discusses the effect on artistic
ambition of having to work in the aftermath of a genius. Thus Aristotle
is not deterred from writing philosophy by Platos example nor does the
spear-carrier deter later sculptors. Cicero also uses the example of statues
(especially those of Phidias) in connection with this point; it is hard to
doubt that Seneca has in mind here this well-known Ciceronian passage
with its celebration of Platonic idealism, i.e., his theory of separate forms.
Aristotles causes are not directly linked to a cosmic theory, as are the
Stoic and Platonic theories; this is merely an account of ordinary causation.
Since Aristotle held that the cosmos is eternal he gave no causal account
of its origin. On the creationist reading of the Timaeus Plato did so; so too
did the Stoics, for whose account of how the active principle (god) and
passive principle (matter) interacted to produce the organized world see,
e.g., D.L. y.+, y.+: (=LS B and BC).
6.y Platos fth cause is represented as an addition to Aristotles,
underlining their alleged fundamental similarities. (See Donini +y:
+j.) The idea (described also in 8.18 as Platos distinctive contribution)
is the exemplar towards which a craftsman looks in producing something
(for which cf. 8.z1 and Cicero, Orator ).
Seneca here makes the important claim that it is irrelevant to the
function of the exemplar as a model whether one looks at a distinct object
and imposes its shape on the matter or whether one has the model in
+: cor++av
ones mind. When the mental model is described as something which
he himself conceived of and posited the philosophical issues raised (but
not settled) become even more important. A human artisan may have
either an external model (the living person of whom the statue is being
made) or a mental model. The Demiurge in the Timaeus is portrayed
as having an external model, the separately existing Forms. But in the
course of the Platonic tradition the Forms came to be regarded by some as
ideas in the mind of god (see John Dillon +: +j8, :jj, +o); the
implication of that view is that there are no mind-independent entities,
since even the Forms are contained by gods mind. Seneca allows for
the mind-dependence of the artisans model in part because it is in fact
the case that artisans can concoct mental models for their creative work
without there being a real object to imitate. (See on 1zo..) His emphasis
on the mind-dependence of the artisans models paves the way for treating
Platos Forms as gods ideas, as entities dependent on the mind of the
Demiurge in the same way that a model can be dependent on the human
mind. On this topic, see also Inwood forthcoming (:).
But it is unsatisfactory to leave the issue undeveloped, as Seneca does
here. Ideas conceived of and posited by human minds are nevertheless
dependent on the existence of and familiarity with real external objects
(for example, the concept of a centaur depends on our familiarity with real
horses and real humans). But if the Forms are ideas in gods mind, should
there not be some analogous independent objects to which god looks when
he conceives of and posits his ideas?
For convenience, I reproduce here Sedleys summary of the full ve-
cause theory as attributed to Plato (see Sedley :ooj: +). Sedleys table
draws on the text from 6.8. Compare Timaeus :8a oa.
Type of cause
Prepositional
name
Greek
term
Aristotle,
statue example Plato, Timaeus
+. material id ex quo Bronze matter
:. efcient id a quo Sculptor god
. formal id in quo e.g. doryphoros world order
. nal id propter quod e.g. cash, glory, reli-
gious devotion
goodness (Tim.
:e)
j. paradig-
matic
id ad quod [artists model] [intelligible
model]
rr++ra j +
The introduction of the mind of god in 6.y brings with it a commitment
to the cosmic level of causation present in the Stoic theory but absent from
the simpler Aristotelian account. Gods mind contains all the exemplars
of things to be created and also some moral standards to which one
looks.
The word aspects translates numeros, literally numbers. Compare
y1.16. For the term see Cicero, De Finibus .:=LS H and Stobaeus,
Ecl. :. = LS jK. In both passages a virtuous action is described as
one which has all the numbers. In Cicero the claim is that a morally
right action (recte factum = katorth

oma) has all the numbers of virtue. In

Stobaeus the claim is that a katorth

oma is an appropriate action (kath

ekon)
which has all the numbers or is a perfect appropriate action. For
discussion see The harmonics of Stoic virtue, ch. (esp. p. :++) of
Long +. The term is also employed in the Antiochean critique of
the Stoic view that all wrong actions are equal at Fin. .j (quasi numeros
ofcii the apologetic quasi marks Ciceros self-consciousness about the
borrowing and/or the metaphor). It is noteworthy that this text of Seneca
is seldom mentioned in discussions of the topic. No doubt it should
be, for the aspects or numbers here are of every thing which is to be
done (numeros universorum quae agenda sunt). The mention of agenda
recalls the ordo et concordia rerum agendarum in Ciceros account of how
one learns to be good (Fin. .:+); compare below on 1zo.11. D orrie-
Baltes (vol. : +8), however, hold that the numbers here guarantee a
reference to Timaeus jb and interpret modes (modi) as a translation of
metra (not mentioned at that point in the Timaeus). It is certain that the
Timaeus is in Senecas mind here, but D orrie-Baltess determination to
see Senecas text exclusively in the context of systematic middle-Platonic
doctrine and as focussed on the Timaeus narrows their interpretive options
unnecessarily.
For the question of the prepositional labels for the causes, see my discussion in Inwood
forthcoming (:), esp. the text at nn. o+.
Aristotle is in quotation marks here because the full statue example nowhere occurs
in his works, although it is used by Alexander, De Fato +y.:+:, and Clem. Al. Strom.
VIII .:.:. See Todd +y: +::. There is also, of course, good reason to doubt
that the examples given of an Aristotelian nal cause are, or could be made, acceptable to
Aristotle.
+ cor++av
So when Seneca here attributes to Plato the view that god has in his
mind not only the exemplary forms to which he will look in creating the
world but also the aspects and modes of every thing which is to be done
it is tempting to suppose that this is a periphrasis for the Forms of moral
virtues. Although this letter deals primarily with themes from physics, it
is worth noticing that the Forms of virtue are just as much in gods mind
as they are in the mind of the sage.
It is also worth noting that the form of human is chosen to exemplify
the contrast of permanent forms and transient particulars (for which
compare 8.zz). This suggests a Platonist tradition about the third
man argument based, of course, on an argument in Platos Parmenides but
developed most fully in Aristotles On Forms, esp. fr. +8 R.
6.8 The ve-cause theory is labelled with the prepositional catalogue so
familiar from doxographical or scholastic texts (see D orrie-Baltes, vol. :
+ for the Platonic evidence, but see also S. E. M. +o.+o) and illustrated
with the statue example that runs through all three theories. A sixth cause
is added (novissime) in 6.8: the product of the other causes. This bafing
suggestion is summarily dismissed at the end of 6.1. Sedley :ooj: n.
considers reasons why it may have been included here by Seneca and
suggests that this is meant to be the sufcient condition (the others are
merely necessary conditions). But this is unconvincing and it may be more
economical and truer to Senecas literary character to suppose that he adds
the sixth cause in a virtually satirical spirit to underpin the resounding
conclusion of his refutation in 6.1. But see below ad loc.
6.q1o The causal theory is applied to the world, with the Timaeus
as the main reference. Note that the purpose, which is presented as an
Aristotelian contribution to the inclusive Platonic theory, plays the critical
role of providing the Demiurges motivation (his propositum is goodness;
cf. Timaeus :de). On gods natural goodness, see, e.g., q.6. Compare
also D orrie-Baltes, vol. : :o+ and Sch onegg +: ++.
Sedley :ooj: +j notes that all ve causes are to be thought of as
being implicit in the Timaeus but wonders (n. 8) at the absence of the
Phaedo from Senecas thoughts here. Given the importance of the Phaedo
in the latter half of the letter, it is worth suggesting that the immanent
cause attributed here to Aristotle (the idos) may be regarded as part of the
legacy of the Phaedo.
Given the way the Platonic theory subsumes Aristotles and Aristotles
avoids the cosmic level on which the Stoic theory works, it is natural
rr++ra j +j
to agree with Sedley :ooj and others that the Platonic and Aristotelian
theories are meant to function as a single unit. The only incompatibility
between the theories is Aristotles omission of the exemplar as a cause (that
is, the difference between the formimposed and the separate formto which
the artisan looks in creating his work). Hence, when in 6.1o Lucilius is
challenged to be a judge and decide on the three-part case before him,
his choice is among three theories, but they are not equally distinct from
each other. The choice whether to include a transcendent formal exemplar
might well matter to a Peripatetic (a point which Sedley downplays),
but from a Stoic point of view there is really only one comprehensive
alternative theory to refute. Hence in the refutation 6.111 there is no
distinction between the Peripatetics and Platonists.
6.1o We should note the Ciceronian Academic avour of the way the
question is put to Lucilius here. This ts well with the legal language
about coming to a verdict and with the Timaean associations of the eikos
muthos. In his translation of the Timaeus, however, Cicero renders the
likelihood with the term probabile rather than the term veri simile used
by Seneca in this letter and normally by Cicero, whether his intent is
to invoke Academic scepticism or the notion of plausibility (eikos) of the
rhetorical tradition.
6.11 The Stoic critique treats the Platonic and Aristotelian theories as
one: they are jointly responsible for the swarmof causes (turba causarum).
The Stoic counter-argument is dilemmatic in form. If by cause they mean
primarily the necessary condition (that which if it is removed eliminates
the effect or that which if it had not been present the effect would not
now be present), then several other things should count as causes (time,
place, motion) and the opponents have not named enough causes. On the
other hand, there is a strong intuition articulated by the Stoics (and also in
Hippias Major :ya) that the cause is some one thing that acts to produce
an effect, and by that standard the opponents have produced too many
causes. (For 6.111 see D orrie-Baltes, vol. : :j.)
For basic texts on the Stoic theory of causation, see LS jjA-I with
commentary and Frede +8o, The Original Notion of Cause. It is clear
that behind their basic notion of cause as something because of which and
through whose activity something else occurs, the Stoics also developed
a rich and complex theory of causal factors which left them open to the
rejoinder that they too posited too many causes. But here Seneca focusses
on the central Stoic insight about causation (that a single active cause does
+ cor++av
the work) and applies it primarily to causation at the cosmological level.
This sharpens the contrast with Peripatetic and Platonist theories.
There is an irony in Senecas use of the swarm criticism against
the Peripatetics and Platonists. For Alexander of Aphrodisias directs the
same kind of attack against the Stoics (sm

enos aiti

on at +:.+8 of De
Fato). Similarly in his Metaphysics commentary j:.+ Alexander uses
the phrase a swarm of substances (sm

enos ousi

on). The tradition whereby

one rejects ones opponents uneconomical theory for invoking a swarm
stems ultimately from the Meno, where Socrates objects to Menos swarm
of virtues (sm

enos aret

on y:a). (The dismissively comic overtones of the

word are apparent also at Cratylus o+e.) Plutarch alludes to the passage at
De recta ratione :c and at De amicorum multitudine b, and uses it against
Chrysippus at De virtute morali +b and at Comm. Not. +o8b. The term
was part of the repertoire of inter-school debate at least by the time of
Seneca and for long after. The point of its use is consistent: the opponents
theory is criticized serio-comically for its generation of too many entities.
Seneca will criticize his own school for such ontological excess in 11.
In Phaedo ab it is stipulated that a necessary condition is not properly
speaking a cause; this Platonic idea could be in Senecas mind hereit
would be apt for him to use a Platonic argument against Platonistsbut
there is no explicit invocation of those considerations.
6.1z is meant to block the obvious rejoinder to the criticism that the
opponents theory omits other necessary conditions which have the same
claim to be considered causes as do the ones they cite. This rejoinder
would consist in accepting the criticism and correcting the mistake by
positing an even bigger crowd of causes. Regrettably Senecas reply looks
at rst sight like simple counter-assertion (but what we are now looking
for is a primary and general cause; see too 6.1)unless the preference
for simplicity is somehow built in to the terms of the discussion. Worse,
it is not completely clear whether the we here is meant to be the Stoics
or Seneca and his friends. One hopes the latter, to avoid the imputation
of question-begging. As readers, then, we need to ask how we are to
suppose that these friends framed their question in the rst place. Did
they ask, What is the cause of the natural order (cf. rerum natura 6.z)?
If so, then this move is not so much mere counter-assertion as a reminder
of the point under debate; but even so Senecas reply on behalf of the
Stoics does not set out good reasons for privileging the Stoic analysis.
The most charitable assumption would be that just as 8 showed the
Platonists in pursuit of a high-level general principle (what is) we are to
rr++ra j +y
suppose that they and the Peripatetics also have a commitment to nding
a high-level and general (and therefore simple) account of causation. But
that is not made explicit in 6 itself. Donini (+y: +jy8) takes Senecas
announced preference for a primary and general cause as a privileging
of the Stoic unitary world-view over the pluralistic and hierarchical view
of the Platonists. However, Seneca as author does not tell us how the
question was put, though of course he could easily have done so; nor does
Seneca as correspondent inform Lucilius on this point, though Lucilius is
nevertheless asked to adjudicate the dispute. If the main point of the letter
is to settle a dispute about causation this hardly seems fair to Lucilius or
to the reader.
6.11 The dialectical strategy here is one of elimination by sub-
sumption. Each of the causes mentioned by the other side is reasonable
but dependent on the central cause (a part of it, an instrument of it,
orin the case of the proposituma subsequent cause). The meaning
of subsequent (superveniens) is hard to determine. (D orrie-Baltes, vol. :
say that at this point Senecas meaning becomes dark and confess to
being defeated by the text.) The term may mean temporally following
or supplementary; it is contrasted pointedly here to efcient which
suggests that it is a redundant or superuous factor. Compare the sense
given to epigenn

ematikon by Cicero at Fin. .:.

The interpretation of this section should be controlled by an acknowl-
edgement of its obvious negative aimand this is especially important
for the last point in 6.1 (the rejection of the sixth cause from 6.8),
which is very difcult to interpret. The main difculty is to know what
to make of the sixth cause (see above for some preliminary remarks). On
a reading charitable to Seneca, one might suppose that by this point the
nal cause is not what it was earlier in the letter (the intent of a craft-like
activity by a conscious agent, such as god) but a more properly Aristotelian
nal cause, the fully achieved nished product as a good or goal. This
might represent an Aristotelian reading of nal cause as applied to the
Timaeus. If so, then it is in fact identiable with the effectthe nal cause
just is the nished product of the causal process. The objection made by
Seneca, then, is reasonable but highly polemical. If we follow Sedleys
interpretation (:ooj: +y, n. ) instead, that the sixth cause is the
conjunction of all the necessary conditions and so also to be regarded as a
cause, indeed the cause then we can see this as an effort by the Platonists
to isolate what Seneca asks fora single general cause; i.e., the causa
generalis asked for in 6.1 was being anticipated by the Platonists in 6.8.)
+8 cor++av
On either interpretation (the sixth cause is a proper nal cause and
Seneca then criticizes it for being identical with the effect; or the sixth
cause is the conjunction of all necessary conditions and so amounts to a
single general cause) the Aristotelian-Platonic theory is vulnerable from
the Stoic perspective.
6.1 countless. Cf. 8.18.
6.1 The dialectical moves of 6.1z1 are followed by the dichoto-
mous instruction to Lucilius: either decide among the competing theories
of causation or ask for renewed argument on the grounds that the issue
is unclear. Lucilius imagined response to this is a brusque challenge
to Seneca to justify the time spent on natural philosophy, referred to
contemptuously as those issues (ista).
This (with Senecas reply) forms the pull-away or detachment from
the subject-matter of the reported discussion and the transition to the
concluding discussion of the benet of studying physics. Cf. e.g., 8.,
8.q, 8.z. 1z1.1: What does this have to do with ethics? is the
culmination of such rhetorical questions.
But Senecas instructions to Lucilius are puzzling. Why does Seneca
not press his advantage and urge Lucilius to side with the Stoics? The
refutation is, after all, virtually complete and there is no apparent reason
why he should regard the issue as undecidable. To answer this, we need
to consider a larger question about the rhetorical strategy of the letter,
in particular why Seneca becomes so indifferent to the way the debate is
resolved. I see two possibilities. (+) If (as the sequel suggests, see below)
it is because the process of debate in natural philosophy (rather than its
content) is the real source of benet, then it makes sense for him to draw
us in, leave it hanging, and then get out of the discussion to dwell on the
benets of such enquiry.
Another possibility (:) is that the reader is supposed to notice that
Senecas interest in the topic of his friends discussion has waned by this
point, that he is tired of discussing it and wishes to disengage in order to
return to reection on his own interests, the ones he was writing about
before the interruption which was the occasion of this letter. Perhaps
Senecas philosophical intensity peaked with the personal writing he was
doing as he was interrupted. This intense engagement then sustained
itself as he began to discuss causation with his friends, so that he stayed
aggressive at the start of the debate he narrates. As the debate continued,
rr++ra j +
though, we are to recognize that Senecas interest in the issue fades rapidly
until at 6.1 he simply loses interest.
Maurach (+yo: +) describes the invitation to Lucilius to decide as a
friendly ction, though it is scarcely a friendly act to take the right to
adjudicate which he has given to Lucilius right out of his mouth and
Maurach is driven to regarding the invitation to judge at 6.1 as a mere
trope (eine Floskel).
6.1 I investigate myself rst may be designed (a) to indicate what
Seneca was working on when his friends interrupted or (b) it may be
no more than an indication of his general practice when dealing with
philosophical matters. Interpretation (a) coheres well with possibility
(:) above and (b) with possibility (+).
The interpretation of this section and of the nature of the pull-away
turns partly on the correct reading for the corrupt word peiora. My
translation assumes Henses emendation potiora more important issues.
I. Hadot (+: ++j, n. 8:), however, argues for retention of peiora.
more important issues, ones which soothe the mind. The phrasing
leaves it an open question whether the importance of these issues consists
in their soothing the mind or whether their capacity to soothe the mind is
an attribute distinct from their importance on other grounds.
6.16 now (nunc) probably means nowat the time of writing the letter,
despite the absence of the epistolary imperfect. But it may also mean when
I am discussing things like this, i.e., physics more generally.
chopped up and dispersed. Senecas claim is that the general topics
of cosmology are rewarding but that excessive analysis and self-indulgent
debate about details of theory undermine the usefulness of the topic. It
is easy to grant that from Senecas point of view the differences between
the Aristotelian and the Platonist views on causation constitute needless
technicality (subtilitas). But it is not quite so clear that the choice between
the inclusive Platonist theory and the Stoic theory is pointlessly technical.
If, however, Seneca thinks that the central cosmological doctrines of
Timaean Platonism and of Stoic cosmology are convergent in their
content and in their signicance for decisions about how to live a good
life, then the view advanced here is not so unreasonable. And there
are many similarities of just the right sort. Both cosmologies rest upon
the creative activities of a rational and benecent god who acts in a
craftsmanlike way but is constrained by the nature and limitations of
the matter with which he works. In Stoicism and Platonism the godlike
+jo cor++av
character of human rationality is highly relevant to our prospects for virtue
and happiness. And both theories are dependent on a form of body-soul
dualism, although the underlying metaphysical commitments may be very
different. (See Inwood :ooj: j and nn. +8+. Note, however, Donini
(+y: +j8) who maintains that Seneca is committed to a much more
dualistic metaphysical system than earlier Stoics.)
The urgency of conducting physics properly is rooted in the needs of
our mind to be released and liberated, something which serious discussion
of physics can do. The need for liberation lies in a conception of human
mental life not unlike that of the Phaedo.
The body is conceived of as a burden, a weight, a punishment, as chains.
Furthermore the mind is portrayed as being alienated from its proper
context and wishing to return to something it used to be part of. This
strong afliation with the Phaedo does not, of course, commit Seneca to the
notion of an incorporeal soul. Stoic physics recognizes the physical nature
of the soul while acknowledging its fundamental difference from the body
and its potential to outlast the body (see the range of evidence collected at
SVF :.8o::, esp. D.L. y.+jy, A etius .y., Arius Didymus fr. Diels
at Doxographi Graeci, p. y+). If Tacitus account of Senecas own death
by suicide is to be trusted, we might conclude that his commitment to a
Stoic version of the psychology of the Phaedo was sincere and decisive,
for in that account Senecas behaviour and words are modelled closely
on those of Socrates. Elsewhere in his philosophical works Seneca takes a
similarly Platonic view of the benet to be had from the proper conduct
of physics, that cosmic speculation is a consolation and diversion from the
bodys burdens. Tacitus narrative would (if reliable) provide us with a
precious indication of the life and commitments behind Senecas authorial
mask, but it is just as likely that his narrative reects an established genre
of philosophical death narratives modelled on the Phaedo as that it reects
a trend for philosophers to emulate Socrates in their deaths.
The word libertas (freedom) could also be rendered liberation. The
emphasis could be on either the state of freedom attained by philosophy
or the process of becoming free. The word escape translates evagatio,
but the connotations of the term are not certain. Other possibilities are
diversion, ight, roaming.
Donini (+y: +8y) argues that the conjunction of the theme of
liberty with the Platonist physics here commits Seneca to a conception
of philosophy which is fundamentally at odds with Stoicism. This seems
an exaggerated conclusion, produced in part by the conviction that
the Platonic inuence on Seneca comes exclusively from contemporary
rr++ra j +j+
scholastic middle Platonism. (One of Doninis main themes in this work
is the choice Seneca faced between a Platonist and a Stoic image of
the world and philosophy.) If, as we might prefer to think, the inuence
comes in part from Senecas own reection on the dialogues of Plato, then
the choice Seneca faces is less stark and the alleged departure from Stoic
orthodoxy is less signicant. (Bickel +o: +8:o can see nothing in this
section except a moral diatribe against the human body, which seems to
me to be a needlessly unnuanced assessment.)
Comparable themes can be found in less markedly Platonic works of
Seneca. See, e.g., z.1y, 1.11, 66.1z, y8.1o, qz., De Otio j, Cons. Helv.
++ esp. y, Cons. Marc. :.j.
6.1y This analogy between the minds need for recreation and that felt
by certain kinds of artisans effectively illustrates the cramped experience
of the mind trapped in the body. It also echoes the earlier and more
technical discussion in two ways. The example of the artisan picks up
the role of artisans in the causal discussion and the description of the
subject-matter of physics as rerum natura here (and in 6.16) harks back
to 6.z. Compare also 8.z, Tranq. An. +y.8, NQ + pref.
6.18 Phaedo :b describes the lot of human beings as like being in a
phroura or guard station. Seneca (like many others) clearly interprets this
as being on duty in the guard station rather than as being in a prison. Hence
the wise person is here compared to a soldier on a tour of duty (for which
cf. 1.6 and 1zo.1z), with the same obligation to stay at his post (i.e., to stay
alive) until released from duty by his superiors (the gods in the Phaedo).
The density of the allusions to the Phaedo is striking in the latter half
of this letter. Above and beyond Senecas deep commitment to some
form of body-soul dualism and the idea that an appropriate grasp of
natural philosophy has salvic force in human life, the dialogue is also
signicant because it engages explicitly and at some length with the main
philosophical theme of this letter, causation. As Cicero paid homage to
Platos Phaedrus in the De Oratore even while taking a different view on its
central theme (the relationship between rhetoric and philosophy), so here
Seneca makes it clear that his discussion of physics, causation, and the
signicance of life and death is replying to the Phaedo without necessarily
committing himself to its doctrines.
higher things await him (ampliora superesse) need not refer to an
afterlife nor (contra Donini +y: +o, cited with approval by Sedley :ooj:
+8, n. j:) need it be incompatible with a Stoic understanding of human
+j: cor++av
life. The contrast between mortal life and higher things can be contained in
ones lifejust as one need not die to athanatizein (EN ++yyb). Donini
(+y: +8:) takes Seneca to be articulating an essentially un-Stoic
view of theoretical philosophy as a model for life. On the contrary, Seneca
makes it clear that the reward for theoretical activity is the adoption
of a correct understanding of the relationship between mind and body
(6.z1) which makes possible an appropriately Stoic freedom of choice
(see Freedom and Autonomy, ch. ++ of Inwood :ooj). Donini interprets
the references to freedom here as indications of a purely theoretical view
of human fullment, and when Seneca draws out the practical rewards of
cosmological speculation in 6.z1z he sees this as a shift back to a Stoic
theme from the middle Platonic commitments of 6.16zo. There is no
need to posit such a discontinuity in Senecas exposition. Doninis highly
Platonist reading of 6.16zo is supported largely with parallels from the
Didaskalikos and Aspasius commentary on the EN (and supported by a
biographically reductive speculation on pp. +y, +). But such parallels
are of doubtful weight and the letter read in its own right does not require
such a disunied reading (for Donini +y: +j, 6 is an embarrassingly
disunied letter, one of the least unied texts in the corpus of Seneca).
best part of himself . Cf. y1.z, y8.1o, NQ + pref. +, a pref. :o.,
Const. Sap. .. At De Finibus .:8 the Stoics are criticized for treating
humans as being nothing but their minds. Cf. Cicero, Rep. .: where the
identity of a person with his or her mind (and god) is asserted bluntly by
Scipio.
6.1qzz Seneca reverts sharply to the objection he imagined coming
fromLucilius at 6.1 and responds to it with a series of pointed rhetorical
questions, the presupposition of which is that Lucilius has intended
to dissuade him from all study of physics and not just from abusive
over-indulgence in technicalities. Senecas purpose here is to provide a
dramatic illustration of and argument for the utility of physics which
will address the concerns of someone (like Lucilius) who believes that all
study of physics is useless. That view of physics is not, of course, new
in Senecas day; it is the explicit teaching of Aristo of Chios, a student
of Zeno of Citium. Aristos views are always taken seriously by Seneca,
and rightly so. For he had considerable independence and philosophical
power and seems to have preserved a strand of Cynic teaching within the
framework of the Stoic school. In Senecas own day Cynicismwas much in
vogue, which may help to explain his interest in a long-dead philosopher
rr++ra j +j
whose views did not become dominant in the school. Explicit references
to Aristo are found at 6.6, 8q.1, q passim, 11.8.
6.181q, especially 6.1q are very like the themes in the preface of
NQ +, another extensive apologia for the conduct of physics. (Compare
also De Otio j.) Many of the cosmological themes considered for physical
enquiry are similar (though NQ has a much more extensive account), but
see in particular the climax at NQ + pref. +y: investigating these things,
learning them, dwelling on themis this not what it means to transcend
mortality and to be transferred to a better lot? You say, what good will
those things [ista] do you? If nothing else, at least this: I shall know that
all things are small when you measure them against god. As here in 6
we see the challenge of the supposed interlocutor (you say) rebutted by
a vigorous assertion of the benet of doing physics. In NQ it is somewhat
clearer that the moral benet adduced represents a minimal claim about
the utility of physics, not the entire case. When Seneca says if nothing
else, at least this we should take him at his word and assume that when
not arguing against an Aristonian denial of any utility to physics he might
make even larger claims.
6.zo1 Note the theme of slavery to ones own body developed here,
which emphasizes the claim that reection on our minds association with
the divine is a form of liberation. The afnity of the human mind with
god is a claim made in particularly strong form by Stoics, who hold that
there is no qualitative difference between the mind of a sage and that
of Zeus. As the Stoic god is a cosmogonic force, so too is the creator
god of Platos Timaeus, the Demiurge. Seneca is suggesting here another
strong connection between physics and human fullment. The connection
between the theme of human/god similarity and cosmology is another
unifying theme of this supercially disunied letter.
For the treatment of reincarnation as an open question compare
1o8.1qz1.
laws of human servitude. Cf. Cons. Polyb. .8, Cons. Marc. ::j,
Cicero, Rep. .+, NQ + pref. +++:.
6.z1 born for greater things. Compare 6.16, the mind wants to
return to the things it used to be part of and 1zo.1 it is the most
powerful proof that a mind comes from some loftier place if it judges these
things that it deals with to be base and narrow, if it is not afraid to take its
+j cor++av
leave the mind which remembers where it came from knows where it is
going to go. Also NQ + pref. +++: and De Otio j. In Stoicism the human
mind is composed of pneuma in a certain tension. On some versions of
Stoic physics, so is god. God is, of course, the ultimate origin of the entire
cosmos. Hence it is not at all difcult to interpret claims such as this (and
1.1 on the god within) in a Stoic manner; of course it is also easy to take
them in a Platonic manner, or at least in a manner compatible with some
Platonic dialogues and some Platonist treatises. But that is no reason to
see such passages as evidence of un-Stoic commitments by Seneca.
6.z1 Seneca here displays a peculiarly mixed attitude to the body. It is
a bond, but it is also a protection for ones liberty against fortune. This
view of how we live in the body and use it as a buffer zone for human
freedom seems to be original. Senecas view is that since the mind and
the body are distinct, what happens to the body is not a misfortune for
the mind (which is the genuine person). Hence accepting wounds in
the body can and should be viewed as a protection for the person, i.e.,
the mind, though seeing this, requires that we accept that harm done to
the body is not harm to the person. The body, so easily seen as the source
of our vulnerability, as our hostage to fortune, becomes our shield against
it when we adopt the correct view about its value and its relation to the
mind. For the criticism of Stoics as holding in effect that the person is
only the mind and not also the body, see Cicero, Fin. .:8 and above
on 6.18.
6.zz Since the body is distinct fromthe mind and not of ultimate value,
the mind will never make otherwise bad decisions out of deference to
it. For example, it will never believe that impending harm to the body
is bad (a source of the emotion fear) and will never stoop to forms of
inauthenticity (such as pretence and lying). The distinctness of mind
from body also facilitates the dissolution of their partnership. The legal
and nancial metaphor here (a commercial partnership) carries the strong
implication that the association between mind and body is inessential,
driven by temporary community of interest, and easily revocable. The
asymmetry in authority for deciding to end the partnership is vital to
Senecas understanding of the relationship of mind to body. (See I. Hadot
+: +o+, n. +8.) Their union and shared fate is expressed by the idea of
a partnership; the independence of the mind is expressed by the assertion
of its unfettered right to dissolve the partnership at will (when I see t).
Seneca here takes some basic ideas of the Phaedo further than Plato did,
rr++ra +jj
expressing them with original metaphors which have implications that are
simultaneously more extreme and more insightful.
6.z Seneca returns to the cosmological theme and outlines the
relevance of the content of the Stoic doctrine (rather than the mere process
of doing cosmological speculation) to a view about human happiness.
Despite the willingness of Seneca in the middle of this letter to urge
suspension of judgement about the content of the doctrines, in the end he
claims that the kind of detachment of mind from body required by true
freedom actually requires specically Stoic views: the dualism of god and
matter is parallel to the dualism of mind and body.
Above (6.z) it was noted that Seneca focussed on the basic dualism
of the Stoic principles (god and matter) even though the discussion
was about causation and only god counted as a cause. Here we see
why. The conclusion of the letter requires a clear commitment to the
dualism of god and matter, since it is that dualism which constitutes
the crucial parallel to mind and body (god: matter :: mind: body).
The former are guides and leaders for and superior to the latter. Yet
both the former and the latter are needed to form single entities. This
is a kind of dualism that falls short of being substance dualisman
important renement on Platonism. The value polarity between humans
and nature (superior/inferior) is found explicitly in Aristotle, who also
avoids substance dualism.
This view is perhaps isomorphic with Platonic dualism; but it is
a different dualism. The contrast of Stoicism to other schools within
this letter (and in 8) underscores the importance to Seneca of Stoic
afliations. Nevertheless the letter closes with an allusion to Platos
Apology of Socrates, just as 8 opened with it. I. Hadot (+: 8, +)
argues that this exploitation of the Apology does not indicate a weakening
of Senecas Stoic commitments. This is surely correct, but the long
shadow of Platos Socratic dialogues cannot help but inuence our view
of Senecas place in the history of ancient thought.
Commentary on
Thematic division
+: Claranus introduced. The setting of the discussion.
j: The question posed. How can it be that all goods are equal?
+: The nature of the good (i.e., the virtuous mind).
+j cor++av
++y: Challenge to the uniform nature of virtuous dispositions,
and the rejoinder.
+8:y: Anticipated counterexample from common sense and the
rejoinder based on our moral intuitions.
:8: Return to a broadly conceptual argument for the equality
of goods.
o+: Judgements about the good.
:j: The role of reason (rather than the senses) in determining
value.
y: The rational basis for distinctions among goods (the role of
the natural).
8: The relationship of the good and the natural.
j8: Comparison to Epicurean doctrine.
j: Why unfavourable circumstances might be preferredan
extravagant nale.
The dramatic setting for this letter is reminiscent of 6. The intro-
duction to 6 and to 8 provide some comment on Senecas relationship
to contemporary Platonism and other philosophical schools. Particularly
relevant background can be found in LS o+ and relevant discussion in
Maurach +yo: +yj. See also Eden +8: +:8.
66.1 Claranus appears only here in the corpus (for a speculation
as to his identity see the Bud e edition ad loc.). Senecas characters are
normally real, though underdocumented. We need to imagine the implicit
setting Seneca creates. Claranus was a fellow student in Senecas youth.
At whose school? Perhaps that of Sotion or, more likely, that of Attalus,
not implausible if one judges from the references throughout Senecas
works (Sotion: q.z, 1o8.1yzo; Attalus: q.y, 6., 6y.1, yz.8, 81.zz, 1o8
passim, 11o.1, zo, NQ :.8jo). If so, then Attalus rather ascetic version
of Stoicism should be kept in mind for this letter. Notice too that a sharp
polarization of body and soul is introduced at the beginning and returns in
the culmination of the letter with the contrast of the contributions of reason
and the senses to the making of value assessments. This recalls the themes
of 6 and is, again, consistent with what we know of Attalus teaching.
66.1 Nature has been unfair. Nature could never really be unfair,
despite the way things look to the untutored eye. (See 66.6 for the
role of nature in setting norms.) Hence the immediate self-correction (Or
maybe ) which draws attention to the difference between the common
rr++ra +jy
view of misfortune such as Claranus and the philosophically informed
view, which holds that such misfortune is, contrary to appearances,
providential. The providential function of his case is to illustrate a vital
philosophical truth about the relationship of mind and body. Note that
Claranus is portrayed as having despised himself for his disguring
misfortune before he came to appreciate the true value of bodily and
mental attributes.
poor location for the soul. Cf. 8. where the body is treated as a
building one may leave; 6.1y, z1 where it is a dwelling; 1zo.1 (and
1oz.z) where it is a guest-house. For Lucretius (.o) the body is a
container (vas) for the soul, which reminds us that body/soul dualism is
not the exclusive preserve of Platonists or metaphysical dualists.
66.z When cited by Seneca, Vergil is more often an inspiration than a
foil. But here he is introduced (like the common view in 66.1) only to be
corrected. As the rest of the letter argues, it is inconceivable that virtues
worth could be increased by any circumstance. More signicant is the
claim that an assessment of Claranus character did not merely outweigh
Senecas assessment of Claranus body, but it changed his assessment of it.
66. That a great man may come from humble origins is supported
by a Platonic maxim at . (the whole letter is pertinent to the theme
of 66). The hut (casa) as a sign of humble social origins is a familiar
Roman clich e; see, e.g., Romuli casa at Valerius Maximus :.8 pr. and
..++.:+; Lucretius j.+o++; most aptly Seneca the Elder, Controversiae
+... Powerful leaders who rose fromhumble origin include the general
Marius.
The analogy (person: social setting :: mind: body), where the hut
represents ones social setting, carries on the theme of body/soul dualism.
It also invokes the image of body as container for the soul. See on 66.1.
naked minds. See also y6.z. This brings to mind the myth of the
Gorgias (j:), in which even the judges of the underworld could not make
a proper assessment of the dead as long as they were judged in conjunction
with their bodies, where body includes social circumstances. Hence the
decision by Zeus to have naked souls judged. (Compare the value of
death in improving moral judgements at Ben. .++.j and see Inwood :ooj:
:+++:.) Seneca is perhaps trying to get Platonic results without adopting
Platonic substance dualism; the goodness of Claranus is visible even while
he remains in his body. (For the Stoic view that virtues are visible, see
+j8 cor++av
1o6.y and commentary.) The fact that moral excellence can be discerned
even through a failing or defective body underlines the independence of
such excellence from considerations of the body. In the Platonic dialogue
this point had to be made in a myth: the only way a human character could
be abstracted from bodily considerations is by supposing body and soul to
be fully separated after death, a circumstance not amenable to observation
(let alone to replication in ones own life experience). By contrast, even
in life someone like Claranus permits a discerning observer to see at one
and the same time both the moral excellence and the physical obstacles.
Senecas claim is that this is a state of affairs providentially intended by
Nature so that moral exempla will be available to observers to be imitated
(the practical interest is indicated by virtue can come to exist in any
place). For further thoughts on such exemplarity, see 1zo and Getting
to Goodness (ch. +o of Inwood :ooj).
66. exemplar. After the occurrences of exemplars in the Platonic
sense in 8 and 6 this point is unlikely to be accidental. If a Platonic
form is an exemplar towards which one looks in ones attempt to create
something, then a morally exemplary person like Claranus may also be
that to which one looks in trying to create ones own good character. This
is how the moral paradigms of human life (both historical exempla and
exceptional contemporaries) are to be understood. See also on 1zo.
66. There were several days of conversation and an account of them
all is promised. Yet no other letter refers back to this setting; where we
might have expected that this be the rst of a sequence of letters on
connected themes, we get only one letter. This is an example of epistolary
verisimilitude created by intentional incompleteness. Here we are told
explicitly that 66 is the account of day one, but there is no day two. This
studied informality contrasts with Ciceros careful control of dramatic
setting in his dialogues. It is noteworthy that Seneca writes philosophical
works deliberately in a genre (letters) for which Cicero was famous but
which he not did not use for philosophy.
66.6 Three kinds of good. The term for kind here is condicio, which
also means circumstance or condition. See also 8y.6. Both facets of the
meaning are relevant to the discussion. For philosophically alert readers,
though, any threefold subdivision of goods would immediately bring to
mind the tria genera bonorum (goods of the soul, of the body, and external
goods) in Academic and Peripatetic philosophy (see D.L. .8o+ with the
rr++ra +j
note of Brisson ad loc., j.o) also well attested in Cicero: Top. 8, Ac.
+.:+::, Fin. .+, j.8, j.8, Tusc. j.:, j.y, etc. It appears in the
Aristotelian Divisiones. In fact, Seneca uses that language at 66.zq below.
The Stoic tripartition of goods into those of the soul (virtues and their
activities), externals (having a virtuous friend or homeland), and those that
are neither of the soul nor externals (being virtuous and happy for oneself )
relies on the basic denition of good as virtue or what participates in virtue
and seems to have been arranged as a tripartition in response to the Aca-
demic and Peripatetic classications (D.L. y., cf. Stobaeus Ecl. :.yo).
The maincontrast discussedby Seneca in66 is that betweenprimary and
secondary goods: those we choose in unconstrained situations and those
we choose only when circumstances are dreadful. This is a classication
of goods otherwise unknown in Stoic theory. See below on 66.6y
for Senecas articulation of the basis for the classication in the theory of
indifferents. This threefold classication is shown eventually to be sensible
from the point of moral persuasion and decision-making. The tertiary
goods of 66 (socially contingent factors like appropriate gait, posture,
and expression) are also invoked in Ciceros De Ofciis as elements of
the ofcium of decorum (+.+:8); such factors play a role in Aristotles
account of some social virtues as well, such as megalopsuchia (e.g., EN
++:ja+:+).
The marked difference between Senecas threefold classication and
the traditional tria genera suggests that the letter intentionally invokes the
doctrine of three kinds of goods in order to raise the issue of the contrast
between Stoic and Academic/Peripatetic classications of the goodan
issue which was central to Ciceros De Finibus. (It also continues the
theme of counting and classication seen in 8 and 6.) Stoic theory
regards bodily and external goods (the other two genera in the competing
classication) as preferred indifferents (whose indifference consists in
their not contributing to the telos of a happy life and whose preferredness
consists in their selective value established by nature); only virtue and
what participates in it contribute to a happy life. The Stoic criticism of
the Peripatetic scheme rested on the view that recognition of bodily and
external goods gave thema role, however small, in the happiest life. This is
a sustainable interpretation of Aristotles position and the common ancient
view was that Theophrastus ethics left him even more vulnerable to the
charge that external and therefore contingent factors were being allowed
to affect happiness. The Antiochean view of Fin. j has to defend itself
against this. See Irwin +8; also I. Hadot +: 8y.
+o cor++av
unconditionally renders derecto. The central idea is that there are no
complicating or mediating factors.
unfortunate circumstances. Circumstances are the materia, rawmateri-
al (hul

e) of virtue. In this letter Seneca is arguing (+) that the circumstances

(res below) do not determine the moral quality of our actions or attitudes
but are the mere raw material, (:) that the conditions of our bodies are
mere circumstances and not components of our moral condition, and
() all raw materials permit of good action. The case of Claranus is meant
to illustrate these claims with a concrete and personal exemplum even as
the letter gives arguments for them.
66.6 The main question is put. The equality of primary and secondary
goods will seem problematic if we take different attitudes to them (desire
and aversion). This issue is addressed below (66.1, 66.1q) with the
distinction between choosing and selecting, which parallels the distinction
between good things and preferred indifferents. See Inwood +8j: ch. .
As in 8.8, Seneca claims that a preliminary bit of doctrine will facilitate
the solution. Here Seneca must explain what the primary good is like in
order to compare it with secondary goods. Note that Seneca has shifted
from primary goods (in the plural) in 66. to a single primary good in 66.6
without remarking on the change. In 66. he included a number of things
which would be chosen for their own sakes as examples of a primary good
without restricting himself to technical Stoic goods. Here he has in view
a more narrowly Stoic understanding of the good. Since on Stoic theory
the good is virtue and what participates in virtue and since virtue is a
state of the rational soul, the central instance of the good will be a virtuous
condition of the rational soul, i.e., the mind or h

egemonikon (this is made

explicit at the end of 66.6). Since, as we see in later letters (1o6, 11y),
qualities are not other than the body of which they are qualities, the theory
here gives an early hint of the metaphysical subtlety which lies at the core
of Senecas Stoicism. The close relationship between such a mind and the
life it lives is articulated at qz..
The catalogue of the minds meritorious traits is intriguing. It includes
the following:
(i) Theoretical virtue (devotion to the truth).
(ii) Experience in practical decision-making. This is perhaps an
aspect of the experience (empeiria) of what happens by nature
recognized as part of the goal of life by Chrysippus (Ecl.
:.yj. D.L. y.8y, Fin. .+); even more pertinent are Stobaeus
rr++ra ++
Ecl. :..+: and :.+o:.:o: where it is noted that the sage
makes use of experience in matters bearing on human life.
(iii) Sound axiology based on nature rather than convention or
opinion (for which compare 81.y8).
(iv) A focus on cosmology as a reference point for life (for which
see 8.z ff., 6.1q ff. and notes; also NQ + pref.; see Maurach
+yo: +8, +j).
(v) Equal attention to thought and action (compare the logikos bios
of D.L. y.+o).
(vi-vii) Greatness of soul (magnitudo animi), for whichthere are parallels
at, e.g., De Vita Beata 8., Const. Sap. .:, y1..
(viii) An attractive orderliness (cf. 1z.18).
(ix) Temperance and constantia.
This is not a mechanical or canonical list of the attributes of virtue, but
distinctively Stoic traits are well represented. Compare Cleanthes verse
catalogue of the attributes of virtue in the Hymn to Zeus (SVF +.jjy); also
1zo.11. Further parallels can be found in the notes to the Bud e edition
ad loc. Helpful discussion in Maurach +yo: +8o and I. Hadot +:
+o+, +o8.
66.y This sectionbuilds ona distinctionbetweenvirtues nature (its facies
or appearance if seen as a whole) and its various observable manifestations
in particular circumstances of lifewhere one can see the psychological
traits of others. The contrast between essence and appearance lies behind
this distinction. Plato (in the Meno and Protagoras) had rejected a pluralist
andsociallyrelativistic account of virtue, andearlier Stoics were committed
to some version of the unity of virtues. Here the idea is that there is a
single underlying virtue and a variety of manifestations of it in different
circumstances; this does not commit Seneca clearly to either the Aristonian
or the Chrysippean position on the unity of virtue. See Schoeld +8,
and below on 11.
66.y8 This position permits any apparent differences in the character
of virtue to be attributed to its merely overt manifestations and the varied
circumstances in which it acts; Senecas claim would be that although
there are signicant differences among situations involving virtue, those
differences are not in virtue itself. Seneca does not need to deny that there
are important differences in the situations we see, but can nevertheless
argue that closer analysis of the situation reveals a unity of virtue behind
+: cor++av
the appearances. Seneca goes further and claims that virtue shapes the
moral quality of the various actions it underliesjust as in 66.z Claranus
psychological merits caused Seneca to change his perception of his physical
defects. Compare also 1..
The further claim and so its power and magnitude cannot rise higher
is permitted rather than compelled by the claims made so far. A more
limited claim would be merely that since variations in apparent value can
be attributed to circumstances there is no necessity to posit variability in
virtue. Is there, then, a basis for Senecas claim that virtue cannot vary?
At the end of 66.8 and in 66.q a conceptual argument is made for the
invariance of virtue. If virtue is (by denition) something maximal, as a
perfection would be, then it cannot increase. If it is comparable to the
straight, the true, and the balanced then it cannot vary in those respects,
since each of them is an absolute; virtue, then, is to be thought of as a
limiting term and ought not to admit of variation. The claim that virtue
is by nature an all-inclusive perfection is grounded in the eudaimonist
tradition.
For the general Stoic view on the equality of virtue, see D.L. y.+o+,
y.+:o, Comm. Not. +oya = LS +J, Epict. Gnom. j Schenkl. The
theme dominates the rest of this letter (see esp. 66.11,1,z8z) and
recurs in y1 (see esp. y1.8,16,z1); cf. yq.1o. The doctrine is invoked as
well at 11.16. The metaphysical foundation for this ethical doctrine is
expressed well by Simplicius (In Cat. CIAG vol. 8: :y.:j:8.: =
SVF :. = LS yS) who informs us that the Stoics dened diathesis
and hexis differently than Aristotle. For Aristotle (Cat. 8), a diathesis is a
long-lasting and stable condition, while a hexis can be relatively transitory.
For the Stoics, says Simplicius, a diathesis is a state which cannot vary in
degree while a hexis can: virtues, according to the Stoics, are diatheseis.
The Stoics and Aristotle agreed that virtue and knowledge are diatheseis
but (according to Simplicius) differed about the trait in virtue of which
they count as diatheseis. Aristotle thought that durability and difculty
of change were key; the Stoics thought that invariance in degree was
central. It is important to note, however, that Simplicius does not deny
(at :y.:8.+) that the Stoics held that virtue was stable and hard to
change. See Rieth +: ch. j; I. Hadot +: +o:, n. : and +o:.
66.q consists in a limit, in modo. It is not immediately clear whether
modus is meant to represent a mean (Greek meson) as in an Aristotelian
account of virtue or a limit (Greek horos) as is suggested by measure
(mensura). Pr echac (in the notes to the Bud e edition) suggests the former
rr++ra +
interpretation, but the argument which follows in this letter points rather
to the latter view.
66.1o The univocity of the good is asserted without further support, but
plausibly enough in the context of this argument. A univocal conception
of the good seems to be Platonic doctrine and Stoics had already dened
the good as the useful (see CHHP 8yo). This assumption of univocity
(see CHHP ) forestalls the suggestion that personal advantage and
the advantage of a social group to which one belongs might both be goods
and nevertheless conict with each other in a given situation. Cicero too
(Off. .++, cf. Leg. +.) had argued that personal and public benet
were convergent when properly understood. Seneca does not defend
this premiss about the good here but draws a conclusion that is quite
appropriate in view of the denition of the good, that the virtues and
everything that participates in them (actions and agents) are equal.
the virtues are equal to each other. Compare Ben. y.+, where Seneca
asserts that all favours are equal (since they are the actions of a virtuous
soul) but that the material means of expressing those favours may be
greater or lesser. This is an instance of the relationship between the
virtues and the indifferents which make up their circumstances or raw
material.
66.111z Human virtue is linked to the divine (which is agreed to be
perfect and so invariant) rather than to the relative perfections of lower
entities on the scala naturae which admit of variation. It is standard Stoic
doctrine, often echoed in Seneca (e.g., NQ + pref. +, 1, qz.zy, 1z.1),
that (a) god is reason, (b) a human being is rational, and (c) reason is what
connects us with the divine.
The argument here is less clear and persuasive than one might like. It
is, of course, not true that plants and animals have virtues, since they lack
reason. But this is merely a point of usage, since virtue has an extended
sense in which it applies to the relevant excellence of any object (compare
y.1y, 1z.111 and Chrysippus recognition of a looser use of the term
good: St. Rep. +o8a = LS j8H).
More worrisome is the correlation asserted here between the transitori-
ness of non-rational natures and the issue of whether their excellence can
be invariant in degree. For there is no reason that the two issues should be
linked. Seneca seems to be exploiting in an illegitimate way two distinct
defects of non-rational beings, their variability and their transitoriness.
+ cor++av
This argument, then, relies solely on an association of traits (comports
well); Socrates uses comparable arguments in the Phaedo (y88o).
On the other hand, Senecas positive claim need not be wholly under-
mined by this weakness. Human rationality is held to be of divine quality
when it is perfected (see Comm. Not. +oya = LS +J); and the divine
is plausibly held to be a limiting condition of goodness; hence human
rationality when perfected (i.e., virtue) must also be a limiting condition
of goodness. Hence it cannot increase (no greater goodness is possible) nor
can it be reduced without ceasing to be what it is. And this is true whether
the perfection lasts for a split-second (Plutarch, Comm. Not. +o+f and
other texts at SVF .j and .j) or for the entire duration of time until
the next conagration puts an end even to those souls which survive bodily
death (D.L. y.+jy).
are depleted and pass away. In pursuit of strict symmetry with the
paired verbs which follow, Shackleton-Bailey (+yo: j) would supply
are depleted <and grow again, come to be> and pass away. This seems
unnecessary and intrusive.
66.1z The argument seems to be:
+. Reason is divine.
:. Everything good has reason.
. Therefore everything good is divine.
. There is no distinction of value among divine things.
j. Therefore there is no distinction of value among goods.
To make it valid, several quite charitable assumptions would have to be
made. Its conclusion (j) is meant to follow from its premisses, of course;
but its plausibility is reinforced by the use of the distinction between
virtue and its manifestations to explain away the apparent indications that
different circumstances are characterized by different degrees of goodness.
66.1 The siege of Numantia (++ uc) was a famous event in
Roman history. In this exploitation of it, the point is that the conqueror
and the conquered both showed virtue to the same degree even though
their external circumstances differed enormously. Roman admiration for
the valour of the defeated Numantians could be taken for granted, as
could a general appreciation of Scipios virtue. Hence Seneca can expect
acceptance of his argument that if such a life-and-death difference did not
affect virtue, then a fortiori nothing else would.
resolve renders animus, elsewhere usually translated mind.
rr++ra +j
66.1 The contrast of what is invariant in a situation (its goodness)
and what is variable (the intermediates or the indifferent aspects of the
attendant circumstances, ta periest

ekota). Seneca seems to think that the

contrast made here is plausible in itself; but in fact this is an informal
account of a Stoic technical doctrine (hinted at with the term media). For
the sense of natural used here, see 66.1q.
66.1 Virtue as contrasted with its materia. The Greek term is hul

e; see
Comm. Not. +oe = SVF .+ = LS jA. Seneca again invokes the
conceptual argument: as a perfection virtue cannot vary in degree.
66.161y Argument based on the agreed characteristics of the hon-
ourable (honestum, to kalon).
contentment renders sibi placere (see OLD placeo + c). In the Bud e this
is translated la satisfaction intime. Maurach (+yo: ++) thinks that the
phrase refers to doing something with pleasure as a mark of its being
done freely. But the description just given of the accompaniments of
action (mixed with foot-dragging, complaint, hesitation, fear) shows
by itself that there is no pleasure in it and so seems to capture the
affective dimension. The resultant lack of contentment, then, seems to be
something more reective. At Med. + Ovid says that placuisse sibi can yield
a kind of pleasure, thus marking the difference between the fact of being
satised with oneself and the pleasure one takes at it. Further, sibi placere
canhave a stronglynegative sense of self-satisfaction; see 88.ywhere self-
satisfaction with ones own erudition discourages the learning of necessary
things. It seems fair, then, to conclude that contentment here is a second-
order state of mind about the conditions accompanying ones actions.
Fear is a mark of slavery because it is a concern about externals and
puts one at the mercy of others or of Fortune. Fear is a passion and absence
of it is apatheia which is the only true freedom (Bobzien +8: esp. ch.
y). Compare Cicero, Paradoxa Stoicorum j.. I discuss various aspects of
Senecas conception of freedom in Seneca on Freedom and Autonomy,
ch. ++ of Inwood :ooj.
66.1y This description of the honourable captures what Zeno meant
by the smooth ow of life (eurhoia biou, at Stobaeus, Ecl. :.yy = SVF
+.+8) and reects the universal Stoic position about the internal harmony
(homologia) of a virtuous life. Strictly speaking the honourable here
refers primarily to an individual honourable action, but since possession
+ cor++av
of virtue is a necessary condition for such an action and virtue is an
all-or-nothing state which characterizes a whole life, the characterization
of the honourable in these terms is readily understandable.
The attitude urged for the person contemplating an honourable action
is consonant with Stoic theory. The obstacles to such an action should
not be thought of as bad because they cannot in fact be bad. The only
bad things are vice and its associated states and objects, and vice (except
ones own) cannot be an obstacle to the choice of an honourable action.
On a strict version of Stoic theory, ones own vice prevents honourable
action in a decisive waya vicious person cannot act honourably. But
if Seneca is here considering an agent who falls short of virtue, and this
agent is choosing an action under the description honourable (because
he or she recognizes it as the kind of thing a virtuous agent would do in
the circumstances), then his or her own vice cannot be an obstacle taken
into account by the agent.
Rather, the obstacles considered here are (as Seneca says) dispreferred
things (pain, disease, poverty, ignominy, etc.). To interpret them as being
bad rather than merely dispreferred is the basic mistake which (as Stoics
think) characterizes unphilosophical people. See Inwood +8j: +jyj.
The preference for not suffering dispreferred things is of course quite
strong (see, e.g., 6y.). But if one regards as bad (rather than merely
dispreferred) the obstacles which must be passed through on the way to
achieving a good, then a serious problem arises. For if (as the Stoics claim)
bad is as much to be avoided as good is to be pursued, and if we have to
accept bad to attain good, then we would never rationally pursue the good.
Hence it is necessary for a happy life to become clear about the value of
indifferents; seeing that they are, in fact, indifferent makes an internally
consistent (and so a satisfying) life possible.
66.18 The Epicurean claim about torture: a number of pertinent texts
are collected as fr. o+ Usener. See esp. D.L. +o.++8, Tusc. :.+y, Fin.
:.88. Similar views were expressed by Epicurus in letters to Hermarchus
(fr. +:: Usener = Fin. :. etc.) and Idomeneus (fr. +8 Usener = D.L.
+o.::, alluded to by Seneca also at 66.y and qz.z). At Fin. j.8j the
doctrine plays a role in the debate about the tria genera bonorum envisaged
between Peripatetics and Stoics.
Here Seneca forestalls anobjectionby means of a praeteritio. Renouncing
a mere ad hominem rejoinder strengthens Senecas claim to be offering a
respectable argument. Here he also foreshadows the anti-sensualist move
at the end of the letter.
rr++ra +y
66.1qzo A nearly explicit assertion of axiological dualism; as in 66.1,
the natural preferability of some states of affairs provides a good reason for
selecting them over others which are dispreferred. Yet this does not mean
that such values are determinative of happiness (and so evaluable as good
or bad). Here too the equality of virtue is contrasted with the variability
of circumstances. Ciceros term for dispreferred (incommodum) is used
here. The examples of the light and rain in the ocean here are also
drawn from Cicero (Fin. .j, cf. j.y+; also qz., qz.1y), who illustrates
differences in kind with examples that accentuate the importance of
extreme differences in quantity. Although one might think it a confusion
to illustrate fundamental differences in quality with examples that appear
to rest on extreme differences in quantity, Seneca defends the legitimacy of
the practice in 118.1 ff. For a modern attempt to defend the conceptual
viability of the point, see S. J. Goulds Darwins Cultural Degree in
Gould :oo:: :+: A sufcient difference in quantity translates to what we
call difference in quality ipso facto.
ask me for my selection, electio is the Latin term for selection here.
66.z1 situation renders the Latin res. The argument here is based on
moral prejudice, that is, our image of what the good man will do (the basis
of which is an unargued set of popular assumptions; note that in Latin the
gendered termvir is used). One might ask why one set of unargued popular
assumptions gets preferential treatment over the so-called common sense
which is rejected (assuming that at least some peoples common sense, then
as now, would question the advisability of a suicidal devotion to carrying
out a noble deed). Perhaps the thought is that although the common-
sense intuition and the Stoic intuition disagree, Seneca and other Stoics
think that only their side is supported by arguments of independent merit.
The assumption might be thought to have some argumentative weight
when conjoined with a real argument, but the weakness displayed here
cannot be denied.
benet to himself . The good is dened as benet (D.L. y.; Sextus
M. ++.::; Stobaeus, Ecl. :., etc.); cf. y1.6, 11y.zy.
The comparison of the honourable situation to a good man is important.
We are familiar with the idea that a good person is someone to whom
ones safety can be entrusted, and Seneca invites the reader to think
of a situation as being comparable. Since the good is virtue and what
participates in virtue, and since a good person and an honourable situation
+8 cor++av
both participate in virtue, the invitation should be accepted by anyone
committed to Stoic value theory. In both cases the agent is entrusting
him- or herself to virtue in some manifestation, and it is precisely that
commitment to the good which assures the agent that he or she is doing
the right thing and so will be happy.
For the idea that virtue canassure our genuine safety, if not our physical
survival, see Gorgias j+++:. That virtue can be a source of prosperity
and other conventional goods is claimed by Socrates at Apology ob.
66.zz6 Here Seneca advances an argument which amounts to a thought
experiment based on moral sentiment.
66.zz We are asked to imagine rst how we would regard two good
men one of whomis rich and the other poor. It is uncontroversial that their
goodness will be assessed independently of their prosperity, whether one
is using a Stoic understanding of goodness or a more mundane one. Seneca
is relying on the assumption that most people (even non-Stoics) would,
no doubt, recoil from regarding a less wealthy individual as less good just
because they are less wealthy (though perhaps in doing so many would
nevertheless display the confusion of their moral concepts). Situations
that one might be in are, then, treated analogously to wealth: if wealth does
not affect goodness then neither should other situations which are extra-
neous to ones state of character. The situations adduced here are bodily
health and civic freedom. At this point in the letter an objector would have
to nd some reason for saying that these external states should be treated
differently than wealth. In 66.z Seneca directs the point to Lucilius (or
the readers) own self-assessment. We should recall that the force of this
argument rests primarily on acceptance of the sharp distinction drawn
between the value of virtue (the good) and the value of the indifferents.
66.z Another appeal to a moral intuition, coupled with a reliance
on Stoic axiology. Situations are possible objects of pursuit or avoidance,
just as friends are objects of affection. Both situations and people can
participate in virtue or fail to do so (the good is virtue or what participates
in virtue). So ones affective state with regard to friends is analogous to
ones pursuit or avoidance of a situation. Senecas argument relies on this
analogy: if one would not love a friend less on the grounds that he or she
has fewer preferred indifferents or more dispreferred indifferents, but only
on the basis of his or her virtue, then one should not choose a situation
less readily if it has fewer preferred indifferents or more dispreferred
rr++ra +
indifferents. To the extent that the analogy holds the argument is sound.
It is assumed, of course, that the agent considering the situations and
the friends is acting on the basis of Stoic values and so considers the
indifferents in a separate calculus from the one used with regard to good
and bad things. A Stoic might think that a Peripatetic agent would be
liable to fail to keep these considerations distinct.
In 66.z a soritical (little by little, kata mikron) argument is exploited
rhetorically. Consideration of extrinsic factors such as bodily or social
condition could, at the limit, lead to a preference for one friend over
another on the basis of a hair style. Again, however, the legitimacy of
the argument rests upon acceptance of the fundamental dualism of Stoic
value theory. Hence at the end of 66.z a distinction is drawn between
things which are parts of a good state of affairs and those which are mere
adjuncts to it (the indifferents). (At y.1y such things are called mancipia,
possessions, rather than parts of us.)
The claim that the inequality of extrinsic factors disappears (non
comparet) or has no weight on decisions once virtue-considerations have
been equalized needs clarication. Seneca claims, in effect, that when
choosing between two equally virtuous situations one has no reason to
prefer the one endowed with more preferred indifferentsbut on Stoic
theory that is precisely where one does exercise the preference for things
according to nature. If a life of virtue plus health is set beside a life of
virtue plus sickness, then it accords with nature to choose the package
that contains health. But it is a mistake to choose the healthy package on
the understanding that it is better than the alternative, and this is Senecas
point here. His central goal in this letter is to drive home the difference
between the two kinds of value (good and bad vs. the indifferents) and not
to explicate the ways one would in fact make practical choices between
situations that differ only with regard to their indifferent adjuncts. Yet
in this section he has certainly overstated the conclusion of his soritical
line of argument in a way that might easily mislead the reader.
This passage is highly reminiscent of De Finibus j.y+, where ne cer-
nantur quidem corresponds to non comparet here and the term accessiones
(adjuncts) is also found, used in the same sense as in this passage of
Seneca (for all these other things are not parts but adjuncts). Ciceros
Peripatetic spokesman is arguing that although external goods count
towards the happiest life, their signicance is vanishingly small compared
to that of virtue. If one compares De Finibus .j it seems that Cicero
brings the Stoic and Peripatetic/Antiochean positions astonishingly close
togethera move which suits Ciceros agenda, as it does also in the
+yo cor++av
De Ofciis. Senecas interest as a Stoic is in emphasizing more aggressively
the distance between his position and Ciceros.
everything within himself . This is reminiscent of the anecdote about
Stilpo (q.181q, Const. Sap. j. and fragment +j+ D oring) who, when
deprived of all external goods, said I have lost nothing; all my goods are
with me. Compare also z.1o, .q.
66.z6 Our attachment to virtue has been compared to our attachment to
friends; the comparison is extended to children. External factors would
not affect our equal attachment to our children; the claim (whether
plausible or not) that animals behave this way as well is intended to show
that this is a completely natural inclination, not a product of contestable
cultural forces. In fact, the example of our attitude to our children is
itself intended to strengthen the analogy with friends against a possible
reply that we do not or should not treat friends equally regardless of their
external characteristics. Whatever view one might take of friends, the
Stoics claimed that parental attachment to ones children as such is a basic
and ineradicable afliation (oikei

osis) that lies at the foundation of our

entire system of moral attachments, including our commitments to virtue
and fair treatment of all other human beings. (See Cicero, Fin. .: ff.;
N.D. :.+:8; Off. +.+++:; Plutarch, Sto. Rep. ch. +:.)
Attachment to ones homeland regardless of its humble character is
illustrated with the Homeric example of Odysseus, whose attachment to
his poor and rocky Ithaca was at least as great as that felt by Agamemnon for
wealthy Mycenae. The point is not that Odysseus preferred Ithaca because
of its lack of advantages, but merely that his sense of belonging created
an attachment which was independent of externalsa point illustrated
more clearly when the attachment is for something relatively undesirable
(it is easy, after all, to suspect that Agamemnon loved Mycenae because of
its wealth and power).
Seneca has, then, compared our attachment to a virtuous (honourable)
action or life to our attachment to friends, children, and homeland. In
each case the attachment is plausibly claimed to be independent of the
extrinsic attributes of the object of our attachment and such independence
is more easily seen when the object possesses negative extrinsic attributes.
Ordinary intuitions underlie the point about friends; for the case of
children our intuitions are underpinned by the Stoic theory of oikei

osis;
Homeric precedent secures the claim about love for ones homeland.
Claranus case works the same waythe admirable quality of his life is
rr++ra +y+
certainly not due to his external bodily condition. Hence his suitability as
a focus for the discussion of externals in relation to virtue.
66.zy What is the relevance of this? As often, a rhetorical question
about the purpose of the discussion articulates the letter and guides the
reader to focus on the main issue. At 8.z and 6.1 the call to return
to relevance articulates the letter in a similar way, but here there is no
change of topic, since the discussion has been of relevance to choices and
behaviour throughout. (I thank Gur Zak for rst making this point.) The
articulation, then, draws attention to the thematic difference between 66
and (at the least) its immediate predecessor 6.
Here Seneca raises a crucial question about the attitudes one should
have towards unfortunate situations. Virtue is compared to a parent and
in both cases there is a tension between the strict equality of evaluation
(children in the literal case; actions, people, and situations in the case of
virtue) and the inequality of the affective relationship to the dependents.
The unfortunate evoke a greater warmth and care, perhaps, than do the
fortunatedespite their equal value. (Seneca uses different words for the
equal and the unequal responses to ones children: cherishing (diligere) in
66.z6 and love (amor) in 66.zy. Although Senecas intention is clear, these
terms do not seem sufciently distinct to express his meaning properly.)
This raises a more general issue about Senecas treatment of the indiffer-
ents. He is often thought to have an inappropriately or unjustiably strong
attraction for unfortunate circumstances, especially death. His apparently
positive valuation of dispreferred things seems to betray inuences from
Platonist or Pythagorean thought that are in conict with earlier and
mainstream Stoicism, or to indicate features of Senecas personality which
inuence his philosophical views without rational warrant. But often the
motivation for the positive valuation is in fact articulated and reasonable:
negative circumstances are more valuable for training ones character and
reection on them helps one to discern core Stoic values (such as the
commitment to axiological dualism) more clearly. Here there is a further
consideration. Having used the analogy with parental love to support his
claims about virtue (or the virtuous agent) Seneca deals forthrightly with
a relevant feature of the analogue. Parents, even those who value their
children equally, often do experience a difference in their affective and
motivational relationships to their children. Given the Stoic commitment
to a cognitive account of affective states, there should be a statable reason
for such a discrepancy and Seneca here proposes one: there is a kind of
compensatory pity for the weaker offspring. In addition to being a frank
+y: cor++av
and plausible account of a signicant affective phenomenon, this both
blocks a possible objection based on the analogy (someone might say that it
is false that parents value their children equally if they did not distinguish
between the equal valuation and the affective discrepancy) and contributes
to an account of the occasional and otherwise puzzling sense that tough
circumstances are somehow better.
66.z8 A return to the argument based on the absolute nature of the
concept. Fitting (aptum), at (in a geometrical sense), and equal are all
predicates which apply absolutely or not at all. Hence they establish that
such concepts exist. Honourable is asserted to be a concept of this type.
66.zq The equality of all the virtues (that is, of all forms of the
honourable) entails that the tria genera bonorum (see above on 66.6)
are on an equal footing (in aequo). This does not mean that one has
to have a relationship identical in all respects to goods bundled with
preferred things and goods bundled with dispreferred things; there is
room for differences in our evaluation of the bundle, differences based on
the selective value of the indifferences in the bundle. Being on an equal
footing does mean that one would not make choices or value judgements
on the basis of the circumstances in which virtue is exercised. The goods
which are choiceworthy are the ones in favourable circumstances; the
admirable ones are in unfavourable circumstances (the goods of the rst
two types distinguished in 66.).
Again the Ciceronian term incommodum is used for dispreferred things
and as above the language of quantity intrudes (see on 66.1qzo). Oblit-
erated is perhaps an overtranslation for tegitur, which could literally be
rendered covered over or concealed. I take it, though, that Seneca
means to emphasize that the dispreferred aspects of a situation cease to
affect ones assessment of it or decision about itthey become invisible
to the decision context without actually becoming non-existent.
66.o Seneca explains how people come to the mistaken view about the
importance of indifferents. It is a matter of which aspect of a situation
they direct their gaze to. The unimportance of externals for our decisions
about right action is illustrated with a metaphor based on physical objects.
Weight counts, volume does not. And volume can, by its supercial
appearance, mislead us about weight. The idea that good decisions about
values and actions are based on a kind of accurate measurement goes
back at least to Platos Protagoras. But volume is not being dismissed as
rr++ra +y
an unreal property of objects; it is merely irrelevant to the assessment
of their weight, and in that sense it misleads if it is misused. For the
metaphor, cf. q..
66.1 The valuations of reason in contrast to the reckless judgements
of popular opinion. The latter are misevaluations of externals as though
they were good or bad and so are the cause of passions (cf. q1.1qz1).
Thinking that a dispreferred indifferent is bad will generate the passion
fear (see Inwood +8j: ch. j). Valuations made by reason are stable and so
form a proper basis for long-term decisions. The equation of misguided
and passionate humans to animals is a common oversimplication (see also
y., for example). Strictly speaking, non-rational animals cannot make
such evaluations and so do not have real passions. Their fear is not the real
thing. See Tusc. .+ and Inwood +8j: y:, +oo; also Seneca, De Ira +..
66.z Moral misevaluations are connected to passions: excites renders
diffundit, which corresponds roughly to the Greek term eparsis (irrational
elevation is a description of the passion pleasure); depresses renders
mordet, which might more literally be translated bites. Bite (the Greek
term is d

egmos) is also used to refer to pain (lup

e) or similar psychological
states. See Tusc. .8 and Inwood +8j: +y8 with notes; also Graver :oo::
+:y. Such passions are transient as opposed to permanent. Senecas views
here about the relationship between passions and axiology are standard
Stoic doctrine.
66.z Two themes emerge here: the relationship between reason and
the senses (commanding and obedience) and the claim that reason is
an invariant limiting concept like virtue itself (see above). The identity
between virtue and straight reason (recta ratio, more often translated
right reason) is asserted. Seneca seems to be saying that what is truly,
i.e., normatively, reason is straight reason. But straight is an invariant
concept. So reason is also like thatbut only in its proper (normative)
form. What this approach implicitly leaves out of consideration is an
empirical or descriptive account of how reason operates which would
leave room for a state of the soul which is treated as genuine reason but
which admits of variation of competence and defect. The omission is
perhaps justiable because Seneca is only considering cases of virtuous
action (the honourable) and virtue is by denition perfected reason.
rm in its judgement. See esp. y1.z, q.y. I comment further on this
in Moral Judgement in Seneca, ch. y of Inwood :ooj.
+y cor++av
66. This is a theoretically crucial move. What an action is is
determined by the reasoning and state of mind which generates it. (This
is a feature of earlier Stoic theory of action as well: see Inwood +8j:
+o+, :++.) The raw material and other extrinsic factors do not
determine the essential evaluative characteristics of an action. See above
on materia. Note the care taken by Seneca to restrict his claims about the
sameness of actions to a precisely relevant aspect. It is qua honourable and
virtuous that the actions are equal; it is only what is best in actions which
is equal. The same point is made in 66. in the analogy with good men:
it is only with regard to that in virtue of which they are good that they are
equal. (This is a close analogy, since actions and agents are participants
in virtuegood is virtue and what participates in itand the argument
for equality rests entirely on the features of the virtue they participate in.)
See above on 66.zz6.
66. Here Seneca focusses on the defects of the senses when considered
as makers of value judgements and the ability of reason to do the job well.
It is noteworthy that Seneca provides a justication for putting reason in
charge of signicant value judgements. The general eudaimonist project
in ethics involves making plans for a whole life and the Stoic version
of it puts a high value on internal consistency within that whole-life
plan. It is in this context that one judges what is useful and (since good
is understood Socratically as genuine utility) good. The faculty which
makes such judgements must, then, be able not only to discern utility
but also to handle past and present in conjunction with the present and
the relationships of consequence and causation that obtain among them.
Seneca claims (cf. 1z.z, 1z.161y) that sense perception cannot
do that and that reason can. Hence it is the arbiter of what is good
and bad and can recognize, on the basis of a diachronic understanding
of what is useful over a whole life, that the good is within the mind
and that things outside the mind are at best marginal adjuncts to a
successful life.
66.6y It being established that reason is in charge of making such
judgements, Seneca repeats the judgements that reason reaches. The
goods considered here are actions and situations engaged in by virtuous
agents (otherwise we would not be considering goodsgood is virtue or
what participates in virtue). All three genera are invoked here, but the
main contrast is between the primary and secondary types as outlined
above. The third kind of goods, actions (such as walking and sitting in
rr++ra +yj
the virtuous way), undertaken by a virtuous person, are also mentioned.
At 66. it was not emphasized that the actions considered (walking
and sitting) are in themselves completely indifferent. But here Seneca
asserts pointedly that such conventional actions are no more natural
than unnatural. The contrast between sitting and orderly sitting and
between walking and prudent walking draws attention to the fact
that they are goods only because they are done in a virtuous manner.
In contrast to the absolute indifference of the third type of goods, the
rst type is preferred (the underlying action is according to nature)
and the second type is dispreferred (contrary to nature). Hence the
innovative threefold classication of goods introduced in this letter is
here mapped precisely onto the threefold classication of indifferents:
preferred, dispreferrred, absolute.
For further discussion see Rules and Reasoning in Stoic Ethics,
ch. of Inwood :ooj. For the contrast between preferred/dispreferred
indifferents and absolute indifferents, see D.L. y.+o and CHHP oy.
66.8 By way of objection and response, Seneca explicates the
contrast between what is according to nature in the strong sense (virtue)
and indifferents which can be according to nature or in conict with
nature in a weaker sense. The contrast here is built on the distinction
drawn earlier in the letter between the material or circumstances of a good
and the good itself. In 66.8 the contrast is made between the good itself
(which cannot be contrary to nature) and the circumstances in which the
good arises. Several themes here are found also in ..
In 66.q the impossibility of conict between a good and nature is
explained with reference to reason. A genuine good involves reason and
reason cannot conict with nature. The reason why reason cannot conict
with nature is that human reason is an imitation of nature, in the sense
that when it is functioning properly our reason tracks or is responsive
to nature (literally, follows it). This view is tenable because nature is
equated with perfected reason operating in the world and because human
reason and cosmic reason are held to be qualitatively identical. Hence the
greatest human good (summum bonum, the topic of Ciceros De Finibus),
which is the perfection of his characteristic attribute, reason, can properly
be glossed as comporting oneself in accordance with the will of nature.
For the idea of the will of nature see Inwood +8j: :y, y+, ++:o,
+o, :oj, :o8, :+:.
In 66.o the objector (who need not be an Epicureanany support-
er of common sense against Stoic revisionism would make the same
+y cor++av
point) attempts an inference from the uncontroversial claim that pre-
ferred indifferents such as stable peace and unthreatened good health
are happier states of affairs to the conclusion that they are the occasion
for greater goods. By using the term felicior for happier the objector
perhaps appeals to eudaimonistic intuitions, but Seneca is careful to
put in the objectors mouth a term not usually applied to happiness
in the eudaimonistic sense; normally Seneca uses beatitudo for this con-
cept, though in 1z.z he plays with the terms when he advances the
paradox that only the most unhappy are truly happy (infelicissimos esse
felices).
The rebuttal in 66.1 rests on the distinction between states of affairs
that are subject to chance and those that are not. Fortuita admit of wide
variation in character; what they are like depends on how they are used by
agents who embrace them (note that sumere is the usual Latin term for
selection). A good agent can use externals well and a bad agent will use
them badly. See D.L. y.+o on the Socratic use argument (comparing
Meno 8yc-88e, Euthydemus :8oc-:8:a) and Annas +b, esp. p. jj. But
goods (that is, states of affairs shaped by virtue) have a single point or
goal, agreement with Nature.
Agreement is then shown to be another concept, like straight, at,
true and so forth, that is absolute and does not admit of degree. In the
Senate one does not vote for a proposal partially (Roman senators voted
by indicating agreement with a proposal); every yes vote counts the same
despite the circumstances which might have inuenced it (one can imagine
that some votes are cast reluctantly, half-heartedly, under compulsion,
etc., but they still count). Since that is the character of agreement, it is
also true that all virtues agree with nature in the same univocal way; and
so too all goods (that is, agents and situations characterized by virtue)
agree with nature equally.
66.z The example of death is offered as a parallel for the uniformity
of goodsa deliberately piquant analogy. There is enormous variation in
the manner and circumstances of death. But the outcome is undeniably
uniform. Here Seneca allows himself and his readers the pleasure of a
certain expatiation on the theme of deaths equality. Compare NQ .:.
When Seneca raises the prospect of dying amidst physical pain and
deformity (note the arthritic torture of 66.) we are meant to recall
Claranus misfortune, the very dispreferred circumstance which inspired
the discussion of the letter. For the prospect of intended humour in this
passage, see Mark Grant :ooo: :.
rr++ra +yy
66. In a concluding paragraph Seneca summarizes the similarities
between death and the good. The image of the path helps to make the
point that the circumstances are distinct from the virtuous state of the
agent (path: traveller :: circumstances: agent).
66.8 Having concluded his main argument, Seneca turns to out-
anking the Epicureans. The key move is to argue that the Epicurean
conception of the good (see, e.g., D.L. +o.:8) has the same structure as
does the Stoic conception of the good. The Epicurean theory posits an
absolute limit to pleasure (removal of all pain) in contrast to the possibility
of variation which does not, however, increase ones happiness. This is
meant to be comparable to the Stoic good in contrast to the variable
circumstances of the indifferents. This argument for the essential simi-
larity of Epicurean and Stoic axiology is important, since it captures what
many critics have sensed about the theories and shows how a sense of the
similarity between the theories might be strengthened misleadingly by
its emergence from a dialectical situation rather than from a similarity of
underlying theoretical motivation.
66.y Again Seneca invokes the Letter to Idomeneus (cf. above at 66.18)
to undermine an Epicureans ability to object to the counter-intuitive
aspects of the Stoic position. Compare Ciceros translation of this part of
the Letter to Idomeneus at Fin. :.. Senecas use of the Epicurean letter is
far more sympathetic than Ciceros and his paraphrase may be compared
with Ciceros translation in direct discourse. I thank Austin Busch for the
observations on this point.
But we should not forget that there are crucial differences between
Stoic and Epicurean theory (as the hyperbolic conclusion of this letter
will emphasize, 66.q). These derive from divergent views about
nature and from the deprecation of the senses which Seneca builds on
throughout the letter. Further, in 66.y which deals with Epicurus
death-bed pain, Seneca makes it clear that Epicurus does no more than
passively endure pain, while Mucius Scaevola (66.1) actively pursues
pain in the service of his country. Seneca does not fully develop the
differences here in 66.8, since his argument is aimed at neutralizing
possible Epicurean objections by co-opting them though concentration
on similiarites (above Seneca pointedly refrained from using the bull of
Phalaris against Epicurus).
But in 66.q the point is different. Here Seneca goes on the
offensive to say that he can imagine a case in which he would prefer
+y8 cor++av
hardship. No Epicurean argument could yield this conclusion since it
undermines the basic premises of Epicurean moral argument and also
rejects the ultimate foundation of his theory of virtue (pleasure as the
basic value). But the Stoic theory is different since there at least can be
an argument in favour of embracing and valuing physical pain. Perhaps,
then, this conclusion can be explained in part as a product of temporary
argumentative zeal rather than as a considered departure from earlier
Stoic value theory. For an approximation of this view in earlier Stoicism,
see Musonius Rufus, Discourse + section j; Musonius tells the story of
a Spartan boy who asked Cleanthes whether pain might not be a good
rather than a mere indifferent. (Cf. D.L. y.+y:, SVF +.++. Compare
8z.1z where Seneca himself expresses a preference for having things go
badly (male) in a conventional sense than softly (molliter); also Prov. ,
Const. Sap. j..)
66.q The nal argument of the letter, which turns on the anecdote
of Mucius Scaevola. Seneca had already dealt with this at z., where it is
characterized as one of the stock narratives of the rhetorical schools (z.6);
the story is told in Livy :.+:+. This section is just as much an appendix
as is 66.8. Seneca proposes to offer a justication for having a personal
preference for virtuous actions (goods) in difcult situations like that of
Claranus over virtuous actions in favourable situations. He is thinking,
no doubt, of his own situation: a comfortable old age amidst wealth and
leisure. See also I. Hadot +: ++8+.
Several points need to be emphasized. First, the role of Claranus in
the letter is important to understanding this conclusion. This letter is
presented to us as an account of discussion with a person whose physical
torments coexist with good character. Claranus torments have been
brought back to the readers mind at 66.; and in fact 66.z on death
also returns our thoughts to the two old men whose discussion is being
related to Lucilius. It is highly appropriate for Seneca to conclude this
letter with a line of thought which would have consoled Claranus. Seneca,
himself not aficted as Claranus is, obviously concluded his conversation
with an argument and an example which would remind him of his own
heroism and the moral value of brave endurance. If there is rhetorical
excess here, excess which almost violates Stoic doctrine, it is the excess
characteristic of the consolatory genre. And if there is rhetorical excess,
we should also bear in mind Senecas life-long weakness for bold and
dramatic overstatement.
rr++ra +y
Second, Seneca offers this conclusiontentatively. He asks for permission
from Lucilius; he marks this as a somewhat bold line of argument; and he
makes it clear that the point he advances is personal rather than part of
the inter-school debate he has just concluded.
Third, the entire line of argument is explicitly counter-factual. The
verb tenses in 66.q make that clear and Seneca is emphatic that what he
is about to say is what he would have said and would have preferred if
there could be any difference among the goods.
Nevertheless, although Seneca has been careful to bracket out this
conclusion so as to maintain orthodoxy on the main point of the letter, it
remains to be asked whether there is a philosophical (rather than a literary)
motivation for this undeniably dramatic and excessive conclusion. I think
there is a philosophical point to be made, and it is meant to be Senecas
own (this too is the effect of the bracketing at 66.q).
His claim is that demolishing hardships is something grander than
merely managing good fortune, despite the fact that the reason used in
the two situations is identical, as is the resultant courage of the two
hypothetical soldiers he considers (66.o). But of the two soldiers, only
one is hailed by his fellow soldiers for his accomplishments. Seneca says
that this is why he personally would praise the one more than the other. No
doubt he has in mind a point with which Aristotle would agree, that there
ought to be something to be learned from the moral intuitions of ones
fellow human beings, even if those intuitions are in need of renement
and cannot be criterial in ethical debate. So there is some merit in what
soldiers do when they congratulate the wounded hero. In 66.1 the more
dramatic (and uncontroversial, for Roman society) example of Mucius
Scaevola is adduced as one which Seneca cannot help but praise despite
its gruesome and self-destructive character.
In 66.z Seneca goes so far as to say that he might want to reclassify
Mucius case (which ought to be a good of the second category) into
the rst category, the ones which one would want even in unconstrained
circumstances. (This would not, of course, make it a greater good, but
would make it more choiceworthywhich is the main point of the claim
at 66.q that he would have preferred the harsher option. Perhaps the
references to greater goods mean no more than this in the end.) The
objector (Lucilius, rather than the anonymous of 66.o) is naturally
incredulous that such a painful good would be chosen. In reply Seneca
asks which he should choose if he had to choose between Mucius
circumstances and the pampered situation of a wealthy noble getting a
+8o cor++av
manicure in his boudoir (the corruption of an aristocratic lifestyle is nicely
elaborated).
Such a deed cannot be done by anyone who cannot also wish for it. It
is not clear whether this is hyperbole or a principle of moral psychology
which Seneca would maintain consistently. If the latter, then it seems
dubious or vacuous. If Seneca claims that someone who will do x in
given circumstances must be such as to be able to wish to do it in those
same circumstances, then it is vacuous. But if his claim is that someone
who will do x in given circumstances must be such as to wish to do it
regardless of circumstances or such as to wish for the circumstances in
which the doing of this action is what he would wish, then his claim is both
implausible (no reason being offered in support of it) and unnecessary
to the larger case he wishes to argue. I am inclined, then, to take this as
hyperbole.
To see how this passage is meant to address the issue at hand, we
must assume that the hypothetical Seneca choosing between the two
situations is a good man (otherwise we would not be discussing the
issue at hand, goodness in the context of favourable or unfavourable
circumstances). In the manicure situation, several signs point to an
unnatural context: sexually dissolute adult males (sex toys) or eunuchs
are imagined as manipulating the noblemans hands and there is no
social function for the activity. In the Mucius scenario there is such a
functionthe salvation of the homeland, one of the primary goods
at 66.and language which suggests restitution of natural order
(he restored to integrity everything which had gone astray). Senecas
point, then, is that if forced to choose between these two scenarios
he would not hesitate to choose the Mucius scenario. The philosoph-
ical reason for this seems to rest primarily on the positive valuation
of social intuitions (66.o above), but also to rely on features of the
two scenarios which characterize the one as natural and the other as
unnatural. Despite the assumed equal merit of the agent, there would
be (if possible) a greater good in aligning oneself with nature; certain-
ly the unpleasant situation would be one more worth choosing in the
circumstances.
The conclusion to the letter is consistent with mainstream Stoic theory
and with the rest of the letter. But it is nevertheless an extravagance
provoked and justied primarily by the situation of the letter as a report
of the discussion with the unfortunate Claranus.
rr++ra +8+
66. previous errors. Among other things, an allusion to the fact that
Mucius was captured only after he had failed to assassinate the enemy
king because he couldnt recognize him and killed the wrong man.
conquered two kings. One was the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna, so
impressed by Scaevolas courage that he left Rome in peace, and the other
(probably) Tarquin the Proud, the expelled Etruscan king of Rome whom
Porsenna supported.
GROUP :
(LETTERS y+ AND y)
Following on the themes of 66, y1 is the rst of a trio of letters dealing
explicitly with Stoic value theory (y1, y, y6). Several themes dominate:
the difference between good and bad on the one hand and indifferents
on the other; the equality of all goods; and the sufciency of virtue for
happiness. Due to limitations of space, y is not translated or discussed
in detail in this collection. Where relevant, y will be invoked in the
discussion of y1 and y6. On the grouping of letters y1 through y6 see
Cancik +y: +j, esp. :y, and Maurach +yo: +yj, esp. +j: (where
he emphasizes the close linkage of y1 to 66), +j, and +o+ which conrm
the interconnections of y1, y, and y6. On y1 itself see also Hengelbrock
:ooo: jyy. Despite a number of useful observations, Hengelbrocks
analysis is limited by his narrow focus on the problem of prokop

e and
his readiness to conclude that the letter is not grounded in theory and
persuasive primarily due to its steadfast repetition and rhetorical slickness
(yj). A philosophically charitable reading, however, reveals arguments of
considerable interest.
One interesting feature of y is its uncharacteristic emphasis on the
value of believing in the central axiological theses rather than proving them
(though there is a signicant amount of argument in the letter, exhortation
is commoner); this is signalled in y.1, the most important means to the
attainment of the happy life is the conviction ( persuasio) that the only good
is what is honourable. Taken on its own this might suggest that Seneca
is interested primarily in the benets of coming to hold Stoic beliefs and
less in the proofs for those beliefs. y6 will provide a corrective for this;
at y6.y Seneca registers Lucilius dissatisfaction with earlier treatments of
the claim that only the honourable is good (the claim is merely approved
and not properly proven) and this refers primarily to y; at y6.z6 Seneca
refers back to a single letter, which must be y. y1 focusses more on the
equality of all goods (following very closely on 66), but Seneca may also
have it in mind to some extent in his complaint at y6.y.
rr++ra y+ +8
Commentary on y+
Thematic division
+: Advice and the value of having a goal of life.
j: The Stoic goal (highest good): the honourable.
y: Defence of the Stoic position against the criticism of being
unrealistic.
8++: The example of Cato when the Civil War was lost.
+:+: Cosmological considerations and transience.
+j+: Implications of this for whole-life planning.
+y:o: The equality of all goods.
:+: Raising the anteon the offensive against common sense.
:y8: The natural limitations of human beings.
:j: Progress towards wisdom.
y: Closing exhortation.
y1.1 An apparently casual opening (Lucilius is in Sicily) disguises an
important point about practical reasoning and moral deliberation. Advice
on matters of moral or practical signicance (not sharply separable for
most ancient philosophers) is focussed on particular situations, delimited
by time and place. Together these make up the circumstances Seneca
refers to, but his main emphasis here is on temporal specicity. This is
linked to Senecas recurrent emphasis on the mutability of human affairs
(cf. the Heraclitean remarks in 6); here the words for ux are feruntur,
volvuntur. Cosmological perspectives are invoked again at y1.1z16 below.
See also Senecas remarks on the specicity of practical advice at yo.11;
compare also zz.1.
But practical advice, though highly specic, will not be unstructured.
y1.z balances the emphasis on particularity with a statement of a central
claim of ancient eudaimonism, that having a single goal for ones life is
a necessary condition for success. Stoics put particular emphasis on the
claim that the goal (telos) is that by reference to which or for the sake of
which we decide what to do and what to choose (Stobaeus, Ecl. :..j+o;
:.y.:+; :.yy.++). Seneca takes up this theme again quite forcefully
at q.6. The examples used here in y1.z are interesting. The painter
example suggests that the telos to which we refer all choices and decisions
is rather like the Platonic paradigmto which an artisan looks (8.1qz1; cf.
6.yq, 6.1). In fact, practical reason is understood as a techn

e tou biou.
The example of sailing is a clich e in the tradition as well (it is repeated
at q.). Finally, the language of targets and archery is traditional. For
+8 cor++av
just one example of the idea in Plato, see skopos at Gorgias joyd. In a text
central to the eudaimonistic tradition in ancient moral theory, EN +.+,
Aristotle argued that there is a single goal (telos) in practical affairs and
that knowing that goal has a major impact on our ability to live our lives
successfully, like archers with a target (skopos) to aim at (see esp. +oa
::). The image was also exploited by Panaetius (fr. +o van Straaten
= Stobaeus, Ecl. :..:.+:); see also Ecl. :.y.8+o and Cicero, De
Finibus .::. A general account of the idea of a target in Stoicism can be
found in Alpers-G olz +y; see also Inwood +8. The use of the archer
image here is not identical to any of the others.
Whether or not Seneca was thinking directly of the Platonic or Aris-
totelian passages, he will certainly have had in mind Cicero, De Finibus
.::, where the example of an archer or spear-thrower is used to explain
how Stoic eudaimonism is meant to work: our ultimate goal in life is to
be a virtuous person, which involves a series of immediate aims to achieve
preferred indifferents in the manner appropriate to a virtuous person;
that means that one may achieve the overall goal even while failing with
respect to the immediate aim, yet the immediate aim would be mean-
ingless except in the context of the larger project of living a successful
life.
There is a rich literature on this aspect of Stoic ethics; the best starting
point is Striker +8, although Long +y is still indispensable. Basic texts
and discussion at LS .
purpose translates propositum, behind which lies the Greek term
prokeimenon. See also 6.1o, 66.6, 66.1, 8.z, q.6, 1zz..
Similarly, note at the end of y1.z the part/whole distinction as fun-
damental to the eudaimonistic critique of normal human failingsmost
people fail to think about their lives as a whole, concentrating instead
on various partial perspectives. This idea is highlighted by Annas +a:
chapter +, Making Sense of My Life as a Whole.
y1. emphasizes howchance gains power in human life through our own
failure to have a single point of reference. It is the failure of our planning
which leaves us open to variability and the blows of fortune. Hence the
focus on chance and fortune in Seneca is readily connected to some
central themes of eudaimonism. His constant emphasis on fortune as an
external and disruptive force, an enemy to reason, follows plausibly from
the fact that contingencies only gain power over our lives if we fail to take
control of them by planning with an eye to our overall goal in life.
rr++ra y+ +8j
y1. many words or a roundabout path. At Republic jode Socrates
declines to give a direct account of the good, saying that it would be too
lengthy a job to give even a statement of his own view (

). That an explication of the good is a long and roundabout path is a
reminiscence of Socrates remarks at Republic jocd. Senecas Stoic view
is that the idea of the good requires no transcendent metaphysical claims
of a Platonic sort. Nevertheless, as other letters indicate (see especially
1zo), Seneca is well aware that the full Stoic theory of the good is far from
straightforward.
y1. After situating his views within a general eudaimonistic frame-
work, Seneca turns to the distinctively Stoic view. The telos is identied
as the honourable and nothing else, but rst an epistemological question
is addressed. We have within us the idea of the honourable as the (highest
and only) good, but we often do not knowit. This does not commit Seneca
to the existence of innate concepts, but it does remind us of the central
importance of prol

epseis in Stoic thought. If we have within us the outline

notion (or a natural conceptionsee D.L. y.j) of the good but fail to
realize its signicance in our lives, then part of the way forward for us is to
develop a kind of self-knowledge and part of it is to nd a way to exploit
the latent moral intuitions we have. Thematically this recalls above all the
idea of recollection in the Meno, a dialogue which also invokes the idea of
scattering or fragmenting virtue, the telos. (At Meno yya Socrates tweaks
Meno with breaking virtue up into pieces, a passage which remained basic
to the debate about the unity of virtues.)
The Stoic theses about the good (the honourable is the highest good
or the only good) are the topic of several letters (y and y6, see esp.
y6.y) and arguments. The false goods here are preferred indifferents
(commoda). Note that virtue is said to convert not just preferred things
but also dispreferred things into goods. This is essentially the point
made in 66, that the way circumstances are handled is the real locus of
goodness.
y1. just loving it is not enough. Fall passionately in love with
translates adamare; merely loving it is the simple verb amare. Seneca is
straining to emphasize the strength of commitment which virtue requires.
y1. On rising above externals, cf. 66.6, Const. Sap. ., +.+, etc.
+8 cor++av
y1. In its own right. The word order in Latin allows an uncertainty
about whether Seneca means everything which is, in its own right,
inconvenient will be labelledgood or everything whichis inconvenient
will inits ownright be labelledgood . My translationis meant to capture
this ambiguity. I owe the suggested word order to Marta Jimenez.
y1.6y Here Seneca defends the Stoic position against the traditional
objection that it makes inhuman demands on us. The objection is partly
grounded in unreective intuitions and partly in a disagreement about
human nature. In Fin. the Peripatetic spokesman for Antiochus Old
Academy charges Stoic theory with treating humans, who are a compound
of mind and body, as though they were pure minds. See esp. Fin. .:8
The only circumstance in which it would be correct to make the supreme
good consist solely in virtue would be if our animal which has nothing but
a mind also had nothing connected with its mind that was in accordance
with nature: for example, health (trans. Woolf ). In a very important sense
Seneca is conceding the underlying assumption behind this criticism,
for he does hold that the goods of the human being are fundamentally
goods of the mindvirtue is perfected reason and reason is an attribute
of the mind. Furthermore, Seneca asserts quite plainly here that it is by
measuring people by the standard of god that we can see their true nature
and so understand their genuine good. When he invites his opponents
to focus their attention on the mind and its attributes, he is claiming, in
effect, that if one has the correct view of what the mind is one will see that
its connection to the divine is fundamental to its nature.
The disagreement, then, is in part a disagreement about philosophical
anthropology. If humans and gods are essentially rational animals and if
human reason when perfected is godlike, then human good and divine
good are not essentially different. And if happiness is to consist in the
attainment of the distinctive good of ones kind, then it is incumbent
on Stoics to defend the view that the goods of reason are necessary and
sufcient for happiness. In this letter, though, Seneca does not hide behind
theological assertions, but as in 66 and elsewhere he turns his hand to the
task essential for the defence of Stoic ethics, argument about the role of
preferred and dispreferred indifferents in a happy life.
The dismissal in y1.6 of overly technical philosophical debate (noticed
witha wry grimace by Barnes +y: +) is a reference back to 8 and6, each
of which addressed the difference between important and unimportant
questions. On the signicance of syllables, see 8.y and the references
there.
rr++ra y+ +8y
y1.6 human nature renders humana condicio. See also Tusc. ., where
condicio reects the terms under which people live (cf. Natural Law in
Seneca, ch. 8 of Inwood :ooj); here the emphasis is more on the actual
capacities of people, but the circumstances of life and terms under which
we live are also being alluded to.
grammar-school philosophers. The ludus litterarius is an elementary
school, where basic reading and writing are taught. The imputation is
that overly technical philosophers are dealing with low-level matters on
which the really important issues depend but which they transcend. This
criticism provides important evidence about Senecas attitude to technical
philosophy; it is not dismissed, but merely put in its place.
y1.y The argument here is simple. Happiness requires the good and
the good consists in the honourable. But the honourable is equal in all
instances, so the good is too (see 66 and 11.16). Happiness consists not
just in having the good, but in understanding that one has it and using that
understanding in ones life. Hence happiness requires that you understand
the equality of all goods and treat them accordingly in all instances. More
difcult are the striking claims attributed to Socrates in this section. See
below.
The remarks about Socrates focus on ethics are a commonplace. See,
e.g., Tusc. j.+o, Rep.+.+j+ (cf. Leg. +.j). The tradition begins with
Aristotles remarks in Metaphysics +, 8yb+:, reecting no doubt his
understanding of Socrates intellectual autobiography in the Phaedo.
The exhortation attributed to Socrates is modelled on the conclusion of
the Gorgias (:ycd).
See Abel +8o: joo, and Maltese +8. Abel argues that the parallel
with Gorgias warrants emendation of illos to illo and of ut to ubi. He is
followed without argument by Hengelbrock :ooo: o, n. +), but Maltese
had shown that this emendation is not necessary.
After claiming that the highest wisdom consists in sorting out the
distinction between good and bad things (which includes learning to
distinguish the indifferents from good and bad things), Socrates urges
us to follow them. This might be taken as a reference to ethics, on
the grounds that the nearest antecedent for the pronoun them would
be mores; but Gummere in the Loeb overtranslates when he renders
it follow these rules. Further, the recommendation to follow mores
would be impossibly general in its meaning. More likely, then, the word
them refers to people who would be exemplars for conduct or (following
Maltese) to the pioneering moral philosophers who originally discovered
+88 cor++av
sound doctrines (illis qui invenerunt ista: those who discovered those
things); compare the anecdote about Zeno being urged to follow Crates
(D.L. y.:) if he wished to nd someone like the person he read about
in Xenophons Memorabilia.
Socrates also urges a friend that he allow himself to be thought a fool
and claims that even if he is mistreated and held in contempt he will come
to no harm providing he has virtue. The claim of the Crito, Gorgias, and
Apology that no harm can befall a good person is behind this. But what is
the point of the claim that if one wants to be happy and genuinely good
one should permit contempt of oneself ? This is a Socratic stance which
Seneca embraces when he claims that such a position is only possible
if one has accepted the equality of all goods and has come to regard as
unimportant everything except the honourable. This seems to mean that
one must adopt the attitude to externals urged, for example, in 66.
Seneca seems to be claiming here that being held in contempt is a
necessary condition for being a genuinely good man. This seems too
strong and one might hesitate to take it literally. Does he really mean that
a virtuous man who is held in appropriately high repute by others could
not be genuinely good? Does he really mean that unfortunate social and
external circumstances are necessary in order to achieve virtue?
We recall that at the end of 66 Seneca expressed a tentative preference
for secondary goods, virtue exercised in unfavourable circumstances.
Here we seem to have a similar preference for virtue besieged over virtue
coddled by fortune. The reason for this preference is perhaps hinted at
in the words bona de, translated genuinely here but literally in good
faith. Perhaps we could not have condence or faith in the goodness of
a good man if he did not suffer. Perhaps the role of misfortune is to
help us (and the agent himself ) verify that the commitment to virtue is
genuine, a verication that could not be achieved without being subject
to trial by misfortune. See also Getting to Goodness, ch. +o of Inwood
:ooj, and commentary on 1zo. Senecas focus is often on the conditions
which most reliably foster moral training and on epistemological issues
associated with moral improvement. He seems to think that misfortune
serves us well in both respects. We should not conclude from this
that he wavers in his commitment to the symmetry of standard Stoic
axiology.
y1.811 Two episodes from the life of Cato the Younger are offered
as illustration. He lost an election for the praetorship to Clodius, though
eventually he was elected praetor in j uc. And in the Civil War he
rr++ra y+ +8
held a command under Pompey at Durrachium during the campaign at
Pharsalus. After initial success in repulsing Caesar at Durrachium, the
Pompeian side lost decisively at Pharsalus, a loss which contributed to the
collapse of the side Cato championed and ultimately led him to commit
suicide in Africa. Cato notoriously took both setbacks with restraint and
equanimity. Two comparisons are being made here: that between a minor
setback (the electoral defeat) and a major setback (the failure of his side
in a key battle of the Civil War); and the more general contrast between
success and failure. In y1.8 the latter contrast is highlighted: Catos
two situations (success and setback) are equal in value because the same
virtue is required for appropriate behaviour in both. The virtues of rising
above (magnitudo animi) and of self-control in favourable circumstances
(temperantia) are the same. (On Senecas view of the unity of virtues see
the commentary on 11., 11.y8.) In y1.11 the contrast between
setbacks of different magnitude is in play; the comparison is not one
of favourable and unfavourable circumstances, but of greater and lesser
misfortunes. The central point illustrated by Catos experience, however,
is straightforward: if dispreferred situations are all equally not good, then
they are (with respect to virtue and happiness) the same and Cato in his
wisdom reacts to them with equal equanimity.
Catos death: his playing, see 1o., his reading, see z.6. He read Plato,
no doubt the Phaedo.
y1.q1o The failure of Pompeys side (to which Cato adhered) in the
Civil War was seen as the end of genuine republican government at Rome,
the form of government which Cato represented and for which he was
willing to die. But despite that, no genuine harm is done to Cato by his
setbacks: the Socratic doctrine that no harm can be done to a good person
(Crito, Gorgias, Apology) is presupposed. The phrase it was determined
long ago (olimprovisum) suggests not just that Catos immunity was settled
long ago but that it was providential. The phrasing that Cato should suffer
no harm is reminiscent of the Senatus consultum ultimum, that the consuls
should see to it that the state suffer no harm: see Grant :ooo: :y.
y1.q one battle. The defeat at Pharsalus.
Egypt Africa Spain. The Pompeian side scattered after the loss at
Pharsalus and further, nal defeats were suffered in these regions. Hence
Senecas lament iny1.q that the state couldnot collapse only once (cf. 8.).
+o cor++av
y1.1o Juba: the King of Numidia and adherent of the Pompeian side.
He fought at Scipios side in the unsuccessful battle at Thapsus.
Scipio: Q. Metellus Pius Scipio, the general under whom Cato served
at Thapsus. Scipio Africanus, one of his ancestors, had won fame as a
general in Africa.
y1.1z1 An illustration of how cosmological reection functions in
moral assessments. We are invited to compare the signicance of political
change with change at the cosmic level. A well-informed and rational
person is not surprised or discomtted by large-scale change and has
no reason to expect merely human affairs to be any more stable. The
transience of all things is an orderly transience. The fact that nothing is
permanent helps us to accept dramatic change in our own livesit would
be unreasonable to expect a level of permanence in our lives any greater
than that in the cosmos. The fact that cosmic changes are orderly is an
indication that the change is under divine control. The weak point of this
comparison lies in the possibility that change in the human sphere might
be less predictable than that at the cosmic level. Seneca argues that at
the relevant level our lives are just as predictable, but the relevant level is
apparently very general indeed: the facts about the inevitability of life and
death. Our mortality is predictable in just the way that the cosmic facts
are. But other features of our life are in fact quite chaotic by comparison
with cosmic regularities. Hence Seneca has an argumentative motivation
to focus on the narrow range of phenomena that deal with life and death
rather than on other features of our life. To the objector who might hold
that other issues (chronic pain, poverty, loss of ones family) are actually
more important to us than life and death, Seneca would no doubt reply
that if that is so then one can always commit suicide when the balance of
other factors is not to ones taste. See also Natural Law in Seneca, ch. 8
of Inwood :ooj.
Such cosmological reection is not rare in Seneca; see, e.g., 6.11 and
for Zeus role q.16. Throughout this part of the letter (y1.1z1) there
are several general reminiscences of the Natural Questions.
y1.1 see e.g. 6.11, q.16 on the mutability of the all.
y1.1 The fact that body and mind are distinct within a human being
helps us to appreciate the lessons to be drawn from cosmology. It is only if
the mind shifts its attention from the body and considers the longer term
rr++ra y+ ++
(as the body cannot do) that we can appreciate the signicance of cosmic
transience in our lives. See on 66..
Socrates brought philosophy back to ethics from physics (y1.y). Here
Seneca seems to be demonstrating how it is that physics can contribute
to ethics, thus reintegrating the two branches of philosophy in a manner
consistent with Stoic thought. Compare 8 and 6 on cosmology and
related issues.
y1.116 Here a minor textual issue has a major impact oninterpretation
and I amgrateful to Michael Dewar and to Margaret Graver for discussion
of this problem. The presence of ut here at rst sight seems disruptive. The
line of thought which follows would be highly appropriate if attributed to
the gure of Cato himself, yet the presence of like (ut) means that there
must be someone else, for whom Cato is the comparison, to be subject of
the verb dicet. Gummere in the Loeb introduces a new speaker here, the
wise person; and a hypothetical wise person is one possible candidate for
this role. The Bud e supposes that god (mentioned in y1.1) is the subject
of both dicet and percucurrerit, and this would too would make some sense
in connection with the phrase magnus animo deo pareat in y1.16. But it
seems peculiar for god to be compared to Cato in this way. Haase suggested
the deletion of ut as a solution, pointing out that an instance of ut needed
to be supplied in y1.1 after speraret and arguing that a dislocation of this
short word seems just as likely as an omission.
But Reynolds accepts the text as transmitted and this may well be
right. The subject of dicet and the speaker of what follows is the human
mind (mens) personied, carried forward from y1.1 or anticipating the
great mind (animus) of y1.16. The best alternative view would be to
follow Haase, in which case the speech of y1.1 would be the imagined
application by Cato of the cosmological reections of y1.1z1 to his
situation in political defeat. The difference between having this speech
given by an idealized human mind and by Cato is minor for Seneca. Either
way, in y1.16, Seneca reverts to his own voice and applies the lesson of
Catos imagined speech to the issue at hand, the equality of good (i.e.,
virtue or the honourable) in favourable and unfavourable circumstances.
Truth has already been used as a model for the invariance of virtue and
the good (66.8).
The prospect of the passing away of the whole species makes our own
death seem less special. What Seneca is doing here is applying to the
whole-life analysis typical of eudaimonistic ethics the lessons to be learned
fromobserving the rational order of the cosmos. Uniformtreatment is part
+: cor++av
of the regime imposed by law; evidence about this theme in Seneca, the lex
mortalitatis, is collected in Natural Law in Seneca, ch. 8 of Inwood :ooj.
y1.1 thought its way through life. Life is the Latin aevum, which
could also be rendered as era or the long life of the cosmos. The double
entendre could be deliberate, since there is a deliberate parallel between
human and cosmic life here.
y1.16 The law-like regularity of god and the operations of the cosmos
are emphasized here. The two prospects for the great mind after death
are reminiscent of the two prospects for an afterlife considered by Socrates
at the end of the Apology. Here the two prospects are a tranquillity
characteristic of the Isles of the Blest (free of anyof the dispreferredfeatures
of embodied life) or dissolution into the cosmos as mere matter, whereas
in the Apology the prospects are a dreamless sleep or the pleasures of
philosophical conversations in the underworld. The subjective signicance
of the two outcomes is the same. On Senecas view of the afterlife (with a
comparison to Cicero) see I. Hadot +: +. Compare also y6.z.
y1.16 mixed again reading remiscebitur.
y1.16 complement, habet suos numeros, lit. it has its numbers. Cf. 6.y
and note ad loc.
y1.16 Concluding summary. Catos reasoning as reconstructed illus-
trates how a virtuous and fair-minded character can treat favourable and
unfavourable circumstances as the same. So virtue, once one has it, is as
big as it gets. In view of the two possible fates after death, it is clear that
no diminution in virtue can take place, but also that no worse balance can
emerge between preferred and dispreferred things in ones experience.
If one joins the divine, ones afterlife is certainly not marred by the
incommoda of the body; if one is simply dissolved into cosmic components
then there is also no loss with regard to cosmic components. Remaining
alive as a good person, then, is no greater good for Cato than dying as
a good person. Hence the Stoic conclusion that once a life has virtue it
is complete. Seneca repeats his point about the equality in invariance of
truth and virtue.
y1.1y Returns to the theme of the equality of all goods, phrased in
terms reminiscent of those applied to the case of Claranus (66., 66.6).
rr++ra y+ +
Senecas concern is that someone might regard virtue in tough times as
a lesser good (whereas in 66.q he had argued that if anything he
would regard it as a greater good). Hence he advances a slippery-slope
argument against his opponents, using the examples of Socrates in prison,
Cato committing suicide, and Regulus (all used similarly in 6y; cf. Cicero
Off. +.+, .++j). He thus forces on his opponents, dialectically to
be sure, a hard choice: either admit that sages have been unhappy or
admit that all goods are equal. An ad hominem argument backs it up:
even degenerate people would grant that such suffering sages are not
wretched.
y1.18 The Old Academics are presented as holding a thesis preferable
to that of the degenerates of y1.1y. They concede that a suffering sage is
happy but not as happy as can be. The issue of whether happiness itself
(rather than virtue, the good, or the honourableon which happiness
depends) admits of degrees is the focus of the debate in Fin. j, with
the Old Academics taking the view that it can be graduated and the Stoics
that it cannot. Hence their view cannot be accepted. Senecas position
here may seem like a mere assertion that the concept of happiness is a
limiting case, but in fact it rests on the claim that the highest good is an
absolute limit in which no variation is possible. The key to the argument
is the thesis that a condition of our lives would not count as happiness at
all unless it were in the highest good.
y1.1q The experience of the gifted young men inspired ( percussit) by
great examples (cf. also y1.z, 1zo.). Such examples commend wisdom
to themand this is the source of virtue and happiness. This is an important
indication of how Seneca supposes exempla to work in moral education.
Seneca purports to be basing this on experience, and such experience
requires that at least a provisional notion of the honourable is widely
accepted as a norm in society, even if it requires later philosophical
renement. See commentary on 1zo and Getting to Goodness, ch. +o
of Inwood :ooj. See y1. on falling in love with virtue. The capacity for
falling in love with virtue is based on our susceptibility to such examples.
honourable deed. Could also be rendered honourable circumstance.
ruler. That is, a straight edge used for measurement. This is an
illustration of the philosophical renement that wisdom brings to the
initial commitment to regarding the honourable as a norm. Straightness is
+ cor++av
introduced as the central concept for this argument and (despite the use
of the ruler in the argument) it is not a mere metaphor. See also y.z8.
y1.1qzo The honourable and a ruler (regula) are both standards for
other things, and as such neither can be thought of as varying, at least not
relative to the things for which it is a standard. To reject this comparision
and its implications for the invariability of the honourable would entail
either (a) denying that the honourable is that against which indifferents are
measured; or (b) accepting that a standard can function properly even if it
varies relative to what it measures (as Aristotle says of the Lesbian ruler
EN ++ybo, though it is a standard in a different sense). Clearly Seneca
expects neither move to be acceptable. The standard-setting role of the
honourable is taken for granted, Seneca thinks, even by his opponents,
who are probably not to be thought of as reective Epicureans but perhaps
either as unphilosophical people committed to conventional values or as
Old Academics.
y1.zo rigid taut. There is a textual crux here, for which many
emendations have been proposed. Rather than drastically emending or
despairing, I prefer to adopt the punctuation of B ucheler. Other possible
translations would include:
It is rigid. How could it be made moreso?
What could be made more taut than something which is rigid?
If it cannot itself be any straighter This translation is modelled
on the Bud e. The nec before intendi on which the Bud e translation
depends (rigidari quidem amplius? nec intendi potest. Mais gagner du
moins en rigidit e? Elle nest susceptible non plus de tension) is
probably a medieval emendation rather than a manuscript variant.
then neither can any of the things which are straight because of
it be straighter than the others.
y1.z1 dinner party rack. Reminiscent of the discussion in 66.
of the same dimensions translates eiusdem mensurae. Compare y.z6.
Note again the use of the concept of the raw material (hul

e, materia) for
virtue, attributable to Chrysippus (Plutarch, Comm. Not. +oe = LS
jA). This is an assertion of Stoic value theory. The value of any situation
is determined by the presence or absence of virtue in the agent, not by the
circumstances which are the raw material for the agents action.
rr++ra y+ +j
y1.zz The reply to the aggressive common-sense objection is an ad
hominemchallenge: they are projecting fromtheir ownconditionanddo not
have an objective basis for their assessment of what is reasonable. Above,
however, Seneca has argued for a conceptual point. If we admit that virtue
is a measure then it must have the characteristics of a measure. That kind
of argument has a broader reach than the inevitably subjective procedure
of judging values by ones own current inclinations and intuitions. The
fact that people are affected by the inspiration of exemplary characters
(inspired by the beauty of an honourable deed at y1.1q; cf. 1zo.) is
of interest here. The fact that historical exempla have this motivational
impact is evidence that even non-philosophers have implicit commitments
to values which conict with other values we hold explicitly. This
suggests that the proper role of historical exempla might be to provide a
counterweight to ones own short-sighted assessments and to expand the
range of experience that goes into ones thinking about values.
y1.z The fact that peoples failings and limitations are so variable is
meant to reveal the need for a kan

on, but also undercuts any argument

based solely on experience and common sense. (Is the humour of the
passage, noted by Grant :ooo: :, intentional?) The present argument
only works, however, if we rule out a radical relativism of values and
assume that there is some general truth to be had. Senecas argument is
not made vulnerable by this limitation, however, since it seems clear that
his imagined opponent is not just saying that the Stoic argument does
not apply to him because his intuitions about value are different, but also
arguing that Stoics are wrong about human nature. See also y1.6, which
both invokes the limitations of the human condition generally (conrming
that the opponents are addressing non-relative claims about human values)
and argues for the inadequacy of judging by the wrong standards (in that
case the standards of the body). See also y1.zy, which argues that the wise
person is not beyond human nature.
awoken at dawn. See 1zz.
y1.z Since variable human experience is not reliable, we have to nd
another basis for our judgements. So we turn to the great mind of the
exceptional person rather than things which are familiar and variable. The
idea, perhaps, is that we turn to the exceptional because of its capacity
for consistency with itself and its cognitive reliability, and so its tness
as a standard. This would be a reason for the great man to play a role in
+ cor++av
determining values, especially as no one is thought to disagree with the
view that such people are admirable. What of the comparison to optical
illusions? The idea is that one needs an external standard in order to
correct for the failings of contingent human experience. As reason gives
us consistent answers about the straightness of the stick, while the senses
do not, so too the standards set by the mind give us consistent answers
about values while the senses do not.
y1.z The idealistic youth of y1.1q is here invoked as an indication that
this set of opinions is actually held by people thought to be worthy of
admiration. Here too the youth is impressed by the example of heroic
gures, and the fact that he is struck in this way is more than an
illustration of human variability. Is the youth meant to suggest naturalness
and freedom from social convention? Or not being worn down by life?
The description of him as unspoiled suggests both; indeed uncorrupted
might not be too strong for incorruptus and this would make the point even
stronger. The character admired by such a youth has several admirable
traits, but its constancy amidst good and bad fortune is taken to be
an assurance of reliability. Weaker spirits react differently in different
circumstances and so fail to speak with a consistent voice.
Hengelbrock (:ooo: j) is concerned about Senecas reliance here on
non-philosophical concepts to support an ultimately Stoic position. For
he thinks the unspoiled youth refers on one level to a wise person with
genuinely uncorrupted intellect and on another to a kind of admirable
character which is not, however, that of the Stoic sage. This two-level
interpretation of the example seems implausible; certainly there is nothing
in Senecas text to suggest it. It seems more reasonable to suppose that
Seneca is arguing on the basis of the moral intuitions of an unspoiled youth,
not treating those intuitions as criterial (as those of the sage would be)
but rather using them as nothing more than an indication of what is truly
admirable. This exploitation of common moral intuitions is not unusual
in Seneca (see on 1zo) and does not amount to accepting common opinion
as criterial in ethics. Hengelbrock is concerned about the conict between
the method of argument suggested here in y1.z and Senecas rejection of
the crowd as a reliable indicator of moral truth (see Hengelbrock :ooo:
j, n. o), but Senecas moral epistemology is more subtle than that.
y1.z6 Again, Seneca contrasts the mind with the circumstances to which
it reacts. He is interested in the assessment made by the mind of the
externals and the body which it alone is in a position to judge. If we
rr++ra y+ +y
distinguish the mind from what it judges, then we can use this dualism
to isolate that aspect of human experience which can be consistent and so
epistemically reliable and a proper standard. The wise person shows what
the mind is capable of: it can, in principle, maintain consistency under
hardships of any sort and under good fortune. The body, by contrast,
inevitably reacts differently in different circumstances and cannot be relied
on to maintain a single standard.
The idea that the only bad aspect of a situation lies in our reaction to it
is a commonplace in Epictetus and Seneca; see esp. .q.
y1.zy Seneca takes up the challenge of y1.6. The dualism of body and
mindenables us toisolate that part of a humanbeingwhichcanbe invariant.
We also possess the other part (the body) and it has the experiences that
common sense points to. But it is not criterial because it cannot attain
consistency. The limits of human nature are fully acknowledged, but
Senecas argument is that not all facts about human nature affect the
nature of virtue and so of happiness. The requirement for consistency
and invariability is, he seems to think, built in to the concept of virtue
and so of happiness. That being so, those features of human nature which
do not measure up to the standard of consistency must be treated as
extrinsic to the assessment of virtue and happiness. Senecas recognition
of an irrational part does not entail acceptance of Platonic psychological
dualism. Our body and the features of the soul which are bound to it
(that is to say, the anima not the animus or mind) admit of an undeniable
variability; such an unstable feature of our lives should not, on Senecas
view, determine our conception of happiness. See I. Hadot +: +:
and Seneca and Psychological Dualism, ch. : of Inwood :ooj.
y1.zy lled out. Hengelbrock (:ooo: y) is needlessly concerned about
the theoretical implications of this metaphor. The achievement of virtue
is often referred to with the language of fullness and completeness (it is,
after all, a perfection); see on y6.1o.
y1.z8 Seneca here connects the two views of human moral nature
throughanaccount of moral progress. (See y1., y passim.) Eventhe per-
sonwho is making maximal moral progress is liable to instability andsocan-
not provide criterial intuitions. (See Stobaeus, Ecl. j.o.+8oy.j =SVF
.j+o = LS jI for the maximal progressor.) This strengthens Senecas
argument, since (he holds) he is able to account for the intuitions invoked
+8 cor++av
by his opponents (they are making progress but can also backslide) but they
cannot ontheir principles account for the phenomena of exceptional virtue.
y1.z8 bravest efforts. Or, with the Bud e, when he has been tested most
intensely which points to the theme of On Providence.
loves himself most. Self-love is, of course, a tendency of all people, but
the wise person applies his judgements with dispassionate consistency.
Hence his self-admiration is greatest precisely in circumstances when his
admiration for others would also be greatest.
Note that here Seneca regards unfavourable circumstances as desirable
if they are unavoidably linked to a virtuous action, one which is both
the proper thing to do (an ofcium, kath

ekon) and also a mark of virtue

(honestum). For other reasons to prefer harsh circumstances, see 66.q,
but here Seneca merely says that the wise person welcomes the opportunity
for a virtuous action even at the cost of pain, poverty, or other misfortunes.
Consistently with his commitment to Stoic value theory, he prefers
goodness (being better) to good fortune (being luckier, felicior).
slippery ground in lubrico. See also 116.6, where Seneca, who consistently
portrays himself as a mere progressor, declares his intention to avoid
situations (such as love) in which the ground is slippery.
y1.zq1 The account of moral progress accommodates the observations
of those who point to experience and common sense and so continues the
response to the challenge of y1.6. The moral limitations of aspirants to
wisdomdo not count as evidence against the Stoic conception of goodness;
they merely show that those who are not wise yet do not yet have all the
attributes of wisdom. Cf. also y.1.
tremble and feel pain and grow pale. The translation feel pain was
suggested by Kara Richardson. For this acknowledgement of the physical
sufferings of a sage, see De Ira :.+: and Seneca and Psychological
Dualism, ch. : of Inwood :ooj. Compare also Gellius Noctes Atticae +.+
and discussion by R. Sorabji :ooo, esp. chs. and :. See also Graver
+: oo:j and Stoicism and Emotion (forthcoming), ch. . This pas-
sage further conrms that Senecas dualism is that of body versus mind,
modelled on the Phaedo, rather than a division internal to the soul as is
envisaged in Republic .
The badness of any given situation lies in the mind (i.e., in vice
or its participants). The negative features outside the mind are merely
rr++ra y+ +
dispreferred, but Seneca is adamant that Stoics do not deny the reality
of such negative features and merely locate them properly in the part of
ourselves which is not intrinsically human. For our rational unshakability
cf. .q which emphasizes that only our reason is relevant to our assessment
as human beings. For the Stoic acceptance of our bodily vulnerabilities
see also y.1, I. Hadot +: +.
y1.1 See Republic :de for the image of dyeing wool used to illustrate
character formation.
y1.z Virtue is portrayed as a judgement (iudicium) which is stable and
transparent about what is good. See 66.z, y.11, y6.1o, q.y. Judgement
is a mental capacity or faculty and not an individual mental act. Since
virtue is a state of the human mind, the basic Stoic account of the mind
as the receiver and judge of presentations and as the generator of actions
via impulses (see Inwood +8j: ch. ) dictates that the cognitive and
practical outcomes of virtue (that is, perceptions and actions) will share
its attributes. On judgement here, see Moral Judgement in Seneca, ch. y
of Inwood :ooj and I. Hadot +: +o.
y1. The main contrast here is between what is good for the body and
what is good over all (in totum). This aligns with the dualism of body and
mind once one recalls that it is inevitably the mind which is able to make
judgements for the whole person (both body and mind) over its whole life.
For good overall cf. also 1z.1 on the genuine good.
certain kind of value. The term for value is pretium, reward or price.
excellence renders the Latin dignitas. The two kinds of value (selective
value and the value of genuine benet) are designated by two different
terms. Cf. Inwood +8j: +8, +y:o+, and (among other texts)
Stobaeus, Ecl. :.8. Unlike true value, things with merely selective
value, the indifferents, admit of widely varying degrees. See also Const.
Sap. j. for the equality of all goods.
y1. Seneca here remarks on the variations among people making
different degrees of moral progress. Just as the invariance of virtue (true
value) means that all wise people are equally good and happy, so the
variability of indifferents means that progressors will vary in their level of
moral progress (which is one of the preferred indifferents: D.L. y.+o).
On the instability of moral progress, see above on y1.z8 slippery ground.
:oo cor++av
y1. eyes downcast when stunned by excessive brightness. See Pl.
R. j++y, esp. j+jc and Cic. Rep. .+; Hengelbrock :ooo: y:.
The variability of moral progress makes an excellent transition to the
closing exhortation of the letter.
y1.6y The closing exhortation emphasizes (a) the attainability of
virtue, (b) the need for constant effort to make such progress, and (c) the
necessity of the main doctrine of this letter, which is the indifference of
external things to our happiness. The role of the passions (less integral to
this letter) is also included here.
want it with my whole mind. For the relationship of this to ideas about
the will in Seneca, see The Will in Seneca, ch. j of Inwood :ooj, and
the inconclusive remarks of Hengelbrock :ooo: y.
y1.6 life at last becomes a benet. This emphasizes that the good is
benet or not other than benet; see SVF .yj (S.E. M++.::, D.L.
y.). See also 66.z1, 11y.zy.
y1.6 belong to ourselves. For this theme, a common expression in
Seneca for an ideal of personal control and responsibility for our lives,
their management and their improvement, see also 1.1 vindica te tibi. zo.1,
z., z.8,1o, q., 6z.1, y1.6, y.18, q8.z, Brev. Vit. :..
Commentary on y
Thematic division
+: Age and philosophy, an introductory protreptic.
y++: Goodness is tied to the nature and function of each entity.
Mans unique function is reason.
+:+j: The uniqueness of mans good is supported.
++: Virtue, reason, and the honourable.
:o+: Arguments from examples.
::: Conceptual arguments (from stability, piety, temperance).
:j: The afterlife.
:: Conceptual argument from animals.
:o: Argument from our behaviour and values, consistently
generalized.
rr++ra y :o+
+: The external vs the internal as a sign of true wisdom.
Hardship as a test which reveals character.
j: Conclusionthe wise person anticipates the worst.
For general discussion see Cancik +y: +8:: (though her sharp contrast
between descriptive and prescriptive argument forms is not compelling)
and Maurach +yo: +oj.
For the connections between y1, y, and y6 see p.+8:. Particularly
important sections from y include:
y.1 If externals are goods then the gods lack them. This would mean
that humans are happier than god since we can enjoy more goods.
y.1 If externals are goods then animals share (at least some of ) them.
This would mean that animals can enjoy goods and hence be happy.
y.1618 The nature of the preferred indifferents is dened.
y.zo1 The alignment of reason and god.
y6.16 The letter opens with a protreptic about age and learning,
justifying the pursuit of philosophical education even in old age. The
theme (especially with the reference to mockery at y6.) is reminiscent of
Callicles attack on Socrates at Gorgias 8jd (see Dodds + on 8jdy)
for spending his time in old age discussing philosophy with young boys
instead of attending to the business of adults. Compare also Epicurus
Letter to Menoeceus in D.L. +o.+::. This introduction ends with the claim
that the work involved in doing philosophy is worthwhile because wisdom
brings virtue and virtue brings every good thing. That is because virtue is
the honourable and that is the only good. Hence the theme: only the good
is honourable. This too is an argument against an Old Academic thesis,
that there are three kinds of goods (tria genera bonorum), those of the soul,
those of the body, and external goods. See Cicero, De Finibus j.
y6. maxim. For the recommendation of Solon that one must learn as
long as one lives, see Plu. Sol. +.y.; Pl. R. jd+:, Amat. +c, La.
+8aj (and the scholia thereto). The appropriateness of philosophy even
in old age is also an Epicurean doctrine (D.L. +o.+:: Letter to Menoeceus).
See also Brev. Vit. y.. The rationale for studying even in old age which
Seneca offers here (that we are still relevantly ignorant and so need to keep
on learning) is no doubt implicit in Solons maxim; I know of no other
text that spells it out in so many words.
:o: cor++av
y6. Metronax is also mentioned at q.1. It is striking that Seneca
mentions passing the Neapolitan theatre on the way to the school and
makes disparaging remarks about the performances and audiences there.
For the suggestion that Nero was performing in this theatre at the time
and so would have been the tacit target of these jibes, see Grifn +::
o and Suet. Nero :o.
y6. dont get into my situation suggests that Lucilius is signicantly
younger than Seneca, an exaggeration of their age difference according to
Grifn +:: +, n. .
y6.6 The motivation for, effort required for, and rewards of doing
philosophy. The incentives for studying philosophy are handled with a
matter-of-factness that might appeal to a serious non-philosopher. The
effort required is considerable but the rewards are even greaterhence
the project is worthwhile even if viewed from the outside, as it were. The
difference between a philosophers view of what is good and the view of
other people is underlined by the contrast between the theatre and the
school in y6.. The claim that only the honourable is good sets up the
contrast between ordinary and philosophical values, described Platonically
as a contrast between false and counterfeit values and genuine values. In
the second century uc, a time of renewed debate among Stoics, Platonists,
and Peripatetics (as witnessed by the career of Critolaus), Antipater wrote
a book arguing That according to Plato only the honourable is good (SVF .
Antipater j). This was an attempt to align Plato with the Stoics against
the Peripatetics on the topic of the nature of the good, an effort which
Seneca is still making two centuries later. In De Finibus j Cicero makes
a Peripatetic rather than a Platonist the spokesman for the idea that bodily
and external goods are good.
y6. topic of discussion represents quaeritur. That is, there is a quaestio
or formal philosophical discussion about the nature of the good man, as
is conrmed by discitur. The importance of quaestiones in school activity
is also reected at 1o6.z, 11.1, and 1z1.1. The competitive aesthetic
judgement about pipers is trivial by comparison.
y6.y earlier letter. This refers rst and foremost to y but also to y1
(see esp. y1.); see Maurach +yo: ++. The condensation promised here
consists in a more pointed argumentative formulation of the same point.
On prove and approve of ( probare, laudare) see also 8y..
rr++ra y :o
y6.y11 For the rest of the letter we will need to distinguish, as
Seneca eventually does, between species-relative good and absolute good.
Species-relative good is the good as dened solely with reference to the
natural function and attributes of a particular natural kind. The absolute
good is what is good without consideration of a particular natural kind.
The arguments used to show that the species-relative good of humans is
privilegedare considerablyweaker thanthose whichdemonstrate that there
is such a thing as species-relative good. The absolute goodness of reason
is a doctrine going back to Zeno (S.E. M. .+o). See also 1z.11.
In y6.1o11 there is a strong emphasis on the species-relative good of
humans. There seems to be only one unique trait, reason, so that is the
only good of human beings. It is also central to our judgements of people
(at the end of y6.8 the species-relative good is said to be that by which
each kind is judged and in y6.11 it is asserted correctly that people are
praised and blamed with respect to their distinctive good). Cf. 1, esp.
1.68 where the examples of the lion and the vine also occur alongside
other parallels to this letter.
y6.8 Goodness is relative to a kind. The function argument which was
rst elaborated in the dialectical context of Rep. + (j:d-ja) lies behind
all later appeals in the ancient philosophical tradition to the function
(ergon, or work) of something in order to determine its good. There (j:e)
Socrates describes the function of anything as that which one can do only
with it or best with it (trans. Grube-Reeve) and the concept is used of ani-
mals (horse), organs (eyes and ears) and tools. Though animals and organs
are natural and tools are artefacts, the rst denition of the function is cast
in terms of the use which can be made of something by a distinct purposive
agent. At ja, however, the thing itself is cast as the agent: the function of
each thing is what it alone can do [or produce, accomplish] or what it does
better than anything else. The excellence (virtue) of something is then
(jc) stipulated to be that by means of which it carries out its own function
well. When this is applied to the soul (as something with the natural func-
tions of living and deliberating rationally), Socrates concludesthough
far too rapidly and perhaps unconvincinglythat a happy life is the result
of having a virtuous soul and living in accordance with it.
In EN +.y (+oyb:: ff.) a similar set of concepts is deployed by Aristotle
to aid in specifying what the best is for humans. To do so he must argue
that there is a function for humans; a famously debatable line of argument
is used. He then stipulates that the good for something is determined by
its proper function, the function which it alone has. The result is that all
:o cor++av
functions shared with other animals will not count as the proper human
function for the purpose of determining humanexcellence and a happy life.
In these arguments (whatever their value in our eyes) Plato and Aristotle
lay downterms of discussionwhichbecome widely acceptedinlater ancient
ethical debate; the Stoics certainly share them and we see this in Senecas
discussions of the good here and elsewhere (especially 1z). In this context,
then, the good is to be understood in the following sense. What is good
for a particular kind of thing consists in carrying out well its characteristic
function (what it alone can do or what it can do best). The good in this
sense is species-relative.
y6.8 Everything depends (constat) on its own good. Constat is a difcult
term to translate. Consists in or rely on could also be appropriate
translations. The idea clearly is that each kind of thing is evaluated for
excellence with reference to its functionally dened species-relative good.
Most of the examples presuppose utility to a purposive human exploiter;
this is the case for vines, beasts of burden, and dogs, but not for stags
(unless their speed commends them to us as entertaining objects of the
hunt). Seneca is no more concerned for any intrinsic functions of animals
and plants than was Plato when using the example of the horse in Republic
+. Seneca explicitly claims that these functions are that for which these
animals were born. Such an anthropocentric view of other species is a
familiar Stoic perspective (see Clem. Al. Strom. VII .. = SVF +.j+
and De Finibus j.8 = SVF :.y:, e.g.).
ought to be its best. Compare the use of to ariston by Aristotle at
EN +oyb::.
y6.q11 human being. Seneca here uses the generic word for humans,
homo, rather than the marked masculine term vir. Nevertheless, his
examples of human excellence in this passage (as often elsewhere) are
strikingly gendered. This is particularly obvious when the beauty of the
peacock and the strength of the bull, for example, are offered as analogues
to human excellence.
y6.q Seneca argues that what is best (the highest good) in humans can
only be something distinctive. This focus on uniqueness of the good is
part of the Platonic and Aristotelian tradition. Senecas claim here is that
despite any other excellences people may have, only one is unique, reason.
In others humans may well be outdone by other species, but even if they
rr++ra y :oj
are not outdone the traits are shared. Strictly speaking, however, reason is
not a unique or proper trait, since it is shared by the gods. The willingness
to group humans with god(s) is also part of the Platonic and Aristotelian
tradition, though it is worth noting that the Greek tradition generally
assumes a basic sameness of kind between gods and humans. Seneca never
challenges this and so essentially begs the question of the homogeneity and
kinship of humans with god(s). Since, however, even Epicureans would
grant this point Senecas assumption does no dialectical harm. A further
reason for holding that any trait shared by humans and animals cannot be
good is given at y6.z6 below.
surpasses the animals and follows the gods. The hierarchy of value
implicit in this claim is discussed in Inwood +8j: ch. :.
impulse and voluntary motion. See Inwood +8j: ch. :.
y6.1o As in Plato and Aristotle, the functionally determined good of
humans determines what counts as their happiness. Reason is proper
to humans only on the assumption that it is legitimate to group humans
with gods. The claim that animals do not share in reason is of course
controversial in the ancient world. See Sorabji +. For happiness to be
achieved, though, our reason must be perfected (straight and complete);
for this theme in Seneca see I. Hadot +: +oo+. This condition is
also derived from the discussion in EN +.y but the requirement that
reason be perfected rather than merely excellent points rmly towards
a condition more familiar from the Platonic tradition (the godlikeness
of human excellence), though it is also part of Aristotles account in
EN +o.
lled out. This word recalls the notion of lling out used elsewhere in
Stoic descriptions of the perfected or happy life: S.E. M. ++.o; Stobaeus,
Ecl. :.y:.j, Plu. Comm. Not. +ooc; also y1.zy. The use of the term by
Critolaus the Peripatetic (see Cl. Strom. :.:+) in his debate against the
Stoics about the nature of happiness may well reect the Stoic use of the
idea. Critolaus claim was that a completely happy life was lled out by
means of all three kinds of good.
praiseworthy. This emphasizes that the characteristic function is also
the basis for evaluation and assessment.
:o cor++av
goal of his own nature. The use of the term nis (goal) here is a reminder
that Ciceros De Finibus forms part of the context for Senecas approach
to the basic questions of eudaimonistic ethics.
Note too that perfected reason is equated with virtue and virtue with
the honourable. The basis for this is that virtue is equivalent to excellence
and anything perfected is an excellence of that thing. But the equivalence
of excellence with the honourable relies on a (to us) distinct sense of
virtue, according to which it is not just an excellence in its own kind but
is a praiseworthy trait of character. Clearly we would want to distinguish
between virtue as a praiseworthy character trait and the less restricted
notion of excellence in carrying out ones natural function (reason, in
the case of humans). What Seneca needs to explain is how praiseworthy
character traits relate to our natural function. No doubt he believes that
he could do so, though we might disagree; but we do well to recall that the
same blurring of senses of aret

e (virtue) is committed by Plato at the end

of Republic +.
y6.11 no other [unique trait]. The Latin here is vague: si nullum aliud
est hominis quam ratio. If one followed the Bud e translation one would
render this if there is no other [good] of humans except reason; the Loeb
translation has if there is no other [attribute] which belongs peculiarly to
man except reason.
On the Bud e interpretation the argument is as follows: It would be a
reasonable conclusion from the review of specic goods in y6.8q that no
other species has reason as a good and that humans are not best at anything
else. y6.1o asserts on this basis that reason is our proper good. The
conclusion, then, is that humans have no good except their proper good
and no good except that at which they can be best. The presupposition
must be that any trait at which we can be bested by other species cannot
really be good in us. The inference in y6.11 turns out to be banal, that if
there is no good in man except reason then reason must be his only good;
the real work is being done by the presupposition at play in y6.1o.
The Loeb translation makes a more modest claim on the basis of
y6.81o, that we have no other proper (unique) trait except reason, since
our other traits are shared by other species (and indeed they are better
at them than we are). The inference in y6.11, then, moves from the
uniqueness of our reason to the claim that perfection in regard to it is
our good. The remarks about approval and disapproval in y6.111z are a
supplementaryargument for the same conclusion. The Loebinterpretation
is clearly superior and I esh out the translation accordingly.
rr++ra y :oy
but it should be treated as offsetting everything else. Shackleton-Bailey
(+yo: j) would emend sed to nec, since he translates pensandum as
weighed against and assumes that this means that the two comparanda
have equivalent value. If my translation is possible, emendation is not
necessary.
y6.1z Lucilius is portrayed as agreeing that reason is a good of man but
as doubting still that it is the only good. This can only be because he does
not accept the requirement that a trait must be unique to the species in
order to count as a good at all. Hence in what follows Seneca uses a quite
different line of argument. Focussing onintuitions about praiseworthiness,
Seneca tacitly assumes the principle that if something is good it must be
a necessary and sufcient basis for praise and approval. The good, then,
is not just essentially the benecial but also essentially the praiseworthy.
Seneca argues by example that of all the usual candidates for goodness
none except perfected reason is both necessary and sufcient for praise in
all cases. On the Stoic insistence that good be regarded as something with
an essential nature which is co-extensive with it, see CHHP and
D.L. y.+o:; in D.L. y.+o the characteristic property of the good, its
benecial nature, is compared to res property of heating things. Here
Seneca regards the praiseworthiness of the good in much the same way.
For praiseworthiness as a key feature of the good, see also the poem of
Cleanthes quoted by Clement at Protrepticus .y:.: = SVF +.jjy = LS
oQ where to entimon and to euklees are among the epithets of the good.
More pertinent, perhaps, are the arguments made by Cato at Cicero, Fin.
.:y to establish that every good is honourable (in effect the same claim as
here). First, the praiseworthy is the middle term in a syllogistic argument
to the conclusion that the good is honourable (the good is praiseworthy,
the praiseworthy is honourable, so the good is honourable). Note that Cato
emphasizes the formal validity of this argument. Second, he argues that the
good is choiceworthy, that the choiceworthy is pleasing, that the pleasing
is lovable (contra Woolf who renders diligendum worthy of choice), that
the lovable is worthy of approval and therefore also praiseworthy and
so honourable. The argument of Seneca in y6.1z links approval and
praiseworthiness to the good and the honourable in a similar manner.
On ones ancestors as external see Ben. .:8.:.
y6.11 illustrates with less controversial parallels and so makes more
plausible this account of the good. Again, the examples are artefacts
with functions and in each case function is contrasted with supercial
:o8 cor++av
ornamentation. This comparison makes it easier to treat preferred indif-
ferents as similarly extrinsic ornaments (in y6.1).
In y6.1 Seneca is unable to resist the sly wit of using a ruler as an
example of a functional artefact; compare y1.1q where too the notion of
the good as a kan

on is connected to the claim that it is a standard-setting

perfection. This example also introduces the straightness claim in y6.1:
a man is good if his reason is fully deployed, straight, and integrated with
human nature.
y6.1 fully deployed renders explicita, in an attempt to capture the
metaphorical application of the word which can literally mean to unfold,
unroll, unwrinkle, etc. and to bring into use or visibility. Well-ordered in
the Loeb suggests the wrong metaphor; the Bud e takes explicita et recta as
a hendiadys (d evelopp ee dans toute sa rectitude). inclinations renders
voluntas.
The trappings of a wealthy Roman are dismissed as merely preferred
indifferents: land, investments, clients (social dependents as a mark of
status), ne furniture, and verrerie. A Peripatetic might argue that some of
these advantages make possible the exercise of virtues (such as generosity,
magnanimity, excellent political action) which are important parts of
human excellence. One might argue that the necessary conditions for this
excellence are such as to excite admiration and so earn the right to be
considered good. One might also argue that anything which facilitates
virtue could be said to participate in it and so be considered good. But
this line of thought would be blocked by Senecas use of the argument
that the good is an essential ground of praiseworthiness, that whatever is
good must be praiseworthy in every instance. Senecas argument relies on
the premiss that praiseworthiness has only one cause, virtue. y6.16 states
bluntly: it alone is good since there is no good without it. This argument
relies on the strictest Stoic notion of causation (the sunhektikon aition) and
may also rely on a notion of eminent causation (the cause must contain the
effect).
y6.16 Virtue is just another name for the perfectionof reasonas described
in y6.1. Seneca reasserts the claims made in y6.1o, before the reinforcing
arguments of y6.1z1, that the perfection of reason completes human
nature and so produces happiness. The fulllment of natural function
completes a person and so makes him happy. Hence the sole good thesis
entails that there is only one route to happiness, through possession of the
good.
rr++ra y :o
y6.16 We also say that . Strictly speaking, if virtue is the only good
then this claim that we make must be false. Hence it is possible that the
we refers to non-Stoics speaking incorrectly. But it is also possible that
what we say refers to a proper Stoic doctrine (that the good is virtue
and what participates in virtue), and that Seneca is conceding that the
products (opera) of virtue (one subset of what participates in virtue, see
66.8) can be said to be good, though only virtue is good in the strongest
sense. The products of virtue are presumably virtuous actions; normally
Seneca claims that they are good without qualication, but here he is
aggressively protecting the thesis that virtue alone is good by insisting on
the causal role of the good. On the products of virtue, cf. Cic. Fin. .:.
y6.1y Conrmatory argument. The claim that every good is in the mind
is, of course, true on Stoic theory since virtue is the only good and virtue
is a state of our mind. But this claim need not be accepted solely on
the basis of Stoic doctrine. If one adopted a non-Stoic moral psychology
(such as that of the Republic, where Plato postulates desires distinct from
reason) one might want to hold that some psychological state distinct
from perfected reason (Stoic virtue) was good. One such state might be
temperance as conceived in the Republic, and such a state would certainly
make the mind stronger, loftier, and fuller. Hence on the criterion
proposed here (ability to improve the mind) this psychological state would
be good, as one would expect a virtue to be. But (as in the Republic)
something in the mind which merely strengthens the non-rational desires
would not be good, because it fails to improve the mind as a whole; Plato
would agree that the strengthening of such desires would weaken and
degrade the mind as a whole even though it strengthens some of its parts.
Hence the argument here is not objectionably dependent on Stoic moral
psychology and provides a criterion of goodness which a Platonist would
be able to accept. Unsurprisingly, Seneca here presupposes (rather than
arguing for) a common-sense notion of what counts as improvement to
the mind.
inaming, tricking. The danger of the desires stems in part from their
susceptibility to uncontrolled stimulation and in part from the falsity of
the value claims on which they are based.
y6.18 The honourable (and all its equivalences) is the sole reference
point in decisions about action. This single reference point is part of
general eudaimonism as well as Stoic theory. See on y1.z.
:+o cor++av
y6.181q The claim that virtue is the only good is said to be supported
by generally held beliefs about what a good man would do. Senecas
claim is that such a person would pursue what is honourable and would
not pursue the dishonourable despite contrary incentives in each case. In
itself, this seems to show not the exclusive value of the honourable but its
overriding value. But the scenario outlined does establish the rst premiss
in the argument of y6.1q.
This argument, however, is not as well structured as one might wish.
Senecas conclusion is that virtue is the only good and that it cannot
become not good. That is, virtue cannot degenerate once it is achieved.
That virtue is the sole good follows from its identication above with
the honourable, which has also been shown to be the only good. So the
new factor here is the claim about the irreversibility of virtue. Senecas
intention must be to support this claim with the assertion that only virtue
is uncorrupted and it alone adheres to its course and in the context only
the remarks in y6.1y about the tendency of virtue to improve the mind
can be thought to support that claim.
y6.zo1 An a fortiori argument (fromobserved behaviour) that externals
are not good (the back-reference is to y.z1 and perhaps also to y1.1q):
if humans treat externals as indifferent for poor reasons, how much
more so for adequate reasons? Since, as shown above, Seneca shares
the general Stoic view that only something which is consistently and
certainly good is good at all, we can see him here using an argument of
this form in consideration of peoples behaviour. Health, wealth, etc. are
not consistently treated as being good and hence we need not consider
them as good. This argument is very weak if we think of it as part of
a demonstration about the nature of the good; but it is much stronger
if we think of it as being dialectical and directed against the views of
a representative opponent. Suppose that this opponent has argued from
the general opinions of mankind that health and wealth are good. Seneca
is pointing out that they are not even consistently pursued by the very
people who share that value scheme and hence their testimony does
not support the claim that health and wealth are good. The underlying
assumption is that if something is thought of as good it will be chosen
unconditionally. The fact that it is reasonable to choose dispreferreds in
some circumstances (as at S.E. M. ++.y) was a traditional argument
for their indifference.
The anonymous exempla here are identiable with some condence,
but in some cases there are several possibilities.
rr++ra y :++
The rejector of wealth was Fabricius (1zo.6, Prov. .) or Democritus
( Prov. .:).
The hand in the ames belongs to Mucius Scaevola (z., 66.1,
Prov. .j).
The man who laughed at his torturer was the Carthaginian Hasdrubal
(see Liv. :+.: and y8.18).
Fabius Maximus, Aemilius Paulus, and Marcus Cato are mentioned
by Cicero at Tusc. .yo as examples of those reputed not to have cried
at their childrens funerals. Cicero also mentions there that he listed
other examples in the Hortensius and the theme was no doubt well
worn in the consolatory tradition. Greek examples include Pericles,
Anaxagoras, and Xenophon.
Socrates, Cato, and many others met death without trembling.
y6.zz quod si est, rationi repugnat. Alternative translation (in the Loeb):
If there is any such thing, then it is at variance with reason . The Bud e
has une pareille donn ee r epugne ` a la raison . The subject of repugnat
is, indeed, not explicit in the Latin. But the reference should be to an
opinion since this section concludes with reference to the conict between
erroneous views and the truth.
This is a dialectical argument, an indirect proof. Assume that something
besides the honourable is good, then results will follow which conict
with the basic concept of the virtues and the good life. For there is prior
agreement about the stability of virtue (see, for example, y6.1q above), so
that an assumption which contradicts it must be rejected.
y6.z is a similarly dialectical argument. Here the assumption is that the
goodmanis pious. Seneca argues that a failure of equanimitywouldamount
to impiety (on the assumption that what happens in the world is providen-
tially determined by the gods). Hence the good man must have equanimity,
and this is only possible if he holds that only the honourable is good.
y6.z A third dialectical argument, similarly indirect. If you deny that
the honourable is the only good, then rational behaviour becomes unstable
and insatiable. For it is reasonable to pursue what is good unconditionally
and constantly, and a good without limits will lead to limitless desire. But
that conicts with our conception of a good person. So we must deny
either that it is reasonable to pursue the good unconditionally or deny
that anything limitless is good. The latter is preferable. But of desirable
things only the honourable is intrinsically limited. The greed for life
:+: cor++av
which would otherwise ensue is not consistently sustainable so it has no
role in the planning of an entire good life (on eudaimonist terms). This is
the foundation for the place made for limit, and only the honourable is
intrinsically characterized by limits.
y6.z Another dialectical argument, an indirect proof. The reference is
to y.1: if anything which the gods or the blessed dead cannot possess is
good then (a) the gods lack goods and so are not happy and (b) the afterlife
represents a loss of value rather than a liberation. Both of these are impos-
sible. The gods cannot possess money and public ofce, so money and
public ofce are not good. The reference to the fate of the soul after death
is an allusion to y1.16; for Senecas view of the afterlife, see the note ad loc.
On death as a liberation of the soul fromthe body, see also 6.16 and 6.z1.
y6.z6 I had also said. The reference is to y.16. Here we have another
dialectical indirect proof. If things which humans share with animals are
good (the honourable is not a feature of non-rational animal life), and
having the good entails having a happy life, then animals wind up being
happy. But this is impossible. So nothing shared with animals is good. See
also y6.q1o and notes.
The nal dialectical argument of this sequence is that if anything except
the honourable were good then endurance would have no point. The
argument may be lled out as follows. It is agreed that endurance of
unpleasant things is for the sake of the honourable. We do this because
the honourable is the good and possessing the good entails happiness.
Hence one needs the honourable to be happy, and (as it turns out) one
must endure unpleasant things in order to attain the honourable. If the
honourable were not the good and so the key to happiness, then we
would not have any reason to suffer for it. But a denial that we should
suffer for the sake of the honourable violates common conceptions. So
the honourable must be good. This argument, weak and indirect as it
is, inadvertently makes clear the hypothetical nature of moral motivation
according to the Stoics. The honourable would not be worth suffering for
unless it led to the good. We suffer bravely and piously not for its own
sake but for the sake of the good and happiness.
earlier letter. Seneca has in mind y rather than y1.
y6.zy The rst of a series of ad hominemappeals. The thesis that only the
honourable is good might be proven but will never be convincing without
rr++ra y :+
personal reection on ones own values and commitments. Like Cicero,
Seneca is concerned that argument alone might not be strong enough to
convince an audience of some of the more counter-intuitive theses of Stoic
ethics. Here he invokes support for the thesis from reection on ones
own choices. Assuming a well-socialized Roman audience, he can use the
patriotic commitments of his audience (Lucilius and the readers) as a
starting point. If one would be willing to die for ones country in at least
some circumstances, and if one would do so because it is the honourable
thing to doand these are dialectically reasonable assumptionsit
follows, Seneca says, that the honourable is the only good.
This may not seem to follow immediately. Even allowing that it
is the honourable as such that motivates self-sacrice rather than the
more specic consideration of honourable patriotism, the reection only
establishes that the honourable is the highest good in a given context. If,
however, the argument is to be helped by charitable interpretation, one
might do so as follows. Suppose that for any thing, if you would give it up
to get the good and so happiness, then it is itself not a good; or that there is
a prior commitment to the view that unless something is an overriding or
unconditional good it is not a good at all. If either of these is accepted as a
principle then since life is the highest sacrice one could make (subsuming
all other candidates for good since one must be alive to have the good),
one could say that every other value would be implicitly sacriced if life is.
But it is hard to see why anyone would accept this principle unless already
convinced of the Stoic thesis that only the honourable is good and that
other values, such as life and health, are merely preferred. Since the appeal
is being made ad hominem, though, Seneca may be counting on Lucilius
(and his readers) to have accepted this much of Stoic value theory already.
how much being honourable commits you to. Literally, consider how
great is the force (vis) of the honourable.
the minute you knowit should be done. Acommitment to the honourable
is a virtuous disposition. Actions based on a rmdisposition do not require
lengthy consideration, so that as soon as one recognizes the fact that virtue
requires self-sacrice the action will follow immediately without further
deliberation or hesitation. Someone not committed to the honourable
would presumably debate the matter and consider the relative weight of
civic values, his own life, etc. before deciding what to do. The virtuous man
regards the matter as settled as soon as the applicability of honourable is
clear. This is what a commitment to a virtuous line of action means; the
:+ cor++av
decisions of Socrates as recounted in the Apology, Crito, and Phaedo are of
this kind.
y6.z8o At the end of y6.zy Seneca considered a case where ones
sacricial death occurred immediately upon the realization that it was
incumbent on the agent. In such a case there would be no time for any
pleasurable reection on the satisfactions of having done ones duty. (It
is irrelevant whether this pleasure is the gaudium of the sage reecting on
a fully virtuous act of self-sacrice or some lesser form of pleasure open
to the progressor who has made an appropriate but not virtuous act of
self-sacrice.) So even though (y6.z8) in many cases one could explain the
motivations of a self-sacricer as being based on a peculiarly moral plea-
sure, even an extremely short one, there will still be cases (y6.zq) in which
there is no pleasurable reection of that sort, since the dead can derive no
retrospective pleasure. Hence there are at least some cases in which consid-
erations of the honourable alone will be the motivation. Seneca adds further
the consideration that one may act in that way even if there is no social
reward and even if obloquy ensues (a scenario put into play in Republic :).
y6.o Seneca concludes that only the honourable is good. It is not
immediately clear why this should establish that the honourable is in fact
the only good in the entire domain of human motivation, unless perhaps
the work is meant to be done by a tacit preference for economy: if one
sometimes needs the strongest versionof a theory to explainthe moral facts,
then one should use it even in cases where a weaker version would sufce.
As the thought experiment just used works for appropriately motivated
non-sages as well as for sages, Seneca claims that the awareness revealed by
this experiment can be had not just by a sage but by any suitably talented
and noble mind. Seneca characteristically points to aspects of favourable
circumstances which are detrimental even though fortune smiles. The
risk in good fortune is that it will lead to worry about its unreliability
and also contribute to errors in value judgements by helping people to
confuse preferred things and goods. (With regard to the instability of
things which depend on chance, compare Epicurus, Principal Doctrine j,
which emphasizes that one can never be condent that a secret misdeed
will remain secret indenitely, and Letter to Menoeceus at D.L. +o.+
which points to the instability of chance.)
y6.o There are two possible readings here, illidunt crush and illudunt
deceive or perhaps play with, make fun of . The former picks up the
rr++ra y :+j
metaphors in the immediate context, but the sense of deception would
reect Senecas concern about unreliability of good fortune here and above
at y6.1y. The choice of reading is difcult.
y6.1z Two analogies are offered to illustrate the difference between
a persons real attribute and merits and the false appearance generated by
contingent external things such as wealth, health, and the other indiffer-
ents. The evaluation of the genuine person in contrast to externals is a
common theme; compare the remarks about judging naked minds at 66..
Epictetus, the Cynics, and other philosophers make similar points about
the evaluation of character. See Gorgias j:b-j:ja. The analogies speak
for themselves, though it is worth noting that the extravagant costume of
the tragic stage is a familiar metaphor for elaborately deceptive external
appearances, whereas Senecas play with the image of varying heights
seems original.
Contrary to the suggestion by Albrecht (:oo: +y, n. +), this contrast
between the real person and his extraneous possessions does not require
that we think of Seneca as concentrating on an inner man.
y6.z shed his very body. This is another indication of the evaluative
dualism of body and soul which is common in Stoicism. It would be a
mistake to suppose that Seneca commits himself here to the view that
body and soul can actually be separated. The psycho-physical unity of the
person is unaffected by this discourse.
y6. Seneca returns to the theme of y6.zyo. A rm grasp of Stoic
value theory makes it possible to see how one can be happy even when
facing or suffering extreme bodily torments, providing that the honourable
is not sacriced. Preparedness to meet such threats with equanimity is
both indicated and assured by ones ability to foresee the possibility of
such misfortune and to live accordingly. The mental habit of anticipating
misfortune (to proend

emein, praemeditatio malorum) is a well-established

component in the Stoic programme for mental hygiene and the prevention
of path

e. Cicero (Tusc. .:8+) traces the technique to the Cyrenaics,

but it became quite general. It is not clear whether Seneca is relying
particularly on Cicero here. See also the notes of Graver ad loc. (:oo::
) and Seneca De Ira .y.. The quotation from Vergil (Aeneid
.+oj) is Aeneas replying to Sibyls prediction of hardships to come
(she had, signicantly, commanded him not to yield to troubles but to go
:+ cor++av
forward more boldly). It is extended by a prose rephrasing of the speech
still in the voice of Aeneas.
unswerving eyes, a common gure. See Const. Sap. j. and 1o.z.
y6. Seneca concludes his reection on the praemeditatio malorum
by comparing the fool and the wise person. Experience seems to be the key
point of contrast. A fool either lacks or fails to make use of his experience
of the world, experience which makes clear that there are constant risks
of misfortune. The wise person has and uses this experience and so
does not need to suffer emotionally in order to accept misfortunes as
bearable. He can say I knew it was coming because he lives in the light
of an awareness that misfortune is possible and has a rm grasp of the
real values of things. Fools suffer on the way to such understanding, if
they ever come to have it (the maxim from Greek tragedy pathei mathos
(Aeschylus Agamemnon +yy) lies behind this insight). The importance of
using such experience of how the world works and of the contingency that
characterizes it is a large part of what Chrysippus meant when advancing
his telos formula (that is, the specication of what happiness consists in)
living according to the experience of what happens by nature (see on
66.6 above).
At the end of y6. Seneca points to the way experience of hardships by
non-sages mitigates their suffering: people can endure what they thought
were hardships more bravely when they have gotten used to them. This
remark accomplishes two things: it supports his claim that a wise person
endures hardships without sufferingwhich is an extrapolation from the
experience of becoming accustomed to misfortune; and it suggests an
important aspect of moral progress by illustrating how it is that one can
learn from the experience of the world.
The letter ends with a wry contrast between the self-deception of fools,
who dont realize that they have not achieved the maximal goal of wisdom,
and sages. Fools merely claim that they knew misfortune was coming,
whereas the wise do not just say it but mean it. Indeed, they know it.
(Compare y6.zo1.) While we are on the road to wisdom, which is the full
grasp of all that can be learned from our experience of what happens by
nature, we often dont realize that we have not achieved complete success.
But even at this point the progressor shows that he has at least a weak
grasp of how wisdom contributes to happiness. Senecas pointed contrast
here, like his many extravagant depictions of the wise person, serves to
rr++ra y :+y
remind progressors how much further they have to go even when they are
on the right path.
On this theme it is relevant to recall the Stoic paradox that the
progressor who makes the transition to wisdom will temporarily not
know that he or she has done so (Plutarch On Moral Progress yjd
= SVF .j) and that the key difference between maximal progress
and virtue is described metaphorically as a kind of solidication or
gelling (Stobaeus, Ecl. j.o.+8oy.j = SVF .j+o = LS jI). Senecas
interest in the epistemological aspects of moral progress emerge clearly at
y6..
GROUP
LETTERS 8j AND 8y
For discussion of these letters I am indebted to students in Phillip
Mitsiss graduate seminar in October :oo:. In particular I would like to
acknowledge some helpful suggestions about 8y made by Joel Christensen
orally and in written communication.
Letters 8 and 8y are important for their dialectical engagement with
the Peripatetics on central issues in ethics, especially the sufciency of
virtue for happiness, goods in contrast to indifferents, and the nature of
the passions. Ciceronian texts, especially De Finibus j, are in Senecas
mind throughout. On the debate about the nature of the passions, see
I. Hadot (+: + esp. n. y), who lists Off. +.88, Tusc. ., ;
.y; Ac. +.8, :.+j; generally Tusc. .8 ff. as relevant Ciceronian
background. On the place of this letter in the series of dialectical letters
(8z, 8, 8, 8y) see Cancik +y: y, o:, esp. j. Cooper :oo:
+y:o, considers the same quartet of letters at some length, arguing that
Senecas critical and almost dismissive attitude to dialectic is a sign of
serious philosophical weakness and that this weakness stems in part from
his role as a spiritual adviser rather than as a truly philosophical teacher.
This traditional criticism (for which see esp. I. Hadot +: ++o) is offset
by several reections. First, it is contentious to describe Senecas role
primarily as a spiritual adviser (as does Cooper :oo: +o++, following
Hadot). Second, Seneca is often an ironic author. The dismissal of
technical philosophy (dialectical here and metaphysical in Group ) must
be weighed alongside the fact that he chooses to introduce the technical
material and to engage with it in a manner which more or less forces his
readers to do the same. If his attitude were as negative as he himself says
it is, why did he waste his time in introducing the themes at all? Silence
would have been more effective. Leeman +j: oy+ (and briey at
Leeman +j+: +y) notices this discrepancy and attempts to account for
it, setting it in the context of the entire anti-dialectical sequence of letters
that begins at . While I am not convinced that Senecas plans for a major
treatise were as inuential on the plan of the letters as Leeman assumes, he
oaotr :+
is certainly correct to suggest that Senecas desire to write more technically
on his topic came into conict with the demands of the letter as a literary
form, thus requiring him to undercut his own presentation of dialectic
and metaphysics. See Introduction pp. xv-xviii and Inwood forthcoming.
Further, as Barnes argues in Logic and the Imperial Stoa, Senecas attack
on dialectic is actually directed at its excesses not at the practice of dialectic
as such. This interpretation of Senecas aims is easier to reconcile with
the extensive coverage Seneca gives to dialectical argumentation. It does
not, of course, follow that Seneca could deploy syllogisms as effectively as
Chrysippus or Zeno, but this line of thought should force us to rethink
the traditional interpretation of Senecas attitude.
Finally, Cooper urges that Senecas philosophy suffers due to its
insufciently serious attitude towards technical dialectic and metaphysics.
While conceding that his technical grasp of material and technique does
not match that of professional philosophical teachers, we should still be
prepared to ask on a case-by-case basis just what the philosophical loss
is when Seneca sets aside a Chrysippean doctrine or a doctrine inherited
from the formative years of the schools history some oo years earlier.
Philosophical agendas change over time and the serious intellectual work
done by (for example) analyzing the Liar Paradox in the third century
uc may no longer matter as much in the rst century +n. It may be
that Senecas attitude to technical philosophy is best understood in
light of his attunement to contemporary philosophical issues. It might
be difcult for us to imagine the philosophical environment in which
loyalty to the Chrysippean agenda appeared as scholastic fossilization, but
stranger reversals have occurred in the history of philosophy; we should
be prepared to judge each of Senecas issues on its own merits. Cooper
(:oo: :o) gives no specic analysis of 8 or 8y which supports his
general assessment of Senecas use of dialectic but points, rather, to his
discussion of 8z and 8. With regard to the central argument of 8z, Cooper
concedes (pp. +8+) that Seneca presents Zenos argument soundly and
effectively. On p. + Cooper objects to Senecas preference for ghting
passionate moral error by pointing to hideous consequences rather than by
wielding well-crafted syllogisms. But here Seneca is merely following one
eminent Stoic, Posidonius, against another, Chrysippus. This is similar,
I suggest, to Senecas occasional sympathy for the Aristonian tradition in
Stoicism which claims, following Socrates, that ethics is the only branch
of philosophy that is really needed. The analysis of 8 and 8y which
follows suggests that Senecas attack on dialectic there is undermined by
no worse failure than those which Cooper points to in 8z and 8.
::o cor++av
Commentary on 8j
Thematic division
+: Introduction. Arguments for the sufciency of virtue for
happiness.
:: First argument, a chain syllogism to show that prudence is
sufcient for happiness.
: The Peripatetic argument based on the impossibility of
apatheia.
y: Reply based on the meaning and merits of apatheia.
8: Reply based on the irrelevance of how strong a passion is.
+o: Reply based on the need for control.
+++: Reply based on the externality of the causes of passions.
+y+8: Against the Old Academics and Epicurus.
+:: No degrees of happiness.
:: Argument based on the passion fear and the concept of
harm.
oy: Harm and the ship-captain.
8+: Harm and the sage.
8.1 Although y1, y, and y6 among others deal with the Stoic claim
that virtue is sufcient for happiness, there has been relatively little use of
typically Stoic dialectic so far in the handling of this topic. 8 and 8y are
devoted to debate between Stoic and Peripatetic positions on the issue.
For important discussion of Senecas use of Stoic dialectic, see Barnes
+y: ch. :, esp. pp. +j+8, which include brief discussion of 8 and
8y, and Cancik +y: 8; Cancik emphasizes that Senecas deprecation
of dialectic is pragmatic and situational, pointing to 8y.1 in support.
We may note that Lucilius is represented as requesting a comprehensive
treatment of all the relevant arguments pro and contra the Stoic position.
The opposing arguments are disdained as being intended to ridicule the
Stoic position (ad traductionem suggests misrepresentation) rather than to
refute it. At this point in the collection of letters Seneca is beginning to
deal with more complex philosophical issues in considerable depth, as is
shown by several important letters not included in this edition (e.g., qz, q,
q). By 1o6 Seneca reminds Lucilius that he is writing a comprehensive
work on ethics (moralis philosophia) which will include all the quaestiones
pertinent to it. A quaestio (translated question) is a dialectically framed
philosophical issue. Although 8 does not overtly label as a quaestio the
thesis that virtue is sufcient for happiness, that is manifestly how it is
rr++ra 8j ::+
treated here. Hence Senecas pointed remarks here about technicality and
his transfer of responsibility for the theme onto Lucilius.
awl. A gure of speech for a sharp but ineffective weapon (cf. 8z.z
subula leonemexcipis). This, of course, is howSeneca often treats dialectical
arguments which may or may not exert moral force. On the humour in
the phrase, see Grant :ooo: :8.
on behalf of gods and humans. These are the two categories of rational
and therefore potentially virtuous beings.
8.z The possession of prudence entails self-control which entails stead-
fastness which entails freedom from disturbance which entails freedom
from sadness which entails happiness. (For arguments in this Stoic style
compare, e.g., Tusc. .+:+.) Such chains of inference are only as good
as their weakest link. With all such arguments we must ask whether the
inferences are acceptable on narrowly Stoic understandings of the terms
or on broadly accepted (within the Socratic tradition) understandings of
the terms. This chain syllogism employs a mixture of narrow and broad
meanings.
a. Broad: prudence is the central virtue of practical reason, the rational
excellence which would be generally agreed to underlie the successful
conduct of life. Plato (in Republic ) would agree that phron

esis is
accompanied by s

ophrosun

e: phron

esis is the knowledge that oversees

just actions (e) and justice in the soul is a sufcient condition for
s

ophrosun

e.
b. Broad: self-control is the disposition of managing ones feelings
and reactions in such a manner that they are obedient to the
deliberations and commands of practical reason. Given that reasons
output is maximally consistent and that self-control rules out failures
of obedience to reasons consistent commands, it is reasonable to
conclude that steadfastness results from it.
c. Narrow, d. narrow: Stoicism presupposes that affective responses
are completely determined by ones rational evaluations, so that a
wise person would never be sad about his own all-things-considered
assessment of what to do or how to react to things. Hence on a
narrow Stoic view this inference goes through. But on a broad
understanding of what is involved in disturbance or sadness, it is
perfectly reasonable to be disturbed or sad about even the best
::: cor++av
possible set of circumstances and actions. Undisturbed alludes to
the Epicurean perspective (see below). Disturbance also forms a
useful bridge to the issue of sadness.
e. Narrow, possibly equivocal. The sense of sadness is narrow (see
above), but in addition the inference from freedom from sadness
to happiness relies on a narrow understanding of the nature of a
happy life, since it would be open to reasonable people to hold that
a life which is happy as a whole might nevertheless be marred by
a drop of sadness here or there. If the inference is meant to work
primarily because of the opposition between sad and happy, then
equivocation underlies it, since the meaning of happy involved in
a eudaimonistic assessment of a good life is wider than and perhaps
independent of the affective notion of happiness to which sadness
is the natural contrary.
Hence, as stated, the Stoic chain syllogism is highly vulnerable to Peri-
patetic criticism, principally on the grounds that some terms are being
used in an idiosyncratic Stoic sense.
8. The Peripatetic response turns on taking the Stoic negations (e.g.,
undisturbed) in a weaker sense than is intended in the Stoic syllogism;
undisturbed means not very disturbed and not very often. The reason
given for taking the terms in this sense is that human nature cannot achieve
the Stoic standard of complete absence of disturbance (for the denial of
human nature cf. y1.6.) Dialectically this amounts to insisting on a broad
understanding of all the terms in the chain syllogism and objecting to the
Stoics use of their own stipulated meanings for the terms. This would
certainly keep the argument closer to common sense. Equivocation and
question-begging would be avoided, but the cost to the Stoics would be
high: the Stoics would not get their argument for the thesis that virtue is
sufcient for happiness unless happiness were understood as a condition
that admits of variation of degree. The view that happiness admits of
variations in degree is advanced against the Stoics in Fin. j by a
Peripatetic spokesman.
8. Ladas. A famous runner: Paus. :.+.y, 8.+:.j.
She might zoom. Camillathe quotation is from Vergil, Aeneid
y.8o8++.
Seneca argues against the broad (and weak) Peripatetic interpretation,
saying that it leaves us with an ideal of moderated passions rather than
rr++ra 8j ::
freedom from passions. There seem to be two main points in Senecas
response: (+) that it is possible to assess properties like health, swiftness,
and moral stability on a non-comparative basis ( per se aestimata) even
though there are apparently degrees in such properties; (:) the Peripatetics
set their ideal of human happiness too low. The rst point echoes Ciceros
Cato at Fin. . and coheres with the central thesis of Stoic value theory,
that there is a kind of value which must be measured in its own right and
not by comparison with indifferents. This thesis is meant to hold even
where there appears to be a continuity between the two kinds of value.
Ciceros example of light reects this ambiguity well: the suns brightness
is incommensurable with the brightness of a candle and in fact is meant to
be different in kind, yet both are forms of light. Similarly, the goodness of
virtue and the goodness of preferred indifferents are incommensurable,
yet both are positive values in human life. In each case the Stoics maintain
that one important feature of the difference in values is that no amount
of the latter can add up to the former. See Fin. .j. At . Ciceros
Cato says that the honourable is worth more ( pluris) than the preferred
indifferentsanother example of comparative language used to indicate
what is meant to be a difference inkind. See further discussionat 66.1qzo.
The charge that Peripatetics set their ideal for happiness too low is
reected in the charge that the superiority of a wise person (the only happy
person) becomes trivial if it is merely superior on a common scale and
not categorically different from other positive values. Hence the appeal
of the comparison to sickness (the example here is fever, any degree of
which counts as illness). For the Stoics (as for Plato in the Republic) the
comparisons of virtue to health and vice to sickness are taken seriously.
Cicero translates pathos as morbus (sickness) at Fin. .j and elsewhere
and at least fromChrysippus onwards the health/sickness model had been
taken for granted in Stoic moral psychology (e.g., Tusc. .o, Stobaeus, Ecl.
:.:.:o.j; for its Chrysippean origin see Galen, On Hippocrates and
Platos Doctrines j.:.y =LS jR=SVF .y+, y+a). It was, of course,
highly reminiscent of Platos comparison of justice in the soul and health
in the Republic, though Chrysippus had reinterpreted the comparison to
cohere with Stoic conceptions of the souls structure. Health, as a state
of balance (summetria), is a perfection or completion, an all-or-nothing
condition of the body. Any other bodily state is some degree of sickness
and so unsuitable as an ideal.
8. The language usedfor disturbance inthe soul is alsofoundinCicero:
compare inperturbatus here and perturbatio at Fin. .j and elsewhere.
:: cor++av
The Peripatetic objection is restated. It turns on offering the Stoics
their own understanding of undisturbed and supporting it with an
example of a negation in natural language which indicates not complete
but relative absence of somethingseedless fruit is an example we
can still appreciate (though grapes or oranges would be more familiar
instances today). Senecas reply is to reassert and then to justify the strong
and narrow understanding of such terms. The counterexample here is
derived from vision (like fever, cataracts conveniently illustrate a form
of impairment which is variable in degree but dispreferred in even the
smallest degree).
The availability of analogies shows that there is no conceptual barrier to
taking the strong Stoic position on value dualism (which relies on narrow
interpretations of the key terms). The fact that it is not inconceivable does
not by itself indicate that the strong Stoic ideal is in fact possible, and so
Seneca might be accused of question-begging when he assumes it. But
he does not just assume that a complete freedom from passions and vice
is possible for humansCato and Socrates, among others, are alleged to
establish the possibility. Hence the question becomes: why, in the case
of passions etc., would we want to accept the narrow understanding of
the terms? Why insist on apatheia rather than metriopatheia as our ideal?
Even if it is possible to build ones ethics on such a strong ideal, is it also
desirable to do so?
In 8. the rst reason for adopting the strong Stoic position is given.
Even a small failing will, he claims, eventually grow to become a major
impairment to our moral life (the comparison is with cataracts or malignant
tumours rather than with low-level but stable nuisances like bunions or
psoriasis). Hence, on this view, to allow that a minor moral failing is
compatible with a happy life is to leave the happy life in a highly unstable
condition. Not only is it not perfect (which might be acceptable to a
Peripatetic who holds that the happy life need not be the happiest life
since happiness can admit of degrees), but it is also liable to degeneration,
an internal vulnerability which is not compatible with the conception of
happiness as a stable feature of ones whole life.
The second reason offered (8.6y) for preferring the strong Stoic
position rests on the claim that having one passion would lead to having
them all. This Stoic claim parallels the thesis of the unity of virtues and
follows from the analysis of what a passion is. If a passion is essentially a
mistaken opinion about fundamental values (what is good and bad in life),
then such error about the fundamentals can be counted on to produce
inappropriate responses to a wide range of situations, potentially to all. It
rr++ra 8j ::j
is clear that Seneca holds that a vice is the state of soul which underlies and
so generates the occurrent passion when the relevant stimulus is present.
Counterfactually Seneca considers the condition of someone with only one
vice or passion, but in a highly developed form, and someone with many,
but in a moderate form. The former person would be better off, Seneca
claims. The reason for this lies in the rst reason given: any passion is
liable to develop into something much larger and more dangerous, so that
if one has many moderate passions one has to count on eventually (since
one is considering ones whole life) having many major passions rather
than just one major passion (assuming that one could have just one).
Senecas Peripatetic opponents are credited with the view that a mod-
erate degree of passion is compatible with a happy life. Dialectically, then,
8.y is doing the most important work by emphasizing the unacceptable
consequences of allowing moderate passions; but the central support for
this position comes from the Stoic view of the dynamic instability of the
passions (8.) and the constant focus on the fact that a whole life is always
under consideration. For if, contrary to the eudaimonist assumptions
shared by Peripatetics and Stoics, one only considered the present moment
or a relatively short stretchof life thenone might plausibly rely onmoderate
passions not getting out of control within the relevant planning horizon.
8.8 Further support for the claim that the magnitude of a passion is
not relevant. What underlies the instability of a passion is its failure to
respond to reason. To have within ones moral personality elements which
are recalcitrant to reason allegedly introduces an ineradicable instability.
This recalcitrance is indicated by the phrase deaf to its persuasion,
where the persuasion is perhaps of the sort envisaged by Aristotle in
EN +.+, ++o:b:j++oa. Here the Stoic view taken by Seneca is at
odds with Peripatetic assumptions about the structure of the human soul.
For Aristotle claims that there is a part of the human soul which is not
rational but is capable of obedience and disobedience to reason. The fully
unied rational soul of Stoic theory (the mind, that is) has no such part.
Hence, on the Stoic view, when the mind is in an irrational state it is
corrupted and so immune to rational considerations. See Inwood +8j:
chs. and j.
Seneca does not, however, merely rely on having his opponent accept
Stoic moral psychologysince his opponents would presumably not do
so without argument. He backs it up with the comparison of passions and
passion-producing dispositions (vices) to wild animals; in so doing he is
drawing on the Platonic image of the desires as wild beasts. One could
:: cor++av
never be condent of having tamed such beasts. (They are not tamed in
good faith, i.e., so that one could rely on them; for this sense bona de see
Tranq. An. +.:. Given their lack of reason, ones reason could not rely on
the passionate wild animals in ones soul keeping their covenants.) But if
ones plan for life is to have long-term stability one would have to be able
to rely on their keeping their word for the rest of ones life. On Senecas
use of such vivid psychological metaphors, see Seneca and Psychological
Dualism (ch. : of Inwood :ooj).
The comparison to the domesticability of tigers and lions is echoed in
the conclusion (8.1), where the idea seems to be that the wise man can
handle such beasts not because they are utterly reliable but because he is
without fear of the consequence of their disobedience. We cannot be so
tranquil before the prospect of internal savagery.
8.q1o get started persist despite it. See e.g., De Ira .+o.:. Com-
pare also the psychodynamics sketched at De Ira :.+ ff. A crucial part of
Senecas case for the feasibility of extirpating passions rather than merely
moderating them is the claim made here that preemptive eradication of
passions is possible when reason is functioning at full effectiveness. The
model of insanity or sickness supports this in that both are conditions
which we all think it better to prevent than to contain. It is an empirical
psychological claim that it is easier to forestall a passion than to regulate
it once it gets established; hence it ultimately requires support from our
experience. The Peripatetics and Stoics share a conception of the happy
life as a stable long-term condition but disagree about the psychological
underpinnings required to achieve that goal. This suggests that if the two
schools could agree about the facts of human psychology their ethical
disagreements might largely disappear.
Balance is the only thing which guarantees us control over our minds.
This temperamentumis also a technical termin medicine, where the optimal
balance of the humours is the key to stable good health. Senecas claim that
balance is required for long-term mental stability is grounded in orthodox
Stoicism.
At Stobaeus, Ecl. :.:.+j.j (=SVF .:y8) the balanced symmetry
of the souls parts (that is, its health, soundness, strength, and beauty)
constitutes the analogue to the good state of the body (cf. Tusc. .:o),
and for Chrysippus such parts would be the contents of our minds
(on the parts of soul being our prol

epseis kai ennoiai see also Galen

On Hippocrates and Platos Doctrines j.:.j..+ = LS jV = SVF
:.8+). Hence the mental balance envisaged here can and perhaps should
rr++ra 8j ::y
be given a fully cognitive interpretationit is the failure to maintain
consistent and harmonious beliefs over ones life that leads to episodes
and then dispositions of a passionate character. (The term used in Ecl.
:.:.+j.j (=SVF .:y8) for the balanced blend of bodily or mental
components is eukrasia and it is probably this term which stands behind
Senecas use of temperamentum.)
Onthe disease metaphor, see GalenOn Hippocrates and Platos Doctrines
j.:.y (= LS jR), Stobaeus, Ecl. :..++ (= LS jS = SVF .:+)
and I. G. Kidd +8: +oy+. The treatment of the topic in Tusc. .:+
is well discussed by Graver :oo:, ad loc. The idea that passions are diseases
(in contrast to the view of the Peripatetics) also occurs at De Ira .+o.
8.111 Since passions are rooted in false beliefs about the value of
external things, it follows that the stimuli to passions are in a crucial sense
external to us and hence beyond our (immediate) control. Seneca argues
that another reason for the complete elimination of the passions (rather
than their moderation) lies in the fact that the triggers for passions lie
outside our control. Seneca does not contradict the Stoic doctrine that we
are responsible for our passions (that they are up to us in that sense),
since passions depend on assent no matter how strong the stimulus might
be and assent is always up to us.
But Seneca is not here addressing the question of whether we are
accountable for our passions (of course we are). Rather, his argument
relies on the practicalities of self-control and self-management and our
ability to become the kind of person who will be able to resist temptations
(cf. EN .j, ++ja-b:j). Given that our characters are weak, we need
to be particularly careful about stimuli and temptations (cf. 116.6).
Senecas hope is that even his non-Stoic readers will see the force of this
consideration. Cf. also Inwood :ooj: ch. : on Senecas interest in the
practical aspects of self-control.
The desire to keep within our control the key factors inuencing our
overall well-being is, then, a further reason for the complete elimination of
passions from our conception of the happy life. If we give externals access
to our most important motivational processes, then (as Seneca has already
argued) we lose control over our own mental dynamics. There is assumed
to be a fairly direct correlation between the magnitude of the cause and
the magnitude of the effect, so that failure to control the cause (it being
external) means abdicating control over the effect (our reaction to it).
Hence it is necessary to render ourselves immune to the stimuli. The way
to do that is not dealt with explicitly here, since here Seneca is primarily
::8 cor++av
concerned with providing reasons to prefer the Stoic approach to the
Peripatetic one. The comparison to physical diseases and the inevitability
that passions will grow once they begin are also invoked here.
8.116 Some people (possibly accommodationist Stoics but more
likely Peripatetics) attempt to insulate the inner person from the outer
circumstances by distinguishing ones stable mental state from the impact
of external causes which can inict disturbance. Since (on Senecas view)
externals can only have such impact if one puts the wrong kind of
value on them, this amounts to allowing that one could engage deeply
with externals while maintaining the stable tranquillity of ones mental
condition. In 8.1, then, Seneca claims that this view amounts to holding
that one can be free of a passionate disposition and yet experience
occasional episodes of passion. This would enable one to be tranquil
about the state of ones soul (in that one is condent that one is free of
vice and passionate dispositions) and still to engage with externals in a
normal way. Yet (on Senecas view) to care about externals in a normal
way means permitting at least transient passionate responsessince the
act of valuation involved in caring about (e.g.) ones children just is an
affective commitment. To value the life of ones child just is to fear when
there is apparent risk to that life. Senecas claim (which amounts to a
reassertion of the Stoic view of psychodynamics already outlined and
the denial that such insulation is possible) is that repeated occurrences
of transient episodes of passion will in fact produce a corresponding
disposition in the mind (see Cicero, Tusc. .: for the theory, cf. De Ira
+.j ff. passim; a similar view at Epict. Diss. :.+8, esp. 8++). We see that
a great deal depends on the truth of Stoic claims about psychodynamics.
The Peripatetic opponent is highly vulnerable to this argument, for he
presumably appreciates Aristotles claim that we become just by doing
just actions, i.e., by repeated performance of the action even without the
inner disposition and would be hard pressed not to allow that one becomes
dispositionally passionate (i.e., vicious) by repeated experience of episodic
passion even without the inner disposition.
8.1y The relationship between the propositions (a) that the only good
is the honourable and (b) the claim that virtue is sufcient for happiness.
(a) establishes that things like health and safety and wealth are not good
and so that we need not have passionate responses to their presence or
absence. (b) establishes that no externals or indifferents (such as health
and wealth) are needed for the happy life. Seneca is claiming that people
rr++ra 8j ::
who accept (a) will always accept (b); but people who accept (b) will not
necessarily accept (a); in so doing they are merely observing a rule of logic.
This should be interpreted as follows. If one holds that virtue is
sufcient for happiness but not for the highest degree of happiness, then
one will presumably think the following. The honourable is virtue and
what ows from virtue, i.e., the good. Having virtue means having a very
substantial good, one that is so great that happiness results. But there
are other goods, one might think, such as health and wealth, such that
having virtue plus health or wealth or both means having more goods and
so being happier. (The underlying notion is that happiness consists in the
possession and use of goods.) Hence one may hold (b) but not (a), and this
is in fact the position attributed to the Old Academy and its Peripatetic
spokesman in Ciceros De Finibus.
But if one holds (a) one holds that the honourable (virtue and its
products) has a monopoly on the good, and since happiness is a matter of
having and using goods then one will also hold (b).
Seneca is being scrupulous, then, in pointing out that his Peripatetic
opponents cannot be cajoled into conceding (a) just because they grant
(b) and so that (a) requires a distinct demonstration. But (a) is precisely
the point which Antipater once argued (in three books) was held by Plato
(see SVF Antipater j). Hence we can see why Stoics would attempt
to divide the Old Academy into Plato (who is committed to key Stoic
theses) and Peripatetics (who are the main opponents in ethical matters).
In De Finibus j Cicero makes a Peripatetic speak for Antiochus Old
Academic ethics.
8.18 Xenocrates and Speusippus are Old Academics who do not hold
(a) (8.1y) and so (Seneca might claim) align themselves with Peripatetics
against Plato. See also y1.18.
According to Seneca, Epicurus commits a different error (see frr. jo::
Usener for Epicurus views on virtue; see also De Vita Beata y.+ and +:.).
Epicurus allegedly holds that when one has virtue one is happy, but denies
that virtue is sufcient for happiness. How can he do so? Seneca says that
it is because Epicurus believes that it is the pleasure produced by virtue
which makes a person happy, not the virtue itself. Epicurus, according to
Seneca, ties sufciency for happiness to the immediate causal dependency
of happiness on pleasure.
The text behind Senecas critique seems to be Principal Doctrine j,
according to which it is impossible to live pleasantly without living
:o cor++av
prudently, honourably, and justly [i.e., virtuously] and impossible to
live prudently, honourably, and justly [i.e., virtuously] without living
pleasantly. And whoever lacks this [virtuous living] cannot live pleasantly.
Evidently Epicurus regards virtue and a pleasant life as coextensive or
extensionally equivalent: where you nd one you nd the other and vice
versa. Seneca claims that Epicurus should, therefore, treat virtue as being
sufcient for happiness just as pleasure is (thus supporting the Stoic view).
His failure to do so (that is, the denial that virtue is sufcient for happiness)
leads to the charge that Epicurus has made a clumsy distinction.
This is either a polemical distortion of Epicurus views (which would
not be surprising, since Cicero takes a similar approach in Fin. : and in
Tusc. ) or (if it is a correct assessment of his views) it shows that Epicurus
was relying on causal relationships among virtue, pleasure, and happiness
which are not reducible to necessary and sufcient conditions thought of in
purelyextensional terms. Supposingthat it is a correct account of Epicurus
views, it seems reasonable for Epicurus to hold that causal sufciency
should be thought of in terms that are not merely extensional (Chrysippus
did so). Yet Senecas critique in 8.18 relies on an exclusively extensional
interpretation. His goal is to show that Epicurus, if he thought clearly
about the issue, would agree that virtue too is sufcient for happiness.
This debate is reminiscent of the Stoic criticism of the Epicurean cradle
argument as summarized at D.L. y.8j; there the Stoics argue that an
infants rst afliation is not to pleasure but to self-preservation and that
pleasure is at best a concomitant to the acquisition of self-preservatory
objects. The Stoic grants that pleasure may be coextensive with self-
preservation but that there are reasons to grant explanatory privilege to
self-preservation. Similarly, Seneca is here envisaging dialectically that
one may grant the coextension of virtue and pleasure in the happy life
and still need further argument to demonstrate that pleasure rather than
virtue is the cause of happiness. Aristotle had argued that pleasure is a
state supervenient on the unimpeded activity of ones nature; the Stoics
certainly recognized chara, a virtuous pleasure occasioned by the good
and enjoyed by the sage; Plato also recognized the pleasures of a life
characterized by virtue and wisdom. Hence it is not unreasonable for
Seneca to put the burden of proof on the Epicureans who wish to reverse
the direction of dependence between the two.
8.1q returns to the Old Academic position and the view that there
can be degrees of happiness. Again, this falls within the sphere of debate
represented by Ciceros De Finibus. Seneca replies to it with purely
rr++ra 8j :+
conceptual arguments about what it means for something to be a happy
life. It is allegedly the case that (+) a happy life possesses maximal good
and (:) that a happy life is divine. Each of these claims supports the denial
of degrees of virtue, the rst when combined with the understanding
of happiness as consisting in the possession and use of goods and the
second when combined with the assumption that the divine represents a
conceptual limit for human good and happiness.
8.zo Another trait of the happy life is () that it lacks nothing. All these
characteristics entail that no increase can occur once the happy threshold
is reached.
much more happy. See y1.18 and y.z6; also De Vita Beata +.
8.z1 puts the point in a motivational framework, the assumption being
that one always desires maximal happiness and the means to it. The
notion that one will desire nothing if one is really happy is consistent
with Aristotles notion of a happy life as a perfection and with the Stoic
and Aristotelian notion of happiness as a fulllment or completion. To
desire something more is to reveal a lack, an incompleteness; hence if one
is happy, fullled, and complete one ought to desire nothing more. And
yet if there were still a greater good one would be right to want it.
A key commitment underlying the denial of degrees of happiness is the
denial of degrees of goodness; since happiness consists in possession and
use of the good, if there is no greater good available there is no greater
happiness available. In 8.1q Seneca claims that the happy life has within
itself a good which is perfect and unsurpassable and in 8.zo he holds that
the highest good is that which has no level above it, i.e., that the good is
by denition the highest good, that there are no degrees of goodness. This
issue has already been discussed in 66 and in the sequence y1, y, y6. See
also Irwin +8.
8.zz The underlying error is diagnosed: the Old Academics fail to
see that since the happy life is motivationally all-inclusive there can only
be one such life, not a range of them. All tokens of the type happy
life have to be identical in terms of their motivational impact and value
(see 66). Hence the aptness of Senecas emphasis here on fullness and
comparisons with satisfaction in eating and drinking. Nothing can be
fuller than the full. Being sated is the same state regardless of how much
food or drink it took to get there.
:: cor++av
This much can perhaps be accepted on the broad understanding of
happy life which one can assume non-Stoics might share. But what about
the factor of time? Seneca claims that length of time does not affect ones
happiness. Seneca here gives us no reason to hold that a longer life of
happiness would not be preferable to a shorter one (though that is in
fact the Stoic position). In terms of the motivational argument offered
above, an Aristotelian (committed to the view that one swallow does not
make a springtime) might argue that once one has achieved virtue, the
maximal good, one may still desire somethingits continuation. And
that requires a longer life, which becomes an appropriate object of desire
and so a vulnerable good. The gods, of course, live forever so that their
happiness has a form of completeness which maximal human happiness
lacks. But the Stoics hold that Zeus and the sage are indistinguishable
in their happiness. This line of thought points directly to Senecas need
for a focussed philosophical engagement with the relationship of human
mortality to human happinesshence his concern with death should not
be understood primarily in relation to human psychology. No doubt he
has reasons to reect on the meaning of his own mortality, as do we all: he
is, after all, old as he writes these letters, preoccupied with ill health and
no doubt concerned with the prospect of forced suicide as he falls out of
favour with Nero. But the philosophical need to grapple with these issues
is independent of psychological and biographical considerations.
8.z This predicate cannot be reduced. That is, this is a predicate
which cannot, according to the Stoics, be applied in varying degrees: no
one can be less happy than some other happy person. If their happinesses
are not identical then the lesser happiness is not happiness at all.
8.zq The virtue of courage can be shown to entail happiness by
means of a chain syllogism(8.z). If one has courage then one has no fear;
if one has no fear then one has no sadness; if one has no sadness then one
is happy (cf. 8.z and comment above). The objection made is that Seneca
is illegitimately helping himself to a controversial premiss (in a dialectical
argument one can only succeed if the premisses are conceded by ones
interlocutors). The narrow Stoic claim is that a brave person will be com-
pletely free of fear rather than merely free of extreme or excessive fear. The
general issue about the passions has already been explored above, so this
discussion is essentially a special example of it. Hence in 8.z Seneca says
rst that the objector falls prey to the problemalready dealt with. The sub-
stantive reply to the objection, though, turns ona specicationof what bad
rr++ra 8j :
really means: on the narrowStoic view(that only vice is bad and everything
else is merely dispreferred) the virtuous person will literally have nothing
to fear. A dialectical rejoinder concludes the section: on the objectors
view (that it is madness not to fear bad things) the saner and more prudent
one is the more fears one will have, since on the objectors view there is a
superabundance of bad things in the world and a wise person is more aware
of them. The unstated conclusion of this is that it conicts with commonly
held views to suppose that prudent people go around in constant fear.
The objection and Senecas reply put the focus properly on the fact
that the Stoics (following Socrates) have introduced a narrow and special
sense of bad (vice and what participates in vice, i.e., the shameful which
is the only truly harmful thing), so that it is in fact reasonable to hold that
he who is brave has no fear, providing that fear is construed narrowly not
broadly. This point is made clearly in 8.z if they really are bad things.
8.z6 The distinction between fearing and cautious avoidance is pre-
cisely the Stoic distinction between path

e and eupatheiai (passions, which

are characteristic of the vicious person, and good passions which are
their psychological counterparts in the virtuous); the Greek term for the
eupatheia avoidance is eulabeia. Seneca invokes it here to rebut the claim
that the Stoic view leads to paradoxical (and so dialectically unacceptable)
conclusions. The objection is that without fear of bad things the virtuous
person will act unreasonably in exposing himself to danger. Senecas reply
is twofold: the dangers are not really bad; and avoidance is possible
without fear.
8.zy Ordinary objects of fear are merely dispreferred rather than
bad, hence fear of them would be erroneous. Furthermore, in some
circumstances such dispreferred things are embraced by the wise person;
hence they cannot be genuinely bad. See on y6.zo1 and y1.z8. Also
CHHP, yo+ and Stobaeus, Ecl. :.o.
The account of what the bad is (8.z8) emphasizes freedom and autonomy
more aggressively than earlier Stoic sources do, but Senecas basic picture
is conservative. The bad is an internal mental failing (giving in to things
which are regarded as bad but which in fact are not). The freedom which
this costs us is our freedom from passions. The idea that virtue consists in
an ability to distinguish genuinely good or bad things from those which
are merely apparently so is part of the Socratic heritage of Stoicism (see,
e.g., Platos Laches).
: cor++av
8.zq In this vivid section we should note the realistic concession that
the wise person feels painphysical pain rather than emotional distress.
Cf. q., y1.zy1, Const. Sap. +o., De Ira +.+.y. Seneca also reveals
an intriguing side of Stoicism here: the attitude of concern that the wise
person feels towards himself when aficted by dispreferred situations is
like that of someone who comforts an ailing friend (who is another self).
Such concern will be sincere but not passionate. There is no question of
ones own genuine benet being at risk in either case.
8.o6 The Stoic concept of the bad as what is genuinely harmful is
put to the test by an example-based conceptual challenge to the notion of
the harmful. The nautical example is, of course, widespread in ancient
ethics; see, for example, Plato, Gorgias j+++:, Republic book +, etc.;
Aristotle EE +:yaj8, EN ++oa+o, etc.
The Stoic argument (the example pain is omitted for simplicity):
(+) What is bad does harm. (A Socratic claim.)
(:) What does harm makes one worse.
() Poverty does not make one worse.
() So poverty is not harmful. (modus tollens)
(j) So poverty is not bad. (modus tollens)
The Peripatetic attack:
(a) A storm harms the captain.
(b) But a storm does not make the captain worse.
(c) So what does harm does not make one worse.
I.e., (:) is denied by means of this example. So the Stoic argument to
show that poverty is not bad fails. That is, the Peripatetic concludes that
there can be a source of harm which is not bad in the sense that it makes a
person worse. (+) and (:) show that the Stoics are committed to the claim
that everything bad makes one worse because everything bad does harm.
Thus we see that the Stoics accepted the Socratic narrowing of the terms
harm and bad whereas the Peripatetics clearly retain a broader sense of
at least the term harm.
The rst Stoic response is to deny (b) and so (c). This response keeps
the notions of harm and badness tightly connected but does so at the
cost of broadening the notions to include non-moral badness. Hence it is
vulnerable to the Peripatetic rejoinder, which is to argue from analogy
that if a storm makes the captain worse then poverty makes the wise man
worsethat is, less able to carry out his virtuous actions. This, of course,
rr++ra 8j :j
is based on an Aristotelian point (about externals such as wealth as the
necessary means to acts of virtue) which underpins the notion of degrees
of virtue.
8.z The rst defence of the Stoic response involves rejecting the
analogy underlying the Peripatetic reply. The goal of a virtuous person
is to do whatever he does properly, not to accomplish a substantive set
of goals, while the goal of a craftsman like the captain is to achieve his
material objectives. Hence on precisely the point in question there is a
disanalogy. On the debate about the nature of the Stoic telos and the
characterization of virtue as a skill, see Striker +8.
8. But Senecas own preferred reply is to maintain the analogy
and to accept (b), while instead denying (a). The distinction among the
roles ( personae) of an agent is associated primarily with Panaetius (see
Gill +88), but the concept is older than that in the history of the school
(as I argue in Rules and Reasoning, Inwood :ooj: +:o, n. 8). Here
Seneca needs something weaker than Panaetian personae to make his point;
it sufces that there be two distinguishable aspects of a person to focus on,
a non-technical notion marked by the relative adverb qua or its equivalent
in earlier philosophy (seen as early as Empedocles but most famously
in Aristotle). In this translation qua represents the Latin word tamquam.
In his role as passenger the captain is harmed by a storm, but not in his
role as captain, which consists in the expert exercise of his craft regardless
of the outcome. In this reply the captain remains analogous to the wise
person who is autonomous as regards the practice of the craft, the craft
whose success conditions are not vulnerable to defeat by outside factors.
8. Neptune. This is an allusion to the story of the Rhodian ship-
captain who boasted that he would always do his job well even if Poseidon
sank his ship. It was used by Teles the Cynic in his On Apatheia :, which
suggests the tradition Seneca follows in citing it here. He also alludes to it
at 8.. See also Aelius Aristides, Rhodian Speech +, p. j: Jebb. For the
general point cf. 8y.1z18.
8.6 The analysis of the ship-captain move is reinforced by invoking
the case of the doctor (another very common craft analogy). The idea that
an art deals with someone elses good is drawn from Republic + (c, in
Thrasymachus account of justice as the other fellows benet). The effect
of this move is curious. Seneca divides the good of a doctor or captain into
: cor++av
the aspect which serves others and that which consists in the excellent
exercise of the craft. This enables him to concede tentatively (perhaps)
to his interlocutor and to common sense that some part of the good of the
doctor or the captain might be impaired while the good which is properly
his own is not affected.
8.y But even if the ship-captain is harmed with respect to the benet
he can give to his fellows, the analogous wise person is not. The only
impairment he could possibly suffer would be in the works which relate to
others. But even if he is impaired in some important social functions (like
political leadership) he would continue to benet others just because of
his example as a moral agent. In fact, when he suffers the kind of external
misfortune which hinders his political or social role he thereby inspires
by a good example which is of even greater benet to others. (Recall that
in 8. Seneca indicated how the difculties imposed on the captain
by weather actually show his art rather than impede it by giving him a
greater challenge.) Hence unlike the ship-captain (who might be thought
of as partially impaired), the wise man can always act fully in the morally
relevant sense. There are no raw materials so bad that he cannot illustrate
virtue for his fellow man, and this provides genuine benet.
8.8 returns to the point under debate, whether the wise man is harmed
by poverty, pain and other afictions (and the parallel claim for the ship-
captain). Seneca has maintained his denial of the Peripatetic claim (a) from
8.o above (and also maintained the analogy with the ship-captain and
the traditional view that wisdomis a craft), though with a slight concession
to common sense and the Peripatetics. This denial enables him to reject
the Peripatetic attack and so to continue to hold that poverty is not bad
(8.o). So far we see Seneca responding to the dialectical challenge from
the Peripatetics and defending the Stoic view that poverty is an indifferent
rather than a bad thing. And he has done so in a way which contrasts
his own uncompromisingly Stoic view with the rather weaker response of
some Stoics outlined at 8.z.
However, in the rest of this letter Seneca goes on to address a philo-
sophical issue which is distinctively his own. As is clear from other
letters, Seneca is attracted by the notion that dispreferred situations, while
still indifferent, are nevertheless preferable in some respects to preferred
indifferent situations. See, for example, on 66.q. Here in 8.81,
Seneca argues that the example set by a wise person struggling against
misfortune can be of particular educational value. Just as in 8. (and
rr++ra 8j :y
more generally in 8.y) Seneca maintained that the ship-captains skill
is shown off better if there is a storm to challenge him, so the wise persons
virtue is shown off better amidst misfortune.
In 8.8 Seneca begins with the denial that the inevitabilities of life
can prevent the wise person from being of benet to others. Not only is
his own proper good (the execution of his craft of living) unaffected, but
the good as it affects others is not impaired because he sets an example
to others. When the sage suffers, others benet. Socrates, for example,
cannot participate directly in the political education of others since he is
too poor to participate in political life; but he can nevertheless educate his
fellow citizens in how to manage poverty.
Senecas point that the wise persons work on behalf of others permeates
his life amounts to the observation that whatever he does benets others
by his example, whether he is active in a positive way or active in his
endurance of hardship. The way we are to understand how he does so
depends on how we construe one crucial sentence: id enim ipsum agit quo
alia agere prohibetur. I have translated this: For the obstacle by which
he is hindered from doing other things is something which he is actively
engaged with. Poverty, that is, is something a wise man does rather than
something he merely suffers. This coheres with the claim that nothing
prevents a wise person from acting and that his work extends throughout
his whole life.
But both the Loeb and the Bud e editions construe the sentence
differently: For the very thing which engages his attention prevents him
from attending to other things; Car, il a pr ecisement loccupation qui lui
interdit les autres occupations. But this construal must be wrong. Just
above Seneca has claimed that a wise man can be prevented from engaging
in one kind of political activity by his poverty and that despite this he
shows his fellow citizens how to manage poverty. That is, the obstacle to
one activity is the external impairment, poverty, and yet he can show us
how well he handles poverty. This pattern is preserved in my translation,
whereas the Loeb and Bud e seem to suggest that the wise man is actually
distracted by one of his proper interests fromattending properly to others.
The construal I propose is perhaps not the most obvious oneit requires
that we take agit in a strong and unusual sense. But much of the point
here turns exactly on the counter-intuitive way in which the wise person
can be said to act. The translation I propose is certainly possible: id ipsum
is the antecedent for quo in the subordinate clause and the same person is
grammatical subject of both agit and prohibetur.
:8 cor++av
8.q1 The emphasis here is on how the wise person prepares
himself for the responsibilities just outlined: to show others how to act
well when the raw material of life is disappointing. In order to manage
good fortune well and master ill fortune, he must train himself. This
involves, evidently, deliberate exposure to adversityhere too (see 66.q)
we see Seneca proposing a reason to appreciate the misfortune which
comes our way, as it can help us to prepare ourselves for our tasks as moral
exemplars.
8.q For the contrast between virtue and its raw material, which goes
back at least to Chrysippus, see Plu. Comm. Not. +oe = LS jA. The
crucial role played here by experience, especially experience of misfortune,
points to Chrysippus formulation of the telos as living according to
an experience of what happens by nature (D.L. y.8y; Stobaeus, Ecl.
:.y.8); this formula is alluded to by Cicero repeatedly in the De Finibus
(:., .+, .+).
Headlong is a term often used by Seneca in the description of passions
and so is particularly relevant here. See De Ira +.y., .+., .+:.; the
source of the image is of course the runner example used in Chrysippus
Peri Path

on (Galen, On Hippocrates and Platos Doctrines .:.+ = SVF

.: = LS jJ and Senecas further allusion to it at De Ira :.j.+:).
8.o oppressed makes use of. The contrast is illustrated with anoth-
er familiar craft example, sculpture. Sculptors can do their job with a wide
range of raw materials, which are meant to be analogous to the range
of circumstances we face in life. Senecas point is that there is always a
craftsmanlike job to be done even with inferior materials. The preferability
of good materials (bronze for the sculptor, wealth, health and so forth for
people in general) is clear, but so is the possibility of success with adverse
materials. Something worth remembering strongly suggests the exem-
plary function of virtuous action amidst adversity, the role for which we
must prepare ourselves. Senecas attitude to dispreferred circumstances
is complex but orthodox. They are dispreferred (to be rejected when one
has a choice in the matter), but they do not mar our happiness since they
are not bad and so can provide an opportunity for virtuous action. Where
Seneca might be going beyond his predecessors is in his realization that it
is precisely because of his role as a moral exemplar that the wise person
rr++ra 8y :
can use misfortune well. That is a positive aspect of misfortune both
when he is showing his virtue off like Cato and when he uses preliminary
misfortunes as training tools to prepare for such a demonstration.
8.1 Hence the wise person is a craftsman even when dealing with
misfortunethe ultimate artifex. His craft is like that of the wild beast
tamer, where the lions and tigers are the contingent misfortunes of life.
Senecas contribution to the developing tradition of the craft analogy is to
add one more craft to the canon, the lion-tamer. (See also 8.8 above.)
lions mouth. Reynolds rightly follows Eduard Fr ankels conjecture
leonis faucibus for leonibus in the mss (see Fr ankel +:: ::).
Commentary on 8y
Thematic division:
+j: Scene setting. The philosophical traveller.
j+o: External goods in contrast to genuine merit.
++: The theme of the letter announced.
+:+: Argument +.
+j:+: Argument :.
::y: Argument .
:8: Argument .
jy: Argument j.
8: Argument .
o+: The conclusion.
The main theme of this letter is wealth, but not wealth as redened by
Epicurus: poverty, when managed in accordance with the law of nature,
is great wealth (cited at .1o, zy.q, fr. yy Usener; cf. z.6); Stoics too
recognized this stipulative sense of wealth in the Stoic paradox which
holds that only the wise man is rich (see Cicero, Paradoxa Stoicorum ,
Stobaeus, Ecl. :.+o+.+:o). But Seneca deals here with wealth in the
conventional sense (see the summary of the views of Senecas teacher
Attalus at 11o.1zo). zo and 11q also deal with the nature of wealth, and
the former foreshadows several aspects of this letter. For a view about
:o cor++av
the moral standing of wealth similar to the one expressed in this letter,
see De Vita Beata esp. :.j: I say that wealth is not a good. For if it
was, it would make people good. Now, since that which is detected in bad
people cannot be called good, I deny them this name. But I do concede
that wealth is worth having and is useful and brings great advantages to
ones life. This is a standard Stoic view, from which not even Posidonius
departed (see below on 8y.1o). Compare also Tranq. An. 8 (which
emphasizes the high psychological cost of losing ones wealth as a key
reason for minimizing ones commitment to it).
This letter falls into two parts, whichare sharply divided. There is a non-
dialectical part (8y.111, included as an extract in Summers ++o) and a
dialectical part (8y.111) with 8y.11 forming the bridge between the two.
The non-dialectical part should not be thought of as non-philosophical.
Summers notes close parallels to the themes of 8y.111 in 1.y, .6y,
qo.1, and 1z.1y. But in 8y.11 Seneca explicitly closes off the discussion
of external advantages (which, he says, are really impediments) and turns
to a set of arguments about virtue and its sufciency for the happy life. The
emphasis on wealth in the non-dialectical part of the letter foreshadows
the dialectical section, in which wealth is the preferred indifferent chosen
for exemplary discussion.
8y.1 A minimal diet and simple lifestyle, making oneself calm by
fearing nothing, making oneself rich by desiring nothingthese are all
themes common to Epicurean and Cynic philosophers as well as to Stoics.
Stoics share with Epicureans in particular the conviction that limits and
rational control are vital to achieving a happy life. It is important to
remember that Senecas openness to Epicurean ideas lasts throughout the
letters and is not conned to the early books.
James Ker (:oo:: +yj) emphasizes the close connectionof the opening
scene of this letter with 86. 8y is also the culmination of a sequence of
letters dealing with dialectic. Cancik (+y: j) identies the group as
including 8z, 8, 8, 8y; she also identies an earlier sequence on the
theme (, 8, q).
8y.1 even if you dont want me to. See 8.6; also 81.11 and Ben. :.j.:
on Stoic paradoxes: some things that we say conict with customary
opinion and then return to it by another route. (See also Inwood, Politics
and Paradox in Senecas De Beneciis, ch. of Inwood :ooj.) According
rr++ra 8y :+
to Cleanthes (Epict. .+.+y = SVF +.+, also attributed to Zeno in
a later anthology; see SVF +.:8+) the Stoic paradoxes are contrary to
opinion [paradoxa] but not in fact contrary to reason [paraloga]. More
generally, Ciceros Paradoxa Stoicorum (number deals with wealth) is
relevant background to this letter. Like Cicero, Seneca engages with the
Stoic paradox in his own way, to show how it can be made effective for
the audience he addresses. This motivation is made clear at the end of this
letter, 8y.1.
shipwreck. The paradox of being shipwrecked before setting sail may
have been traditional. As Summers (++o) points out ad loc., Senecas
father includes, in his Controversiae y.+., a sentence crafted by Quintus
Haterius describing someone doomed to failure from before the beginning
of a voyage: naufragus a litore emittitur he left shore shipwrecked already.
In that case the claim was literal, not gurative: a man is put to sea in a
disabled boat to meet his doom.
8y.z Caesennius Maximus, known as an inuential friend of Seneca
(Martial y.j) who seems to have accompanied him in his Corsican exile
many years before (Martial y.). He was, then, a most intimate friend
of long standing, just the sort of man to accompany Seneca on this
self-consciously parsimonious road journey. See Tacitus Annals +j.y+ and
Furneaux +8, ad loc.
a very few servants. Summers note ad loc. suggests that three to ve
servants would be a small number for a travelling aristocrat.
8y. lunch under an hour. The text may well be troubled here, as
Reynolds indicates; but this is a plausible translation. Summers emends to
non agminis cura, which suggests the translation, lunch was minimal, quick
and easy, not the task of a regiment [of slaves]. I am unconvinced. The
Bud e is also content with the transmitted text. For a lengthy discussion
and a different emendation, see Allegri +8+. Allegris emendation does
not change the basic sense of the passage: lunch was a modest affair
requiring little effort in preparation.
New Years Day. Figs were traditional at the New Year (Summers cites
Ovid Fasti +.+8j) as well as being a typical example of a simple food.
:: cor++av
They were also a special favourite of Zeno, founder of the school (D.L.
y.+ and y.+8j).
foreign to it. See y6.z.
8y. Seneca knows the proper value of externals but is embarrassed
at the prospect of bearing witness to those values in a public way. He is
advanced enough morally to live modestly but blushes at being seen to do
so. His insufcient progress comes out in his reluctance to rail in public
against the views of mankind and empty luxury.
prove home. Seneca emphasizes here the important distinction
between individual actions, decisions, and beliefs which reect sound
values and the kind of stable disposition which can be relied on for a
prolonged period. Here Seneca is conceding that his progress towards
a stable state of moral improvement is not complete. For the pairing of
prove and approve of (representing probare and laudare) compare y6.y.
8y.6 Seneca outlines the speech which he would have given if his
moral character were strong enough. The most important point is treated
briey: most people put high value on externals, which a Stoic would
regard as mere indifferents, and neglect the value of a persons character.
But the complaint is not a specically Stoic one; any ancient philosophical
school would make the same contrast in some form or another. Seneca
expatiates, however, on a subordinate point, that even on strictly nancial
grounds the wealth of the wealthy is emptyostentation is offset by
debt. What is really ones own is what is left after debts are subtracted.
Philosophically this is a relatively minor issue, but it illustrates the muddle
in which most people nd themselves even when operating exclusively
within the realm of conventional values.
8y.68 Seneca contrasts what is really our own and what is owed to
fortune and so not pertinent to an assessment of our worth strictly dened
(which is determined by how well we fulll our function and our nature).
For the idea that non-functional elements in ones life do not determine
value, see Epict. Gnom. +j, Ench. .+.:, fr. +8 Schenkl (=Stobaeus, Ecl.
.:+.j+j) and cf. 1z esp. 1z.zz. Even if ones nancial health is
genuine and ones accounts showa real positive balance, such prosperity is
actually on loan from fortune and so not really our own. Compare
also Epict. Gnom. 8. Our true net worth, to pursue the metaphor, is only
rr++ra 8y :
our character. Behind Senecas play on two kinds of value lies the explicit
Stoic doctrine about different kinds of value (see Ecl. :.8.+o8.+y).
8y.q1o The example set by Cato the Elder. Despite Catos high social
position, political success, service to the state, and personal moral standing,
his mode of travel and lifestyle were humble. Ostentation in less worthy
people is even less tolerable. The use of a Cato to indicate a whole
character type is an instance of the gure of speech Quintilian calls
emphasis (8..8): such a usage yields a more profound meaning than the
words themselves literally express. For the value of Cato as an exemplary
moral gure, see on 1zo.
gladiator or beast ghter. Literally: hire himself out to the sword or the
knife. These are roles (one of which characteristically uses the sword and
one the knife) undignied for a man of high social rank. The loss of dignity
involved in having a man of high rank perform as any sort of entertainer is
a persistent theme in Neronian society (an anxiety intensied, no doubt,
by Neros own career on the stage). Seneca and Epictetus often reect
this social reality by making adherence to ones social persona a mark of
dignity and so of honourableness. Cicero shows the same tendency in Off.
(+.++j, +.+:).
On the various horses, see the note in the Bud e ad loc. On the runners cf.
1z.y.
8y.11 impedimenta. This is a technical term for baggage or equipment
carried on a journey, especially a military expedition. It also refers to
obstacles or hindrances. Ones personal possessions are thought of as
heavy objects to be carried about and so as hindrances to ones real work.
The image of a person travelling light through life has an obvious appeal
for Seneca. Compare sarcinas at qo.1.
Note that the announced theme of the dialectical arguments is the
sufciency of virtue for a happy life, but all of the arguments deal overtly
with the good. The relationship of the good to the happy life is taken
for granted. In contrast to 8, where the theme of the letter comes
from Lucilius, Seneca himself sets the agenda for the dialectical portion
which follows. For the style of argument used here (which owes much
to Peripatetic syllogistic practice) compare Cicero, Fin. .:y and his
critique (fromthe OldAcademic perspective, as presentedby a Peripatetic)
at Fin. .8. Similar arguments are attributed to Zeno by Seneca at 8z.q.
: cor++av
8y.1z1 First argument and discussion.
+. What is good makes people good.
:. Chance things do not make people good.
. So chance things are not good.
Effectively this is a universal negative syllogism in Camestres. The form
would be better if we had
+. All goods make people good.
:. No chance thing makes people good.
. No chance thing is a good thing.
See Kneale and Kneale +8: y:. All of the syllogisms in this letter are
similarly approximate in their formulation but all are meant to be versions
of Peripatetic rather than Stoic syllogisms. This is appropriate in the
dialectical context.
The Peripatetics deny premiss (+) by counting as good things which
a Stoic would not want to include, broad goods in addition to narrow
goods (see commentary on 8). (They do not need to deny (:), which
asserts that the cause of goodness in a person cannot be something
accidental.) If things extrinsic to a craft count as good, then the possession
of such goods may fail to contribute to the goodness of the craftsman.
On the Stoic view, this objection would depend on an equivocation in
the term good and would not be a view congenial to the Stoics (see the
discussion of crafts in the commentary on 8.z1). The Stoic reply (in
8y.1) depends on a rejection of this broader sense of good. In a craft like
music only skills and dispositions of the agent count as musical goods; so
too in the craft of living, the only proper good is a disposition internal to
the agent. By insisting on this narrowly Stoic sense of a term they can
defend premiss (+) and apply it to the craft of living as well.
It is worth noting that vocal ability is treated as being within the art,
since the organ used to accompany voice is grouped with other instruments
as being external to the craft. There is, moreover, something odd in the
claim which the Stoics must consequently make (if they remain within
the terms of the argument), that the instruments one plays when making
music should be classed not just as external and so not good, but also as
chance things. Ultimately one would need a more complex classication
of elements pertinent to an art than the one Seneca uses in this argument.
8y.1 reinforces the rebuttal by differentiating two senses of what is
good in music. In one sense it is what aids a performance and in another
rr++ra 8y :j
it is what aids the art itself (which must mean what contributes to the
acquisition or maintenance of the art or constitutes its possession). The
broad sense of good is conceded to apply to the factors which aid a
performance. But again this is an unsatisfactorily weak analysis of the craft
and one suspects that it is adopted ad hoc. For surely a pipers pipe is not
just an aid to her performance but a necessary component of it, and a badly
made pipe would make practice of the art impossible. A more thorough
analysis of the factors in a craft is necessary for a stronger response to the
Peripatetic objection.
More importantly and perhaps even less plausibly, Seneca asserts that
the distinction between having the craft and exercising it in performance is
not relevantly applicable to the craft of living. This dissimilarity between
the craft of living and the musical craft is noteworthy, since Stoics often
want to insist on the craft-like features of the philosophical life. Seneca
claims, in effect, that one cannot have this craft without exercising it (that
the good of a person and a life are the same). That is perhaps because
human life has no denite instruments necessary to its good functioning
(that is, we can live as effectively without positive external advantages
as with them). Peripatetics would no doubt want to deny that (relying
on their conviction that external advantages are often necessary for the
exercise of virtue), but no fresh arguments are offered here. Similar claims
are made about the craft of life at the end of 8: even extreme misfortune
and deprivation leave the wise person able to exercise his or her craft.
8y.1z1 The second argument and discussion.
+. What can be possessed by the base is not good.
:. Riches can be possessed by the base.
. So riches are not good.
Effectively this is a syllogism in Celarent, but the form would be better
if we had
+. Nothing which can be possessed by the base is good.
:. All riches can be possessed by the base.
. So no riches are good.
The Peripatetics reply by denying premiss (+): in grammar and medicine
and navigation the base can possess goods. Senecas reply is to assert the
special status of the craft of life, and to deny that the goods aimed at
by the ordinary crafts are genuine goods. By the end of 8y.18 Seneca
concludes that premiss (+) is indeed correct: therefore it is true that what
: cor++av
even the most despicable man can have is not good. The claim that there
is something unique about the craft of life jeopardizes arguments based
strictly on the craft-like qualities of wisdom. Senecas view is that the
peculiar goal of the craft of life makes the moral standing of the artisan
relevant, so that the good pertinent to the craft of life is constrained in a
way that the good in other crafts is not.
This reply is not merely shallow moralizing. In 8y.161y Seneca claims
that possession of or commitment to virtue entails certain other evaluative
commitments: one cannot both be virtuous and regard money as a genuine
good. But other crafts entail weaker evaluative commitments: one can
be a brilliant doctor (and so have the kind of good that is relevant to
medicine) and still erroneously regard money, for example, as a genuine
good. Note again that the Peripatetic relies on a broad, relativized notion
of good (there are different goods for different crafts) while the Seneca
restricts good to the distinctively narrow good of a well-run life.
8y.16 sewer, etc. See also 11q.
Swallow is sexual slang for the female genitalia or the mouth as used
in fellation. The examples of Swallow and Natalis make the point that
wealth is compatible with moral turpitude and so not a good. This kind
of sexual slur is standard fare in (among other genres) comic writing (see
Grant :ooo: :).
8y.1y Seneca seems to shift fromconsidering the evaluative commitments
characteristic of the two kinds of craft to the question, what things can
the two kinds of craftsmen possess. But he does not intend a distinction
between evaluative commitments and mere possession. Senecas point
turns on the assumption that having something (like money) normally
involves caring for it as a good (admiring it). The crucial point is not
what the virtuous person can own but the judgements he makes about
what counts as good. For the claim that virtue is its own standard as well
as the judge for other things, see also y1.zo. We should not conclude
from this passage that Seneca is committed to the view that a philosopher
cannot be wealthy; compare his views in De Vita Beata.
8y.18 reprises the themes of 8y.68 and of 8y.16. The comparision of a
wealthy person to the purse which contains money is particularly effective.
Just as the bag is the mere container or adjunct of wealth and not an added
source of value, so the wealthy person is a mere adjunct of the wealth and
rr++ra 8y :y
has no personal value beyond the limited value of his or her money. What
is being emphasized is the difference between the kind of value used to
assess people, their characters and their lives, and the kind used to assess
externals like wealth. Hence at the end of 8y.18 Seneca states briey the
source of value that a wise person hasthe internal state of the agent.
8y.1qz1 Any putative good that can be shared with other species of
animals cannot be a good. This is a broadening of the claim that an alleged
good that can be shared with morally base people cannot be a good. This
relies on the Stoic doctrine that the genuine good is a feature of rational
animals (see especially 1z.y1)it is, therefore, a human proprium
shared only with the gods.
The special status of virtue is illustrated by the conceit that the genuine
good has its own regionthe mindjust as other goods (such as the
sources of wealth listed in the quotation from Vergils Georgics +.j)
have their own special regions. The incommensurable value of the good
is indicated by the observation that unlike commodities the good cannot
be imported and exported from one region to another. The separateness
of the minds good from other things is presented as a requirement
for its connection to god. Minimally interpreted this merely means that
rationality (which is found only in minds) is the foundation of the linkage
between god and man, but the language of divine purity and separateness
underlines the wider claim about the incommensurability of the good and
other values (such as wealth).
8y.zzy
+. Good does not come from bad.
:. Riches come from greed [and greed is bad].
. So riches are not good.
Effectively this is a syllogism in Cesare, but the form would be better if
we had
+. No good comes from bad.
:. All riches come from bad (i.e., greed).
. So no riches are good.
The Peripatetics deny (+) on the grounds that money comes from bad
thingsbut Seneca effectively allows for this in (:). So the reply is
actually question-begging; it involves the simple assumption that riches
are good.
:8 cor++av
Why would Seneca advance such a weak argument? Lucilius and his
readers already knowthat the Peripatetic value theory allows that riches are
a kind of good, so the reason is unlikely to be a desire to inform the reader
about their position. One possibility is that it allows Seneca to introduce
quantitative consequentialist reasoning (temple robbery and theft produce
more good than bad). This employs the broad notion of good, of course,
but also gives the discussion which follows an anti-Epicurean function:
see, for example, KD j where Epicurus claims that unjust behaviour
costs us more (because of the distress caused by fear of detection) than can
be gained from the injustice.
8y.z point out that such quantitative reasoning leads to the notion
of partly good things, such as temple robbery, which can lead to wealth
whatever else it may cause. But it is absurd on Stoic (narrow) conceptual
grounds that a vicious act should be partly good. If it were partly good,
then it would also be partly honourable. Since all goods are equal (see
66, D.L. y.+o+, Cicero, Fin. .), something which is partly good must
have all the features of the good. An action which participates in good to
any extent would be equal in goodness to all other actions.
straight deed. The transmitted text has been doubted here (the Bud e
has emended it heavily), but it produces good sense if interpreted prop-
erly. The idea is that all actions which are good will be right actions
(katorth

omata), and if an act of temple robbery is something for which

we are responsible (nostra actio) and is also to any degree good, then on
Stoic theory it turns out to be a right action. (Compare 66. for the idea
that the quality of an action is determined by the quality of mind which
lies behind it.) The idea of partial goodness, which raises the prospect of
consequentialist moral reasoning, is thus exploded, Seneca thinks. Below
he arrives at the notion of partly advantageous things, an idea that works
well since it does not depend on the narrow conception of good.
8y.z The suggestion that vice is its own punishment often relies
on consequentialist claims (that fear of detection makes injustice a bad
strategy); see for example the tale of Gyges ring in Republic :, Cicero Off.
.8o, etc.; its Epicurean credentials are also clear: see Epicurus, KD
j. But Seneca is arguing on conceptual grounds that one cannot accept
this kind of consequentialist reasoning. It is not the anxiety occasioned by
the fear of detection which makes greed and injustice a poor choice, but
the very nature of good and bad actions. The tight connection between
rr++ra 8y :
the good and virtue which is characteristic of the narrow Stoic theory is
essential to the success of this argument. But Seneca also claims that it is
inconceivable that good can be caused by badwhich here seems to be a
question-begging claim against the Peripatetics. Seneca goes on to engage
with Stoics who meet the Peripatetic challenge in a spirit of compromise.
See 8y.z6y.
8y.z The claim that the quality of an action determined by its source
is supported by botanical examplesa style of illustration for conceptual
truths used by early Stoics toosee Schoeld +8. This is also a
reference to Lucretius (+.+jy).
betray their lineage (degenerare), i.e., change from its proper genus to
another, is a further biological illustration.
8y.z6y Seneca reports and rejects a Stoic argument against the Peri-
patetic theory. Some Stoics, unlike Seneca, will concede for the sake of
argument that money as such is a good; they do not actually hold that
view, but it is a dialectical concession to their Peripatetic interlocutors.
They go on to differentiate between the source of money and where it
comes from. This permits them to distinguish between the circumstances
which lead to the acquisition of the money and the wickedness of the
acquisition. Hence the illustration: the jar represents the circumstances
and the snake illustrates the wickedness. It may in practice be impossible
to extract the gold without disturbing the snake; but on this view the
gold is not bad and the snake is; one does not pursue the gold because
of the snake. The application of this illustration permits these Stoics to
distinguish the bad-making features of an impious action (the snake) from
its gain-producing features (the gold) and so to argue that the connection
between them is merely contingent. Hence the gain is not itself morally
bad though the crime which yields it is.
This Stoic response seems to respect Stoic value theory (once one
allows for the dialectical concession); it would also work if they treated
wealth as a preferrred indifferent. For wealth is itself an indifferent
(and so not intrinsically bad); though in various circumstances it may be
dispreferred for various reasons having to do with moral training, it is
never a bad thing in itself. (Seneca knows this well and indeed argues
for it elsewhere; see, e.g., 11o.1zo, zo.1, and Tranq. An. 8.) So
these Stoics are simply pointing out that in a case of impious gain we
can and should distinguish between the features of the situation which
:jo cor++av
are vicious and those which are not. This response has the advantage of
encouraging a debate with Peripatetics about wealth; it also seems to make
possible a defence of ill-gotten gain of the sort which has given casuistry
a bad name.
Why, then, does Seneca reject this approach in 8y.zy? He claims that
the illustration is not relevantly similar to the case he is considering. In
principle one could extract the gold from the jar without disturbing the
snake, however hard it might be to do so in practice. But in the case of
impious gain one cannot even in principle get the gain without committing
the temple robbery; the connection between gain and vice is more intimate
than that between snake and gold (we should think of it as mixture rather
than juxtaposition).
The difference between the two Stoic approaches seems to be that the
other Stoics are interested in the general question of the relationship of
wealth to vice and in the contingent relationship between vice/virtue and
the indifferents. Senecas interests differ in two ways. As the rest of the
letter shows, he is particularly sensitive to the impact of ones theory on
the efcacy of moral training; the rejected approach would be riskier in
that context. Seneca is perhaps concentrating on particular cases (say, an
instance of temple robbery, the stereotypical example of impious gain)
rather than on the more general issue in value theory. In a particular
case the action and the gain cannot be separated, since the motivations of
the agent determine the evaluation of the action (see on 8y.z8). This
token-oriented approach to ethics is characteristic of Aristo of Chios more
than other Stoics.
8y.z8
+. That which when desired leads to many bad outcomes is not good.
:. Riches when desired lead to many bad outcomes.
. So riches are not good.
This is effectively a syllogism in Celarent, but the form would be better
if we had
+. Nothing which when desired leads to many bad outcomes is good.
:. All riches when desired lead to many bad outcomes.
. So no riches are good.
The argument here turns onthe outcomes characteristically following from
certain motivations rather than fromcertain actions. The moral standing of
wealth in the abstract is not at issue, but rather the moral impact of wealth
rr++ra 8y :j+
as an object of desire. (This is not a surprising qualication, since all along
it is the role played by wealth in our moral lives which has been at issue.
But see above on 8y.z6y.) The argument is consequentialist in nature if
bad is understood in a broad sense (including dispreferred indifferents).
And that surely is the sense of bad in questionas is suggested by the
plurality of possible bad outcomes (on a narrow understanding the only
bad things are vice and what participate in it) and by the examples offered
in 8y.z8 (shipwreck and kidnap).
The Stoic willingness to use a consequentialist line of argument betrays
a refreshing lack of narrowness and an openness to debate on their
opponents terms. But Seneca himself has already revealed a preference
for a narrower approach. His reason for introducing this argument here,
then, must be questioned. This approach to the topic prepares the reader
for the discussion of Posidonius contribution at 8y.1y.
In their reply (8y.z8q), the Peripatetics (represented by Senecas
imaginary objector) posit an ambiguity in premiss (+). On one interpre-
tation they will deny (+), on the grounds that virtue when desired also
leads to bad outcomes in the same sense as wealth does and yet virtue is
agreed to be a good. This suggests that the Stoics are vulnerable when
they employ consequentialist arguments. On the other interpretation the
opponents assume a much stronger causal connection between the object
of desire and the outcome; we are led to the bad outcomes through it
rather than just when we desire to get it. The Stoics are then confronted
with a dilemma. Either we are not led to bad outcomes through riches (in
which case premiss (+) must be withdrawn and there is no argument).
Or if the causal link between wealth and bad outcomes is strong enough
that through is the appropriate description, then wealth should be not just
not good but actually bad. This is a conclusion stronger than the Stoics
want to draw, since their view is that riches are indifferent (preferred or
dispreferred depending on the circumstances).
But this Peripatetic argument itself rests on an ambiguity. For the
conclusion of the second arm of the dilemma only holds if bad is taken in a
narrow sense (for what causally generates vice participates in vice and so is
bad); but if bad outcomes are interpreted as referring to the same sorts of
dispreferred situations as were invoked in 8y.z8 (shipwreck and kidnap)
then there is no reason why those causes should be regarded as bad.
Afurther objection is meant to reinforce the unwelcome conclusion that
the Stoics wont be able to claim that riches are a preferred indifferent.
The claim is that by relying on the premiss that wealth leads to many bad
outcomes the Stoics are barred from holding that wealth can be useful.
:j: cor++av
This is obviously wrong. With bad taken in the broad sense it can be
simultaneously true that many bad consequences followfromwealth taken
generally and that many advantageous consequences follow from it. And
as long as the latter claim is sometimes true, the Stoic position can be
consistently maintained. This Peripatetic objection would only succeed if
it were an essential characteristic of wealth to bring bad outcomes in its
wake, and the Stoics do not hold that position.
8y.o Seneca reports a reply to the Peripatetic criticism: riches do not
cause disadvantageous results, character aws do. Note here the Stoic use
of disadvantageous rather than bad as in premiss (+). This removes all
uncertainty about the sense of bad in play in the argument. However, if
you rewrite premiss (+) with disadvantageous for bad, then its appeal
is reduced: no one need accept the premiss that something which when
desired leads to many disadvantageous outcomes is not morally good.
The analysis offered in this section is sound on general Stoic principles.
It is our character states which determine the moral status of our actions.
The means we employ to carry out our intentional actions do not in
themselves determine their moral status. So the killers weapon is guilt-
free and wealth is not bad. If we imagine a case in which wealth plays a
role in the generation of bad outcomes (in either the broad or the narrow
sense), the real causal work is done by the bad character of the agent
and the wealth is at most a contributory factor. Note that Seneca uses a
distinct term for the causal relationship he envisages here: on account of
( propter) rather than through ( per).
Why, then, is Seneca not content with this reply to the Peripatetics?
This argument would seem to be better from a Stoic point of view
than one which relies on the ambiguity of the term bad in premiss (+).
The reason becomes clear in the next section, in which on Posidonius
interpretation one can retain premiss (+) interpreted in a narrow sense. It
is clear that Seneca is highly motivated to retain premiss (+) stripped of
its problematic consequentialist interpretation.
8y.1o Senecas use of Posidonius here provides an opportunity to
improve our understanding not just of Posidonius own theory but also
of how Seneca uses earlier Stoics as raw material. Kidd (+8j: +:+)
examines these issues and includes a detailed analysis of this section of
8y; Kidd +jj also addresses this issue, arguing that Posidonius retained
the earlier Stoic view that wealth is an indifferent and that virtue is
sufcient for happiness, against the evidence of D.L. y.+:8, and that his
rr++ra 8y :j
main innovation as reported in 8y is his focus on individual psychological
states as causes of moral failure, rather than on external inuences (Kidd
+8j: +).
8y.1 Seneca retains premiss (+) by developing Posidonius views on
the psychological dynamics of temptation. This will leave a causal role for
riches sufcient to show that they are consistently to be avoided (even if
they are not bad in the narrow sense).
For the contrast between efcient and antecedent causes here,
compare the terminology at 6.1 (efcient vs subsequent causes).
In the present context it might be better to translate efciens as effective
rather than efcient, but the verbal connection to 6 is worth retaining.
The key distinction (8y.1) is between efcient causes (states of
character, in this case) and antecedent causes (essentially, stimuli or
temptations, occasions on which a weak character would inevitably be
drawn to erroneous choices). On normal Stoic theory antecedent causes
are not central to moral evaluation. Although we are tempted by an
appearance of wealth, for example, we make the choice to pursue it in
virtue of our character state, which is fundamentally responsible for our
choice. This character state and the choice produced by it are what counts
as good or bad. Riches have nothing more than antecedent causality with
regard to bad character. For the Stoic terminology used for various kinds
of causation, see LS jj and :C with commentary and Frede +8o. Causa
efciens here corresponds roughly to Ciceros causa perfecta et principalis
while causa praecedens corresponds roughly to causa adiuvans et proxima
(Fat. + = LS :C j).
Having shown that wealth can make a causal contribution to what is bad
in a narrow sense, Seneca returns in 8y.z to premiss (+) of the argument.
Seneca does not have to claim that wealth is a direct efcient cause of
what is bad in the narrow sense; mere antecedent causation of the bad
is enough to deprive wealth of the purity which Seneca here claims is
a necessary feature of the good. This purity requires that the good not
contribute even indirectly to a vicious state of character. The contrast
between the states of mind produced by virtue and by wealth reinforces
the difference in their moral standing. This distinction shows that virtue
(a true good) has no antecedent causality with regard to bad character,
so that the Peripatetic attempt (in 8y.z8) to assimilate virtue to riches as
being a cause of bad outcomes fails. In 8y.z8, though, the bad outcomes
were merely disadvantageous (shipwreck and kidnapping) and here they
are actual moral failings.
:j cor++av
8y. Again the Peripatetic tries to show that the Stoic position leads
to a conclusion which is stronger than they wish, that is, that wealth is bad
rather than merely not good (and so indifferent, preferred or dispreferred
depending on the context).
Senecas reply, denial that riches are bad rather than indifferent, is
based on the distinction of antecedent and effective causality which he
takes from Posidonius (though it is a distinction also made by Chrysippus,
see Cic. Fat. + = LS :C). Seneca does not rely solely on the distinction
between kinds of causality. He argues that mere antecedent causation of a
narrow bad is sufcient to establish that something is bad. The evidence
for this is that virtue itself can provide antecedent causation for the bad
character state envy. Seneca must here be considering the antecedent
causation of character states in non-virtuous people, since wealth would
not tempt a wise person. Moreover, it was pointed out in 8y.z that the
purity of the good means that we do not get puffed up because we possess
it. The special standing of virtue as a temptation to bad character states
lies in two considerations. First, that the possessor of virtue (unlike the
possessor of wealth) is immune to the temptation merely by possessing
it. Second, that the temptations of wealth turn on providing a plausible
appearance of goodness to the many, while even for the many virtue is not
a plausible stimulus of envy but rather of awe and admiration.
8y.y Having turned to Posidonius for assistance in his rebuttal of
Peripatetic objections, Seneca also outlines Posidonius positive argument.
Like the rebuttal, it relies on the causal contributions made by things to
our character states.
+. What does not produce virtuous states in the soul is not good.
:. Riches and health etc. do not produce virtuous states in the soul.
. So riches etc. are not good.
Effectively this is a syllogism in Celarent, but the form would be better
if we had
+. Nothing that does not produce virtuous states in the soul is good.
:. All riches, etc. do not produce virtuous states in the soul.
. So no riches, etc. are good.
As a report of Posidonius views on the nature of the good, this is
controversial. It appears to contradict D.L. y.+:8. For discussion see Kidd
+jj and +8j, and I. Hadot +: y, n. +8.
rr++ra 8y :jj
Riches, health, etc. are preferred indifferents (commoda); that this is the
sense of commoda is demonstrated by Kidd +8j: +y. Such things clearly
lack effective causality. But do they also lack antecedent causality? That
is, might one not be drawn towards virtue and moral progress by a desire
for health and wealth? Seneca clearly thinks not. Hence produce in this
argument no doubt refers to effective causation. This argument, then,
is fully in accord with mainstream Stoicism. But is this also true of
Posidonius second argument, which is meant to make a stronger claim?
+. What produces vicious states in the soul is bad.
:. The products of chance produce vicious states in the soul.
. So the products of chance are not good.
This is effectively a syllogism in Barbara, though this interpretation
requires that we add a further argument to show that all bad things are
not good. The form would be better if we had
+. Everything that produces vicious states in the soul is bad.
:. All products of chance produce vicious states in the soul.
. So all products of chance are bad.
. All things that are bad are not good.
j. So all products of chance are not good.
The second argument works only by equivocation on the distinction
between effective and antecedent causes established in 8y.. For the
products of chance do not efciently cause vicious states in the soul, though
they do antecedently cause them. Posidonius intensied argument, then,
seems to be little more than a rhetorical ourish.
8y. greatness or condence or calmness in the soul. The terminology
here is typically Senecan but the idea is compatible with Posidonius views
(see Kidd +8j: ++j).
8y.6y The extended Posidonian argument is criticized on the grounds
that the products of chance wont even be advantageous (that is, preferred
indifferents) if we accept this argument. But that scarcely seems to follow,
since the argument is actually about good and bad rather than indifferents.
Seneca, perhaps deliberately, portrays the Peripatetics as being insensitive
to the difference between the two categories of value. Hence he objects
to the reply by insisting on the categorical difference between goods and
preferred indifferents. Note here the sense of condicio, which it also has
at 66. (see commentary ad loc.). It might also be rendered category to
:j cor++av
indicate the fundamental difference between the two scales of evaluation
in Stoic theory. The terminological separation between the two categories
is preserved by the use of different words for the positive results of the two
kinds of value: usus and molestia are the result of preferred and dispreferred
indifferents (that is, advantageous and disadvantageous things), where as
prodesse (benet) is used for the result of the good. The former can be
assessed by a consequentialist calculation of the amount of positive and
negative in a situation. But true benet admits of no calculated trade-offs
because of its purity.
The outcome is clear: consequentialist reasoning only works for indif-
ferents and not for goods. Posidonius blunder in his extended argument
serves to show what goes wrong when one tries to argue consequential-
ly about the good. By showing up Posidonius error, Seneca preserves
his independence as a Stoic, following no authority in a partisan or
exclusivist spirit.
In 8y.y Seneca points out that the good (the truly benecial) is a
feature only of the virtuous. Others, whether human or animal, utter fools
or merely imperfect progressors, have no virtue and so in their cases there
is no true benet which might, even theoretically, be compared to their
advantages. We note that Seneca seems to preserve a notional difference
between fools and the imperfect, while at the same time contrasting them
both with the genuinely wise.
8y.y greater part. This is a reectionof the consequentialist calculation
of advantage which is compatible with indifferents. Indifferents may be
balanced against each other in a calculus of advantage while good and bad
may not.
8y.8q The nal knot a reminder that the dialectical portion of the
letter is to be understood as a self-conscious exercise, though the dialectic
does deal with a serious and appropriate topic. The term nodus for this
kind of puzzling dialectical difculty is not Ciceronian. In Seneca it occurs
at ., 8z.1q, 8.1, 11y.1, and in Ben. j.+:.:which comes from the
same period of Senecas life as the letters (after +n j). (We know from
81. that at least part of Ben., books +, had been written by the time
81 was composed. Grifn +:: appendix A suggests on weak grounds
that Ben. had been completed by AD :.) The metaphor of a knot goes
well with the idea (frequently expressed by Aristotle) that an aporia is
something that needs to be loosened or untied (lusis, luein).
rr++ra 8y :jy
Unlike the Stoic syllogisms above, this is a sophism posed by the
Peripatetics. The judgement that it is a sophism seems to originate with
Posidonius, but Seneca endorses it. Nothing in this letter sheds light on
the question of just what makes it a sophism (though see 11y.z, where,
however, the word may be used in a different sense). If the point here is
reliance on an equivocal premiss, then this argument might be thought to
be too similar to the other arguments in the letter. More likely, perhaps,
is the suggestion, made by Terry Irwin in discussion, that the problem
is reliance on a fallacy of composition. The fact that it is posed and
solved by Peripatetics makes it suitable for discussion in the context of
Peripatetic criticisms of Stoic syllogisms, but represents another aspect
of the long debate about the status of the indifferents. Apparently in
wide circulation, the sophism was solved by Antipater as well as by the
Peripatetics themselves. See further remarks on sophisms in the letters in
the commentary to 1o6.z.
+. The good is not made up of what is bad.
:. Riches are made up of many instances of poverty [and poverty is
bad].
. So riches are not good.
Again, a syllogism effectively in Cesare, though the form would be better
if we had
+. No good is made up of what is bad.
:. All riches are made up of what is bad, i.e., instances of poverty.
. So no riches are good.
The syllogism (for which see also Kidd +8j: +y+8) consistently uses the
broad notion of good and bad. That is presumably why the Stoic school
does not accept it. We have no evidence as to how the Peripatetics would
have solved the sophism and can only guess as to why they posed it; a
reasonable guess would be that the solution of a bad argument to show
that riches are not good would dialectically strengthen the view that riches
are good.
The solution Seneca discusses was advanced by Antipater of Tarsus,
a Stoic with a known penchant for dialectic (SVF . Antipater ++,
where he is often paired with Chrysippus). Hence it is apt that the solution
to the sophism is semantic in nature and uses Peripatetic jargon (ster

esis).
It is signicant for our understanding of the Hellenistic Peripatos that
Antipater was engaged in solving a Peripatetic sophism in Peripatetic-
sounding terms in the second century uc. This may suggest that we should
:j8 cor++av
think of Critolaus as the author of the sophism. Antipater denies premiss
(:) of the sophism by insisting that poverty is a privative term, indicating
an absence, negation, or lack; since no positive sum can be generated by
adding up any number of absences, any amount of poverty cannot add up
to riches. But if we dened poverty as, e.g., a small amount of money
then one could eventually add up lots of poverty to produce wealth.
8y.q removal. The Latin word is detractio, which might also be
rendered omission though that is not the usual sense in Seneca. However
it is translated here, it is clear that the ancient term orbatio (privation)
is the preferable translation for the Greek term.
8y.o Seneca concludes the letter by pulling back from his engagement
with the dialectic. He claims that Antipaters solution of the sophism
would be easier to present if he had a Latin term for non-existence.
Just as in 8y.q a Greek term had to be invoked to report the sophism
(and Seneca offers both an up-to-date and an obsolete Latin term for the
Greek ster

esis) so here he emphasizes that he would need a Latin technical

term for anhuparxia. As in 8, we see Senecas interest both in how Greek
technical terms can be expressed in Latin and in obsolete Latin words.
Since Antipaters point seems perfectly clear without a Latin neologism,
one might wonder why Seneca takes this view here. It helps in detaching
himself and the reader fromengagement with the dialectic and in returning
to what he portrays as practically applicable morality. Perhaps the theme
of a need for something beyond Latin words to capture the sense of this
sophism and solution suggests that for serious moral dialectic Latin terms
sufce, that it is only frivolities that require neologisms andGreek technical
terms. For the suggestionthat Senecas oppositionis not to dialectic as such
but only to quibbling, see Barnes +y:+8:o. Contrast I. Hadot +:
++o, who cites q. among other texts as evidence of Senecas massive
rejection of dialectic. This seems overstated. Cooper :oo includes 8y in
his list of letters establishing Senecas contempt for dialectic and technical
philosophy generally, but without detailed discussion. However, even in
q.6 Seneca expresses a more nuanced position.
8y.o1 The conclusion of the letter. Seneca exploits the language of
the law courts (litigare de verbis, quasi iam de rebus iudicatum sit) to dismiss
what has become a trivial issue (8y.o). The contrast of words and things is
highly reminiscent of Antiochus approach to inter-school disagreements,
as presented by Cicero.
rr++ra 8y :j
essences. The Latin term is substantia. Seneca seems prepared to dismiss
the debate about the exact understanding of wealth and poverty and to
deal with their attributes (contrary to the Socratic insistence that we must
know what something is before we investigate its attributesMeno y+b),
but this is no doubt because the need for the distinction has only arisen
from consideration of an admitted sophism. None of the more serious
dialectic above seemed to require full consideration of the what is it
question in this technical form. It seems likely that Seneca has allowed
the dialectic to degenerate into apparently pointless technicality in order
to make the point that this kind of dialectic, whatever its uses, is not the
only or best way of engaging in serious moral debate. Since 8y is the nal
letter in a sequence dealing with dialectic, his decision to conclude the
letter with the rejection of a sophism that stands in contrast to serious
dialectic may reect a desire to mark the difference between good and bad
dialectic.
Seneca concludes with a scenario drawn from practice of Roman
deliberative rhetoricreminiscent of the suasoria (8y.1, NB suadere). He
imagines a debate about the abolition of wealth and outlines in summary
formthe kindof arguments that wouldbe usedinsupport of this measure in
a political forum. In such a context, he claims, the issue of wealth should be
handled with elliptical examples drawn from historical experience and the
invocation of various prejudices about the causes of political dominance.
It is important to acknowledge how limited Senecas claims are here: he
is not saying that the syllogisms to which he has devoted y/8 of the letter
are useless, but rather that in a public deliberative context they will fail
and should be replaced with arguments that would be persuasive before
an audience of citizens rather than in a specialized philosophical forum.
See the acute remarks of Barnes +y: +y+8. This position is reminiscent
of the stance which Cicero often takes about the proper form of moral
suasion. On this topic, see I. Hadot +: +8yo.
There seems to be no direct argumentative or theoretical connection
between the expressed preference for suasio over dialectic and the sub-
stantial issue of whether passions should be moderated (the Peripatetic
position) or eliminated (the Stoic view). Yet 8y.1 links these two issues
closely. The general effect is that moral exhortation of a non-technical
kind will persuade the audience to adopt a rigourist position on issues
like wealth and on the passions. (Cf. Cancik +y: 8.) But while
the progressive degeneration of the dialectic about wealth may support
the claim that rhetorical persuasion will work better than dialectic when
urging that wealth is not a good, the reader has been offered no explicit
:o cor++av
reason so far to agree that such rhetorical argumentation will be more
effective in gaining agreement that the passions should be eliminated
rather than moderated. Nevertheless in Stoic theory the connection is
clear. A passion like greed rests on a false belief about wealth (i.e., that
it is good). Complete elimination of the passion requires being convinced
that wealth is not a good, whereas the Peripatetic believes that wealth is a
minor good and so can hold that the passion for it should be minimized
but need not be utterly eliminated. But the connection has not yet been
drawn explicitly.
GROUP
(LETTERS +o, ++ AND ++y)
Cooper :oo is one of the few serious discussions of 1o6, 11, and 11y,
the letters which make up this group. He argues that Senecas rejection
of and indifference to various technical aspects of Stoic theory in these
letters is misguided and undermines his philosophical position. See my
general discussion in the commentary on 8 above and compare the subtle
views taken over fty years ago by A. D. Leeman in a series of important
articles (Leeman +j+, +j:, +j, +j).
These three letters deal with the relationship between Stoic metaphysics
and ethics. 1o6 addresses the question Is the good a body? 11 asks
whether virtues are animals. 11y tackles a subtle problem about the
relationship between wisdom and being wise: if the former is a good,
is not the latter also a good? All three letters conclude by putting into
question the philosophical value of the very investigation undertaken by
Seneca in the letters. This trio of letters provides a clear illustration of
Senecas independence of mind with respect to his own school.
Commentary on +o
Thematic division
+: Setting and theme. Is the good a body?
+o: Arguments for the afrmative.
+++:: The conclusion.
In this letter Seneca fully supports the central Stoic position at issue,
that only bodies can have causal impact. See below on 1o6.111z.
In this letter Seneca puts considerable emphasis on the epistolary
apparatus. In apologizing for a late reply, he takes the opportunity to
assert (as he often does in the letters, see Introduction, p. xxi) the
importance of controlling ones own time and taking responsibility for
doing so. His own excuse for not replying sooner is not the press
:: cor++av
of obligations but the fact that he had been seriously engaged on a major
project when the request came, so that he needed time to consider the
proper course of action (see 1o6.z itaque dubitavi: and so I hesitated).
1o6.1 so is everyone who wants to be. This casual condence about
the availability of free time is an indication of intended audience for the
letters: elite Romans who command the resources necessary for genuine
leisure. Presumably Senecas view that time is particularly scarce and
valuable would apply even more strictly to those who are not members
of a social elite, but the suggestion that anyone can nd the time for
philosophical activities if they set their mind to it may seem unrealistic to
those who must work to support themselves and their families. Still, the
Stoic philosopher Cleanthes was well known for having had to do hard
physical labour to make possible his philosophical studies (D.L. y.+8).
1o6.z The comprehensive work Seneca says he is preparing is sup-
posed to be an organized presentation of all the important topics in ethics
(1oq also develops a theme pulled out of sequence from that work in
progress for Lucilius benet, as is shown by 1o8.1 and 1oq.1y); see
Leeman +j: o+o. The issue of dealing with a topic out of sequence
suggests that Seneca already has a xed outline of themes and the order of
their presentation. We are to picture him, then, as being right in the middle
of executing his plan. As a parallel for Senecas willingness to take an issue
out of its intended order as a concession to Lucilius interests, consider the
opening paragraph of On Providence, where Seneca explains to Lucilius
that it would be better to reply to his question in the context of a general
treatise, but then proceeds to reply immediately despite his misgivings.
The comment that Lucilius is someone who has come so far invokes a
retrospective assessment of Lucilius development as a philosopher. This
ts well with the surprising question he asks herewe note that the
theme of the letter is supposed to be set by himsurprising at least for
its metaphysical technicality: is the good a body? Seneca associates this
topic with a range of others which he has apparently planned to include in
his magnum opusa set of issues that is more pleasant than benecial to
know (cf. Ben. .+). We might well wonder why Seneca was planning to
write extensively on such questions (after all, he was under no compulsion
to deal with all the questions which pertain to ethics any more than he
was compelled to write the more abstruse portions of the De Beneciis
about which he makes similarly deprecatory comments at many points; see
especially the prefaces to books j and ). Given his plan to deal with such
rr++ra +o :
questions in his treatise, it is particularly odd that at the end of the letter
(1o6.111z) Seneca returns to disparagement of this topic and portrays
his handling of it as a concession to Lucilius.
Perhaps the explanation is that such issues are not at all a waste of time
when dealt with in a treatise where they will t into an orderly context,
but do seem to require special justication when dealt with in a letter;
epistolary philosophy, perhaps, must meet a higher standard of practical
relevance. If so, this offers helpful insight into Senecas views about what
is valuable in philosophy, an insight which mitigates the impression left
by several letters that he regards himself as dealing with unimportant or
frivolous topics. If readers expectations of what they will nd in letters
are as suggested, we should perhaps see Senecas apologetic introduction
of technicality not as a betrayal of his own principles but rather as an
attempt to extend technical philosophy into an otherwise inhospitable
genre; that is, far from indicating his distaste for technicality it would
be a mark of his enthusiasm for it (for a sense of how excited Lucilius
is supposed to be by such technical discussions, see 1o8.q, where the
technical theme he has asked about (res spinosa) should be heard with erect
and attentive ears). See Demetrius, Eloc. :o+ on the topics suitable
for philosophical letters; sophismata are excluded and perhaps Senecas
metaphysical technicalities would be treated in the same way (though
Seneca distinguishes sophisms (cavillationes) from simple technicality
(subtilitas, see 1o6.11) ). For further suggestions along these lines, see
Inwood forthcoming and above, Introduction, pp. xii xviii.
Leeman +j: +o argued that Senecas plan to write a comprehensive
work on ethics was the real cause of the attention paid to dialectics
in the lettters. This estimation of what the treatise contained is based
solely on what Seneca tells us in 1o6, 1o8, and 1oq. The independently
preserved evidence about the contents of the treatise (see Haase frr.
++:, vol. , ) does not conrm this suggestion. Though our
information comes only from Lactantius and so may not be representative
of the original treatises character, it is worth noting that the fragments
are completely devoid of the dialectical and metaphysical technicality
which Leemans line of reasoning would lead us to expect. For all we
know, the treatise was used as an excuse for introducing technicality into
the letter and was not in fact the real cause for the metaphysical and
dialectical complexity of these later letters. And if that is so, then it is
very likely that Seneca included this material because of his interest in its
philosophical value and deprecated it only in deference to the conventions
of the epistolary genre.
: cor++av
Finally, we should note that Seneca aggressively asserts his right to
control the choice of topic in his letters (cf. 8.6, 8y.1): I shall send them
along to you on my own, even if you dont ask.
1o6. The corporeal nature of the good is restated (though in a stronger
version of the thesis) at 11y.z, for essentially the same reasons as are
adduced here. A very similar issue (whether the virtues are animals) is the
topic of 11. Hence 1o6 can be seen as the rst of a series of letters dealing
with the relationship of Stoic corporealismto ethicsabout which Seneca
expresses strong but not unreasonable views. It might help to consider
Senecas sympathetic interest in Aristo (who denied the relevance of
physics and logic to philosophy) as pertinent background.
On conventional Stoic theory (see D.L. y.), the good is understood
as something benecial and hence as virtue or what participates in virtue
(see also Ecl. :.jy.:+:, :.y8.). Virtue is a disposition of the material soul
and its participants would be human beings and their material attributes
(see also S. E. M. ++.::y). Virtuous actions are also counted as good,
since they participate in virtue, though they do so in a different way than
virtuous friends do (see also Ecl. :.yo.+o++). For the goodness of anaction
is determined by the goodness of the disposition which generates it, while
the goodness of a person consists in the fact that he or she is qualied in a
certain way (S. E. M.++.:, says that virtue is the h

egemonikon p

os echon).
In 11y. Seneca insists that only a body is good, a view which is more
strict than what we see expressed in most of the standard doxographical
accounts and which rests heavily on the metaphysical distinction between
an action (which is a predicate and so an incorporeal) and a disposition
(which is a body). This metaphysical distinction plays an important role
in the doxographical account of ethics in Stobaeus, especially at Ecl.
:.y8, where the doxographer distinguishes sharply between happiness
(a bodily state of the soul) and being happy (a predicate). At Ecl. :.y8.y+:
a sharp metaphysical distinction is drawn between what is worth choosing
(haireton) and what is to be chosen (haireteon): the virtue, i.e., bodily
disposition of the soul, prudence is worth choosing and the predicate
being prudent is to be chosen. Yet even here it is made clear that the
predicate being prudent obtains with respect to the soul in virtue of the
the disposition of the soul, which is a corporeal feature of it. In this context
the term good seems to be used more restrictivelyproperly speaking
only the bodily disposition is good and the predicates which ow from
it (labelled

ophel

emata, advantages) are understood as consisting in the

possession of the good rather than as being good.
rr++ra +o :j
From the rest of Stobaeus account and from the evidence in D.L. and
Sextus, we may conclude that it was perfectly normal Stoic usage to say
that virtuous actions are good because of their relationship to virtue. Since
we know that Seneca is aware of these subtleties, his decision to restrict
himself to a simpler argument here (merely to show that it is right to hold
that the good is a body) is signicant. 11y will take the issue further.
1o6.
Argument 1
What does something is a body. The good benets (and gives the mind
shape and cohesion). Therefore the good does something. Therefore the
good is a body.
This rests on the basic Stoic argument for corporealism (see Tertullian,
De Anima j = SVF +.j+8; A etius, Placita .:o.: = SVF :.8y; Nemesius,
De Natura Hominis y (= SVF :.yy), y8: (= SVF +.+y, j+8, :.yo);
and LS j with commentary): if x causes something, x is a body, and if y
is causally impacted by something, y is a body. But here Seneca invokes
only the rst half of this principle, since he takes it as given that the soul
and mind are bodies.
The minor premiss is asserted indirectly: the good causes something,
as indeed it must, if its essence is to benet. Further evidence that the
good does something is the claim that it affects the quality of the soul (by
shaping it and giving it cohesion). If the good is virtue, then virtue as a
disposition will obviously shape and have an impact on the soul of which
it is a disposition. The shaping is both literal (soul being a substance
with spatial extension and boundaries) and metaphorical (we still speak of
intellectual and moral formation). Cohesion is, of course, a feature of all
souls. But virtue endows rational souls with such a high degree of internal
cohesion that at least those of sages remain intact after death (see the
evidence collected at SVF :.8o+y esp. D.L. y.+jy).
Seneca also claims that the good acts by stimulating the mind, but
in what sense does Seneca intend this? If the word stimulate (agitare)
corresponds to the Greek term kinein, then we can recognize here another
bit of conventional Stoic doctrine. For what stimulates an action is a
representation of the desirable object (see Ecl. :.8.+y+), and what is
ultimately desirable is the good (hence it was treated by Epictetus as being
the object of its own special kind of horm

e; see Inwood +8j: ++j: and

Epict. Diss. ..: = LS oF with Diss. .:.+j = LS jC). Senecas
: cor++av
claim here, then, would be that the ability of the good to cause desire
in a rational soul is evidence for its corporeal status. This might well be
thought to be a dubious claim, since desires can be caused by intentional
objects, some of which are non-existent and so non-corporeal. If the cause
of my desire for education is the notion of myself as virtuous, which is
as yet non-existent, then the intentional object which causes my desire
is non-corporeal. The proximate cause of my desire would, of course, be
a prior state of my own corporeal mind (a phantasia) but that does not
stimulate action in the same way that the intentional content of such a
phantasia does. These are more complicated matters than the claim that
virtue (a good) benets, shapes, or gives coherence to the mind, and it is
not at all clear that Seneca has thought through what he means by claiming
that the good stimulates the mind. The concern about causal efcacy could
be raised against Stoicism generally, not just Senecas version of it.
Given the importance of the Platonic and Aristotelian background for
Seneca, it is important to recall that Stoic corporealism developed out of
a serious polemical engagement with Platos Sophist. See also Brunschwig
+: ch. and 8.11 with commentary. Contrast with Platonic theory
is frequent in ancient allusions to Stoic corporealism(e.g., SVF +.o, +.8).
Argument z
The goods of the body are bodies. But the mind is also a body. So the
goods of the mind are bodies.
Seneca makes no effort here to defend the premiss that the mind is a
body. That the soul is corporeal (being a form of pneuma or ery air) and
that the mind is one part or facet of that corporeal soul is universally held
Stoic doctrine. See the evidence collected at SVF :.yo8oo and at LS j.
That the goods of anything which is a body are themselves bodies is a
premiss used in this argument and in the next. The reason for accepting
such a proposition is suggested in argument : goods benet that of which
they are the good and so have causal impact and so must be bodies.
However, if this is so then this consideration is no different from the
argument based simply on the fact that goods produce benet.
In Stoicism, things which are or exist are bodies and so the state
or condition which perfects them (their good) is plausibly regarded as a
body or at least as bodily. In a metaphysics which recognized non-bodily
existences (such as Platonism) there would be no reason to hold that the
perfection of such an entity is a body (although it might still be natural to
agree that causal impact can only be carried out by bodies, which would
rr++ra +o :y
mean that incorporeal entities would have to be free of causation and
perfected in their own right rather than by the inuence of something
else). The real work of this argument is done by Stoicisms fundamental
commitment to corporealism.
1o6.
Argument
A human being is bodily. But the goods of a body are bodies. So the good
of a human being is a body.
A human is bodily, but Seneca refrains from the overtly reductive
claim that a human just is a body. (In 1z1.1o Seneca says that a humans
constitution is the mind in a certain relationship to the body, that is,
that it is the relationship between two bodies. In this sense a person is
bodily without being reductively identical to a body. See Soul and Body
in Stoicism in Long +.) That the goods of something bodily must
be bodies follows from Argument + above. That physical nourishment
and health are served by corporeal things is the basis for an analogical
argument about benet to the (equally material) soul.
1o6.y
Argument
Emotions cause changes in bodies. So emotions are bodies. If emotions
are bodies, then so are ailments and so are vices. If vices are bodies,
then so are their contraries (i.e., virtues which are goods).
The Stoic claim that virtues are bodies is elsewhere based on the fact
that they are dispositions of the mind (are the same in substance as the
leading part of the soul Ecl. :..+:+), which is as bodily as the rest
of the soul (see the evidence collected at SVF :.yy8oo). But it is here
presented as the conclusion of an argument less obviously dependent on
characteristically Stoic doctrines.
This argument depends for its success ona progressionfrommovements
or events in the soul (the passions) to the dispositions which underlie them
(the ailments), to the vices which underlie the dispositions. Senecas
claim is that passions unquestionably produce visible changes in a body
(blushing, wrinkled brows, etc.). That passions, especially anger, have the
power to change our bodily appearance is a familiar view and one unlikely
to be rejected by the reader. See De Ira +.+.y, .+.:. Earlier Stoics
:8 cor++av
(such as Chrysippus) also held that long-term passionate dispositions,
called tendencies (euempt

osiai) or diseases, underlay these events and

explain our proneness to react passionately rather than rationally (see
the evidence collected at SVF .:+o and Kidd +8). The vices of
character are more deeply rooted and stable dispositions in the soul.
The dispositions, both vices and tendencies, are causes of the passions;
Seneca argues that if the passions are bodily so too are their causes and
if vices are bodily so too are their counterparts, the virtues. This is an
appeal to a form of parity of reasoning (if vicious states are bodily, then
so too are virtuous states) or rather to the plausible assumption that
virtues and vices have the same status in the soul. This assumption of
symmetry is Stoic doctrine, but although it is also independently plausible
it is hardly a necessary intuition. A theory in which vicious actions are
caused by defects of a corporeal disposition while virtuous actions result
from the inuence of something incorporeal (such as divine inspiration
or grace) would be perfectly coherent. The assumption of metaphysical
parity in explaining virtuous and vicious actions is a feature of Stoic
naturalism.
Seneca could, indeed, have argued directly for the bodily nature of
the virtues as being states of the material soul. But Argument is less
dependent on prior acceptance of that Stoic doctrine, since its foundation
is a widely shared opinion (that passions cause bodily change) which
non-Stoics would nd it hard to deny. This observation combined with
the principle that the cause of something bodily must itself be bodily yields
the desired conclusion with less dependence on narrowly Stoic doctrine.
1o6.y
Argument
The virtues cause bodily changes; therefore they are themselves bodies.
But the virtues (along with their effects) are goods. So goods are bodies.
Argument j conrms argument by pointing directly to physically
observable changes in the body caused by virtues. On Stoic principles that
argument directly establishes the corporeality of virtues. That virtue is
a visible condition is Stoic doctrine (Plutarch, Sto. Rep. +o:ef = SVF
.8j = LS oR). See also Cic. Fat. +o and Tusc. .8o for the story about
Socrates and Zopyrus, ultimately from a dialogue by Phaedo of Elis.
Peripatetics also relied on this anecdote (see Alex. Aphr. De Fato +y+).
See too Graver :oo:: +8.
rr++ra +o :
It should be pointed out that arguments and j establish only that
some goods are bodies. Nothing in these arguments shows that all goods
are bodies (see 11y).
One might argue against Seneca here that the virtues, emotions, vices,
etc. are not necessarily the causes of the physical changes observed, but
that the physical changes and the psychological states/events might be
produced by some common factorwith the result that the physical
change would be the sign of a psychological change without having been
caused by it. However, Seneca could still point out that virtue as a state of
the soul is corporeal, and so the hypothetical common cause would have
to be corporeal in order to be the cause of a change in any body. It would
be more economical to concede that the pyschological state is the cause
than to posit a common cause.
1o6.8 A supporting consideration is offered for the arguments based
on physical causation. Touch is said to be the necessary condition for
bringing about physical change. But only bodies can touch. Hence if there
is change, the cause must be a body. This insertion of a middle term
(touch) into the relationship between cause and effect adds little to the
force of the arguments. But it does enable Seneca to cite Lucretius (one
of his favourite Latin authors and an Epicurean as well) in support of
Stoic corporealism. It is, of course, true that Epicureans and Stoics share
a commitment to corporealism which is not found among Platonists and
Peripatetics and that rhetorical strength is gained from pointing this out.
But it is typical of Senecas persuasive strategy to enlist the aid of literary
authority and of a non-Stoic for his philosophical argument.
1o6.q1o
Argument 6
What can drive (a bodily entity) to action or restrain it from action must
be a body. Virtues, vices, passions, and eupatheiai (that is, the virtuous
counterparts of the passions, for which see Inwood +8j: +yj) stimulate
action or restrain us from action. Therefore all such things are bodies.
As suggested above, the basic argument here does not rule out a
competing causal theory, that bodily actions or changes and psychological
states are caused by a common cause, so that the psychological state would
then be no more than a sign of the bodily change and not its cause.
Note that virtues and vices are thought of as causing action by com-
mandingwhich must, therefore, be a corporeal event in the soul. On the
:yo cor++av
early Stoic theory of action, assent is the cause, but assent is construable
as a form of command to oneself to act; at any rate, Aristotle is also
familiar with the notion that an internal command is the cause of action
(see Inwood +8j: +j+y, 8, o). Such an assent is a movement in
the corporeal mind, so Senecas point about commanding works well. For
Aristotles thoughts on the need for a physical bridge between the soul
and the body it moves, see M.A. chs. 8+o esp. ch. +o and Nussbaum
+y8 ad loc. and interpretive essay .
1o6.111z Here Seneca distances himself from the extended demon-
stration of argumentative subtlety which he has just provided. However,
there is no indication that Seneca is not fully committed to the con-
tentthe arguments do not meet with imagined objections, let alone
criticisms that cannot be answered. 1o6.1z is clear: a small amount of
scholarship is all that is needed for moral improvement and sometimes
metaphysical theory goes beyond what is needed. Contra Cooper :oo:
:+, Senecas dismissal of the issue is not complete.
Senecas objection to his own exposition is that this kind of argument
contributes to making people educated (or learned) rather than good.
This is education based on scholarship (litterae), and 1o6 shows that
morally unproductive scholarship is not limited to such literary frivolities
as the grammarians concern about the Homeric question (88.y, e.g.)
or other matters (see 8., e.g.) but extends to philosophical argument
about metaphysics. Seneca concludes the letter with a complaint not
unheard of in our own day, that we lack self-control when it comes to
scholarly technicalities in philosophy, that we pursue them for their own
sake without considering their wider, moral impact. Lack of self-control
is a general moral failing and Seneca is pointing out that it can infect
philosophical endeavours as much as it does the rest of our lives. In
fact, in 1o8.1 Seneca promises to use that letter to show Lucilius how
to regulate his cupiditas discendi so that it does not undermine its own
proper objectives. The tribute to the pedagogy of Attalus which occupies
1o8 delays the consideration of Lucilius query to 1oqas a practical
illustration of the requisite intellectual self-restraint. Here in 1o6 Lucilius
request is met more promptly.
The we invoked here means philosophers like himself and Lucilius at
leastsince Lucilius asked about the doctrine and Seneca has revealed
that he is writing a book that will include many such questions. As
suggested above, to some extent the lack of self-control he points to here
consists in failing to keep such scholarly apparatus out of the letters,
rr++ra +o :y+
where it is inappropriateit does not follow that there is no place for it in
philosophy. At the same time, there is no reason to conclude that Seneca
would welcome any degree of pointless technicality in treatisesthough
it is striking that the Natural Questions, dedicated to Lucilius as the work
on moral philosophy will be, combines rebarbatively technical doctrine
with practical application, displaying an attitude quite different from that
of these letters. But even though Seneca is formally complaining only
about his own and Lucilius behaviour in their correspondence, the reader
of Senecas letters, then and now, is invited to identify with the complaint
and thereby to draw a distinction between scholarly (academic perhaps)
and practical philosophy and to question their relationship in ones own
activities.
Cooper :oo takes relatively little interest in the admittedly rather
straightforward content of Senecas arguments in this letter (1o6.1o).
However, in interpreting the conclusion (1o6.111z), he does not, I
think, distinguish 1o6 sharply enough from 11 and 11y, nor does he
focus appropriately on its grouping with 1o8 and 1oq. For example, he
says on p. :+ that this letter (like 11 and 11y) deals with doctrines
to know which is of no prot: to concern oneself with such questions
is to waste time on superuities; these are matters for the schoolroom,
not for living ones life. But the most sweeping statements about the
uselessness of such topics do not in fact apply to this letter; nor should
they, since as we have seen 1o6 argues for a weaker and less technically
controversial position than 11y. In this letter (and in 1o8q) the contrast
Seneca develops is not between the morally useful and utterly useless, but
between what is excessively scholarly and what is genuinely philosophical.
By becoming bogged down in too much scholarship (litterae) due to a form
of intellectual self-indulgence, such discussions undermine the genuine
aim of philosophya not unreasonable complaint still heard among
serious philosophers. See also 1o8.z: what was once philosophy has been
turned into mere scholarship (philologia).
For the purposes of understanding 1o6 the most important question
concerns the kind of scholarly renement which Seneca thinks is appro-
priate to himself and Lucilius. I suggest that one key consideration in
this regard is the inuence of Aristos conception of philosophy. He,
with excellent Socratic credentials, took the view that philosophy proper
consisted only of ethics and that logic and physics were superuous (D.L.
y.+o = SVF +.j+). See 8q.1 on this point. (Senecas critical response
to Aristos substantive views in ethics (see q.18 and my Rules and Rea-
soning, ch. of Inwood :ooj) is compatible with his sharing of Aristos
:y: cor++av
sense for what is most important in philosophy.) In fact, Senecas distaste
for useless scholarship in philosophy and what he regards as pointless
indulgence in logic and physics is played out throughout the letters, the
more urgently as they become more technical. In 11 we shall see that
Senecas agreement with Aristos views about the unity of virtue is an
important part of the background to the argument. See also 6. and 11.8.
Commentary on ++
Thematic division
+: Introduction. Are the virtues animals?
:j: Arguments for the afrmative.
:: Arguments for the negative.
::: Proper moral argument.
For Coopers view of this letter (Cooper :oo: :+), see on 8 and
1o6 above. On my interpretation, Senecas sympathy for the psychology
and ethics of Aristo of Chios underlies his criticism (which is taken to
satirically hyperbolic lengths) of the Chrysippean view. Crucial back-
ground is found in Schoeld +8 and at LS + A-F and commentary.
For a clear sense of the kind of dialectic to which Seneca is reacting here,
see Schoeld +8.
It becomes clear in the course of this letter (especially in the comic
interlude) that Seneca is not writing technically about philosophy of mind
here, but that he is nevertheless unambiguously in support of the central
Stoic claims about the corporeal nature of the soul and the bodily nature
of virtue, which are the doctrines at issue. Hence it is not clear to me why
Cooper says (p. :) that living on the basis of the orthodox views that
he rejects would undoubtedly be better than living on the basis of the
alternate (in my viewmore Aristonian) psychology which Seneca evidently
seems to prefer. Senecas impatience with the excesses typical of early
Hellenistic dialectic and his conviction (expressed at 1o6.1z) that there
can be an excess of scholarship in the practice of philosophy should not
be confused with the more extreme claim that sound logical and physical
theories are not necessary.
Before making any assessment of Senecas handling of the issue debated
in this letter, the claim that virtues are animals, we should ask how deeply
committed to this thesis even a Chrysippean Stoic needs to be. The
evidence for the orthodox thesis that virtues are animals is surprisingly
rr++ra ++ :y
weak. Aside from 11, which names no authority for the doctrine, SVF
cites only Stobaeus, Ecl. :..+8j.. This is not attributed to Chrysip-
pus, or indeed to anyone in particular. (LS do not include the doctrine
that virtues are animals in their treatment of Stoic ethics.) In the text from
Stobaeus we read: They say that there are several virtues and that they
are inseparable from each other. And that in substance they are identical
with the leading part of the soul; accordingly, [they say] that every virtue
is and is called a body; for the intellect and the soul are bodies. For they
believe that the inborn pneuma in us is an animal, since it lives and has
sense-perception; and especially so the leading part of it, which is called
intellect. That is why every virtue too is an animal, since in substance it
is the same as the intellect; accordingly, they say also that prudence acts
prudently. For it is consistent for them to speak thus. The last remark
is the editorialization of the excerptor. For all we know, however, the
thesis that the various virtues are severally animals may be nothing more
than a post-Chrysippean conclusion from Chrysippus theory about the
unity-in-plurality of virtues and the quite correct view that virtue is an
animal in a certain disposition. It is important to recall that in 11 Senecas
argument is directed primarily against the thesis that virtues are animals
and not primarily against the thesis that virtue just is an animal in a certain
disposition.
There is one additional passage attributing to the Stoics the doctrine
that virtues are animals, Plutarchs Comm. Not. ch. j, +o8bc. This text,
quite reasonably not included as evidence by either LS or SVF, conrms
what will be argued below, that the move from claiming that virtues are
animals to the claim that emotions and other non-dispositional mental
events are also animals should be regarded as a polemical extrapolation
and not as a piece of Stoic theory. Plutarch begins the chapter with the
Stoic thesis (attributed to no one by name) that the virtues and other
mental entities are bodies; he then introduces the doctrine that virtues
are animals; as a nal step he extends this to the alleged view that other
mental entities are also animals. That this is not reportage but extravagant
polemic is indicated by his concluding remark: And let them not be vexed
about being led to these things by the argument which advances little
by little [i.e., a soritical argument] but remember that Chrysippus in the
rst book of the Physical Questions (trans. Cherniss) also employed a
soritical argument. But Chrysippus sorites does not deal with the doctrine
of virtues as animals, but rather with the doctrine that seasons, times, etc.
are bodies. This is reasonably clear evidence that the claim that virtues
:y cor++av
are animals was not Chrysippean and certainly the passage as a whole
demonstrates that no Stoic would hold that mental events, actions, and
occurrences were also animals. On might suspect, since the similarity to
Senecas satirical polemic is so great, that Plutarch was inspired by 11.
More likely, however, is the possibility of a common polemical, no doubt
Academic, source. However that may be, the fact remains that there is
no evidence that Chrysippus himself held that virtues are animals. I am
grateful to Scott Rubarth for discussion of this text.
11.1 The quaestio of the day is whether the virtues are animals. A
quaestio is a potentially contentious philosophical topic for debate or
discussion. Lucilius is presented as the instigator of this discussion and
Seneca makes it clear that he is reluctant to engage in it and that his
account will be a mere exposition of the Stoic view; his own dissent will be
clearly indicated. Although his objection to the topic is philosophical, he
adds a not uncharacteristic xenophobic touch (cf. Ben. +..:+..8, esp.
+..+), portraying the pointless subtlety as a Greek cultural form. The
reference to the ancients (antiqui) refers to early stages in the history
of the school (third and second centuries uc), not necessarily to the very
foundations of it with Zeno.
11.z Mind is the translation for animus, whereas anima is more nor-
mally used for the entire soul including the sub-rational parts responsible
for reproduction and nutrition, sense-perception, etc. The word for ani-
mal (animal) is more likely derived from anima than animus, but in Latin
the terms were used with an awareness of their connection (Cicero and
Lucretius both do so). When considering the intellectual independence
of Seneca with respect to this theme, it is worth noting that this linkage
of mind and soul is more difcult in Greek; he is unlikely to have
taken over this argument directly from a Greek source. The commonest
word for animal in Greek, z

oion, is not tied to any psychological terms,

though empsuchon is derived transparently from psuch

e, the broadest and

commonest term for soul normally in the sense of a life-force which
includes all the relevant powers of an animal. Words for mind in Greek
(h

egemonikon, nous, dianoia, etc.) have no linguistic relationship to any

word designating animal, though psuch

e can sometimes take on a nar-

rower sense restricted to what we would call psychological properties and
can (in the famous Socratic formulation care of the soul) refer even more
narrowly to the moral personality.
In this section, Seneca offers two Stoic arguments for the thesis.
rr++ra ++ :yj
Argument 1
+. What makes us an animal is an animal. (Tacit premiss.)
:. The mind makes us an animal. (Support is drawn from etymology.)
. So the mind is an animal.
. But virtue is the mind in a certain disposition.
j. So virtue is an animal
We should note how important the rst premiss is. That the cause of
x should be x itself to a higher degree is a principle of causation found
widely in ancient thought. See, e.g., the safe explanations of the Phaedo
+oo ff. Note too that the move from () and () to (j) requires that the fact
that the mind is in a certain disposition should not make a difference to its
classication as an animal (that is, as a kind of substance).
Animus quodam modo se habens is very similar to the phrase at 1z1.1o
where the constitution is said to be the principale animi quodam modo
se habens erga corpus, which seems to represent a Greek description,
h

egemonikon p

os echon pros to s

oma. (I am extrapolating from the denition

of virtue as h

egemonikon p

os echon at Sextus M. ++.:.) Senecas report in

11 of a Stoic view that virtue is the mind in a certain disposition (p

os
echon), that is, a disposition, the third of the so-called Stoic categories, and
in 1z1 of the view that the constitution is a relative disposition, the fourth
category, shows that his knowledge of serious metaphysical disputes in
the early school (among the antiqui) is quite detailed.
disposition. Compare Ciceros use of habitus (e.g., Inv. :.+o, Tusc. .:,
Fin. .:, j.).
On the Stoic categories, see LS :y, Menn + and Brunschwig
:oo: ::y:. Menn, followed by Brunschwig, argues that while the
virtues are pros ti p

os echonta (relative dispositions) for Aristo of Chios (see

D.L. y.++ and Plu. Virt. Mor. oe-+d = LS +B), for Chrysippus
at an early stage they are poia (qualied) and at a later stage they are
the h

egemonikon p

os echon (dispositions of the mind). Menn also argues

(+: :o:) that one advantage of the later Chrysippean approach
is that it enables the theory to retain the real distinctness of mental
entities from one another without making them physically distinct (as the
classication of virtues as poia might be thought to do, since they are
physical features distinct from each other in a non-relational way) and
so potentially independent objects. The disagreement between Cleanthes
and Chrysippus over the status of walking (11.z) is to be understood
in this context, according to Menn. If this is so, then we have to conclude
:y cor++av
that since Seneca can associate doctrinal differences with Cleanthes and
Chrysippus at 11.z and is presenting Chrysippus doctrine here, he is
intentionally suppressing some particulars of the debate about whether
virtues are animals. In the debate of 11 one important line of argument
is that if virtues are animals they must therefore be separately countable
entities (the risk attendant on the early Chrysippean position which holds
that virtues are poia); and in defence there is an attempt to showthat this is
not so, that the various virtues can be animals without the virtues thereby
being separately countable entities (this would be a consequence of the
later Chrysippean position, that they are dispositions). Seneca seems to
have chosen to present the debate without attributing the different views
to their authors. Why he would have done so is not clear.
Argument z
+. Virtue does something.
:. All actions require impulse.
. Only animals have impulse.
. So if virtue has an impulse it must be an animal.
j. So virtue is an animal.
This second argument rests on an equivocation between doing something
and acting. On the Stoic theory of action, action by an animal requires
an impulse. But not every doing is an action, and even when one grants
(a) that doings by animals are all actions and (b) that virtue does something
(since it benets us) and so must be bodily (see 1o6, 11y), one cannot
conclude that such a doing is an action unless the virtue is in fact an
animal. But to assume that as a tacit premiss is simply question-begging.
11. Two objections to the thesis are stated and rebutted.
Objection 1: If virtue is an animal, then a virtue possesses itself. The
rebuttal asserts that there is nothing wrong with virtue accomplishing
things through itself just as a rational agent accomplishes his actions
through himself. But this is ignoratio elenchi. The objection is not that
there is something strange about an agent acting through his, her, or
its own resources and nature, but that there is something strange about
having to say that a virtue has itself. For we do say Socrates has wisdom.
Yet if wisdom is an animal just in the sense that wisdom is Socrates mind
in a certain condition, then we will have to say that the animal Socrates
(= Socrates mind) has the animal wisdom (Socrates mind in a certain
rr++ra ++ :yy
condition). And such a claim may well seem to be strangea violation of
common conceptions and so a reason to doubt the thesis.
Objection z: If the virtues are animals, then so too are skills (since virtues
are skills) and thoughts and conceptions (since skills and virtues are forms
of knowledge). Hence persons either are or have many animals in them.
This is absurd.
he objects renders inquit. The speaker of this intervention is not specied
by Seneca. This introduction of such unnamed critical interlocutors is
common in letters in which Seneca presents a two-sided debate on a
philosophical issue. In the context of a letter this is stylistically awkward
and seems to be an indication that when Seneca is thinking of philosophical
dialogue he nds it difcult to remain within the formal boundaries of the
epistolary genre. Sometimes an equally abrupt you say (inquis), referring
rather unrealistically to Lucilius as recipient of the letters, has the same
effect (e.g., 8y.y). At other times the interlocutors are explicitly introduced
(e.g., Peripatetici quidam, at 8.).
11. Rebuttal of objection :. The minds various dispositions can
be animals without there being many animals. The explanation is that
there is a distinction between predicational difference and ontological
difference. (This is, of course, modern jargon, but it captures Senecas
intent. See also on 1zo.1.) The criterion for ontological difference is that
something should be separate and free-standing (the Latin terms bearing
on this criterion are separatus, diductus, per se stare), while the criterion
for predicational difference is much weaker. The example offered to make
this reasonable (I am an animal and a man but still just one object) might,
however, seem insufciently apposite. In 11. the supporting argument
addresses parts: being a part of something blocks free-standingness and
so ontological difference, but it does not block predicational difference,
according to which my mind is an animal and I aman animal are distinct
predications and my mind is a part of me.
This rebuttal of the objection would enable the Stoic to maintain
that each virtue is an animal without conceding either of the absurd
consequences (that the sage is many animals or that he contains many
animals). It does, however, leave open the question of how we are to
understand the unity of the virtues. Aristo maintained that there is only
one virtue but that it is named differently according to the sphere within
which it operates (hence a virtue can be a relative disposition); Chrysippus
:y8 cor++av
held that each virtue is a distinct feature of the mind, being a different
body of morally pertinent knowledge (hence a virtue is a distinct mental
disposition), but that all the virtues are inter-entailing in the sense that if
one has one such virtue one has them all. The Aristonian conception of
their unity and the Chrysippean understanding both allowfor a distinction
between ontological and predicational difference.
11. individual substances. Substance here renders substantia. At
8.1 I translate this term as reality. Contra Caston +: +j, n. +,
we should not insist on the same sense for substantia in the two passages.
The present passage employs the term in the plural and suggests that
substantia might vary with the item which has it, whereas Caston correctly
interprets the term at 8.1 as indicating simple existence, which would
presumably be common to the various individual items envisaged here as
varying according to their substantia.
11. distinctly its own renders suum et proprium, which I take as a
hendiadys. The key idea here is that what is other than something else
should be independently itself, not linked in an essential way to that from
which it is other. proprium is the Latin counterpart of idion; an idion or
proprium of some thing or some kind is a trait or characteristic that it
alone (either the one thing or all members of the kind) and nothing else
possesses.
11.6 Seneca opposes his school forthrightly and makes his own objec-
tion to the Stoic thesis. The objection consists in the claim that if virtues
are animals then many other psychological dispositions and events will
also qualify as animals on the same basis.
Objection a: If virtues are animals then so are vices.
Objection b: If vices are animals then so too are passions, thoughts,
and opinions.
Seneca does not say just why this should be such an implausible claim
that it can serve as a move in a reductio ad absurdum. One might suppose that
if the distinction between ontological and predicational difference holds as
a response to objection z, then it ought to work for objection a as well.
Objection b is that an indenite number of transient dispositions will
have the same claim to be animals that virtues and vices do. But nothing
in the Stoic argument shows that if stable dispositions (like virtues and
rr++ra ++ :y
vices) are animals then transient dispositions are too. It is worth noting,
though, that in 11. the Stoic does not respond to this aspect of the
hypothetical objection. The objector had said, after all, that thoughts and
mental conceptions as well as skills and virtues would be animals; but
the Stoic theorist did not reply to it. So one might nd it acceptable for
Seneca to exploit the implicit concession. Nevertheless, if the rebuttal to
objection z sufces for thoughts and conceptions, then it ought to work
here as well.
Senecas rejection of the thesis is based on its absurdity and reinforced
by a distinction between a person and what comes from that person.
That distinction is explained in 11.y. Perhaps the Stoic theorist can agree
with Senecas assertion in 11.6 that it is not the case that everything
which comes from a man is a man, but the explanations in what follows
are crucial. In his discussion, Cooper (:oo: :) lays great weight on the
statement And this can in no way be acceptable, as though this were the
sole grounds for rejection and not, as I rather think it is, a claim which
Seneca goes on to justify with further argumentation.
11.y8 Seneca presses harder on the theory he is criticizing and as he
does so he reveals that he holds an Aristonian conception of the virtues
and the soul.
Chrysippus claimed that the soul has a variety of genuinely different
virtues which are nevertheless mutually entailing. They are distinct p

os
echonta (dispositions) of a single excellent state of the material mind. By
contrast Aristo took the view that virtue was radically unied and that
the differences among justice, courage, etc. were merely situational, pros
ti p

os echonta in the language of Stoic categories. See Plutarch, On Moral

Virtue oe-+d =LS +B. On Aristos view of the soul and virtue, when
we act bravely our virtue is courage and when we act justly it is justice.
Hence virtue changes in accordance with where it is applied, but only
in so far as it is labelled differently; there are no substantive differences
among the virtuesthe distinctions are nothing more than predicational.
Ontologically there is no distinction: virtue is a complete unity. It would
follow that if virtues are substantively different from each other they
would have to be ontologically distinct.
Seneca seems to be relying on this model of the soul when he suggests
that if the various virtues are distinguishable animals then they would be
ontologically different from each other and these animals might come and
go in the soul with implausible frequency and instability. This kind of
instability would be impossible (they cannot cease to be virtues), so we
:8o cor++av
must assume that each animal stays around in the soul. But since every
distinctly labelled virtue and every mental event is an animal, there will
soon be an astonishing number of different animals in our minds. Our
mental menagerie will be the accumulation of all the virtuous actions and
thoughts we have ever had in the various spheres of our lives.
This line of thought is so implausible that Seneca expects that his
opponent would abandon the claim that the virtues are animalsthough,
of course, an astute opponent would challenge the Aristonian conception
of virtue on which the argument relies. Senecas argument concludes with
a reassertion of the unacceptable plurality of the mind on the Stoic view.
If animals cannot change their nature and if each virtue etc. is an animal,
then there has to be one animal for every occurrent disposition we ever
have. And that would be an absurd outcome. But note that it comes from
combining the virtues are animals thesis with an Aristonian view of how
the mind is structured. A Chrysippean conception of virtues, under which
they are stable and ontologically distinct dispositions of the mind, would
commit the proponent of the thesis that virtues are animals to nothing
worse than a nite and manageable number of animals in the mind and
would leave open the defence of maintaining that each virtue is an animal
but not a separate animal though one would be obligated to develop a
plausible view of the status of stable dispositions within a unitary mind.
Hence the disagreement between Seneca and the earlier Stoics turns
at least in part on the metaphysics of the mind they adopt. It is also
clear from this section that Senecas failure to distinguish stable and
transient dispositions above is not a sign of muddle or incompetence but
of disagreement. Cooper takes it that Seneca simply misunderstands the
orthodox view (wilfully or not) by confounding transient and dispositional
mental states.
11.8 Virtues cannot cease. Either cease to exist or cease to be what
they are. Whether the verb is intransitive or there is an ellipsis for desinunt
animalia esse does not greatly affect the argument.
roam around. The Latin is versantur (verso, OLD sense ++a). The Loeb
translation has sojourn, which captures a nuance of the word that is
appropriate to the idea that virtues are animals. The Bud e has grouillant,
swarming perhaps thinking of sm

enos aret

on (see above on 6.11).

11.q The Stoic attempts to rebut the objectionthat there is unacceptable
pluralization of the mind on his thesis by arguing that there is a part-whole
rr++ra ++ :8+
relationship between the mind and the virtues. Seneca rejects this on the
grounds that the parts of even compound animals are not animals, so that
the thesis must be modied.
11.1o is a reply to the argument in 11.z. Seneca is right to point out
that impulse, strictly speaking, is a feature of the mind and not of the
virtue which is itself a disposition of the mind. We might be prepared,
then, to say that our mind acts (for it has an impulse), though no doubt
it is even more appropriate to follow the general example of Aristotle (De
An. o8b+++j) and say that the person acts with or in virtue of the mind.
The move from saying that the mind acts to saying that virtue acts can
only be made if one maintains a complete identity of mind and virtue.
In fact, at 11.z the claim was made that the virtue is nothing but the
mind in a certain dispositionbut the qualication added is sufcient to
prevent transparent substitution of virtue for mind in all contexts.
Both supplements to the text here seemvirtually certain. The omissions
are easily explained as scribal errors occasioned by the repeated words at
the beginning of the inferential formulae.
11.111 A series of arguments based on the conception of ani-
mal which Seneca thinks rules out any meaningful claim that virtues
are animals.
Since we have only one mind, each virtue is a disposition of that same
mind. If each virtue is an animal, he argues, there will be untenable
consequences.
In 11.11 Seneca asserts a principle of continuity of identity for
animals: from creation until death to be an animal is to be the same
animal. Presumably the idea here is that animal invokes expectations
that there is a stable identity. But if two distinct virtues, justice and
courage, are dispositions in the same mind, then each (being an animal)
must be persistent. And if that is so, then two animals will be associated
with the same mind. But it is plausible to invoke a rule of one mind per
animal (11.1z) and this rule is violated if one mind has two animals in
it (justice and courage), let alone if it has more. Seneca thinks (correctly,
no doubt) that one mind per animal is more generally accepted than
the subtle Chrysippean doctrine which permits multiple dispositions in a
single body. One way out of this attack for Senecas opponent would be
to concede that each animal is the same from creation to death but then to
concede that the animal justice perishes when the animal courage comes
to be. But if these virtue-animals are meant to be identical to the soul
:8: cor++av
of which they are dispositions, then this move is blocked by the need to
acknowledge that the soul persists as the same entity until it dies.
If, however (11.11), one invokes a one body per animal rule then
the same thing happens, since having justice and courage in the same
body (that is, the mind, since the mind is a body) violates this rule if they
are animals. Behind 11.1z1 is a widely agreed-upon understanding (a
common conception, perhaps) of an animal as a combination of one body
with one soul.
There might seem to be a bit of sharp practice in play here. For Seneca
considers treating the substrate for the virtues as both a mind and as a body
and the one X per animal rule needs to be taken in a different sense in
these arguments than the sense in which it is understood when one agrees
that each animal has one soul and one body. Yet for the Stoics whom he
is criticizing the mind is both a mind and a body and the equivocation
Seneca exploits is nothing worse than a dialectical manoeuvre designed to
forestall an equally dubious move by an opponent.
The larger point which emerges from this dialectic is that there is a
difference between the way in which a Chrysippean and an Aristonian
would respond to the thesis that virtues are animals. On the Chrysippean
assumption of a simultaneous unity of genuinely distinct virtues, the
thesis does entail that there will be multiple animals per body (which is
supposed to be impossible). So the Stoic opponent cannot both have his
Chrysippean theory of the metaphysics of mind with its claim that there
is a unity of distinct real virtues and the animal-thesis simultaneously.
Aristo could hold the thesis that virtues are animals more easily, since
he does not hold the Chrysippean model of the unity of really distinct
virtues. He maintains that there is a radical unity of virtue in which the
named virtues are only situationally distinguished, so that virtue (as a
single disposition) can be an animal there would only be one virtue and
so one animal per body. The sense in which Aristo holds that we even have
more than one virtue is so weak that he could cheerfully abandon it, and
so retain the thesis that virtues are animals, without violating the common
conception of animal. This, apparently, is where Senecas sympathies
would lie.
11.11 become something different become a different animal. The
Latin verb is transire, which can either indicate a change or transition
to being a new kind or a physical movement to a new locationit is
originally a verb of motion. The rst instance of the verb here establishes
the sense as being a change of kind and that must be the sense throughout
rr++ra ++ :8
the section. However, in the second occurrence Seneca is exploiting the
literal sense of spatial location (retained in remain in).
11.1 obvious point outrage. An anticipation of the abandonment
of the theme at 11.z6. See also 11.z1.
11.1 The reply of 11.q restated: a part of an animal cannot be an
animal. (This too is a view according to which our soul has and so is just
one virtue.)
11.116 It is Stoic doctrine that the virtues are equal. Hence it is
offered as an objection to the Stoic claim that virtues are animals that all
animals, like all of the individual substances in the world, are unique and
so not equal.
This is not a powerful objection. For even if one concedes that all
animals are unique (and not just all animals in the ordinary sense of the
word), it does not follow that there cannot be animals which are equal
in some relevant sense. The uniqueness of all things is a Stoic doctrine,
connected to their epistemology (each object in the world being unique so
that the Stoic criterion of truth could be reliable: see Sextus M. y.:+j:
= SVF :.j, Plutarch Comm. Not. +oyyc = SVF :.++:, Cicero Acad. :.8j
= SVF :.++, Acad. :.j = SVF :.++, :.jy, Sextus M y.o+o and
generally LS o) and cosmology (it was a contested question whether or
not successive worlds should be thought of as unique and so different from
each other: see the texts at LS j:). But such uniqueness requires only that
at least there is some difference not that there be no point of equality.
Hence Seneca seems to be playing on equal and indistinguishable.
Further, the Stoic thesis of the equality of virtues does not entail that
they are identical: all virtues are equal in the same sense that all mistakes
are equal. It is equally the case that robbery is wrong and murder is
wrong, but they are distinct and readily distinguishable crimes. So too
it is equally the case that justice is a virtue and that self-control is a
virtue. And, one might add, it is equally the case that horses are animals
and cows are animalsthey are equal qua animals; yet they are clearly
distinguishable.
11.16 demanded of himself . An expression of gods necessary good-
ness.
11.1y Two further counterarguments.
:8 cor++av
+. Virtues do not act on their own as animals do, so virtues cannot be
animals. See 11.1o.
:. Rational animals are gods or men. Virtues are neither. But virtues
are rational (and so they are not non-rational animals). So virtues
cannot be either rational or non-rational animals. Therefore they
are not animals. A possible rejoinder to this argument might be
that rational is used in a different sense of animals and of virtues.
But the cost of that move would be high, as it would weaken
the sense in which virtues could be said to be animals if not
even an essential predicate like rational can be asserted of them
univocally.
11.181q This argument is parallel tothat at 11.z. Onthe conventional
Stoic analysis of action (for which see Inwood +8j: ch. ) impulse is
required for all actions by animals and assent is required for rational action.
(For the sequence of impulse and assent here, see Inwood +8j: :yo, n. :;
:8:, n. +; and +yj; Rist +8: +:oo and Sorabji :ooo: , ++
nn.; Graver +: o+). Animal action was addressed at 11.z. Seneca here
argues that assent does not occur in virtue, so that it cannot meet the
requirement of being a rational animal. And if it is an animal and lacks
assent, then it is not rational. But virtue (especially prudence, used as an
example here) cannot be a non-rational animal; so it is not an animal at all.
The argument that virtue cannot give assent depends on the proposition
to which assent is given in the Stoic theory. One assents to a proposition of
the form it is tting that I do so-and-so (walking is a standard example).
That is, the assenter and the person for whom the action is tting are
the same. But even supposing that when using my practical wisdom I
decide to walk, one could not say that wisdom assents, since wisdom
would have to assent that it is tting for wisdom to walk. But if I assent
with my reason, then the assenter and the beneciary are the same (as the
theory requires). It is necessary in the Stoic analysis of action that the
assenter be the same person as the agent (for otherwise the action could
not follow necessarily on the assentsee Inwood +8j: j, esp.
on self-directed imperatives). In the example Seneca is considering, the
necessary reexiveness could only obtain between wisdom and the agent
if the virtue were identical to the agent rather than a disposition of the
agents mind. Again, such a reductive identication of a virtue with the
agent would in fact be easier on Aristos theory than on Chrysippus; for
since Aristo holds that there is only one virtue, it could in principle be
identical with the mind and so one could hold that the mind = the agent =
rr++ra ++ :8j
a rational animal. But Chrysippus commitment to more than one really
distinct virtue would make this impossible.
11.z1 tickling amusing silliness. Another anticipation of the
thematic break at 11.z6. See 11.1 above.
11.zoz Seneca here indulges in a comic reductio ad absurdum of the
theory he is attacking. The Stoics are said to concede that every good is
an animal because every good is a virtue (and every virtue is an animal).
Seneca then expands this to include virtuous actions as goods (and not just
virtues). Hence virtuous actions (saving your father etc.) are also animals.
This leads to an insane multiplication of animals; see 11..
There is a dubious looseness in this dialectical argument. In 1o6 Seneca
defends the view that all goods are bodies but does not deny that some
non-bodies are goods. In 11y., though, the Stoics are presented as not
holding that actions and events (even those which express the content of a
virtue) are themselves good except in an indirect sense. But if something
is not a body it is certainly not an animal. So the Stoics of 11y would not
agree that a virtuous action is an animal, since they would not concede the
key premiss in the argument of 11.zo. Seneca presumably knows what
he is doing here, so we may conclude that this is an appropriate bit of
deliberate outrageousness designed to be the culmination of the argument
which leads to the repudiation of this whole debate.
11.zo The textual problems at the endof the sectionare deep-seatedand
probably incurable; the translation at that point is a mere approximation
of the appropriate sense.
11.z1z The reduction to absurdity here depends on the extension of
the thesis from virtues to virtuous actions. See above.
11.zz round shape like the one god has. The spherical shape of Stoic
gods is attested by Arius Didymus fr. = SVF :.8o, Sextus M. .y+
= SVF :.8+:, and by a scholiast on Iliad :.j = SVF :.8+j. See also
Graver forthcoming: ch. +, n. +j.
11.z Using the same example (the action of walking) Seneca justies
his policy of independence within the school as being the example set
by Chrysippus. The disagreement between them is, however, pertinent
to the discussion in this letter. See Menn +: :+:, who argues that
:8 cor++av
Chrysippus is here applying his new category of the p

os echon in order
to avoid having to make walking a distinct body within the person, a
dedicated stream of pneuma identiable as walking. Instead, Chrysippus
identies the walking with a denite but not independent disposition of
psychic pneuma, a feature of the person rather than a part. In Inwood
+8j: jo I made less of this passage than now seems appropriate; see Long
:oo:: :+, n. +o.
11.z The substantial disagreement is brought to focus and then
resolved with a casual ease that suggests once more that Seneca has been
deliberately exaggerating the dispute to make a point about the need to
maintain an appropriate balance between detailed physical speculation and
ethics. Despite Senecas aggressive and sometimes irresponsible polemic,
the spokesman for the Stoic thesis restates it in a form which both
conrms its reliance on Chrysippean p

os echonta (The mind and the mind

which is just and wise and brave are the same thing, being in a certain
disposition with respect to the individual virtues) and permits there to be
an intelligible sense in which virtues are animals but not many animals.
This is the relatively sensible middle ground that Seneca argued against
previously.
But now there is to be agreement that the mind is an animal and that
paves the way for some sort of agreement that its dispositions might be
considered animals too (though not ontologically distinct, just predica-
tively distinct). Predicative distinctness is compatible with ontological
uniqueness, and this is illustrated by the example of someone (Seneca,
e.g.) who is both a poet and an orator and yet is just one person. Just as
poetic skill and rhetorical skill are distinct dispositions in Seneca, so too
justice and courage are distinct dispositions in the mindso the mind
can be one even while having two such different dispositions. Hence if it
is conceded that the mind is an animal and one takes a similarly generous
approach to predication, the problems with the thesis that virtue is an
animal can be made to disappear. Seneca correctly points out that the
absurdities are generated by the claim that actions are animalsbut that
was his own unwarranted extension of the Stoic claim anyway! On this
new, more irenic approach, both Chrysippus conception of the mind and
Senecas Aristonian conception of the mind remain viable.
11.z idem est animus et animus. The text is sound. The emendation by
Long published at LS +E: the same mind is both moderate and just
is not necessary.
rr++ra ++ :8y
11.z I sing of arms and the man is the rst line of Vergils Aeneid.
six feet refers to the metre of epic poetryeach line of hexameter verse
has six metrical feet, so if a line of poetry is an animal it must be six-
footedand hence not round a term which when applied to literature
refers to a smooth and polished style.
With I too concede in 11.z Seneca is nally making clear his personal
view on the metaphysical dispute.
11.z6 Havingdemonstratedthe silliness towhichmetaphysical dialectic
can degenerate and made it tolerably clear that his excesses were deliberate,
Seneca shifts his attention to a topic which is in his view appropriate to
the occasion. We recall that Seneca presents himself as having developed
the theme of virtues as animals only at Lucilius request and against his
better judgement.
11.z6 tangled web. This is reminiscent of Aristo, who dismissed
dialectical arguments as being mere spider-webs, which are useless,
though they seem to display some craftsmanlike quality (D.L. y.++).
11.zy8 A proper exhortation to courage. The important thing is not
to know its metaphysical status but to know substantively what courage
means in a human life. As the citation of Posidonius (= F+oj E-K) makes
clear, genuine courage depends on adopting a sound attitude towards
what is in ones own control and what is not. It is only if one relies on
ones own resources that one can be truly courageous. The things outside
ones own control (fortune) can work in ones favour, but can also become
the very obstacles against which one needs to have courage. Courage is a
martial virtue, and Seneca here draws on Posidonius reinterpretation of
its martial character in the service of Stoic ethical theses.
11.zqo Alexander is an alleged paradigm of courage, but the insta-
bility of his virtue was proven by his lack of self-control and consistency
when adversity and his own moral failings came to afict him. He is a
frequent paradigm for lack of self-control and tyrannical behaviour. For
the murder of Clitus by Alexander, see 8.1q, De Ira .+y, Tusc. .y
and for Callisthenes see NQ .:; but the copious Alexander legends
supply many examples of friends and comrades whose death could be
laid at the feet of the great general, including Philotas and Parmenio.
The reinterpretation of courage culminates in a parallel transvaluation of
the idea of empirea false version of which Alexander possessed. The
:88 cor++av
greatest kingdom is self-mastery, a form of empire which equals that of
the gods. The fate of Alexanders empire is a common contrast to the
self-mastery of Diogenes the Cynic.
For a similar theme, see q.61y, qo. (the most powerful man is he
who has power over himself ), and NQ pref. +o.
11.1 let him teach me. Who is imagined as doing the teaching? The
same person apostrophized in 11.zy; there is no reason to suppose that
Seneca has anyone particular in mind, not even Posidonius, who is invoked
in 11.z8.
11.1z Having dealt with courage, Seneca turns to another virtue,
justice. In its mundane, political version, justice is practiced for the sake
of glory, for its rewards in the social sphere. This is a theme that goes
back to Platos Republic and Gorgias. But in fact justice is seless, is its
own reward, and is just as valuable when it is accompanied by disgrace
and public humiliation.
11.zyz Taken together, these sections make a cumulative and indi-
rect case for the unity of virtues. We see here courage, self-control,
justice, but not wisdom. The unity of the virtues is a theme which,
as I have argued, plays a subtle role throughout the dialectical part of
the letter.
Commentary on ++y
The discussion in Cooper :oo (esp. pp. ::) is of particular impor-
tance for this letter. See above on 8, 8y, 1o6, and 11. As is also the case
with 1o6 and 11, it is clear that Seneca understands and endorses the
central Stoic doctrines about the nature of virtue and its corporeal nature
and agrees that these doctrines are necessary for the achievement of a
successful life (Cooper :oo: :j). As elsewhere, Seneca is impatient
with counter-intuitive renements of Stoic theory which go beyond this
level of technical renement.
Thematic division
+: The quaestioLucilius poses a problem which puts Seneca
in a tight spot. Explicit statement of aims and outline.
:: The school position on relation of wisdom and being wise.
j: Objections from others to the Stoic doctrine.
rr++ra ++y :8
: Senecas objectionbasedonpraesumptiones (preconceptions)
and consensus omnium (universal agreement).
y+y: Non-popular objections to the doctrine (Senecas own).
+8:: Detachment from technicality and consideration of what is
really useful in philosophy.
o: The pressures of time and genuinely important business.
11y.1 Once again Lucilius is the initiator of the topic. Seneca is here
more emphatic in his claim that he is discomtted by having to state
his own position. The minor questions are designated by a demeaning
diminutive (quaestiunculas) which stands in contrast to the huge difcul-
ties it occasions. In all innocence (dum nescis) Lucilius creates a dilemma
for Seneca, who is torn between his sense of good faith and personal
responsibility for his philosophical views and his good relations with
his fellow Stoics. These relations are characterized by gratia, a sense of
reciprocity and obligation. Does Seneca feel that he owes something to
his Stoic teachers for the benecium of having shared Stoic doctrine with
him and that his rejection of some aspects of that doctrine might seem
ungrateful? In this very short introduction Seneca outlines a moral context
for his engagement with a technical issue; it is worth observing that this
is not an issue which Seneca says he was planning to include in his big
book on moral philosophy (see 1o6.1z).
Seneca announces that he will rst outline the schools position and
then give his own view; but curiously he does not anticipate the attention
he devotes to other peoples objections (11y.6).
11y.z Seneca states the school position on the relation of wisdom
(a causally effective body) and being wise (an incorporeal attribute)
which is metaphysically dependent on a body. The argument that good
is a body is familiar from 1o6.; here it is followed by the premiss
that wisdom is a good. Note the emphasis on what the Stoic position
requires them to hold (on pain of inconsistency); see also on 11y.6 below
(impeded by their initial commitment). This argument runs from the
observable fact that the good (and so wisdom) provides benet to the
metaphysical conclusion that it must be a body. The argument about
being wise runs in the opposite direction: from its incorporeality and
dependent status to its failure to confer benet and failure to be good.
Since the positive claim is not controversial for Seneca, the focus here
must be on the negative claim, the denial that being wise is good and
benecial.
:o cor++av
11y. Do we not say Seneca concedes that Stoics do not always
insist on strict technical usage and have no objection to applying terms
in derived senses provided that the focal sense of the term is clearly
understood. Compare what Chrysippus said about the term good (Plu.
St. Rep. +o8a = LS j8H). It is important to bear in mind that Seneca
mentions that they do permit us to call being wise a good by a kind of
catachresis. It should be clear that Seneca is not ignorant of the distinction
and that in what follows he is concerned with the strict usage rather
than the looser discourse of what one can get away with saying. (See
Cooper :oo: :y and n. :+.) In effect Seneca is asking in this letter what
genuine philosophical good is done by Stoic insistence on the strict usage;
it is easy to see what use there is in keeping the strict and looser use
of good clear, but no one has so far shown that there is a comparable
utility in this other case of technical strictness. Until that is done it is
understandable that Seneca might prefer a philosophical approach which
does not alienate its audience to one which does. Indeed, he might invoke a
Socratic precedent in his own favour. In the Euthydemus, a dialogue which
shows Socrates grappling with genuinely sophistical opponents and so is
arguably relevant to the issues Seneca is concerned with, Socrates at least
twice (:yja and :88d) moves from the noun philosophia to the verbal form
philosophein without any hint that the part of speech makes a difference
to the substance. Seneca might well think that the sapientia and sapere are
similarly related.
That Seneca is fully capable of keeping straight the difference between
bodies and incorporeals and using the distinction effectively in ethics is
demonstrated by his treatise De Beneciis; see, e.g., Ben. .: and :.j and
my discussion in Politics and Paradox in Senecas De Beneciis, ch. of
Inwood :ooj. Senecas handling of at least this paradox demonstrates that
when he thinks philosophical technicality matters for ethics he can apply
it reasonably well.
11y. of the same kind. Kind translates condicio, but in the same
category might be preferable. See 11y.8 below where alterius sortis
is rendered in different categories and seems to indicate a similar
distinction. In 6. condicio is translated state of affairs; in 66. and 8y.6
it is translated kind. In this letter, Senecas claim is that being wise is in
a different place in the Stoic ontological classicationa different kind
of kind than in 66. and 8y.6. The usage in 6. is different again,
but the term refers to a fundamental metaphysical fact about objects and
so is closer to the usage here. A more general use of the term is found
rr++ra ++y :+
in y6.1, 8.z, and 8y.zy (situation) and in many other passages where
it refers to the general condition that something may be in (especially
the human condition, as we still call it). In z6.6 and o.11 a legal sense
is apparent: the terms of a (metaphorical) contract or legal judgement
by which ones situation is dened. All of these connotations are in the
background here.
attribute renders accidens. Here the term indicates the ontological
dependency on body which characterizes all incorporeals. This depen-
dency should be distinguished from the status of a material disposition or
quality of a body (such as its colour, its virtue, or its weight); such features
of bodies (properly, bodies so qualied or disposed) are themselves bodily
and can have causal impact.
11y. Before giving his own view, Seneca adds two criticisms of the
school position made by others. His handling of these will be an indication
of his attitude to the schools theory.
First criticism: it follows that living happily is not good (though the
happy life is).
Second criticism: this drives the school to neologism (being wise
is choiceworthy, wisdom is worth choosing). The neologism adduced
here is a translation of the metaphysical distinction between the haireton
and the haireteon. At Ecl. :.y8.y+: (= SVF .8) the doxography of
Stobaeus says:
They say that what is worth choosing differs from the choiceworthy. For every
goodis worthchoosing, but every advantage is choiceworthy, andthis is understood
as having the good. That is why we choose what is choiceworthy, for example
being wisewhich is understood as having wisdom. But we do not choose what
is worth choosing; rather, if anything, we choose to have it.
Similar distinctions are applied to other terms by the Stoics (see e.g., Ecl.
:.y8.++y = SVF .8, :.y.+j8.+ = SVF .o+). In all cases it
is clear that the two terms track each other in their extensions and in
their practical implications. The haireteon is always a matter of having or
exercising the haireton, etc. and in no case can a wedge be driven between
the two. The motivation for making this distinction, to which Seneca
objects so vigorously, is suggested at Ecl. :.y.:o8. (= LS J = SVF
.+): the choiceworthy and its congeners are:
:: cor++av
predicates corresponding to the good things. For we choose what is choiceworthy
and want what is wantworthy and strive for what is striveworthy. For acts of
choice and striving and wish are directed at predicates, just as impulses are. But
we choose and wish, and similarly strive, to have good things, which is why good
things are worth choosing and wishing for and striving for. For we choose to have
prudence and temperance but not (by Zeus!) being prudent and being temperate,
since these are incorporeals and predicates.
When this is compared with the text at Ecl. :.88.+y (= LS I =
SVF .+y+), it becomes clear that the motivation for this distinction lies
in the technical Stoic analysis of human actionsomething Seneca also
engaged with in 11. For further discussion see Inwood +8j: ch. , esp.
jj, from which two points relevant to Senecas letter emerge. First,
the technical distinctions are intimately connected to quite general Stoic
concerns about the relationship between bodily and incorporeal entities,
andinparticular (+) the relationshipbetweenphantasiai, whichare physical
alterations of the soul, and the propositional entities which make them
meaningful for rational agents; and (:) the relationship between causes
and predicates. Second, just as phantasiai and propositions can both be
treated as objects of assent without it making any practical difference
to the understanding of rational animals, so too with the distinction
between what is worth choosing and what is choiceworthy: a distinction
vital in one area of philosophy (physics or metaphysics) appears to be
a functionless appendage in another (ethics). The Stoic commitment
to a fully systematic integration of all three parts of philosophy thus
burdens their ethics with a set of distinctions that may do very little
work within ethics but that are only dispensable at the cost of weakening
their commitment to systematic integration. Senecas impatience with
these apparently functionless distinctions follows naturally enough from
his broadly Aristonian (and so Socratic) approach to philosophy, which
makes physics (with the exception perhaps of cosmology) marginal to the
principal goal of philosophy. With this general approach to philosophy,
Seneca has little reasontopaya highprice incredibilitywithnon-specialists
in order to retain systematic integration.
syllable. expetibilis is the novel word employed to render the Greek
haireteon, whereas expetendum is the established term used for haireton.
If it is a coinage it is a relatively easy one for a Roman to accept. The
term is also used by Tacitus Ann. +.:+ and by Boethius Cons. :.. The
change involved in coining the new term is not just the addition of a single
syllable, but Seneca often uses syllable symbolically (see on 8.y).
rr++ra ++y :
is an adjunct renders accedit, but perhaps we should read accidit, in
which case the translation would be is an attribute of .
11y.6 formula. This is not a denition but the way of framing the
issue; a term drawn from legal practice. Cf. Off. .+:+ and q.z, Ben.
.y.j, .j.j.
preconception. Seneca turns to his own views and claims that attention
to the consensus omnium would have kept the school out of this awkward
situation it nds itself in. (Wildberger :oo vol +: :y8 rightly notes
that the term praesumptio is Senecas very literal translation of prol

epsis
(prae = pro and sumptio = l

epsis); she compares this passage to Cleanthes

theological views as reported by Cicero in N.D. :.) Seneca emphasizes
that this criterion is one which the Stoics themselves accept in important
areas of their physics and theology (the eternity of soulsopen to debate,
at least, in the school and the existence of the gods). On the existence
of gods see Cicero N.D. :. The value of the consensus omnium represents a
serious methodological commitment, so Senecas challenge here to themis
quite reasonable. (See also Scott +j: +y, +8, :o++o.) His position
is no doubt affected to some extent by the model of Cicero, who frequently
emphasized the importance of providing arguments which stayed close
enough to common sense to be effective.
implanted See Tusc. +.o, N.D.:.j.
initial commitment. The reasonableness of Senecas challenge to the
Stoics raises the question of why they did stake so much on a ne
technical distinction. See above for my suggestion, that it is the initial
commitment of the school to maintain a full integration of ethics with
physics and metaphysics that leads to conicts with praesumptiones which
in other areas the Stoics take seriously. See also Cooper :oo: :y8 and
n. ::. I disagree with the view that Seneca holds that common opinion
must be true. An argumentum is not always a proof, but is usually a
consideration in favour of a position. Senecas point (as the rst sentence
of 11y.y shows) is not that consensus omnium guarantees the truth of a view,
but merely that the Stoics did not give it enough weight in comparison
with their initial commitment.
At Acad. :.8 Cicero contrasts his own independence of judgement
with the prior constraint that dogmatic philosophers face: ceteri primum
ante tenentur adstricti quam quid esset optimum iudicare potuerunt. Although
: cor++av
Cicero is contrasting the freedom of an Academic with the situation of a
dogmatist, his criticism of the dogmatists is quite similar to the complaint
Seneca makes about those in his own school who are unduly concerned
with orthodoxy owing to a mistaken conception of school loyalty.
For publica persuasio compare Ciceros aim to argue by means of a
rhetorical mode of dialectical disputation at Fin. :.+y (and compare
Inwood +o: +).
11y.y Seneca repudiates reliance on the publica persuasio of 11y.6. He
puts less weight on the argument than Cooper suggests, except to show
that the school is inconsistent in its use of criteria for conviction and need
not be burdened with the difcult position it nds itself in. Nor is it at
all clear, as Cooper claims (:oo: :8, n. :), that nostris armis means that
Seneca will draw on accepted Stoic principles. The phrase is vague, but
the contrast with appeal to the people suggests that it refers to Senecas
reliance on arguments of his own devisingmuch as a gladiator would
win by effective use of his own weapons and skill and not save his life by
appeal to the crowd. His own arguments are indeed presented in terms of
the schools own metaphysical tools; Seneca approaches the issue on the
schools own grounds by challenging the implications of somethings being
an attribute. But that does not mean that his arguments are meant to take
their force from their agreement with Stoic principles. They are, in fact,
dialectical arguments rather like those of (e.g.) 8 and 8ythere is ample
room for Seneca to argue on broadly Stoic principles but independently of
at least some orthodox Stoics. It is worthwhile to recall again (as in 11)
that not every Stoic would accept all the positions we have come to regard
as canonical.
That said, it is clear that Seneca does not have a proper grasp of
the relationship between a lekton and its underlying body, confusing the
incorporeal with the attribute of a body (and the attribute really is bodily,
so if Seneca had the distinction right this argument would be an excellent
rebuttal of the Stoic view). Cooper (:oo: :8) is right that Senecas
arguments here are not orthodox and show that he lacks a full grasp of all
relevant aspects of the Stoic theory.
touch. See 1o6.8.
touches acts. There are two uncertainties in the mss here. First, some
mss repeat sine tactu in place of sine actu. The Loeb edition, therefore,
concludes that Nothing can be an attribute without an action, and what
rr++ra ++y :j
acts is a body is a mistaken scribal repetition of the previous sentence.
Second, assuming that this is not the case and that two distinct inferences
are being offered, many mss repeat corpus in both arguments, yielding the
translation what touches a body is a body and what acts on a body is a
body. The second uncertainty does not affect the sense signicantly. The
rst does, for it introduces a second argument. The argument based on the
claim that it takes a body to act is familiar from 1o6. and 11.z, though
the phrasing is different. On balance the text of Reynolds seems right.
11y.y Senecas rst argument has a dilemmatic structure: an attribute
of something is either inside it or outside it. If inside, it is an internal
attribute and so must be in contact with the whole of which it is a part. But
contact requires corporeality so the attribute is bodily too. Or it is outside,
in which case it must once have been inside, so it had to withdraw. In
that case it can move and so is bodily. Arguments about attributes which
might approach or withdraw from an object originate in one of Senecas
favourite Platonic dialogues, the Phaedo (see +o ff.).
11y.8q Here Seneca asserts the priority of moral categorization over
metaphysical. The very fact that the body and its corresponding attribute
are necessarily linked makes it unnecessary to emphasize metaphysical
distinctions (which have no consequences in terms of what they apply to
or the choices one makes on the basis of them) rather than moral groupings
(which do). He explicitly concedes that metaphysical distinctions are
genuine (so he does not deny the soundness of the Stoic theory). He
merely claims that since metaphysical distinctness does not determine
moral categories it is useless to invoke that form of distinctness in ethics.
And indeed that form of distinctness is not determinative of choice or
action. Or so, at least, an Aristonian Stoic could argue. The motivation
for retaining the distinction is clearly not ethical; so within ethics its
appropriateness is precariously determined by ones higher-level views
about how the parts of philosophy t together. For discussion of how the
parts of philosophical discourse are related to each other, see LS :A-D
and commentary, Brunschwig ++ and Ierodiakonou +. Senecas own
exploration of the issue is in 8q; his preference for avoiding excessive
analysis and too many subdivisions is a guiding principle (8q., 8q.1y).
11y.q Since everything is either good or bad or indifferent . In the
doxography of Stoic ethics preserved in Stobaeus, this three-way classi-
cation is the starting point (Ecl. :.jy). But the class which is divided
: cor++av
exhaustively by it is bodies (whatever participates in substance things
which are). This classication was not meant to include incorporeals,
so Senecas argument here seems to be based on a metaphysical misun-
derstanding. But it may not be a mere misunderstanding; it may be a
substantial disagreement. For this argument would be sound if the things
which are, i.e., whatever participates in substance were the highest
genus in ones ontology. Manifestly it is not for mainstream Stoics. But
in 8.1z1 Seneca has aligned himself with the view that what is is the
highest genusand if that were ones starting point then this argument
from elimination would have real force. In 8.1 Seneca maintains that
what is includes under it both incorporeals (like being wise) and bodies
(like wisdom). So if Seneca combines the canonical Stoic tripartition
(which holds that all things which are can be classed as good, bad or indif-
ferent) with his own metaphysical claims, he can legitimately ask which
of those three headings being wise falls under. If this is what he is doing
here, it remains the case that his argument is ineffective against the main-
stream Stoics, but it ceases to be a misunderstanding and can be diagnosed
instead as a conscious and quite interesting argumentative tactic.
11y.1o Seneca holds here that being an attribute must be a causal rela-
tionship. If it is, then on Stoic principles both relata must be bodies. This
text, then, shows that Seneca really does misunderstand the relationship
of lekta to their bodies, confusing it with that of qualities. For the standard
Stoic view on the metaphysical status of causes, see S. E. M. .:++ = LS
jjB and more generally LS jjA-G.
11y.111z The history of the metaphysically based categorization. The
Peripatetics are introducedas a foil for the erroneous position of the Stoics.
(Contrast the tendency to nd the Peripatetics in the wrong on substantial
matters of value theory in 8, 8y). The rigorous metaphysically based
classication is a relic of the early dialecticians inherited by Stoics (and
so, Seneca may be suggesting, not intrinsically Stoic). We might well ask
(withSeneca) why, evenallowing the reality of the metaphysical distinction
(challenged in 11y.1o), the moral categorization must line up with it?
The case of the eld and possessing the eld illustrates that there can be
a difference of this type which has no interesting moral consequences. As a
eld and its possessor are different, so too are wisdom and the wise person
(who possesses wisdom). The wise person and wisdom (which Seneca
properly characterizes as a mind made complete, that is, brought to its
highest and best condition and as the art of life cf. q.y and comment
rr++ra ++y :y
on 11y.16 below) are both bodily and so are analogous to the eld and
its possessor. But being wise is a predicate (as having the eld would
be) and so of a different order. The question is whether the difference
between the predicate and the body matters.
Being wise is here said to be a feature of such a mind (contingit) rather
than an attribute (accidens) of it. It is not clear what difference is supposed
to be captured by this terminological distinction.
11y.1 express the bodies. (enuntiativi corporum). This is a fairly clear
statement of the relationship between a body and the lekton which attends
upon it (see LS esp. C, D = M 8.yo, D.L. y.; also Acad. :.:+). The
claim is made that it makes an enormous difference whether you mention
the person or talk about the person. But Senecas concern in 11y.11 is
to ask, what kind of difference does it make? Why should every signicant
distinction one can make drive moral categorizations? This challenge is
designed to put the burden of proof on mainstream Stoics to show that
there is a signcant difference.
abstracted translates seductum. Separate in LS and distinct in the Bud e
seem too weak. The Loebs sundered is obscure but more robust. I
take it, though, that Seneca is reecting the Stoic doctrine that the lekton
expresses the content which is conveyed to a rational mind through a
physical object (the phantasia). Somehow we get the meaning out of the
experienceautomatically and unconsciously, but nevertheless as some
kind of abstractive process.
effatum, enuntiatum, dictum. Three attempts to render the Greek lekton
into Latin. Compare Cicero at Acad. :.j: quidquid enuntietur quod est
effatum. Varro (cited by Gellius at Noctes Atticae +.8) apparently used the
terms proloquium and profatum; at +.8.8 Gellius also tells us that Cicero
used the term pronuntiatum (Tusc. +.+.). Augustine in De Dialectica j
used the term dicibile (for which see Long :ooj: j:). Boethius seems
to have used enuntiatio (SVF :.:o+, in Arist. de Interpret., :). dictum,
mentioned here by Seneca, is an obvious translation, but it is not clear
who proposed it. Senecas point is that the metaphysical distinction is
real and signicant (so that there is no question of him not knowing it).
His point in 11y.11 is just that it wont make a relevant difference in
ethics. Support for this comes from challenging the applicability of the
analogy between wisdom and a eld.
11y.11 Seneca grants for the sake of argument the reality of the
Stoic distinction between body and predicate, though he formally reserves
:8 cor++av
judgement. The argument here is complex and comes in two parts. The
rst part admits of two interpretations. There are three things at play
in the analogy. The eld (F+), its possessor (F:) (both bodies) and the
predicate to possess a eld (F); wisdom (W+), its possessor (W:) (both
bodies) and the predicate being wise (W).
Seneca says rst that F+ is different from F because F+ and F: are of
a different nature, but that W+ and W: are of the same nature. From the
shared nature of W+ and W: we are to conclude that W+ is not necessarily
different from W.
What sense can we make of this? Cooper (:oo: :8o) gives a hesitant
analysis, but his criticism of the vulnerability of Senecas metaphysical
position is to the point (o+). In the following paragraphs I offer a
tentative alternative analysis of this very difcult passage.
Although F+ and F: are both bodies, they are physically distinct bodies
independent of each other. W+, though it is a body, is a component or
disposition of W:; they are both bodies but not independent of each other.
(See 1o6 and 11.) If this is what matters for the distinctions involving F
and W, the principle underlying it seems to be at least that the predicate
possessing X needs to be handled differently where X is independent
of the possessor. This seems reasonable. The possession of wisdom by
a wise person is internal and reexive in a way that the possession of
a eld by a landowner is not. The sages possession of wisdom is not
contingent as the landowners possession of the eld manifestly is. (Cato
can lose his elds but not his wisdom.) Hence there are signicant facts
about the eld situation that warrant recognition in verbally expressed
claims of difference and it makes sense to claim that a eld and having it
are differentsince one can lose it so easily. But it does not in the same
way make sense to claim that wisdom and having it are differenteven
though it may be true in some technical senseif only because (according
to Stoic theory) one cannot readily lose ones wisdom.
If this is the correct interpretation, thenthe phrase of the same/different
nature (which is expressed by two different Latin constructions, in +
ablative and the genitive of characteristic) uses natura in a particularly
concrete way. Another consequence of this interpretation is that the
apparently distinct argument of 11y.1 is fully anticipated in 11y.1.
It may, then, be preferable to interpret of the same nature differently:
of the same nature may refer to the moral categorization of the possessor
and the possessed (F+ and F:, W+ and W:). If the fact that the wise person
and wisdom are both good is what matters by making it pointless to claim
that being wise is different, then we still get good sense from 11y.1,
rr++ra ++y :
and 11y.1 can be interpreted as introducing a distinct and supplementary
point, that an external object can be lost while wisdom cannot. For a Stoic,
that would in fact be a consequence of the special standing of the internal
object, ones state of character.
11y.1 provides the material for another relevant distinction between
the eld and wisdom. Possession of the former is legal (iure), possession
of the other is natural (natura). (This is a version of the Greek contrast
of nomos and phusis.) This reinforces the point about the instability of
the one and the irreversibility of the other. 11y.1 concludes with a clear
assertion of the foundation for the shared goodness interpretation, that
since wisdomand the wise person are both good they are relevantly similar
and there is nothing to prevent us (i.e., it is reasonable to do so) from
claiming that being wise is good in just the same way.
11y.16 not worth accepting if it is not exercised. Compare 6..
wisdom is the condition of a mind brought to completion. Virtues are
dispositions of the mind (or the mind itself in a certain disposition, as at
11y.1z: wisdom is a mind made complete, that is, brought to its highest
and best condition). See I. Hadot +: +oj and 66.6, 11 with comments.
11y.161y then follows up on the claimthat the moral quality of wisdom
and the wise person makes it pointless (or worse) to exclude being wise
from the designation good. This argument for the goodness of being
wise is based on a form of teleological reasoning, as follows.
The purpose of being a wise person is to be wise. That is, wisdom as a
state of the soul has a telos expressed as the characteristic activity, being
wise. Without such an activity, wisdom would not be worth having (even
a Stoic would not want wisdom if it had to be completely unused). The
most valuable thing about any teleologically dened state is its goal, for
without it the state is superuous. (Analogies are the eyes, which would be
pointless if they could not see, and eloquence, which would be pointless
if one never spoke in public.) This resembles consequentialist reasoning,
and the analogy with torture reinforces this appearance: it wouldnt be
bad if you eliminated the consequences. But if that is what Seneca has
in mind it is a muddle, for the goal of an activity does not give it value in
the way that consequences do.
Yet there is clearly some confusion or complexity in this argument,
an understanding of which will affect our sense of its cogency. For the
oo cor++av
relationship between being wise and wisdom is not strictly analogous
to that between seeing and the eyes or between speaking and eloquence.
It is possible to have eyes but not see; one can be eloquent but legally
barred from public speaking. In those cases the capacity is pointless and
Seneca is right to say that the use of the capacity is the source of the
value of the capacity itself. In these cases it is perfectly possible to have
the capacity and to lack the activity. But wisdom does not stand in this
relationship to being wise, since one cannot, on the Stoic theory, have
wisdom without being wise. Being wise (the use of wisdom) is not some
distinguishable activity carried out in virtue of the mental disposition; it is
the expression of just having that disposition. Someone who has wisdom
can be completely inactive on any overt and physical plane and still be
wise and so use wisdom but it is in a different sense of use than
what we have in mind when we use our eyes to see or use our eloquence
to speak.
Two kinds of argument are being blended, rhetorically and perhaps
uncritically. In one, being wise is so tightly connected to wisdom that
it is inconceivable that one have wisdom without being wise. In this
case it would seem silly to deny that being wise is good; for in fact
they are always found together. In the other, being wise is considered
as a distinguishable pattern of activity made possible by wisdom and
so giving wisdom its value. The latter argument is operative when the
Stoics are made to agree that they would not choose wisdom if they
could not use it by being wise. But for a Stoic that is a conceptual
impossibility, since inert wisdom is inconceivable in a way that unseeing
eyes are not. To see the difference this observation makes, consider what
a Stoic might say if it were possible to have wisdom but not use it.
What would that mean? If the use of wisdom were some overt pattern
of activity which might be absent even when one had a wise state of
soul, as would be the case if the use of wisdom had to be expressed
in practical reasoning as a legislator, citizen, etc. or as a contemplative
reasonerfor many people are barred from such activities by their
external circumstancesif the use of wisdom were that sort of thing then
it could be absent even if one had the disposition in ones soul. But if that
were so, why would a Stoic reject wisdom that is doomed to be unused?
Would one not want to have the intellectual and emotional resources to be
happy even amidst such deprivation and constraint? Of course one would.
Seneca can only portray the Stoic as saying that he or she would reject
wisdom if unused because such a prospect is in fact inconceivable. To
imagine not using wisdom is to imagine not having it. Hence the analogy
rr++ra ++y o+
with true teleological relationships between activities and dispositions is
feeble.
Yet the argument has some persuasive force despite this aw, just
because the relationship between wisdom and being wise is analytic and
Seneca has already argued that it is pointless to deny the predicate good
to being wise on the merely metaphysical grounds that it is the wrong sort
of entity (being a predicate). This prior argument is part of the appeal;
the false analogy (which is appealing until challenged in the dialectical
exchange) is another part. But an even greater part of the appeal may
also be the echoes of the Socratic use argument. Since virtue (of which
wisdom is one instance) is the one thing that cannot be used badly, it is
attractive to cast the argument in terms of use, which has a venerable and
authoritatively Socratic ring to it.
Seneca is making a point about the absence of extensional and
behavioural difference in contrast to the (admitted) fact of metaphys-
ical difference. This is the appropriate claim to concentrate on. The
Stoicism in play here is different from Chrysippus and perhaps not as
carefully supported by argument (though we cannot compare them on
this point since we do not have Chrysippus argument, only the sum-
mary statement of his position). But it is not markedly inferior from the
point of view of moral choice nor is it clear that the distinctions which
might be needed for physics are fundamental to ethics. An Aristoni-
an Stoica more Socratic Stoiccould hold up his head in his own
philosophical circles while making these claims, despite the preference
for Chrysippean Stoicism which we tend to have. Cooper says correct-
ly that moral improvement requires a deep intellectual commitment to
its rational foundations; on p. + he rightly observes that one reason
for having a sound theory worked out is to ensure its stability over
time. But he does not show that the limits on how much metaphysi-
cal and dialectical detail one needs lie precisely where Chrysippus or
Zeno put them. Like Aristo, Seneca challenges that assumption. (And
not even Aristotle thinks that there are no limitshe more than any
ancient philosopher concedes that there are limits on how much detail
is relevant to ethics; see EN +.+, ++o:a:y, b:j, on the structure of
the soul.)
11y.18zq For the self-correction, cf. 1o8.. This section represents
Senecas detachment fromthe preceding technicality and his more detailed
consideration of what is really useful in philosophy. To motivate the
detachment from the technical discussion (to which he has devoted
o: cor++av
considerable space), he generalizes in 11y.18 about the common moral
judgements made of things which are the same in kind but different
only in their metaphysical status. The examples heat, cold, and life are
reminiscent of the Phaedo, where the trio of objects discussed from the
point of view of Socrates causal theory is hot, cold, and soul (as principle
of life). These examples conrmthat the main point Seneca wants to make
in 11y.111 concerns de facto separability.
11y.1q Even if The concessive wording suggests that the principal
use of wisdom should be practical and relevant to the quality of ones
life. A digression or diversion from such purely serious use of wisdom
will, nevertheless, be of some use. Even though cosmology is not directly
relevant to character formation, it is still relevant in that it enhances the
mind, uplifts it, and trains it. The allegation is that metaphysical subtlety
has no such positive impact (in contrast to cosmology)so Seneca is
prepared to argue for the distinction between some non-ethical studies
and others. He does not, then, hold a purely Aristonian position, but one
open to some parts of physics. For this view of the utility of cosmological
reection, see e.g., 6.1, 1qzz, y.zo, 88.11,z8,6, NQ +, esp. pref.
+:, +y (recalling that the work is dedicated to Lucilius), ad Helviam :o
and De Otio j.
you people refers most likely to members of his own school. It is not
clear whether Lucilius is meant to be included.
11y.zo A pragmatic challenge to the utility of the metaphysical dis-
tinction. Seneca would roll the dice about which he got (wisdom or
being wise). Since they are necessarily concomitant, if they are dis-
tinct, he can bet with no risk. Seneca does not, even now, claim that
the distinction is false (though he hints at such a claim). Compare
8.1 for a similar pragmatic challenge. The questions What good
will it do me ? are clearly rhetorical questions. Anyone who had
read the letter to this point would take the questions as equivalent
to the claim that it does not matter which he got (wisdom or being
wise) precisely on the basis of Senecas own theory. Seneca does not
claim (contra Cooper :oo: +) that it does not matter which theo-
ry (the mainstream Stoic theory or Senecas revision) is true. Rather,
Seneca is claiming on the basis of his own theory that it does not
matter whether one possesses wisdom or being wise. For 11y. see
below.
rr++ra ++y o
11y.z1 Seneca illustrates the issues on which wisdom is properly
expended (not the digressive use of cosmology sketched above). Moral
training (character formation) is central; pursuit and avoidance (i.e.,
practical choice), the acquisition of wisdom, and the management of
passions amidst misfortune andgoodfortune alike, andthe proper handling
of ones own mortalitythis is a typical Senecan sketch of the main issues
in practical ethics and the conclusion with a consideration of death is
particularly characteristic. On death see, e.g., yo.1, yy.1z and my general
discussion in Natural Law in Seneca and Seneca on Freedom and
Autonomy, ch. 8 and ch. ++ of Inwood :ooj.
11y.z you are asking for what is already yours i.e., you are wishing
for something which is fully within your power; hence asking for it is
madness.
extremely shameful. It is not clear whether these days refers to the time
when Seneca read this exordium or whether (as the word order suggests)
the shamefulness is particularly acute at the time of writing this letter.
If we think of Seneca as mounting a rigourist protest against current
decadent trends, this interpretation is preferable. If we take these days
as the time when Seneca read this exordium then we should translate legi
as I have been reading to maintain the appropriate sense of immediacy.
water, earth, air. It is possible that by spiritus Seneca means pneuma
rather than ordinary air.
11y.zz is presentedas anexample of howone canargue about attitudes
to death. It is at the same time a sharp-tongued piece of social comment on
the hypocrisy of a professional orator. The kind of posturing often called
for in such a practice is fundamentally at odds with the critical application
of moral thinking which Stoicism in all of its versions recommends.
See, however, the description of ethically sound rhetoric at 1o8.1z1,
where the discourse of Senecas former teacher Attalus is contrasted with
ambiguities, syllogisms, sophisms, and the other frivolities of pointlessly
sharp wits. Compare also 1oz.zo.
11y.z6 Sharp contrast between serious questions and mere amuse-
ments. 11y.z6 shows the acute concern with the reputation Stoics get for
frivolity. Is this a real concern for Stoics in Senecas time and place? Barnes
+y argues that the concerns expressed by Seneca and Epictetus about
o cor++av
logical frivolity are a reection of the tenor of philosophical activity in the
schools at the time. Surely this is sothere is certainly no reason to doubt
the evidence of Senecas own complaints. So Senecas resistance to such
technical frivolity marks him as a kind of pragmatic rigouristsurely
a reputable enough stance within any intellectual movement. Attalus
(1o8.1) is surely one model for Seneca in this regard, but Aristo is
another.
11y.z toy weapons. See 8.1, 8z.z.
11y.z6q Seneca offers as a parallel case an equally questionable tech-
nical quaestio about the reality of future goods. The way to resolve it is
presented as being obvious, as indeed it is. The mere fact of futurity
establishes the absence of the attribute in the present. Like the quaestio
of this letter, it deals with a topic of moral importance in a morally
insignicant way as a mere exercise of the intellect. In 11y.zq this issue is
brought back to the moral sphere.
11y.o The pressures of time help us to understand what is genuinely
important business and what is a waste of our time. Our own behaviour is
offered up as evidence of our true sense of priorities. In considering how
we waste our limited time in leisure (iuvat magis quam prodest), Seneca
concludes with a powerful statement of the practical goal of philosophy as
a form of cure or treatment.
For checkers latrunculi as a symbol for unserious activity, see
1o6.11. The counterfactual examples in 11y.o have an amusing edge to
them, which contributes to the power of the passage (see Grant :ooo: :j).
11y.z That health, business etc. are mere time-occupiers is a common
(and credible) theme. See qq.11.
11y. Being tied down or held back (detinere) with mere words about
wisdom (rather than deeds) evokes the common contrast between logoi
and erga and also recalls Senecas diagnosis of how mainstream Stoics got
themselves into this difcult position: in 11y.6 he says that they are held
back (teneri) by their initial commitments. The metaphor of being bound
to a philosophical position seems to be a live one in this letter.
Here Seneca does say that it does not matter which theory is true, the
mainstream Stoic view or his own (see on 11y.zo above and Cooper :oo:
+), but this is a rhetorical gesture. In fact, Seneca has made it quite clear
rr++ra ++y oj
in the body of the letter that he thinks that his own theory is true, and he
has already taken the view (11y.zo), relying on his theory, that it makes
no difference whether one possesses wisdom or is wise just because they
are both good. The expression of indifference here at the end of the letter
is clearly hyperbole.
superior to fortune. Cf. 66.6, Brev. Vit. j.
GROUP j
LETTERS ++8+:
The nal group of letters consists of Book :o of the collection. The unity of
this group, then, is different fromthat in Groups +, which were selected
on thematic grounds. It is useful to have one example of the literary unity
represented by Senecas inclusion of these letters in a single book; see
Introduction pp. xii-xv, xxi-xxiii. Even the letters in Book :o which
might not have been included on philosophical grounds alone provide
valuable context for some of the most important philosophical letters of
the collection (1zo, 1z1, 1z) as well as 118. Despite the importance of the
grouping by book, there is nevertheless an important thematic connection
between the theme of the good in 11y and 118, which in turn anticipates
themes in 1zo, 1z1, and 1z.' For the theme of the nature of the good, see
also 66, y1, and esp. y6.1.
Commentary on ++8
I have been unable to obtain E. G. Schmidt, Der ..S. Brief Senecas. Eine
Studie zur Polemik zwischen Stoa und Peripatos, (Diss. Leipzig, +j8) but
his important research is represented by two articles, Schmidt +o and
Schmidt +y.
Thematic division
+: An example of howone can write morally signicant letters
about apparent trivialities.
jy: The bad consequences in our lives of not knowing what
the good is.
8: Various denitions of the good. Its attractive qualities and
its normativity are both necessary to a proper account of
the good. Honestum and good must be connected.
' See Schmidt +y: .
rr++ra ++8 oy
+o++: Relationship between honourable and good claried. In
effect, the perfection built in to honestum marks off good
strictly speaking from good in a loose sense.
+:+y: The relationship between what is good and what is accord-
ing to nature. Natural in a broad sense and natural in
the narrow sense. The role of magnitude in this and the
peculiar linkage of it to growth and transformation.
The central philosophical theme of this letter is the identication and
explication of the Stoic conception of the good in contrast primarily to
several alternative conceptions of it, especially those associated with the
Peripatetic/Academic position known best from Fin. j (though found
elsewhere in Cicero, especially in his reports about Antiochus (e.g., De
Legibus +.jj). Seneca at 118.1z accepts as his basic Stoic denition the
same formulation as Cicero adopted at Fin. . (that of Diogenes of
Babylon), and goes on to explore what we can recognize as difculties in
the Stoic position (as he also does in 1zo). Hence it is natural to see it in the
context of Senecas general preoccupation with the issues of Ciceros De
Finibus. His philosophical and literary rivalry with Cicero seems to peak
in this book of the letters, with explicit allusions to the Letters to Atticus
(the most important literary target for Senecas ambitions) and repeated
concern for problems raised, at times implicitly, in the De Finibus. Note
also that qy makes use of Letters to Atticus +.+. For further comment on
Senecas engagement with Cicero here, see Ker :oo:: +y888.
118.1 On the demand for more frequent letters, see also 8.1.
Ciceros Letters to Atticus +.+: is a typically informal note fromCicero to
his intimate friend. The reason it came to Senecas mind is almost certainly
the concluding remarks made by Cicero to Atticus. After saying that he has
nothing more to write to Atticus, that he was in fact extremely upset while
writing, not least because of the death of a Greek servant (Sositheus, his
reader), he continues, Id like you to write me often; if you have nothing
[to say], just write whatever comes into your head. But Seneca says that it
is Lucilius who has been asking for more frequent letterswhich would
appear to cast Lucilius in the role of Cicero (upset and asking for more
letters) and Seneca in the role of Atticus (not distraught and expected to
write to his friend to cheer himup). This, of course, Seneca does. In Letters
to Atticus +.+ Cicero notes that he has just received three letters from
Atticus in the intervening twenty-ve days (between New Years Day and
o8 cor++av
January :j), all sent during his journey from Rome to Brundisium to take
ship. Atticus, then, performed his duty as a friend and so will Seneca.
The events which caused Cicero such upset were partly domestic (the
death of Sositheus, to which Cicero admits he has a disproportionate
response) and partly political. The elections at issue for Cicero were
hardly trivial in the politics of the late Republic, and he even mentions the
late-breaking scandal involving Clodius desecration of the festival of the
Bona Deaa scandal of great political moment. See How and Clark +:,
vol. :: y (on Letters to Atticus +.+.). The scandal was very recent
(it probably took place in early December : when Clodius had already
been elected quaestor and +.+:, written + January +, must be the earliest
reference to it). Yet all of this is dismissed by Seneca (for whose society
elections had become a genuine irrelevance) in 118.z. He begins with a
reminiscence of the rapacity of Caecilius (Letters to Atticus +.+:.+) in 118.z
and ends with a comparison of Ciceros enemy Vatinius with Ciceros
friend (and Senecas hero) Cato; the comparison is used to illustrate the
ultimate irrelevance of fortuna and what it controls (118., cf. Vatinius in
1zo.1q, where the point is consistency of character).
118.z Seneca, unlike Cicero, has no trouble nding something to write
about (here Cicero is regarded not as the friend asking for consolatory
trivia but as the author of letters lled with political trivia). His superiority
to Cicero is thus claimed explicitly, though only by way of admitting his
own failings (ones own faults cf. 68.6q).
118. Electoral activity becomes a metaphor for all of ones anxious
engagement with events governed by fortuna. The politically admirable
man is one who does not canvass for support when running for ofce,
content to rely on his merits alone; the admirable person in life as a whole
is one who asks for no support from fortuna and is similarly content to rely
on his merits alone. The comparison with Platos Socrates (who in the
Apology professed to reject any reliance on the support of rhetorical tools
and of his friends and family when defending himself on a capital charge)
cannot be missed, especially when Cato is introduced as a foil for Vatinius,
a notoriously manipulative election campaigner. That a villain can win in
the contests of fortune while a good person loses (as also happened with
Socrates) is proof, for Seneca, that anything which is a hostage to fortune
cannot really count in life. Some think that Plato responded to Socrates
political failure by articulating the kind of utopia in which the wise person
could be a successful citizen; quite possibly the Stoic Republic of Zeno and
rr++ra ++8 o
Chrysippus had a similar purpose. Like Plato, Seneca dismisses the actual
politics of his own society as a hopeless environment for the truly good
person.
118. This is meant to remind the reader of the proem of book : of
Lucretius On the Nature of Things: suave mari magno. The things looked
down on here include electoral striving, wealth, and military activity. I
am sceptical about Kers attempt to connect the language of watching
here with the

oria and a Senecan exploration of the signicance of the bios

the

or

etikos (Ker :oo:: +88).

no business with you, fortune. Cf. De Vita Beata :j.j.
reduce fortune to the ranks. More literally, to make fortune private.
To be private is to hold no ofcial rank, civil or military. Hence an
ordinary citizen or common soldier are both private in this sense. Seneca
is here invoking both senses, and perhaps one might translate this is what
it means to kick fortune out of ofce which would work better with the
political metaphors in play so far in the letter.
118.y These sections describe the pitiable condition of people who
misunderstand the nature of the good because they rely on gossip, or
popular opinion, rumores. It is the remoteness of things (ex intervallo)
from our assessing minds which leads to their misevaluation. This might
remind us of the art of measurement in Platos Protagoras jy.
118. public contract. This presumably refers to a tax collection
contract, one of the most lucrative opportunities for businessmen in
Romes overseas empire.
118.y false report. Stoics identiedtwo maincauses of moral corruption
(diastroph

e) among rational animals who possess soundnatural inclinations:

the persuasiveness of external things and the erroneous opinions of ones
fellow humans (D.L. y.8). Seneca here alludes to the second of these.
See inter alia the reference to the populi praecepta at q.z. (I am grateful
to Margaret Graver for discussion of this point.)
118.8 This is an unusually explicit statement of the motivation for a
quaestio (NB quaeramus). Avoidance of moral harm is the goal of learning
what the good truly is. Since the good is tied very closely to benet in
Socratic and Stoic theory, this is unsurprising but nonetheless noteworthy.
+o cor++av
118.81z A series of denitions of the good and objections. Schmidt
+y surveys the previous history of such denitions in the Greek tradi-
tion and, using the familiar assumptions of traditional Quellenforschung,
attempts to locate the Greek source or sources for Senecas discussion
here. Such reasoning is too precarious to yield reliable conclusions; in
particular, the assumption that there was a close translation from a Greek
source into the detailed wording of Senecas Latin exerts excessive inu-
ence on his weighing of possible Greek sources. Hence he rejects quite
sensible suggestions about the inuence of Cicero (Fin. ) on Senecas
discussion on the grounds that it is not supported by sufciently exact
textual comparisons (genaue Textvergleiche). Despite the limitations
of an outdated methodology, Schmidt provides a thorough survey of
potentially relevant evidence on the denition of the good; his discussion
demonstrates, at the very least, that Seneca was closely familiar with the
complexities of various school traditions and that he was concerned to
allude to that technical material in his own discussion. Exact tracing of
Senecas inspiration is probably impossible (as with 8 and 6) but his use
here of philosophical technicality ts well with his general strategy.
Seneca has interesting remarks on the possibility of different formu-
lations of one basic idea at De Vita Beata , esp. .+: our good can also
be dened differently, that is, the same view can be expressed in words
which are not the same. Here, none of these denitions exactly reects
the standard set of Stoic denitions of good in terms of benet (DL y.
ff., Ecl. :.yo, S. E. M. ++.::). Cicero (Fin. .) adopts Diogenes
of Babylons denition: the good is what is perfect by nature, natura
absolutum but recognizes denitions cast in terms of benet. But the point
below about secundam naturam does pick up the teleion kata phusin logikou
h

os logikou (D.L. y.). Despite the unsupported dismissal by Schmidt

(+y: yy: Cicero der freilich nicht etwa Senecas Vorlage ist!) Cicero is
probably the proximate reference point for Senecas discussion here.
118.8 begins with the claim that the good is what motivates us to pursue
it. That is, the good is thought of simply as a formal object of human
pursuit or desire. The objection is obvious and based on the situation
Seneca has described in 118.6there are many things which attract
us but nevertheless harm us, especially if we are uncritical. So one must
specify that a good be a true good. But there is as yet no criterion for
genuineness.
In 118.q essentially the same formulation is repeated with the addition
of some technical jargon from Stoic action theory (appetitio, impetus animi)
rr++ra ++8 ++
standing in the place of the non-technical invitat in the rst denition.
This formulation is subject to essentially the same objection. We might
well ask, then, what the point of this repetition is. Perhaps to stress that
the progress we might make in understanding the good does not come
from a reformulation in philosophical jargon (no matter how authoritative
the source might be) of an unsatisfactory basic idea.
The successful denition is the one which invokes nature and the
Stoic distinction between mere pursuit and successful pursuit. That the
criterion of genuineness (note the emphasis on verum bonum above) should
be the natural is what we expect of a Stoic. Although we might also
like to have some detail here, Seneca is presupposing a reasonable grasp
of Stoicism in his readers; indeed, readers who have persevered through
1o6, 11, 11y would obviously be a suitable audience for this letter. At
this point all we get is the contrast between what is according to nature
and what is a matter of mere popular opinion. There is nothing new or
interesting about this contrast of nature and convention.
The contrast between petendum and expetendum, though, is consequen-
tial. I translate expetendum as choiceworthy in the belief that the Greek
term haireton lies behind it, as has been long recognized; see the glossary
in volume of SVF. The term choiceworthy is properly applied only
to the good and not to indifferents (see Inwood +8j: ch. ), whereas
petendum seems to pick out the objects of selection and rejection (eklog

e
and apeklog

e, selectio). But Senecas explanation here of the relationship

petere and expetere makes a very particular claim about the relationship
between ordinary pursuit of things and choice: what is expetendum is
perfecte petendum, as though it were a renement or perfection of pursuit
which constitutes choice rather than a pursuit of a different kind of object.
Compare the analysis of selection and choice in Inwood +8j: ch. .
118.1o11 Since Seneca has introduced obliquely the contrast between
the objects of mere pursuit and the object of choice, between indifferents
and the good, it is reasonable for him to reect on the difference. He does
so in less than technical language, by discussing the relationship between
what is good and what is honourable (the bonum and the honestum). In
Stoicism the terms would normally be synonymous or at the very least
extensionally equivalent: only the honourable is good. hoti monon to kalon
agathon kata Plat

ona was the title of a book by Antipater and the doctrine

is as old as Stoicismindeed, it is a fundamental difference between
Stoic and Peripatetic moral theory; see also Cicero, Fin. .:y for the proof
that the good is honourable and D.L. y.+oo for the doctrine that what
+: cor++av
is perfectly good is honourable. The good itself is dened in terms of
the genuine benet it brings (see e.g., Ecl. :., Sextus Empiricus, M.
++.::, D.L. y.).
What Seneca does here is to treat good as conceptually dependent
on the honourable. There are some things which are indifferenthis
examples are all political, echoing the scenario for the letter: military,
diplomatic, and judicial service. They are only properly called good if
they are pursued honourably (and in that sense are honourable)that
is, it is their honestas which plays the role of cause and criterion for
genuine goodness. Their goodness is portrayed as a result of honestas. Yet
since the two terms are extensionally equivalent, what is the point of this
emphasis? Perhaps the point is primarily epistemological. The nature of
what is good (as opposed to preferred) is a question open to debate among
right-thinking people, but no one participating in this debate (and no one
who holds conventional moral views) doubts the status of honestas. Hence
when trying to sort out the status of a positive value it is no use to invoke
good as a decisive factorthat would be petitio principii, since the issue is
whether the positive value in question is a preferred indifferent or a good.
(We might think of electoral success, as Seneca does in this letter: it is in
fact a preferred indifferent, like other forms of social success, but might
well be confused with a genuine good). Instead, one must look to honestas.
Hence we ask whether Cato or Vatinius is being honestus to answer the
question about the status of electoral success. So in this epistemological
sense good ows from [can be inferred from] the honourable.
But does honestas also play a genuinely causal role? That is, if one
assumes that the debate is over and that we are operating wholly within
a rened Stoic framework for moral language, would honestum still have
an appropriate kind of priority? Seneca seems unmistakably to be saying
yes, but it is not clear to me that he is right to do so. It seems as though
he cannot quite get free of his imagined dialectical and polemical setting.
The divergence from a more standard form of Stoicism (for which see
qz.111) comes out clearly at the end of 118.11, where Seneca says that
what is good could have been badand that is true just in the sense that
the particular indifferent which is, in the case before us, good might (if
honestas were absent) have been bad. So it is not good as such which
might have been bad but the indifferent which in a particular context turns
out to be good. If the term honestum were treated in the same way (as a
predicate applied to a particular indifferent) then the same thing would be
true of it; for honestum does have a broad, non-Stoic sense as well (it refers
to social standing and respectability as well as to moral neness). Hence
rr++ra ++8 +
to make sense of the contrast here we have to assume that Seneca is using
honestum only in a special and narrowly Stoic sense when he treats it as
the cause of good things being good. At the same time he is using good
in both a broad and a narrowly Stoic sense. This is not strictly justiable
in normal Stoic moral theory. But it is strongly reminiscent of the way
Plato, in the Meno (88de), treats phron

esis (a virtue) as what makes other

goods good in virtue of the way it uses those other things. In qz.111
Seneca makes it clear that in the selection of a preferred indifferent the
factor which is virtuous is the proper choice of the indiffferent: it is our
actions which are honourable, not the objects of our actions. I thank
Marta Jimenez for helpful discussion on this point.
118.1o happy life. See also De Vita Beata ..
118.1z The fourth denition: the good is what is according to nature.
The objection this time is posed by Seneca. Natural is a term of wider
extensionthanis appropriate for a denitionof the good, since it also covers
preferred indifferents. Seneca expresses the contrast between preferreds
and goods as a matter of scale, a matter of size. Yet, as 118.1 makes clear
(and as is normal Stoic doctrine), the good is in fact qualitatively different
from the preferred, so that there is a deeper difference between natural in
its two senses than can be captured just by the notion magnitude. (As
Seneca puts it in 118.1, how can two things which share a crucial feature,
naturalness, also be distinguished by an essential difference?) Hence
the notion of completeness invoked in 118.1z ought to involve something
conceptually richer. In 1zo and 1z Seneca distinguishes goodness relative
to a species and absolute goodness (for which see also S. E. M. .+o),
as he did in y6 (see on y6.y11), and Cicero in Fin. . also contrasts
differences of kind and differences of degree. See also De Legibus +.jj, De
Natura Deorum +.+, and the acute remarks of Barnes +8: 88.
But in 118.1 Seneca argues that scale can introduce qualitative differ-
ence, that there are qualitative discontinuities which are determined solely
by scale. He gives us an example where the quantity is supposed to make a
difference. The quantity is age and the difference is between non-rational
and rational status. Is this merely a bit of ad hoccery? It is certainly
reasonable to entertain the notion that differences of scale can generate
differences of quality. Certain teleological processes might well work this
way, if the goal of a normative or natural size is reached by quantitative
increments. Supposing that (say) six feet is the natural height of an adult
male, the addition of the nal inch in height completes the man in the way
+ cor++av
that the inch of growth that took him to ve feet in height did not. Cicero
uses the idea of quantitative change yielding qualitative change on behalf
of the Stoics (Fin. .j), Seneca invokes it crucially in 66.1qzo, and
the Stoic theory of complete mixture seems to entail it (a small enough
drop of wine in the Aegean Sea will be qualitatively converted). Morever,
the notion can still be regarded as coherent. See Gould :oo:: :+: A
sufcient difference in quantity translates to what we call difference in
quality ipso facto, just as the Stoics said. Schmidt +o examines Senecas
claims about quantity-quality transformations at some length against the
background of earlier Greek philosophy (especially paradoxes such as
the sorites and the bald man) and in the light of Hegels interest in
the phenomenon.
However, the plausibilityof Senecas positionhere (118.11) depends
on specifying a special set of objects (certain things quaedam) for which
this is true, but in 118.1 the opponent successfully introduces examples
which dont work this way. Should this bother Seneca? Is he being
arbitrary? That depends on whether one can accept his examples as
apposite and see something non-arbitrary about them. Age in 118.1
is the rst example, for which compare perhaps 1z.q1o; similarly,
1z1 presents a detailed account of the natural growth of a human from
non-rational to rational status. In 118.16 he invokes the keystone of
an arch (an example which might well be viewed as being teleological
like many other craft products). In 118.1y he shifts ground slightly and
introduces examples of how a conceptual discontinuity can occur during
quantitative extensionbut both innity and atomicity are idealizations
and so hardly decisive. But they are apt examples, both, as Mitsis has
pointed out, of interest to an Epicurean (whose world consists of atoms
and the innite void); the account of innity ought to be acceptable also to
a Stoic, a mathematician or an Aristotelian. This perhaps points forward
to the more Epicurean atmosphere of 11q, just as the interest here in the
need for extrapolation and projection in concept formation points to the
epistemological themes of 1zo.
But despite Senecas ingenuity in generating candidate parallels, the
examples all tend to show that it is not just scale which explains qualitative
change. In none of these cases is it merely a matter of more-on-the-same-
scale. There are key biological changes independent of the passing of years.
The keystone plays a unique role in completing the sequence; it is not just
the last of the stones in the arch, as is suggested by Senecas reference to
completing the arch in 118.16. And mental projection involves, I would
say, a leap of the imagination. Seneca, who may well have been attempting
rr++ra ++ +j
to justify in more detail the suggestions of Cicero in Fin. .j, has failed
to justify the claim that difference in scale can constitute the right sort of
difference in kind.
118.16 lls it up i.e., completes it by lling in the otherwise empty
space.
118.1y uncuttable i.e., atomic.
Commentary on ++
Thematic division
+: Philosophical investment advice: true wealth depends on
recognizing the natural limits of desire.
y+o: Objections and rebuttal. Alexander the Great is not a role
model.
+++: We are deceived by conventional values.
++: Natural simplicity and the ready fullment of genuine
desires.
See the helpful discussion by Albrecht :oo: j+.
11q.1 The letters theme is set up by a play on commercial-scale
lending. Seneca, like most Roman aristocrats, was constantly involved in
the lending and borrowing of money (as for election expenses in 118.z), so
the metaphor comes readily to mind in a variety of contexts (compare 8y.y
on borrowing from fortune). Here the metaphor plays a pervasive role in
the letter.
11q.z famous phrase of Cato. This is the Elder Cato, the Censor who
was famous for his maxims full of homely advice and wisdom(also featured
in 8y.q1o). To borrow from oneself can be sound nancial practice in
some economies (we might think of it as nancing expansion out of
retained earnings instead of raising capital in the bond market). Senecas
emphasis here is on self-sufciency with regard to ones desires; hence the
attraction of this comparison to nancial self-sufciency.
For the transvaluing of wealth, see also 1., z.6, 1y, zo, 8y, 11o, Tranq.
An. 8, Ben. y.+, etc. The Stoic paradox that only the wise person is
rich reects similar doctrines. See, e.g., Cicero, Paradoxa Stoicorum .
+ cor++av
The main thesis of the present letter, that natures needs are few and that
self-sufciency is easily achieved, is common to Stoics and Epicureans (as
Seneca is well aware, .1o, 16.1o, zy.q), and indeed to other schools as well;
cf. Stilpo at q.18zo as a non-Stoic paradigm of self-sufciency whose
views are shared with Stoicism (Epicurus is presented, polemically, as a
critic of Stilpo). But for most of the present letter the atmosphere is more
Epicurean (though this changes at 11q.1). The nal sentence emphasizes
the connection between simplicity and autonomy (again, reected in the
commercial metaphor with which the letter begins). 11q urges a greater
degree of self-sufciency than Seneca portrays himself as having achieved
in 8y. The inuence of the proem to book : of Lucretius DRN (esp. lines
+j8) is evident.
Two substantial claims are made in this section. The rst is that there
is no signicant difference between not feeling the lack of something and
possessing it. In one sense this is clearly false. To desire a glass of beer
and have one right at hand is a quite different situation from not desiring
a beer at all (whether or not one is available). Seneca is encouraging his
readers to focus not on the differences between the two situations but
on what they have in common, the absence of unsatised desire, a state
characterized by anguish or severe mental unease. The second claim is
that ones natural desires are implacable (that one cannot be content if they
are unfullled) but minimal (cf. 1y.q). The fullment of desires beyond
this minimum requires collaboration from sources outside oneself but is
fortunately not a necessity.
Together these claims yield an essentially Epicurean theory. See Letter
to Menoeceus +:y:. The Principal Doctrines are more succinct. KD ::
Of desires, some are natural <and necessary, some natural> and not
necessary, and some are neither natural nor necessary but are a product
of baseless opinion. A scholiast adds: Epicurus thinks that the desires
which free us from pains are natural and necessary, as does drink when
we are thirsty; the natural and not necessary are those which merely vary
our pleasure but do not remove the pain, such as expensive foods; those
which are neither natural nor necessary are [for things like] crowns and
the dedication of statues. Crowns were awarded for athletic victories, as
honoric recognition for civic services, as a mark of civic ofce, etc. and
so seem to stand for a wide range of social honours. (Cf. KD :, o). The
anguish which results from the failure to full a desire is a disturbance
that can be avoided if one limits ones desires to those which are natural,
necessary and easily satised with minimal resources; in this respect, then,
one can easily be free of disturbance and so attain the Epicurean goal of
rr++ra ++ +y
life (ataraxia). As Epicurus says at KD :+, the person who knows the
limits of life realizes that the things which eliminate the pain which comes
from want and make ones entire life complete are easy to acquire; hence
there is no need for things accompanied by competition. Cf. Sent. Vat.
(the cry of the esh is not to be hungry, not to be thirsty, not to be
cold) where esh stands for the minimal demands of nature.
Hence 11qs emphasis on the easy fullment of desire suitably accom-
panies 118s dismissive attitude towards the strivings of electoral politics
(note the allusion to Lucretius at 118.).
The Epicurean strain of this letter is unmistakable and surely inten-
tional, and Seneca has already employed Epicurus revisionist denition
of wealth in the letters (.1o, 16.y, zy.q); but Phillip Mitsis has urged
(in private discussion) that this not be overemphasized. The emphasis
here is on desire satisfaction rather than on pleasure; the positive value of
pleasure seems to be absent from the letter. The Epicurean ideas here are
given a particularly ascetic interpretation. It is also important to bear in
mind that nothing in this letter is not also compatible with Stoicism and
indeed the principal ideas of 11q could have been expressed without the
Epicurean trappings; q. invokes traditional proverbs in support of the
same ideas. Although Senecas explicit references to Epicurus diminish
in the second half of the collection of letters, it would be misleading to
claim that Seneca structures the letters around a development away from
Epicureanism.
11q. The claim that ones natural physical constitution is indifferent
to the way hunger and thirst are satised is important to Senecas case,
but it is certainly not an uncontentious claim. That there is a dramatic
devotion to culinary superuity in many cultures is beyond question.
But that natures wants are as simple and unconditional as Seneca and
the Epicureans thought seems false, at least with the wisdom of modern
nutritional science at our disposal. For bread and water as true wealth,
compare 11o.18 (substituting polenta for bread); for the irrelevance of the
cup, see y6.1.
In this letter Seneca focusses solely on the claim that the natural
desires are minimal. In effect, he concentrates on that set of desires which
Epicurus classied as natural and necessary. The existence of natural and
necessary desires for things which would provide variety in ones pleasures
is important to Epicurus; there is positive reason to satisfy such desires
providing the difculty and risk required to do so is not signicant. Risk
and discomfort cannot be justied since non-necessary desires do not
+8 cor++av
contribute to the goal of life, which is the ultimate motivator. Similarly
Stoicism recognizes the positive motivational signicance of preferred
indifferents, such as wealth. In this letter Seneca does not overtly leave
room for such positive motivations (as he does elsewhere) since he is
concentrating on the drawbacks attendant on the pursuit of wealth,
especially the psychological risks that it brings.
11q. the goal of all things. The nis of all things is what one looks
to in making the signicant decisions in ones life. It would have been
appropriate for Seneca to expand a bit on how looking to the Stoic goal
yields the same conclusions as looking to the Epicurean goal, but he does
not do so here; see 11q.6.
11q. Lucilius return to the nancial metaphor enables Seneca to
motivate his transvaluation of wealth into natural wealth, the idea which
shapes the rest of the letter. At Stobaeus, Ecl. :.+o+.+:o conventional
wealth is distinguished from true wealth, which only the wise person can
possess. See also 11o.18.
wise person. For earlier Stoics, not only is a wise person only interested
in pursuing natural wealth, but one of the Stoic paradoxes claims that
only the wise person is rich. See Cicero, Paradoxa Stoicorum , SVF
.joo.
who lacks nothing (cui nihil deest). Compare Cicero, De Republica +.:8
Who thinks that there is anyone wealthier than the one who lacks nothing
(cui nihil desit), at least nothing of what nature desires.
11q.6 Wealth is a matter of having enough, that is, not lacking anything
which is desirable by nature. (Cf. z.6 he who desires more is poor; 1.
I do not think poor anyone for whom the little bit left is enough.) Only
limitations on desire enable us ever to say that we have enough. See
11q.q below.
proscribed for it. Proscription is the process whereby the property of
a condemned man is conscated. It was often abused during periods of
revolutionary upheaval and when tyrannical power was exercised; wealth
alone could put a person at risk of unjust condemnation.
The notion of the goal (nis) here is critical. The relationship of having
enough or not lacking what nature needs to the Stoic goal (living according
rr++ra ++ +
to nature, in any of its many formulations) is not clear. Yet it is unlikely
that Seneca here has in mind specically the Epicurean nis. Perhaps his
point is more general, that the mere having of a goal denes a limit for ones
activities and desires and that such a limit enables us to dene something
as being enough. At EN +.: +oa:: Aristotle claims awareness of a
goal makes a big difference to our success in life, and this claim is made
before he gives any specication of what the goal is. Aristotle begins his
ethics with strong general claims about the need for a goal in order that
human action should have an organized structure. The need for a goal
here might be similarly abstract.
The ironic suggestion that danger and drawbacks might be a test of real
wealth has some pointthe truly desirable is something for which one is
willing to suffer and take risks.
someone who has a great deal desires more. Cf. 16.8, 8y.y, 11q.q.
11q.y Jupiter and Alexander as benchmarks. Jupiter, of course, needs
nothing. So having a great deal cannot be his measure of happiness. He
is happy without wealth cf. y6.z and y.1. But Alexander is the
contrary case: he is wealthy without happiness (11q.y8). Alexander is
also used as a foil at Ben. y.:.j. Furthermore, at 11q.8 Alexander
illustrates the fact that conventional wealth can be lost.
bursts the ramparts (claustra) of the world. An allusion to Lucretius
characteristic formula ramparts of the world (moenia mundi), often
repeated in Lucretius (see esp. +.y, where this phrase closely follows on
a reference to breaking the claustra of nature, the very word Seneca uses
here (+.yo+).
11q.q Crassus and Licinus. Seneca refers to Crassus the triumvir and
opponent of Cato the Younger; his wealth was proverbial. Licinus (see
also 1zo.1q) was a freedman of Julius Caesar who became wealthy and
successful. His luxurious spending became notorious.
starts to be able to get more. The ability to get more is probably both
psychological (see 11q.6, having a great deal increases ones desires) and
material: a certain level of wealth, more than the minimum required by
nature, facilitates the acquisition of even more wealth than one already
has. The ambiguity of more is intentional. See also z.6, 16.8 (from these
you learn to desire more) and the traditional maxim cited at q..
:o cor++av
he is poor. That is, he lacks the genuine goods with respect to which the
wise man is wealthy.
he can be poor. That is, even on conventional grounds the risk of
poverty is present, since conventional wealth can be lost. Seneca is not
here making the point about mortgaging and net worth (see 8y.6), but
rather focusses on the risk of loss which aficts conventional wealth (he
can be poor); see 11q.6 on risk. A person intent on natural wealth is free
of such risk and the fear of loss (11q.1o; cf. 1.18).
11q.1o The point about fear of poverty carries on the theme of risk.
something superuous. The limits on our needs and desires imposed
by nature are so severe that even a person who passes for poor on
conventional grounds may have more than nature demands. Compare
8y.111.
11q.11 This is a straightforward contrast between conventional wealth
(which is valued partly for its ability to confer status through public
display) and inner wealth or the possession of genuine goods. The wise
person is wealthy because he possesses all possible good things (that is
virtue and what participates in virtue). These goods are invisible to the
general public and immune to fortunes risks. Cf. y6.6, q.6q.
11q.1z frantic poverty. The lack of genuine goods is poverty; the
possession of conventional wealth is a source of anxiety since it is
vulnerable to loss. Cf. 1.18.
fever. This comparison exploits an idiom in Latin which English shares.
Fever can be portrayed as something we have or as something which
aficts us. To the extent that conventional wealth is similar, Seneca
argues that a similar double perspective should be adopted: wealth is
not just a possession but something which can harm us if it comes to
dominate. Stoicism does not, in fact, treat wealth itself as an afiction.
Money is a preferred indifferent and can be enjoyed. (See on 8y.) But
the love of wealth is a disease and Senecas point here is simply that
conventional wealth, if not understood for what it is, conduces to this
disease, which is itself a source of many erroneous actions. Once one
incorrectly deems conventional wealth to be good, it has a powerful
motivational hold. The comparison to fever here might seem to go beyond
rr++ra ++ :+
this standard Stoic doctrine on the indifferents by suggesting that a
dispreferred indifferent and a preferred indifferent are indistinguishable
in their moral signicance. But the point of the comparison lies primarily
in the way a mistaken judgement about the good can make us victims;
our bodily frailty victimizes us and our intellectual frailty can do likewise.
Senecas argument here does not commit himto anything stronger than the
standard Stoic view on wealth represented by, among others, Posidonius
(see 8y.1).
natural desires. An Epicurean point. See above.
11q.11 The quotation is from Horace Satires +.:.+++. Like
Senecas, Horaces critical engagement with conventional wealth is com-
patible with both Epicurean and Stoic philosophy. The linkage between
social display and superuity is underlined by the observation that true
hunger is not ambitious, a word which points to one of the major risks
that ows from taking conventional values seriously. Ambition stands for
the corrupting effect of social inuences; without a moral counterweight,
people will be drawn into the value system of their fellows and ambitious
rivalry is one way in which that happens.
11q.116 fussiness translates the word fastidium. An important point
underlies this section. The ability to choose among indifferents is not a
bad thing. Yet here, Seneca emphasizes that a commitment to fulling
unnecessary desires leads to an excessive preoccupation with the wrong
kind of choices and the fetishization of minor, socially distorted distinc-
tions. The psychological risks of taking conventional values seriously are
reected in the language of fussiness and pampering used here. Seneca,
like Chrysippus, regards the ultimate source of confusion in our values
as being a combination of the persuasiveness of external activities and
instruction from our companions (D.L. y.8; cf. q.). To counteract
these inuences Seneca is deliberately neglecting a point he elsewhere
recognizes, the restricted but real value of preferred indifferents.
builder of the cosmos laws of living. This reference to the providential
plan of the world and its normative foundation in laws about how one
should live is a reminder of Senecas ultimate commitment to the Stoic
rather than the Epicurean version of the central argument of this letter.
necessity. See above on the relation between natural and the necessary
desires.
:: cor++av
Commentary on +:o
Thematic division
+: The quaestio stated. The nature of good and howto acquire
it.
j: Analogy as the principal means to acquire the notion of the
good.
y: Two exempla: Fabricius and Horatius.
8: The focussing effect of contrary cases.
+o++: The importance of consistency in a good mans behaviour.
+:+: The good mans attitude to fortune.
+j+8: His attitude to bodily misfortunes and limitations.
+::: The central importance of consistency.
1zo.1 many minor questions (quaestiunculae). This diminutive form of
quaestio is used six times in Senecas works. At q.8 it is used in a pejorative
way (as diminutives often are), but the context is restricted to sophisms;
similarly, the negative connotations at 111.z derive from the context and
topic (sophisms and the best translation for the Greek term sophisma). At
Ben. .+:.+, though, there is no hint of criticism and the same seems to
be the case at 1z1.1. At 11y.1 the quaestiuncula poses a risk to Seneca, as
it may force him to choose between his own considered judgement and
school loyalty. That, however, does not make the quaestio philosophically
improper. The term in its own right is not, then, a negative one. 11y,
1zo, 1z1 are linked by their reference to Lucilius posing quaestiones and
expecting expository replies from Seneca. Leeman argues (+j+, +j)
that this pattern is connected to Senecas projected treatise on moral
philosophy of which, however, few traces survive and none which conrm
Senecas own description of his ambitions for the work; see on 1o6.z.
Whatever the nature of that work, it clearly functions as a literary pretext
for the writing of more technical letters than would otherwise be acceptable
in the epistolary genre, allowing Seneca to pursue themes of independent
interest to himself and his presumed audience. For the delicate balance
between letters and treatises, which permit more technical discussion, see
also 81. in relation to the De Beneciis. In the case of Ben., however, the
treatise was already written (at least the rst four bookssee Ben. j.+)
and the letter follows up on its themes. In the present case, we are asked
to suppose that Seneca wrote the letters in advance of the treatise as a kind
of sketch for the more technical work.
rr++ra +:o :
The issue to be discussed in this letter is stated brusquely: the origin of
the concept of the good and the honourable. The relation of the good and
the honourable had been dealt with recently, in 118.q11. There Seneca
presents the honourable as the cause of good things being good, but this
asymmetry is only possible because he restricts himself to a narrowly Stoic
understanding of honourable and permits himself both a broad and a
narrowly Stoic interpretation of good. Here he holds simply that there
is an intensional but not an extensional difference between them. This
is normal Stoic doctrine (see on 118.1o11) and so forms an interesting
contrast to 118.
1zo.1 different distinct. The contrast is between the Latin words
diversa and divisa. The good (bonum) and the honourable (honestum) are
treated differently by Stoics (in our view here, we contend in 1zo.)
and by their opponents. Stoics, according to Seneca, regard the good and
honourable as derived from a single source yet still distinct (these are
indeed two things, but that they are rooted in one 1zo.) while their
opponents think that there are good things which are not honourable, and
hence that the difference between them is much greater than the Stoics
claim.
1zo.z responsibility translates ofcium, a term which since Cicero has
been the normal Latin translation of kath

ekon. correct translates rectum,

the usual translation for orthon and a marker for actions done virtuously.
1zo. The factor distinguishing between the good and the honourable is
not stated here; the reference may be to 118.q11.
1zo.z Clarication of what the good is in the narrow sense in which
it is co-extensive with the honourable and does not extend to things that
are useful in the widest possible sense). The key move here is to invoke
the Socratic use argumentthe useful is a rough approximation of the
good, but only if the useful is such that it cannot be used badly. See on
66.1 and CHHP, 8yo; also Meno 88de, D.L. y.+o. That, again, is
familiar Stoic doctrine and is dealt with quickly.
cheap vulgarity. Typically abusive language applied to those who
retain the broad notion of good basing it on an unrened conception
of usefulnessone not constrained by the Socratic requirement that the
useful be that which is immune to misuse.
: cor++av
1zo. The main question is then restated. For the essential background
in Greek Stoicism, see D.L. y.j:, A etius .++.+j, S. E. M. 8.j,
Fin. .:oj, (see Frede + and Getting to Goodness, ch. +o of
Inwood :ooj).
primary concept. The sense of primary is both temporal and logical.
1zo. nature could not have taught us. Compare qo.6, 1o8.8. D.L.
y.8 notes that nature gives humans uncorrupted inclinations (aphormai)
to virtue; these inclinations and the preconceptions which we develop
naturally are among the seeds referred to here. Chance is ruled out as
a possible source of our concept of the good. Pohlenz (+o: 8) takes
this passage to refer simply to grasping a concept by direct experience
(kata peript

osin, see D.L. y.j:); he relied on the occurrence here of

happening on (incidisse). But the presence of casu by chance in the next
sentence makes this very unlikely.
1zo. The argument is by elimination: we acquire the concept by nature,
by chance, or by learning from observation. The rst two are ruled out
and the third turns out to be a form of concept acquisition structured by
what he calls analogy (analogia, a Greek term). Seneca is ready to accept
a foreign term when it is useful. The term was well established in the
context of grammatical theory (Caesar and Varro). On analogia see also
Marastoni +y, whose interest is primarily in the rhetorical tradition.
1zo. Seneca takes for granted that we already have some grasp of the
concept good and that it has come to us fromanalogical reection on our
experience. Hence the past tenses here (which I translate literally) refer to
prior observational experience. Although analogy is part of the standard
Stoic language of concept formation, it seems not to be used in the same
sense here as in the principal doxographical texts. The body-soul analogy
as applied to health and strength goes back at least to Plato (Republic )
and is also well attested in earlier Stoicism (see on 8.).
1zo. hidden failings exaggerate. Evidently we derive our con-
ception of moral perfection from our experience of admirable deeds. Yet,
in accordance with conventional Stoic theory, Seneca recognizes that
virtually no observed act is actually virtuous in the narrow Stoic sense of
the term. Hence there must be a kind of extrapolation from good deeds
to perfection. Treating such deeds as though they were perfect involves
rr++ra +:o :j
a form of self-deception: these failings we pretended not to notice. This
seems a weak empirical foundation for a concept as important as this and
one inevitably wonders whether conventional Stoic theory can justify its
claim that experience of the world of imperfect moral agents can generate
by analogy a veridical conception of the good.
Hence it is important to note Senecas claim that our extrapolation is
justied by Nature (who orders us to exaggerate) and by the fact that
everyone does so. To the extent that Stoics wish to claim a naturalistic
origin for the concept of the good, based on actual experience of a world
which (alas) has few or no virtuous agents, this seems a contentious
(indeed, a dubious) claim.
1zo.6y Fabricius and Horatius Cocles are offered as examples of men
whose admirable deeds instigate our concept of virtue. They are not, of
course, truly virtuous, however ne their deeds might be. As Seneca says in
1zo.8, they have shown us the likeness of virtue rather than the real thing.
As exemplars of virtue they fail not just in being imperfect (and so not
really virtuous) but also in being historical characters, known to Senecas
audience through tradition rather than through direct experience. The
standing of these and other such heroes of tradition in Senecas culture
is perhaps an important part of his argument. Since he is willing to give
considerable weight to the widely held views of his fellow men (see 11y.6),
he may be suggesting that the uniformnarrative tradition of a culture has a
special role to play in providing the raw material for the kind of analogical
reasoning which generates our conception of virtue. How, we might ask,
could it possibly be veridical? What weight could such examples and
the concept derived from them have with people from different cultural
traditions?
1zo.6 avoided riches just as he avoided poison. A cleverly condensed
expression. Fabricius (see also q8.1), was a Roman general in the wars
against the Macedonian king Pyrrhus (:8o:y uc); he avoided riches
by not taking the bribe from Pyrrhus; he avoided poison by not agreeing
to win by having Pyrrhus poisoned. The sole similarity between the two
acts of avoidance is that resort to either would have been dishonourable,
but Senecas phrasing makes it sound as though these were two equally
dishonourable means to the same end. Cicero used the story of Pyrrhus
and Fabricius at Paradoxa Stoicorum 8 and in the De Ofciis (+.o,
.8y). The issue of wealth links this letter to 11q and 8y.
: cor++av
blameless during war. Fabricius is perhaps being compared tacitly to
Cato the Younger (below 1zo.1q), as suggested in the Bud e edition ad loc.
1zo.y Horatius Cocles. Seneca may have in mind the version of his
story told by Livy at :.+o; Cic. Leg. :.+o cites himas an instance of virtuous
behaviour which is commanded by divine law rather than by human law.
Cf. Off. +.+; Parad. +: (where he is cited together with Fabricius, as
here); Manilius, Astronomica .+.
1zo.8q The similarity of vice to virtue helps us to learn what true virtue
is like, if only because the close but ultimately disappointing resemblance
to virtue forces the reective observer to concentrate and analyze. The
attempt to isolate what is missing in such defective states of character
is supposed to enable us to discern the truly good man (1zo.1o), who
is then analyzed (1zo.11) to yield concepts of the various virtues. The
failings of the various non-virtuous agents alluded to here are prodigality,
of which carelessness may well be the genus, and recklessness, which
masquerades as courage. Each of these is arguably a failure in knowing
how to use a natural advantage (money and natural spirit). Although
Seneca does not allude to it here, it is easy to see how application of
the Socratic use argument would help to distinguish pseudo-virtues
from genuine virtues. In 1zo.q, however, the principal failing is clearly
inconsistency: the imperfect agent does something ne, but only once,
or repeatedly displays a good trait in one area of life but fails to show
it in others. Since on any version of Stoicism the virtues are a unity
(either they are inter-entailing character traits or they are really just
one trait manifested in different circumstances), such inconsistency and
incompleteness is a proof that the agent of the admirable action is not
genuinely virtuous.
On the similarity of vice to virtue, compare .y on false friendship.
At q. Seneca points out that the same overt deeds can be virtuous
or vicious depending on the disposition of the agent. At De Clementia
+..+ Seneca holds that a clear grasp of the nature of a virtue is needed
to distinguish virtues from their similar vices. The similarity of virtues
and vices is a point frequently made in the rhetorical tradition: Cicero, De
Inventione :.+j and Quintilian, Inst. :.+:..
1zo.q start to notice. I follow the text of Reynolds, which is closer to
the mss and clearly defensible. Noting that some of the oldest mss omit
coepimus (we start) Geertz adds ac (and) before dum.
rr++ra +:o :y
1zo.1o In contrast to the agents imagined in 1zo.8q, Seneca now
invokes a moral paragon. The man envisaged here is very like the one
sketched at 1.8 and 1zo.1o1q bears close comparison with that
text. Wildberger (:oo: o) suggests that Seneca may have been the rst
to contribute to the Stoic tradition the idea that experience of such a
perfected human is a source of conceptual inspiration for ordinary people.
See especially 1.:
If you see a person not frightened by dangers, untouched by desires, cheerful in
difcult circumstances, calm amidst the storms, looking at human beings from a
higher place and upon the gods from their own level will you not be in awe of
such a man? Will you not say, This is a thing so great and lofty that one cannot
believe it is similar to the paltry body it inhabits?
On the role of the wise person as moral exemplar and its connection to
historical tradition, see Sellars :oo: :.
In 1. Seneca says that a divine power descends into such a person,
and this is quite likely an idea of Platonic origin. See below on 1zo.11.
1zo.11 The four-part division of virtue goes back at least to Plato,
Republic . Compare Cic. Off. +.+j. Here Seneca seems not only to be
committed to the unity of virtues, but also treats virtue as something
which we rst grasp in its unity and only then divide into the conventional
parts. If the central feature of virtue is the harmony and consistency of
the agent this makes more sense. Hence I think this discussion supports
the idea that Seneca is most sympathetic to an Aristonian conception of
virtue.
happy life which ows smoothly. This is an allusion to the smooth ow
of life which characterizes happiness: see D.L. y.88 and Tranq. An. :..
The wording of Senecas description of consistency here is very like
that used by Cicero at Fin. .:+. (See also I. Hadot +: +y, Pohlenz
+o: 8y.) I have no doubt that this is a deliberate reference to Cicero by
Seneca. See Getting to Goodness, ch. +o of Inwood :ooj), n. :+.
autonomous translates arbitrii sui; its literal sense is characterized by its
own judgement or with the authority to form its own judgement.
1zo.1z1 Seneca asks about how we came to know this very thing.
But which thing does he have in mind? Either the happy life of 1zo.11
or the notion of the good and honourable, which has been the subject of
:8 cor++av
the whole letter. The former reference is more natural in the immediate
context, the latter more reasonable in the context of the letter as a whole.
In any case, the two will converge as the former ultimately consists in
the possession of the good and the honourable. Either way, the source of
our insight is a moral paragon, here described in terms which emphasize
his attitude towards cosmic inevitabilities, his sense of mission (cast in
military language reminiscent of the Phaedo :b), his godlike perfection
and role as an inspiration to others (like a light in the darkness 1zo.1),
and his awareness of how his life is a temporary sojourn in a foreign
environment. The tenor of this description is reminiscent of many aspects
of Platonism.
1zo.1z as though commanded. Compare Senecas remarks about the
law of life at qo. and Natural Law in Seneca, ch. 8 of Inwood :ooj.
The metaphor of military command is used to describe Sextius distinctive
philosophical approach at q.y: he philosophized in a culturally Roman
way (Romanis moribus). See also 6.18 and 1zo.18.
1zo.1 like a light in the darkness For the image compare qz.18, q.,
Ben. .+y..
1zo.11 mind of god human heart comes from some loftier
place. Since the human mind when perfected is the same as that of Zeus,
Senecas adoption of the apparently Platonic image of a god within does
not conict with his Stoicism(on which see Long :oo:: +8 and +yy8);
however, the idea of god descending into a human or that the divine is the
origin for human reason might conict if the claim is that some distinct
divine substance enters into a human mind to make it divine, rather than
that the individual human mind can become divine by perfecting itself.
For other uses of this idea see 1., 6.16, 1oz.zy, yq.1z. Passages such as
qz.o, q.1o, 1zo.18, and NQ + pref. ++y and .:. are less in conict
with the tenor of Stoic thinking. See Rist +8: :oo, who attributes the
Platonic turn here to both Posidonius and Plato.
1zo.1 live and be done with life translates vita defungeretur. There
is only one verb in Latin and it puts the emphasis on being done with
something; however, it also expresses the idea that the job or task is rst
accomplished. defuncti are those who have lived out their lives, not those
who have died with nothing done.
rr++ra +:o :
guest-house and 1zo.116 foreign environment. Compare 8.zzy,
yo.161y, yq.1z, 1oz.z. See too the discussion at 1z1.16.
1zo.118 Seneca continues his focus on the moral paragon who is the
source of our conception of the good and the honourable. His attitude
of detachment from the body is justied by the transitory and unstable
nature of those bodies, which stands in sharp contrast to the long-lasting
commitments our mind makes when it is at its best. Hence an attachment
to the body conicts with an appreciation of our commitment to improve
our characters and temperaments.
It is important to emphasize that the moral paragon remains unnamed
throughout the letter. This is appropriate if it is the characteristics
rather than the unique individual which contribute crucially to the
epistemological claims Seneca makes. Nevertheless, it is easy to suspect
that Seneca has Socrates or some other unique historical gure in mind
(although there cannot be too many candidates for this role given the
rarity of sages). For further discussion, see Getting to Goodness, ch. +o
of Inwood :ooj.
1zo.16 chest troubles. Complaints about chest (pectus) and throat
suggest respiratory illness. Seneca was probably tubercular in his youth
(y8.1 and Grifn +:: :) and seems never to have regained his
health completely. The mortal breast of 1zo.1 (into which a divine
principle has descended) is another translation of pectus mortale; Seneca
pointedly refers to physical illness in the same part of the body which is
the primary host to the divine element in us.
1zo.1y crumbling body. See above on 1zo.1; human fragility is a fre-
quent theme in Seneca, e.g. q1.16, 1o1.1, NQ .:. etc. Awareness of these
mundane physical indications of our bodily imperfection is presumably so
widespread that all men are assumed to be aware of it and so to have access
to another source for reection which leads to a strong conception of the
good. Given the stability and reliability of the good and the defects of the
body, anyone ought to be able to see that the good is a feature of the mind
rather than the body. (In Fin. j the contrast between Peripatetic and
Stoic ethics turns in part on the claim that Stoics focus only on the mind
whereas Peripatetics take account of both mind and body. Seneca seems to
be embracing this characterization of Stoicism.) Seneca here suggests that
our misguided attachment to the body is a kind of greed (nothing satises
o cor++av
those who are about to die). For the lex mortalitatis and its similarity to
themes in Epicureanism, see Natural Law in Seneca, ch. 8 of Inwood
:ooj. See especially 1o1.y8 and the striking phrase which captures this
thought with Senecan succinctness: cupiditas futuri exedens animum.
1zo.18 in the same place . For the preoccupation with time and
mortality see, e.g., Ker :oo: and 1zz. See in particular yy.11 on the
symmetry of time past and time to come. The Consolation for Polybius
.: and Consolation for Marcia +.j present the idea with a slightly more
Epicurean ring (for which see Lucretius .8o, 8, 88 ff.), but there is
clearly a consolatory clich e at work here. For the idea that our death gets
closer every day see especially 1.z, z.zo, z6..
surroundings in contrast to our selves, see the verbally similar 1.y,
1oz.z, Cons. Marc. +o.+, De Vita Beata :o..
1zo.1qzz The letters conclusion focusses on consistency of character,
which Seneca has isolated as the most important source for our conception
of the good. There is a Platonic (indeed, Parmenidean) tinge to the claim
in 1zo.1q that what is not genuine does not last. Compare the similar
theme at the conclusion of yq. But Seneca makes a rapid transition from
the emphasis on the consistency of an ideal character to a critique of
rapid changes of behaviour and disposition by more ordinary people.
It is these inconsistent people, one should recall, who help us to grasp
the importance of consistency in the concept of goodness. See 1zo.8q
and comment above. The preoccupations of the inconsistent characters
pilloried here are things like money, food, luxuries, and so forth. It is
tempting to suppose that Seneca has in mind the view (see above) that
a kind of detachment from preferred indifferents and bodily advantages
is a necessary condition for the kind of consistency associated with
virtue.
1zo.1q The characters surveyed here may be briey identied.
Vatinius, Cato. See also 118..
Curius, Marcus Curius Dentatus. An early Roman general with a
reputation for probity.
Fabricius. See above.
rr++ra +:o +
Tubero. See also q.yz
Crassus, Licinus. See also 11q.q.
Apicius. A notorious gourmand. See also q.z, Cons. Helv. +o.8+o.
Maecenas. The friend and adviser of Augustus, whose gardens became a
byword for conspicuous luxury. Seneca admires his eloquence but thinks
that prosperity was his downfall. See 1q.q, qz., 11. Also discussed
at 1o1.1o1.
1zo.zo proof of a bad character. For the signicance of variable habits,
see also zo., Tranq. An. :.+o.
often he had . The quotation is from Horaces Satires +..+++y.
The Satires are often regarded as source of generic inspiration for Seneca
(see Introduction, n. +:) and Seneca here is adopting the almost strident
voice of the satirist. Little comment is needed on the details of the rant
developed in 1zo.z1. In 1zo.zz Seneca re-emphasizes the epistemological
importance of the observation of such moral failings (see on 1zo.8q):
the inconsistent behaviour is a proof of bad character (here the verb
coarguitur, at 1zo.zo indicium are translated as proof). The fact that
only a wise person can be fully consistent is also the point made in a
more Platonic voice in the middle part of this letter and it should be
emphasized that essentially the same point is made here in the more
sober tones of a satirist and social observer. At the opening of the letter
Seneca commits himself to the view that there are empirical sources for
our conception of a kind of goodness which verges on being transcendent
and it might be tempting to suppose that the Platonic coloration of the
middle section negates that initial empirical spirit. At the end of the
letter, though, it again becomes clear that the epistemological foundations
of our notion of goodness can also be extracted from ordinary social
experience by someone with a suitably trained critical temperament and
a commitment to the notion that consistency is of particular importance.
The role played in this epistemological process by our awareness of the
moral paragon is a matter for speculation, but the structure and cohesion
of the letter strongly suggest that an awareness of such a moral ideal,
whether obtained from direct observation or from narrative tradition, is
necessary for the analysis of experience which leads to a conception of the
good. For more discussion, see Getting to Goodness, ch. +o of Inwood
:ooj.
: cor++av
1zo.zz role of one person single role multiple. The idea that a
moral agent plays roles can be used in different ways. At D.L. y.+o Aristo
of Chios is said to have compared the wise person to an actor who can play
different roles (Thersites or Agamemnon) well. That is, the wise person
can behave wisely in any circumstances which fortune might assign. Here
Seneca uses the metaphor in the opposite sense: the wise person plays
a single, consistent role (that of the sage) whereas the non-wise play
many roles, that is, they exhibit instability as they shift from one set of
commitments to another.
Commentary on +:+
This is one of the most discussed of Senecas letters, for it is one of our
best sources for the Stoic doctrine of oikei

osis and features in virtually

every discussion of that topic or of the foundations of Stoic moral theory.
As bets this volume, I will focus my commentary on the letter itself
in the context of Senecas own philosophical project. In preparing this
commentary I am particularly indebted to the students in my seminar on
Senecas letters in the fall of :oo:, and especially to Gur Zak.
Some basic reading for this topic:
Primary: Cicero, Fin. .+; .:; Off.+.+:; N.D.:., +:+o;
D. L. y.8j; Hierocles,

Ethik

e Stoichei

osis (Pberol inv. y8ov) in Corpus

dei papiri losoci greci e latini I.i** (Firenze MCMXCII), :8 ff. (this
includes a thorough bibliography); LS jy with commentary. Secondary:
Brunschwig +8; Inwood +8 and +8; Long +: chs. ++ (Hierocles
on oikei

osis and self-perception) and +: (Representation and the self in

Stoicism); Pembroke +y+.
Thematic division
+: Introduction. Topics with direct and indirect bearing on
the improvement of character.
j: Animals have innate self-perception.
y: It is not pain avoidance which explains the behaviour of
newborn animals.
+o+: An inarticulate grasp of our own nature sufces to explain
behaviour.
++: Our constitution develops and changes over time, but our
attachment to it is constant.
rr++ra +:+
+y+8: The concern for self-preservation is fundamental and
innate.
+:o: Evidence that animals have the necessary innate knowl-
edge.
:+: How knowledge of ones own nature leads to knowledge of
threats.
::: The spiders web example.
:: A teleological consideration. Conclusion.
1z1.1 This letter is closely connected to 1zo; among other things,
both announce that they deal with a quaestiuncula (compare also 1z.1
where quaeritur indicates that it too is a form of quaestio). See commentary
on 1zo.1 for further connections indicated by this theme. In 11y and
1zo Lucilius is presented as posing the question, but here Seneca is
responsible for the technical theme and anticipates Lucilius objections on
the grounds of irrelevance to ethics. The fact that Lucilius is presented
as both requesting and objecting to technical philosophical discussion
should not be a surprise. Seneca, as an author, is quite comfortable
having his characters take on the role needed for a particular theme. But
this should not be regarded as failure of dramatic verisimilitude. Why
should a philosophically inclined friend not waver between the desire for
immediately applicable ethical discussion and more demanding technical
philosophy for its own sake? Both interests seem plausible and often
cohabit within a single philosophical temperament. There is, at any rate,
a slight sense of articiality in prefacing this letter with a concern about
its relevance to ethics, as its theme is manifestly of central concern to
ethical theory. The raising of this issue does allow Seneca, in 1z1.1,
using an aggressively defensive tone, to articulate the relevance to ethics
of grasping human nature in the context of other species and nature as
a whole and to differentiate this kind of discussion from simple moral
exhortation for which he admits he has an excessive predilection (1z1.
some might judge me excessive and immoderate in this area).
1z1.1 haul me into court. Tropes drawnfromlegal practice are common
in Seneca. See, for example, 6.z.
Posidonius and Archedemus. Seneca gives the latter name in the form
Archidemus, but there is little doubt that he is referring to Archedemus
of Tarsus, evidence for whom is collected at SVF .::. He was an
authoritative and technical Stoic author often paired with Chrysippus. As
cor++av
Posidonius was associated with the Stoic school on Rhodes, Archedemus
apparently founded a Stoic school at Babylon (Plu. On Exile ojb).
Archedemus seems to have been an older contemporary of Posidonius
(Archedemus . late second century uc or early rst century uc and
Posidonius . mid rst century uc).
Invoking the precedent of reputable Stoic writers and teachers, Seneca
justies what might look like a physical investigation on the grounds that it
has a distinct bearing on ethics. That this is in fact the case is conrmed by
the way the theme of oikei

osis is treated by Cicero in Fin. , its place in the

doxography of D.L. y (8j ff.) and its important role in Hierocles Principles
of Ethics (

Ethik

e Stoichei

osis). Senecas insistence that there are themes

within ethics that do not contribute directly to character improvement is
unsurprising within the school and is reected in Senecas own attitude
in other letters, although he also expresses contempt for unproductive
technicality when he deems it appropriate to do so.
1z1.z Examples of ethically relevant topics which do not contribute
directly to moral improvement. Nutrition, exercise, clothing, teaching,
pleasure are the rst set of examples. Although the rst two are put to
work in (for example) Platos normative description of a good upbringing
in the Republic, they have only indirect bearing on moral improvement.
The third can be addressed from the point of view of luxury and excess,
if it is meant to address the question of clothing styles, or from the point
of view of the simplicity of the life according to nature interpreted in a
Cynic manner. Issues of teaching and pleasure can contribute directly to
moral improvement.
Seneca further maintains that there is a role for a theoretical investigation
of the nature and origin of human character. The practical contribution of
such investigations to moral improvement would come from establishing
which features of our character are xed by nature and which are
malleable and what our natural inclinations are. The facts about human
nature (especially in relationship to the natures of gods and of animals) and
our own individual natures set norms and establish constraints relevant to
moral deliberation; this is embodied in the theory of personae associated
with Panaetius but also well known in the Latin philosophical tradition
(see Cicero, Off. +.+oj+).
You wont really understand what you should do and what you should
avoid until you have learned what you owe to your own nature. If our
individual nature and our nature as a human (either could be meant by
rr++ra +:+ j
the phrase naturae tuae) establish norms and constraints for deliberation,
then self-knowledge (knowledge of that nature) is obviously indispensable
to proper deliberation.
1z1. Seneca points out that he is normally quite vigorous in the practice
of direct moral exhortation so that perhaps Lucilius should be more patient
with the occasional theoretical excursus. Modern readers whose interests
are primarily philosophical will sympathize with the thought that Seneca
might well be considered excessive in his zeal for direct moral exhortation.
1z1.q This argument regards the parts and organs of our bodies as
tools comparable to the tools used by a craftsmanthat is the basis for the
argument, the suppressed premiss being that as craftsmen have awareness
of their tools in order to use them well so do animals have awareness of
their tools. For the idea that our bodies are, as it were, tools used by
the soul/mind, see Plato, Alcibiades I, +:o. The idea is the common
property of Platonic and Stoic theories of human nature.
1z1. We were investigating . Dramatic verisimilitude again. We
hear nothing about the setting of this previous discussion nor of the
participants; Lucilius is presumed to know. The question under discussion
then and now in this letter is whether animals have awareness of their
own constitution. The pertinence of this to moral improvement may seem
indirect, but it is central to understanding human nature, which in the
relevant respect is merely a special case of animal nature. Hence human
beings enter into his discussion of all animals quite naturally.
The occurrence of constitution (constitutio) in the formulation of the
question is important. In Cicero the issue is put in terms of sensus sui.
Similarly Hierocles writes of aisth

esis heautou. But in D.L. y.8j we nd a

term for which Senecas constitutio is an exact counterpart: sustasis. Two
important points emerge. Seneca is here rendering a technical term from
the Greek with full respect for its etymologywhich he does not normally
choose to do (see Seneca in his Philosophical Milieu, ch. + of Inwood
:ooj); even though it produces a completely reasonable Latin term which
is not a neologism, it is still a calque translation. Moreover, as becomes
explicit below, constitution is meant as an explication of the term -self ,
where the reexive pronoun seems to be the forerunner of our substantive
term self which is often the subject of philosophical investigation in its
own right. Here, however, it would be a mistake to assume that self
in our modern philosophical sense (indicating a particular emphasis on
cor++av
reexivity or subjectivity) is the main theme of discussion; rather, the
constitution of an animal is just the animal in its basic natureas is
indicated by the inter-substitutability of self and constitution in Stoic
texts. See also Seneca and Self-Assertion, ch. +: of Inwood :ooj.
1z1.6 The principal argument that animals do have a sense of their
own constitution is the observation that their skills are on a par with
those which humans acquire by way of training and practice and which
presumably require an awareness of our capabilities, body position, etc.
We are to suppose, it seems, that the quasi-craftsmanlike behaviour of
animals is evidence for their possession of self-perception. (See also 1z1.q
where this point is summarized.) Nature plays the role of a teacher
of these quasi-skills (note they are born fully trained). Since genuine
skills in humans involve a substantial cognitive component (we have to
know about our tools in order to use them well) it seems to follow that
animals must have a corresponding cognitive condition which underlies
their quasi-skillsthey must know their own constitutions.
1z1.6 dancers. Pantomime artists, apparently.
1z1.y8 The presumably Epicurean opponent offers an argument sim-
ilar to that rebutted at D.L. y.8j, which is that the orderly and
apparently goal-directed behaviour of animals (their use of quasi-skills)
can be explained more simply by invoking their tendency to avoid pain.
This is dismissed by Seneca for two reasons. First, many natural motions
are performed with alacrity, whereas actions motivated by avoidance are
characterized by reluctance. It is, unfortunately, easy to think of counter-
examples to this claim, but one could easily develop an analogous argument
which relies on the claim that the complexity of the animal actions goes
beyond what might be thought necessary merely to avoid pain. Second,
Seneca invokes observations which conict with his opponents explana-
tion. Pain avoidance is an implausible explanation of cases like that of a
young child learning to walk: it is a natural behaviour pattern that involves
discomfort and so is hard to explain by invoking pain avoidance rather
than by hypothesizing a natural grasp of what our legs are for and how to
use them. The example of the turtle is less decisive, since it requires that
we know that a turtle when turned over is not in pain and so that its desire
to right itself reects nothing more than a desire to get its limbs back
to their natural orientation (which it knows by nature). The opponents
position could be made more plausible by supposing that the pain to be
rr++ra +:+ y
avoided by the turtle or the baby is the pain of hunger, that the desire to
achieve effective mobility is dictated by the need to get food. But if that is
so, then the means to achieving that end also presuppose an awareness of
ones own natural abilities.
We note here that pre-rational humans and non-rational animals are
grouped together as examples of merely natural behaviour free of cultural
or other articial inuences.
1z1.1o The denition of constitution is the mind in a certain dispo-
sition relative to the body, which Seneca seems to translate literally here
(the Greek, if it were attested, would be h

egemonikon p

os echon pros to s

oma).
As the objector suggests, this is a relatively arcane feature of Stoic theory.
The objection is that this bit of theory cannot be pertinent to the question
of how animals function since such technical philosophical concepts are
not graspable by themnot even by ordinary Roman citizens, in fact.
It is worth noting that the ability which the objector supposes would be
needed to grasp this concept is dialectical skill; the concept does rely on the
Stoic theory of categories, which plays a role in both dialectic and physics.
The result of locating such knowledge in dialectic rather than physics is
to make it seem even more remote, arcane, and apparently useless than
it would appear if treated as part of physics. Seneca typically has more
patience for the contributions to ethics of physics than of dialectic. Thus
the objectors decision to regard it as merely dialectical should be seen as
a polemical move.
adult Romans (togati). Seneca does not mean to suggest that Greeks
would in fact be any better at dialectic, but his intended audience is Roman
and he assumes this.
1z1.11 The distinction between understanding and articulation is very
important, not just for this problem but for Stoic epistemology more
generally. What sort of innatism (if any) is Seneca committing himself
to? What does it mean to claim that an animal knows that it is an
animal but does not know what an animal is? This, presumably, is at
least the difference between irrational perception (in this case, of oneself)
and perception articulated in propositional form; and also the difference
between a perceptual grasp of something (even as a prol

epsis) and scientic

or technical knowledge of it. The knowledge terms are used somewhat
loosely in this section: both understanding and knowledge are used
8 cor++av
without qualication here, but in 1z1.1z the understanding at issue was
immediately qualied as being crude, schematic, and vague.
1z1.1z what it is like or where it comes from. Compare NQ y.:j.:,
6.zo; see I. Hadot +: o.
The crude, schematic, and vague grasp of something (in this case our
constitution) must be a form of self-perception which does not constitute
knowledge in any strict sense. Hence the use of perceptual language in
Cicero, D.L. and Hierocles and hence too the fact that it is common to
all animals qua animals (thus including infants and non-rational animals).
The foundation for his argument here is an assumption about our (adult
human) self-awareness which is used in an analogical argument about all
animals (qualis talis). The fact that adult humans can know that they
have a mind, but not know what mind is (knowing the that but not
the what is it), is used to establish the legitimacy of an epistemological
middle ground between knowledge and complete unawareness. This is
reminiscent of Menos Paradox. In the Meno Socrates gave an account of
this epistemological middle ground by postulating latent knowledge, the
actualization of which could be described as an act of recollection. The
Stoic position adopted by Seneca here accounts for the middle ground
by postulating inarticulate internal perception of ones own constitution.
Rational animals can articulate this grasp through philosophical enquiry,
while non-rational animals cannot. Both latent pre-existing knowledge
(Plato) and an inarticulate perceptual grasp (Stoics) are provisionally
adequate as replies to the paradox of enquiry. The Stoic theory also
accounts economically for the behaviours discussed in this letter. The
features of human behaviour shared with animals are explained by the
kind of inarticulate grasp animals can share and the uniquely human
features are explained by the additional rational capacities which we alone
have.
1z1.1z1 For they must be aware of that through which they are aware
of other things. The argument of 1z1.1z posits a parallelism between
our awareness of our own minds (which is assumed as a premiss and
not challenged) and animals awareness of their constitution. Seneca now
argues that animals also have an awareness of the leading part of their
souls ( principalis pars) and not just of their constitution more generally.
The basis for this claim is that that through which we become aware of
something must itself be an object of our awareness. Aristotle addresses
a similar concern in his discussion of perceiving that we perceive (De
rr++ra +:+
An. .:). In 1z1.1 Seneca again invokes the intuitions of rational humans,
(we all understand that we have internal desiderative states that motivate
us to act even if we dont know what a horm

e (conatus) is in the technical

sense invoked in Stoic psychological theory) and asserts that animal
self-perception has a similar feature, that animals and infants have an
inarticulate awareness of their leading part. But he gives no particular
reason to believe that non-rational animals have this feature and says
nothing to quell the doubts of those who suspect that this cognitive
capacity might be a distinctive feature of rationality. For all that Seneca
says here, one might believe that an inarticulate awareness of that through
which one has a clear awareness of an external object is a distinctive
feature of rational perception, but that non-rational perception involves
only awareness of the external object. It would be quite reasonable to
hold that any level of reexive awareness is a unique characteristic of
rational animals. Hence the present argument is inconclusive, though it
does reect important theoretical commitments about the nature of animal
perception, including its fundamental similarity to rational perception,
and coheres with other arguments in this letter.
1z1.1 Primary attachment, conciliatio (Ciceros Latin translation of
the Greek term oikei

osis), as opposed to self-awareness is rst introduced

by the objector and then picked up by Seneca himself in 1z1.16 and
1z1.1y18. Since the theme of the letter is awareness, the discussion of
primary attachments which occupies the rest of this letter should be seen
as a reinforcing argument rather than as the central theme.
1z1.116 In 1z1.1 the imaginary interlocutor tries again to drive a
wedge between rational animals, i.e., adult humans, and non-rational
animals, such as infants. Senecas reply to this objection is, again, to
assert the similarity of rational and non-rational animals. This time,
however, the similarity is asserted on developmental grounds: there is a
structural continuity which persists in the development from non-rational
to rational status (that is, during the maturation of a human being).
(For Senecas interest in the importance of the development of rational
maturity, compare 1zo. on the seeds of knowledge.)
First, the objection. If the basic attachment which humans form is to
a rational nature, then infants are too undeveloped to have an attachment
to our rational constitution; the implicit conclusion is that primary
attachment as understood by the Stoics cannot be a feature of infant
psychology and so cannot be invoked to support the claim that infants
o cor++av
have the right sort of self-awareness. And if infants do not, then it is not
the case that all animals do. This is somewhat like the objection in 1z1.1o.
Senecas reply is to deny the basic premiss of the objectors argument,
that all humans form their basic attachment to a distinctively human
rational nature. His ability to do so rests on a theory of constitution
developing over time which appears to be innovative (see also 1z.1o11
for a parallel observation involving plants). The apparent originality of
Seneca here should not surprise us, as the theory is advanced in reply
to an argument found only in this letter. On Senecas theory, then, our
attachment to our own constitution is constant but the constitution itself
changes over time. The constant feature in this process is a relationship:
we are attached to our own constitution, and this attachment persists as
the constitution itself develops.
1z1.1 Plants also have a constitution and so provide a parallel for
the developing constitution of animals and our consistent relationship
to that constitution as it changes. The developmental variation of plant
constitutions is more dramatically visible, perhaps, and the pervasiveness
of the correlation of a constitution with the good condition of an organism
is reinforced by the presence of the pattern in plants as well as animals.
There is no suggestion, though, that plants have self-perception (or indeed
any form of perception). Relevant similarities between animals and plants
play a role in the Stoic argument for the naturalness of certain patterns of
behaviour (see D.L. y.8), but this does not commit Seneca to the view
that plants have a soul rather than a phusis (the normal Stoic view)which
would be the case if they had any form of perception. See also 8.1o;
1z.1o11, 1z.18 employ the idea of a natural good for plants at various
stages of development as a parallel to the situation with animals. Since
oikei

osis requires a form of perception, it is only found among animals and

not among plants.
1z1.16 commend for commendare, also a Ciceronian term for an aspect
of oikei

osis (see, e.g., Fin. .:, .+).

1z1.16 Yet I am the same human as was also a baby and a boy and a
teenager. This follows up on the claim of 1z1.1 that there is a constitu-
tion for every stage of life. Here Seneca articulates a viewof the continuity
of a person over time which follows necessarily from his theory of evolving
constitutions. It is vital for the coherence of his theory that there be in each
rr++ra +:+ +
human being a continuous something distinct from the varying constitu-
tion; indeed, it is the emphasis on Senecas variation of the constitution
over a lifespan which preserves the intuitive idea of the unity of a human
life. Note that the attachment is always to the constitution, while the me
is what nature commends me to. Seneca seems to have the resources to
distinguish between a core self and the varying constitution, but this
seems not to be his interest and the distinction is not developed. Rather,
Senecas argument about self-perception demands that there be a variation
in our nature over the course of development and the stability of the me
seems to be little more than the necessary condition for this variation.
It might well be asked (as it was, most forcefully, by Gur Zak) whether
this view of continuous human identity is compatible with the emphasis
on the uidity and lability of our identity in 8, especially as expressed in
8.zz: None of us is the same in old age as in youth. None of us is the
same the next day as he was the day before. (Cf. z.1qz1.) Although the
Heraclitean mutability of human beings predominates in 8, even there
Seneca emphasizes our ability to take action as agents against the instability
of our mere bodily existence. We can prolong our life through personal
regimen, discipline ourselves to improve the quality and character of that
life, and ultimately preserve the integrity of our life by being prepared
to part company with the body. Although the concerns of 8 and 1z1
are quite different, and 8 is certainly more focussed on the instability in
human life produced by our corporeal nature, there is room for common
ground. We do change from day to day (and between stages of life), yet
despite that the relationship between our planning capacity and our more
obviously vulnerable body is a constant. Senecas concern to maintain
rational control over that relationship is the key both to the emphasis here
on continuity of personhood and to his readiness to embrace suicide in 8
in order to preserve full agency. In 8.6 Seneca emphasizes that mere
bodily fragility and decay do not warrant suicide, but loss of the ability to
plan our lives and decide about the disposition of ones own body does.
Note that in 8. it is precisely the prospect of being unable to make
an efcacious decision about ones bodily existence that Seneca describes
as the cruellest loss in a human life. This asymmetrical relationship of
mind to body is evident in the claim that the constitution is the leading
part of the soul in a certain disposition relative to the body. It is this
relationship to which we are attached as long as it exists. In 8 suicide
is indicated when either the mind or the body loses the capacity to play
the appropriate role in this relationship. Similarly, in 1zo.118 Seneca
emphasizes the asymmetry of mind and body with respect to vulnerability;
: cor++av
in 1zo.16 Seneca even says that, as embodied creatures, we are living in a
foreign environment, which might seem to reect a non-Stoic idea of the
alienation of mind from body. Despite the hyperbolic expression, I do not
think Seneca has embraced anything fundamentally non-Stoic, though
he is certainly open to Platonic inuence. As in 1zo, Senecas principal
concern is to establish that it is the mind rather than the body which sets
the agenda and determines the values for a human life.
1z1.1y At D.L. y.8j there are Stoic arguments that our primary
attachment is not to pleasure or any other external motivation, but rather
to oneself (i.e., ones then current constitution). So too here. Senecas
argument is that since benet and concern are self-referential, any concern
for any other benet or value entails concern for the self; even a hedonist
has to admit that there is an even more fundamental concern with self,
since it is for oneself that pleasure is sought. The naturalness of this self-
directed behaviour is underlined by its universality in nature (whereas
other behaviour patterns are instinctive but species-specic; see y6.8,
1o.z, 1z.z). What is distinctive of humans is the nature of the self
or constitution which is at stake: in humans it is, ultimately, a self dened
by the asymmetrical relationship of the mind to the body it commands.
For the irresistible character of what one takes to be to ones own
benet, compare Epict. Diss. +.+8.; this applies even if what seems to be
reasonable to do is suicide (see Diss. +.:.).
1z1.18 Seneca here presents a teleological argument (paralleled in D.L.
y.8j) for the existence of a universal inclination to self-preservation.
Natures rationality as a guiding force is assumed: a well-organized nature
does not lead to the creation of entities which will not survive and so
each is endowed with the skills essential to survival. Such a system would
be self-defeating and so both irrational and unstable. This theme, which
can be traced back at least to the Great Myth in Platos Protagoras,
is well attested in Stoicism and important in Ciceros account of Stoic
natural philosophy in N.D. : (especially :. and :.+:+o). Seneca
claims that the most efcient way of preserving an animal is to give it
the skills of self-preservationand certainly this strategy would spare
the providential deity the effort of constant intervention; it is at least
instrumentally rational to structure the natural world and its components
to be self-sustaining as far as possible. This section contains the core of an
rr++ra +:+
argument aiming to establish the naturalness of reason and the rationality
of nature. The inborn fear of death invoked at the end of the section
is meant to be natures way of ensuring a sufcient level of motivation
for survival; it is meant to be a means by which the survival mechanism
operates rather than an independent natural motivation; on a hedonist
scheme, there would be a natural fear of painful death, and one can imagine
a clever hedonist interlocutor exploiting Senecas statement here, but the
point is not made.
That young animals recognize their predators without learning tells us
something about animal self-awareness. A threat is only a threat relative
to oneself, so if an animal sees something as a threat, there must be an
implicit grasp of at least some of its own traits and dispositions. See on
1z1.z1 below.
1z1.18 previous letters. We dont seem to have these letters, though
roughly similar material is mentioned at 8z.1 and 116.. Either there
are letters missing within the collection rather than just at the end of it
(see Introduction p. xiii) or this is an example of dramatic verisimilitude,
Seneca creating the illusion of a real correspondence by referring to letters
not in the collection.
1z1.181q recognize what is threatening. This is a point also made by
Hierocles at

Ethik

e Stoichei

osis, col. III, ll. +j:.

1z1.1qzo In response to the example in 1z1.18 of birds who know their
natural enemies from the moment of birth, the interlocutor queries how
such knowledge is possible. This is either a challenge to the claim that
the nestlings really do have such skill or an implicit suggestion that the
Stoics would need some form of innate knowledge of external threats, an
epistemology which they would have to reject.
Seneca replies by distinguishing the fact fromexplanation of it; compare
1z1.1 and the distinction of knowing that something is and knowing its
dention. Bothdistinctions (betweenknowing ei esti andti esti andknowing
hoti and knowing dioti) are fundamental in Aristotles Posterior Analytics.
1z1.1q Senecas rst basis for claiming that this understanding does exist
among animals is sophisticated: that they actually do have this under-
standing is obvious from the fact that they would not do anything more if
cor++av
they did understand. This is a complicated bit of inference, which seems
to work like this. The nestlings display the self-preservatory behaviour
at issue. Either the nestlings have the relevant understanding or they do
not. Assume that the nestlings do not have the relevant understanding
(and nevertheless display the behaviour). Then, add the understanding to
their set of dispositions. This wont add to their behavioural competence,
since they already displayed the behaviour without the understanding.
But then we have the puzzling outcome that the relevant kind of under-
standing when present has no causal or explanatory force. That is absurd.
Hence we reject the initial assumption that the nestlings lack the relevant
understanding while still having the behaviour.
Providing that we accept the claimthat the nestlings display the relevant
behaviour, this is an attractive argument. In effect, it is a dialectical
version of inference to the best explanation (which is what the relevant
understanding would be), the only response to which would be a better
candidate explanation (which the opponent cannot presumably offer). For
if there were a better explanation, the puzzling outcome stated above
would cease to be puzzling.
Seneca goes on to give more examples meant to demonstrate animals
natural grasp of self-preservatory facts about their relationship with other
species. Even with adult animals, such as hens, Seneca claims that the grasp
of a threat is not derived solely from external experience. Though a hen
has had abundant time to learn which species are dangerous and which not,
he urges that the predators are recognized as such both without specic
experience (not even familiar to them) and in contradiction to plausible
inference (they naturally fear the smaller animal, while one might expect
themtofear larger animals). More plausible is the case of a chickwhichfears
cats, not dogs (Seneca clearly does not knowthat dogs oftenattack poultry).
That young animals display caution before they get the experience may
be explicable on other grounds or may even be wrong, but the claimis in its
ancient context reasonably plausible and important to Senecas argument.
1z1.zo It is also important to rule out chance as the cause of successful
avoidance behaviours. Two factors are invoked. First, there is a good
match between the threats which animals avoid and their actual predators.
If chance were the cause, we would surely nd examples of animals
fearing objectively non-threatening species. (This would also be the case
if the cause were a generalized avoidance behaviour pattern rather than
one targeted at specic threats and so requiring a grasp of oneself in
comparison to particular threats.) Second, chance is ruled out by the
rr++ra +:+ j
consistency of the behaviour: something which is consistently the case is
treated as non-accidental. On chance see also 1zo..
Seneca also adds a further consideration against the possibility that
learning and experience are the basis for threat-avoidance behaviour:
behaviours learnedfromexperience allegedlyintensifyover time, gradually
building up from a pattern of varied behaviours as the unsuccessful ones
are discarded and the successful ones retained. The uniformity and
immediacy of a trait point to its naturalness. This consideration would
have some weight even if the behaviour were not present from birth but
is obviously stronger if combined with that consideration.
1z1.z1 Having argued that animals have an awareness of their own con-
stitutions, Seneca turns to the reason why as a separate point. That a pre-
experiential and unlearned grasp of which species are predators requires
a comparison of ones own nature with that of other species was implicit
(see 1z1.18 above). The development of this point here is very sketchy:
awareness of the nature of ones own esh gives one the basis for knowledge
about threats. Obviously this is far too schematic and will not explain why
different animals fear different predators (such as chicks fearing cats rather
than dogs: 1z1.1q above). There is no sign that Seneca was interested in
this level of detail; not even Hierocles does much with this point.
Whatever nature taught . Following on 1z1.zo Seneca treats inborn
knowledge as something taught by nature. This is apparently a metaphor,
but if one assumes that natures activities are uniform across species and
invariant through the life of an animal, it would follow from this claim that
all animals at all stages of life have an awareness of their own constitution,
which is the theme of the quaestio. In 1zo. nature is said to give us only
the seeds of knowledge about virtue; there is no incompatibility between
the emphasis there on the need of experience to acquire the concept of
goodness and the emphasis here on the completeness of natures teachings
about oneself. It is quite reasonable that complex experience (subjected to
analysis) should be needed for some things and not for others.
1z1.zz A return to the skill argument. The spider is an excellent
example of innate skill which must be regarded as natural since there is no
opportunity for teaching (and also no variability, which is a mark of what
is taught by art and so not natural). In 1z1.1qz Seneca relies on the
argument that if something is natural it can be assumed to be consistent,
but this point seems to come in a stronger and weaker version. In the
cor++av
strong version, naturalness entails that a trait is present across ones entire
life and hence present from birth. This is a dubiously over-strong claim.
Some natural traits obviously emerge during ones life and are uniform in
a weaker sensepresent at the same stage in the life of every member of
the species and essentially invariant in degree so that the trait is present in
full force if at all. This weaker formulation seems to be what lies behind
the last sentence of 1z1.zo. The stronger formulation seems to be implied
by 1z1.z, which seems to assume that the endowments of nature are all
and only those traits present at birth and that all later developments are
learned. This is needless hyperbole and implausible, but Senecas general
stance requires the sharpest possible contrast between nature and learning.
The motivation for exaggeration is evident.
1z1.zz sophisticated in 1z1.zz is subtilitas; skilled in 1z1.z reects
sollertia (cf. Pliny, Nat. 8. and callent at 8.+). Ancient authors often
advert to the natural skill and cleverness of animals and have a variety of
reasons for doing so, most oftento demonstrate the providential ordering of
the natural world. See especially Plutarchs treatise De Sollertia Animalium.
For wide-ranging discussion of ancient views about animal rationality see
Sorabji +.
1z1.z A return to the argument from teleological coherence (see on
1z1.18 above and D.L. y.8j); nature does not produce animals without
the means of basic survival (though a forgetful Epimetheus manages to
do that to humans in Platos Protagoras). This is one of the strongest
arguments for the innateness of the self-preservative instinct (the attach-
ment to and love for oneself ). Its relationship to the specic theme of
self-awareness is indirect: self-preservation is impossible without self-
awareness and so a demonstration of complex self-preserving behaviours
is an argument for self-awareness.
Commentary on +::
General: this letter carries on the theme of what is natural for humans (1zo,
1z1), which is also linked to the discussion of species-relative good (1zo,
1z). The tone in 1zz is less rigorously philosophical than in most of the
rr++ra +:: y
letters inthis collection, more akintothe social critique of muchLatinsatire
(in particular Horace); hence the abundance of anecdotes and Senecas
evident pleasure in developing them. In philosophical terms, though,
particular emphasis is placed on the naturalness of living an appropriately
active life, of following the temporal regimen which is natural for human
beings, and of avoiding behaviour motivated by greed and the desire
for notoriety. Hijmans (+y: +o, esp. +o+) emphasizes the close
thematic connections between 1zz and the surrounding letters, 1z1 and
1z. (In this he conrms the general approach taken by Cancik +y
and Maurach +yo to the grouping of the letters.) The themes of death
and darkness are particularly resonant across this set of letters.
I gratefully acknowledge some very helpful comment from Margaret
Graver and James Ker on the translation and from the discussion of 1zz
in ch. j of Ker :oo:.
Thematic division
+: The unnatural character of life for nocturnal people.
j: The cause of this is a general tendency to reject nature.
: Illustrations of unnatural ways of life.
+o+: An illustrative anecdote.
+: The causes revisited; among other things, nocturnals desire
notoriety.
+j+: Another illustrative anecdote.
+y: The multiformity of vice and simplicity of virtue.
+8+: The desire for notoriety again.
1zz.1 more responsible translates ofciosior. Ofcium is the standard
translation for kath

ekon, so the phrase also suggests better at carrying out

appropriate actions.
get ahead of the day. Ker :oo:: : suggests that it is primarily social
duties which can be fullled best by early risers (Juvenal 8.++ ff. connects
sleeping in the daytime with various forms of social irresponsibility), but
the ofcia extend beyond the social sphere (as one would expect from
the generality of kath

ekonta). The theme of action vs passivity is being

foreshadowed.
1zz.z functions of day and night. These too are ofcia. The idea
is that there is a natural tness of day for certain functions and of night
8 cor++av
for others, at least for our species. To live otherwise is to be a different
kind of animal an Antipodeanand in 1z1 Seneca has just emphasized
that our proper way of life is dened by our nature, as is also the case for
other species. Natures Antipodeans (the ones whom Vergil says were put
in their distinctive location by nature) live in a manner which would be
backwards for us, although the literary tradition (see most recently Ker
:oo:: :yjo and nn.) treats Antipodeans as straightforwardly unnatural.
Senecas point here is that what is normal for natural Antipodeans is
unnatural for antipodean humans.
On the species-dened nature of the good, see also 1z.z1. Hence
the basic idea of species-relative function determining goodness of activity
(NB melior in 1zz.1) is reected here. In .6 Seneca noted that day and
night are determined by nature.
1zz. The maxim of Cato is also exploited by Cicero at Fin. :.:,
connecting temporal inversions with economic waste (compare the anec-
dote at Athenaeus .:y). Here it underlines the comparison between
the non-human Antipodeans and perverted human antipodeans. (For an
extended discussion of the Antipodeans, see Ker :oo:: :j+j.) The lives
of antipodean humans are unnatural in their function. Failure to know the
right time for action is an indicator of not knowing what actions are appro-
priate for their lives. The contrast between life and death is meant to map
onto the contrasts between day and night and between activity and pas-
sivity. (The play on life and death is similar to passages at yy.18 and 8z.z.)
Seneca does not consider the possibility that one might exhibit a pattern
of activity suitable for humans but conduct it nocturnally. Hijmans +y:
+:, for example, notes ` a propos of 1zz.1 that Seneca does not point out
that strictly speaking this [awaiting the day before it starts, making use of
part of the night for ones activities] is no more naturamsequi than is dining
at night. It is open to question, of course, whether human nature is, in
fact, so narrowly constrained in its time relationsis the human species
hardwired to be diurnal rather than nocturnal (as we tend to think on
allegedly scientic grounds)? Or is that an imposition of culture? Sextus
Papinius, at 1zz.116 presented as a prime example of someone whose
life inverts day and night, seems to have no difculty carrying out the
normal functions of his life on the inverted timescale; he seems otherwise
to live a quite natural life, not squandering the night on corrupt luxurious
pursuits as others do.
The end of 1zz. makes the role of activity (actus) in a human life
explicit and central: it is the point of life and the proof that the life lived
rr++ra +::
is genuinely important. Like Aristotle, the Stoics think that action is the
expression of human nature because it is our natural function (ergon).
The ofcium language here invokes kath

ekon again. Indication translates

argumentum.
The teleological foundation of ethics is apparent here and is used as a
criterion for assessing particular lifestyle choices. Maximizing action in
our life is to maximize our scope for achieving merit and then displaying
it, and so 1zz. closes with a reference back to the shifting balance of
night/day with the change of seasons. Just as in 1zz.1 we are reminded
that the ratio of night-to-day changes throughout the year, so too here
we contemplate having more day than nightbut now we know why
this would be such a good idea: it would help us full our nature as
acting animals. Seneca does not here consider that exploiting night might
provide greater scope for action. The case of Sextus Papinius (1zz.116)
should make us wonder about this claim. See too Ker :oo:: ch. j, esp.
:jj ff. on the productive use of night, lucubratio. Compare also 6o. on
the animal-like character of inert people devoted to pleasures of the esh.
Feast of the Dead. The Roman festival Parentalia.
1zz. Birds caged for fattening are the paradigm of inactivity and so
of the perversion of the ideal of an active life. That they are caged in
darkness is particularly apt for the theme of this letter as it connects
darkness, inactivity, and excessive consumption. This is a grim but
effective comparison for nocturnal human lifestyles. Cf. De Providentia
:. and De Beneciis .+.+.
The comparison of mental blindness to the inability to use ones eyes
in the dark underlines the naturalness of daytime functioning for human
beings. The fact that our eyes function best in daylight shows that we
are made for daytime activity. This addresses, in a very oblique way, the
question raised above ` a propos of 1zz. whether there is an objective basis
for the claim that our natural activity is diurnal.
For the comparison to birds, see also Plin. Nat. +8.j; Ker :oo::
:o: is particularly good on Roman attitudes to nocturnal creatures and
activities. On the unhealthy quality of creatures deprived of the light, see
Seneca NQ .+.: on night birds.
puff up . The text is problematic here. Superba umbra, which is the
text of the mss, is translated in their self-satised retirement in the Loeb
edition. Following Reynolds I regard the phrase as corrupt.
jo cor++av
1zz. Seneca strongly asserts an intrinsic connection between perversion
in our actions and in our management of time. The proper order of things
is ambiguous between actions and times and it is a challenge to nd in
Senecas rant anything more compelling than guilt by association. What is
rectum is contrasted with what is perversum (straight vs. twisted)these
are powerful metaphors not weakened by their familiarity (see below
on 1zz.1y); but they amount to little more than a reassertion of the
naturalness of our common cultural conventions. Senecas readiness to
treat majoritarian convention as a sign of what is natural contrasts with
his attitude elsewhere, especially (as Ker :oo:: : argues effectively) in
1zo.zo1.
1zz.6q provide examples of unnatural behaviour which are meant to
reinforce our acceptance of the conventional understanding of the proper
order of things. See Ker :oo:: ::, esp. n. +y. In 1zz.6 Seneca criticizes
the unnaturalness of drinking on an empty stomach, which is a matter
of the order of things in that normally one eats before or while drinking
alcohol. The proper order of things in the world indicates that wine is
an accompaniment of food and that its ofcium is not to get the drinker
drunk. Compare 1. and 88.1q. occupies a vacuum in 1zz.6 is both
literal and metaphorical: the stomach is empty and so is the life of the
drinker who abuses alcohol in this way. In 1zz.y transvestism, traditionally
a signal example of unnatural behaviour, is associated with the passive
homosexuality; this attitude is common in Roman moralizing; e.g., Plin.
Nat. ++.y8, Suet. Cal. j:. But the connection of this to distorted time
relations is achieved only with considerable strain by invoking the further
social prejudice that such a role is age-inappropriate, a matter of retaining
some traits of boyhood beyond an appropriate stage of life. In 1zz.8 the
example of owers out of season (for late roses cf. Hor. Carm. +.8.,
Mart. .8o.:) involves an obvious distortion of temporal propriety, but
the other examples (ornamental trees in unusual places, seaside swimming
pools) involve only perversions of what Roman traditionalists thought of
as natural spatial relations. For rooftop forests and comparable symptoms
of needless luxury, see De Ira +.:+.+, 8q.z1. Suet. Nero + reacts with
similar indignation to the perceived excesses of Neros magnicent house
(the domus aurea) in Rome. (For a similar rant against luxury by Fabianus,
whom Seneca admired, see Seneca the Elders Controversiae :.+.+o+.)
In 1zz.q the reversal of activities between day and night is presented
as a culmination of unnaturalness. As presented by Seneca, this seems
implausible, but it was apparently common to some degree: for Tacitus,
rr++ra +:: j+
the courtier Petronius life was characterized by just this sort of inversion
(Annals +.+8); Seneca avoids contemporary examples from Neros court
and in 1zz.1o ff. limits himself to famous characters from the court of
Tiberius, now safely in the past.
That the cause of such twisted behaviour is the desire to do something
unique anticipates the causal analysis in 1zz.1. For the avoidance of what
everyone does, see y.6, where following the crowd is a sign of weakness
and corruption; see also 1z.6 on the mistake of living by the example of
others. Senecas acceptance here of cultural convention as indicative of a
natural order is uncritical by comparison with 1z.6. Only the teleological
argument based on the function of the eyes (1zz.) seems so far to go any
deeper.
1zz.6 build up their strength. The Bud e translation punctuates dif-
ferently and interprets the phrase qui vires excolunt differently. Cest
pourtant une extravagance fr equente, chez les jeunes amateurs de culture
physique, dattendre presque d etre au seuil de la piscine pour boire
It makes an interesting difference in the social comment but is of minimal
philosophical import. On the present interpretation, the dissolute youths
strengthen themselves, that is, deliberately build up their tolerance for
alcohol, so that they can drink in the overheated atmosphere of the bath-
house (which would normally be risky and unhealthy behaviour), all so
that they can promptly clean off the sweat produced by heavy drinking.
1zz.q defect from nature. Compare qo.1q a natura luxuria descivit.
1zz.1o The connection of night with death is exploited again here in this
brief anecdote about Acilius Buta (otherwise unknown); the story, set in
elite society of Rome during the reign of Tiberius, suggests that somehow
time inversion is intimately linked to spendthrift tendencies.
untimely funeral. Normally this phrase (funus acerbum) refers to a
premature death (OLD s.v. acerbus ), but here it is also bitter and
untimely because the funeral is held at night rather than at the normal
time during the day.
1zz.111 This extension of the story about Buta is rather gossipy
and long-winded, and seems designed only to support the point that
Butas inverted lifestyle was notorious and also widespread at the time.
(Again, the connection of time inversions to moral corruption is tenuously
j: cor++av
associative at best.) This hardly seems like an important enough point to
justify the length of the anecdote. Senecas competitive literary spirit is in
play here as well (the derivative literary clich es used to mark the passage of
time in epic were often ridiculed). The timing suggests as muchSeneca
would have been a rising young literary lion at the time of this and the next
anecdote (several of these literary gentlemen feature in the Controversiae
of Senecas father and the setting for the anecdotes is clearly Tiberian in
date). For parodic accounts of sunrise see Seneca, Apocolocyntosis :..
1zz.11 Julius Montanus was a poet also known from Seneca the Elders
Controversiae y.+.:y. For Pinarius Natta, a prot eg e of Sejanus, cf. Tacitus,
Annals ..j.
sunrise to sunset There is a double entendre here; it means all day
(sunrise to sunset taken literally) and also for a very short time (that is,
from an occurrence of a phrase for sunrise in his poem to an occurrence
of a phrase for sunset)the expressions which were most frequently
and pointlessly repeated.
1zz.1z For Quintilius Varus cf. Seneca the Elder, Controversiae +..+o.
The Vinicius mentioned here is Marcus, the son of the Publius mentioned
at o.q; see also Controversiae :.j.:o and Annals .+j. I follow the Bud e
edition on the prosopography.
1zz.1 daily visit. The formal visit (salutatio) to ones patron occurred
in the morning.
1zz.1 Seneca offers his views on the underlying reason (causa) for this
inverted behaviour pattern. It is appropriate for a Stoic to situate the cause
for a character defect in an attitude which is subject to conscious control
and so rationally correctable; the failing is not just a stubbornly defective
character trait. The erroneous attitudes which generate the perverted
behaviour are (+) a desire to avoid the ordinary (see 1zz.q above); (:) the
desire to avoid acknowledging in the light of day behaviour for which one
is ashamed; () a lust for conspicuous consumptiondaylight is free and
the consumption of articial light is a sign of wealth; () a narcissistic
desire to be the object of gossip.
conscience translates conscientia. It is better not to follow Grimal (+8+:
+j) in inating the philosophical signicance of this phrase. It is
rr++ra +:: j
common in Latin literature, though it occurs unusually often in Seneca.
At 11y.1 the word designates the sense of integrity which Seneca retains
even while disagreeing with his own school.
1zz.116 The story of Sextus Papinius (for whose identity see Grifn
+:: 8, n. ) as told by Pedo (the author of an epic poem on Thebes
quoted by Senecas father, Suas. +.+j). Curiously, the present story
emphasizes only the day/night inversion of Sextus and his stinginess, and
does not add to it other evidence of personal perversion, unless that is the
point of the strange joke about consuming lamp oil. See below.
daylight avoiders (lucifugae). The connotation is secretive, anti-social.
See Cicero Fin. +.+. Clearly there is a double entendre here, since the literal
meaning is properly applicable as well. daylight-shy is what Campbell
says in the Penguin. Hommes-blattes in the Bud e, which also refers to a
similar character in Cic. Sest. .:o.
On doing the accounts and getting angry, cf. De Ira ..; doing
accounts at night, Petr. j (Ker :oo:: :j).
1zz.16 porridge. For its role as an appetizer, see Plin. Ep. +.+j.: and
Mart. +..
consumed nothing except the night lives on lamp oil. The term
lychnobius is an apparent coinage from Greek. The main question is
whether living on lamp oil is meant as a sign of stinginess or extravagance.
Notwithstanding the note in Summers (++o: j, followed by Ker :oo::
:j, n. j), who suggests a pun on lichnos, the issue is not easily resolved.
The Penguin translation gives articial-light addict as a translation, sug-
gesting that the word entails a charge of extravagance. If consuming lamp
oil rather than using daylight (which is free) is meant to be a sign of extrav-
agance, then the connection of excess with time inversions which Seneca
is asserting (often feebly) throughout this letter would be conrmed.
But it is hard not to suspect that Pedos quip is ironic, and that Papinius
was simply a misguided misersomeone for whom the only extravagance
would be lamp oil; Varro, in his Menippean Satires (fr. jy), regards saving
oil for night work (lucubratio, on which see Ker who regards it as the
opposite of the light-eeing perversions Seneca attacks in this letter) as
a sign of frugality: otherwise the oil would be poured wastefully over a
plate of asparagus. The Bud e edition has a particularly helpful note on
this difcult point; it suggests that among other passages Horaces Satire
j cor++av
+..+: is relevant. Adecisive resolution of this problemprobably requires
specic information about the characters which Senecas audience would
have had and that we cannot recover.
1zz.1y The role of consistency in virtue and the natural. That vice is
twisted and manifold while virtue is straight and simple is a familiar idea;
see also LSyS, y1.zo, and66.z. But for the purposes of Senecas claims in
this letter about what is natural, it is more important that Seneca stresses
the restricted range of what follows nature: exiguas differentias habent.
The association of the natural with a small set of highly focussed and
functionally dened patterns of behaviour is maintained here. One may,
of course, challenge the intellectual foundations of this central ancient
teleological notion, but in the present context we should perhaps be
principally concerned about Senecas proneness to take social convention
as an indication of naturalness.
deviations. The Latin term is declinationes, literally fallings-off. In
grammar this is the term for declensions, and in geography the term for
latitudes or regions of the earth.
1zz.181q In conclusion, Seneca reverts to his analysis of the underlying
cause for such unnatural behaviour: the yearning for notoriety. Seneca
brings together the vices of temporal inversion with those of conspicuous
displays of excess by treating both as caused by a craving for attention
from society. (On the display of richly adorned vehicles, see also 8y.q.)
That a yearning for social approval should be a cause of vicious behaviour
is not surprising. Doxa, in the sense of reputation, is one of the external
preferred indifferents (along with wealth and high birth) at D.L. y.+o.
Furthermore, Stoic theory specied social inuences as one of the two
causes of corruption for naturally rational animals (D.L. y.8). Here the
damage done to character by our social milieu is highlighted. It is the
desire to be seen in a certain way by other people that pries us away from
our natural function and behaviour patterns.
follow nature unimpeded. In 11z.1q (as in 1zz.1y) emphasis is placed
on the easy and unimpeded quality of the life according to nature. The
language is clear: faciles, soluti, facilia, expedita. According to Aristotle,
pleasure is or accompanies an unimpeded activity (anempodistos energeia:
EN y, ++ja+j, b+o++). Compare the sense of ease represented in the
Stoic ideal of eurhoia biou, the smooth ow of life.
rr++ra +: jj
Commentary on +:
Thematic division
+: The interdependence of active labour and appetite. Func-
tional simplicity as applied to food.
j: Testing ones character by unexpected circumstance.
y: Custom and the example of others corrupt our values.
8++: This is reinforced by the way people speak about values,
even about philosophical values.
+:+: An approach to character improvement which is resistant
to the seductions of shallow philosophical argument.
+j+y: Even Stoic philosophers are not free of risksome of their
doctrines lead to moral risk.
1z.1 The opening anecdote focusses on Senecas ability to nd a good
outcome in an unpleasant situation. Internal conversation on the matter
here stands in contrast to the risks one runs when listening to external
speech, a topic he raises later in the letter at 1z.81y. Seneca makes it
clear that he has made sufcient progress in philosophy that his internal
discourse has a considerable measure of reliability, whereas outside voices,
whether philosophical or not, are less dependable.
make it worse by getting upset all on your own. It is normal Stoic
doctrine that there are no external grounds for emotional disturbance;
external factors are indifferents, worth attention but not grounds for being
upset, which is the result of a decision subject to ones own control.
The added opinion as the source of real upset is initially an Epicurean
idea (see D.L. +o.j, :), but it is also prominent in Stoic discussions of
passions (that of Epictetus quoted in Gellius +.+=fr. +o Schenkl). This
is important since Stoic views on the passions come up again later in this
letter.
1z.z Another idea shared by, among others, Epicureans and Stoics is
that the natural demands of the body are minimal. The function of food
is to quell hunger, and so there is good sense in awaiting its natural
stimulus, hunger, before passing judgement on the value of available food.
This helps us to avoid socially reinforced fussiness and luxury. The
general idea is also homespun wisdom, but cf. also y8.zz. For Epicurus,
see Ep. Men. +o+. Fussiness (fastidium) is a persistent concern of
Seneca; see, e.g., repeated references in 8, 66.z, 118., 11q.116,
1zz.1,18.
j cor++av
1z. Seneca outlines the reason why he thinks it is necessary to train
oneself on simple food and in so doing supplies a positive, non-morbid
motivation for an ascetic approach to life. Circumstances are uncertain and
unreliable for everyone (even for someone in Senecas station in life, see
1z.1) and it is taken for granted that our habits shape our preferences and
disposition. That being so, one cannot rely on being consistently at ease in
ones attitudes and passions if one has become attached to more than the
minimum. But being attached only to the functional minimum requires
training. The tranquil attitude and freedom from passions described here
is, of course, libertas. Hence the last line of 1z.. For a similar line
of thought see 18.. The opening paragraphs of 8y also deal with this
issue.
On the psychological process of adjusting to want, see y8.111z.
The phrase get used to modest food (assuescere parvo) may be intended
as an allusion to Vergil, Georgics :.y:.
circumstances of time and place . Here the text is corrupt and there
is no obviously right emendation.
1z. The simple, natural, and functional relationship between hunger
and food is paralleled by that between the fatigue produced by hard work
and rest. Seneca emphasizes the second-order pleasure he takes in being
aware of having dispositions of which he approves upon reection. This
is comparable to Epicurean mental pleasures or, perhaps, to Stoic chara
(the eupatheia which is the positive counterpart of h

edon

e); cf. z.18,

q.1.
1z. Seneca again reects on his own internal disposition and his
progress in character building. The test or trial of his own character has
come without warning (he could not have anticipated the situation at his
estate). Advance warning of hardshipprovides anopportunity to command
oneself, and so ones response is less revealing of underlying, long-term
dispositions. (On self-command, see Inwood The Will in Seneca, ch. j of
Inwood :ooj.) As suggested above, the benet of becoming accustomed
to wanting little is simply that ones freedom from upset becomes stable
in ones character and is therefore operative even when one has no chance
to prepare oneself. On the value of the impromptu as an indication of
character, see also Aristotle, EN , +++ya+y::.
This section makes it clear that Seneca is thinking of the passions
when he considers our reactions to not getting what we want. At the end
rr++ra +: jy
of this section we return to the demands of nature in contrast to what
we are habituated to. In order to resist the attitudes which accompany
our habits we must actively seek out what is natural (including naturally
occurring events which are dispreferred for humans and train ourselves
to get used to it). This letter, then, is a manifesto on the moral utility of
a training in ascetism, even for a wealthy person; it rests on views shared
by Epicureans and Stoics alike as well as by other schools (such as the
Cynics).
1z.6 The sources of error are habit (the afuent routinely have more
than they need and so fail to learn the difference between natural
need and habitual surplus) and social custom. Excessive integration
into social customs (living by the example of others) undermines our
sense of what is really natural. To live by the example of others is
a fault Seneca often criticizes (see De Vita Beata +., 81.zq, qq.1y,
and see on 11q.116 and 1zz.6q,1zz.181q). Critical and indepen-
dent analysis of our nature and its needs leads to a settled character
(ratione componimur), but we are deceived by an uncritical acceptance
of ideas and behaviours that are standard in our society. In 1zz Seneca
relies on social convention to support the view that a diurnal rather
than a nocturnal lifestyle is natural; however, he does have a few
independent arguments in favour of the naturalness of daytime activ-
ity.
honourable common. For the Socratic rejection of common opinions
as a criterion for moral decisions, see Crito c-8d.
1z.y phalanx of runners etc. These examples of excess are reminiscent
of other passages in Seneca. See esp. 8y.q for the runners, but also
11q., Ben. y.., Tranq. An. +.y for glassware and silver; the references
could be multiplied many times over. Note as well the allusion to the
natural and functional in contrast to the merely cosmetic at the end of
1z.y.
1z.811 There is a kind of casual conversation with ordinarily vicious
people that has a serious negative effect on us. Note the interest in the
subtle way bad values can seep into our character via a delayed reaction to
corrupt talk (the metaphor of a seed is used), and the lingering allure of
such voicesthe musical example here looks ahead to the allusion to the
Sirens in 1z.1z. But the culmination of Senecas treatment of corrrupting
j8 cor++av
talk is the pseudo-philosophical argument of 1z.1o11, which uses
rhetorical techniques to urge us on to vice and self-indulgence; they tend
to make us dependent on the objects of our contingent desires rather than
be independent of the external things which are unreliable even in the
lives of the wealthiest man.
1z.1o helping out with someone elses life. The phrase is reminiscent
of Thrasymachus comparably cynical appeal to rational self-interest in
Republic +, c, where justice is referred to as someone elses good
(allotrion agathon).
life which cannot be reclaimed. An allusion to Vergil. See Aeneid +o.y
and Georgics .:8;. also 1o8.z.
What good does it do ? The rhetorical question is a hortatory clich e.
Cf. y8.1, 1oq.1y.
Get ahead of death and . The text is corrupt here. The Loeb editor
prints an emendation sine tibi interire, which would yield: allow to be
wasted on yourself whatever death will take away.
1z.11 to take care of your heirs estate. The alleged folly of parsimony
intended to make ones heirs more prosperous is perhaps an allusion to
Horace, Epistle +.j.+.
Dont give a damn . An allusion to Catullus j.:.
1z.11 The reference to good reputation at the climax of this speech
reminds us that opinio is an object of explicit contention in these letters.
Here the corrupt adviser dismisses the value of social approval even as he
argues for a set of preferences which themselves bear the stamp of social
approbation. Generally held views can be invoked to help stabilize good
character (as in 1zz) but can also lead to moral erroras in this letter.
The critical move is to invoke our nature as rational animals in order to
separate the wheat from the chaff on all these issues.
1z.1z1 This imagined argument for self-interest provokes Senecas
response. (+) Resist the Sirensthat is, avoid the corrupting speech of
allegedly philosophical persuaders who stand in opposition to friends,
family, and generally accepted virtues (this responds to 1z.811 and so
takes a position on the value of opinio). Seneca no doubt thinks that a set
of value preferences is secure when critical reection about our nature
rr++ra +: j
converges with such publicly statable values. The end of 1z.1z refers to
the challenge of changing our characters so that only the honourable (i.e.,
only what meets this criterion) is satisfying (the Latin term is iucunda,
pleasant). He envisages, then, a transformation of our entire motivational
structure. Compare Aristotle EN +o.j, ++ya+j::, and . +++a+
ff. for the idea that what seems pleasant to the spoudaios is what is
truly pleasant. In EN :. the mean state to which one must aspire
in order to be virtuous is the mean state as dened by the phronimos
(++oya+:).
entice you into a life which is shameful . Here I followthe emendation
proposed by Shackleton-Bailey +yo: j (in turpem vitam miseramque si
turpis illiciunt); the manuscripts are corrupt here.
1z.1 The key to this training process is critical reection on our
motivations. There are things which attract us and things which repel
us. We must learn how to resist both so that we are not compelled by
the contingent desires we feel; if we are not decisively affected by such
contingent desires and preferences, then explicit analysis of the values
of things can determine our choices. The principal way to effect this
liberation from contingent desires is the kind of training in self-denial
which Seneca advocates in this letter. Working against our pre-critical
inclinations enables us to be free of passions; not only are we able to deal
with misfortune when it comes (as it surely must) but it also leaves us in a
position to make detached judgements about values. This letter does not
devote any effort to discussion of the content of those judgements or the
intellectual processes by which they might be reached. It focuses only on
the preliminary work which makes them possible.
1z.1 Chrysippus used the example of a runner to illustrate the nature
of passions as committed practical decisions which are out of our own
cognitive control (Galen, On Hippocrates and Platos Doctrines .:.8+8
= SVF .: = LS jJ; for discussion, see Inwood +8j: ch. j, esp.
+jjy and Seneca and Psychological Dualism, ch. : of Inwood :ooj).
Seneca uses this example elsewhere (see e.g., De Ira +.y., :.j.:) and
here he adapts the example to illustrate what he regards as a key fea-
ture of character formation, the need to counteract our pre-existing
inclinations and preferences if we are to have the opportunity to take
full control of our mental lives. Aristotle, with a different underlying
moral psychology, makes a similar point with a different metaphor in
o cor++av
EN :.: at ++oby he notes that we must bend sticks in the oppo-
site direction if they are to become straight. However, Aristotles claim
is that the mean state can best be achieved by overcompensating for
one excess by leaning towards the other. This is a matter of producing
the appropriate disposition in the sub-rational part of the soul and so
achieving what later Peripatetics called metriopatheia. For Seneca, the
overt process may be similar but its underlying dynamics are different.
Committed to a unitary model of the soul, he urges overcorrection,
that is, denial of antecedent desires and preferences, as a way of detach-
ing oneself from habits which would block the process of character
reformation.
The suggestion that Seneca is invoking parallel Stoic and Aristotelian
strategies for moral education is supported by the fact that just as Seneca
referred in 1z.1z to Ulysses confrontation with the Sirens, so Aristotle
in EN :. (++oa+) invokes the advice of the nymph Calypso to the
same hero.
going along with vice (consentire). This indicates a more general stance
than assent (assentiri).
1z.11y This is a strikinginstance of Senecas non-dogmatic readiness
to be critical about his own school, although here it is not doctrines as such
but those who exploit Stoic doctrine for ends which are as self-serving as
those of the speakers imagined in 1z.1o11. Sensitivity to pseudo-Stoics
was apparently growing in the early Empire.
Even among alleged Stoics there are philosophical topics that need to
be resisted, and it is noteworthy that the views in question are Socratic
in origin: that the wise man is the only true lover and the only one truly
capable of drinking are deliberately paradoxical claims inspired by Platos
Symposium. (See Inwood +y and Politics and Paradox in Senecas De
Beneciis, ch. of Inwood :ooj.) Seneca is often cautious about prema-
ture enthusiasm for Socratic or Cynic deance of convention; in this he is
perhaps inuenced by the Stoic Panaetius, for whom see 116.6. Those
who are not yet wise and stand on uncertain ground in terms of their
moral education should be more cautious with their desires than a sage
can be.
1z.16 concessions to Greek custom. A familiar xenophobic pose by
Seneca, exploiting a common Roman prejudice against customs marked
as Greek. The positive use of Ulysses in this letter tempers the anti-Greek
rr++ra +: +
avour. Seneca is not rejecting all Greek customs, but rather claiming that
some doctrines (such as those on pederasty) are manifestly a concession to
cultural contingency, adopted because of the way they relate to pleasure,
and the main point of this letter is the need to resist prior and culturally
contingent habits and preferences if progress in character reformation is
to be possible. There are also Roman examples of such concessions, such
as in this letter at 1z.811, which is set in a very Roman cultural context
in contrast to this example of a particularly Greek custom. Senecas point,
then, is that if a philosophical theme is manifestly culturally relative, it
may be a poor guide to what is natural. Seneca urges, in place of such
culturally contaminated doctrines, that one attend to the list of topics and
maxims in 1z.16. Since these are maxims which go against most if not all
cultures values, Senecas claim is that they are a far more reliable guide
to what is natural.
1z.16 no one is good by accident just as no one can learn the concept
of good by chance (1zo.) Compare also y6.6, q.q. See also qo.6 for
the claim that virtue must be learned, but it is a standard Stoic view; the
good man is a craftsman, and crafts must be learned.
worthless. Pleasure, of course, is a preferred indifferent and not strictly
speaking without value, but Seneca is urging that we correct for our
normally excessive attachment to pleasure; hence the hyperbole. The wise
person is the one to put the correct valuation on things: see esp. 66.6
where nature rather than public opinion is said to be the proper basis for
valuing things.
1z.1y The conclusion is explicit about the theme of the entire letter.
There are risks in yielding to anyone elses opinions, even those of an
alleged Stoic. One must learn to test even Stoic views against the standard
of nature and the contrarian strategy of this letter demonstrates how to do
it. Although Epicureans are not mentioned, it is apparent that their ideas
on this matter reinforce Senecas Stoic views on natural desires and on
character formation.
Commentary on +:
I am grateful to Marta Jimenez for extended discussion of this letter.
: cor++av
Thematic division
+: The use and abuse of technicality. The quaestio: how do
we grasp the good?
:j: Hedonism linked to the perceptibility of the good. Argu-
ments against hedonism.
: Counterargument: there needs to be a self-evident empir-
ical foundation for our concept of the happy life.
y: This burden is met through the concept of the natural
(which is held to be self-evident). The natural is not the
newly born (see 1z1).
8: Reason is a necessary condition for the good and knowledge
of it.
++: Classication of animals relative to reason and its emer-
gence.
+:: Description of the good, perfected reason.
++j: Relative good vs absolute good.
+:o: The limitations of non-rational animals: no sense of time,
no orderliness of behaviour, etc.
:+: Moral utility of this theory: mental training and proper
understanding of our place in nature.
The nal letter of Book :o returns to the themes of 118, 1zo, and 1z1,
which deal with various aspects of the Stoic conception of the good. This
theme is widespread in Senecas letters (see also 1o6, 11y, for example), but
the prominence and concentration of the theme in Book :o is striking. 1o6
is not presented formally as a quaestio (despite hoc de quo quaeris in 1o6.),
but 11y, 118, 1zo, and 1z1, as well as the present letter, are. Against the
background of Senecas presumed continuing progress on his treatise on
moral philosophy, this group of letters is meant to be taken as a connected
suite of explorations of the idea of the good. The epistemological theme of
how we come to acquire this conception is prominent in 1zo and 1z. For
an important contribution to understanding the Stoic conception of reason
assumed by Seneca throughout this sequence of letters, see Frede +.
1z.1 just as I approve . The text has been thought to be defective
here, but one can, I think, allow for a certain casualness in expression
which would not be out of place in a letter.
The main quaestio is announced, after an introduction which uses a
quotation from Vergil to put technical sophistication into perspective.
rr++ra +:
Seneca attributes to Lucilius a balanced view about it which is probably
his own position too. 118, 1zo, and 1z1 display a technicality which is
clearly of relevance to ethics and these letters are not burdened with
the defensive challenge to themselves that characterizes some of the
more technical letters in earlier books. The benchmark for acceptability
is made explicit here: it is required that the technicality contribute to
moral progress in the Stoic sense (the Latin profectus is the translation
for the Greek prokop

e). Senecas view is that such progress requires

mastery of doctrine in the areas of logic (which includes epistemology),
physics (for a proper understanding of human nature and its relation
to the natures of gods and non-rational animals as well as that of the
cosmos), and ethics. The present letter touches on all three branches of
philosophy. At 1z.z1 Seneca asks and answers the question about how
the letters discussion contributes to moral progress: it provides training
benets by sharpening the mind and also promotes motivational changes
which are not possible without certain convictions about human nature.
See below.
The quaestio in this letter is epistemological. Is the good grasped by
sense perception or reasoning? (Comprehendere suggests katalambanein,
the Stoic term for the rm grasp which does not admit of error and which,
when fully systematized, is the basis of knowledge.) The implications of
the issue extend to physics, however: the way in which the good is known
is connected to (adiunctum) the nature of non-rational animals (including
children, see 1z1). For if the good is grasped by reason, it follows that
non-rational animals will have no access to it. (See y6 and commentary
above for the argument that reason and the genuine good are distinctive
traits of human beings as opposed to animals.) This is because goodness
is the sort of trait possession of which requires that we understand it (see
Getting to Goodness, ch. +o of Inwood :ooj) in order to possess it.
Unlike, for example, physical properties such as weighing yo kilograms
or having a Y chromosome, goodness is a property which one cannot
have without at least knowing what it is and knowing that one has it
(after, perhaps, a brief transitional moment when the advent of virtue
might escape even the wise persons notice). Hence animals whose nature
determines that they cannot understand the good cannot be good. The
relevance of epistemology and physics to ethics is clear.
Senecas main opponent here is Epicurus, with whom he often agrees
on many issues. At Ep. Men. +: Epicurus says that all good and bad
are in the senses, a claim which has epistemological force. Similarly, in
cor++av
On the Goal Epicurus claimed that without the pleasures of perception he
would not be able to form a conception of the good (Athenaeus +:, je,
Cicero Tusc. .: = :: [+:] Arr.). Seneca does not argue against a fully
developed and sophisticated version of Epicurean good, but rather targets
a simplied version of Epicurean hedonism.
1z.z Seneca here presents arguments against the view that the good
is grasped by perception rather than reason. 1zo has already made clear
Senecas view that considerable reasoning power (in the form of analogia)
is needed for a grasp of the good. So it is not surprising that he rejects
the simplistic view that perception is the source of our understanding of
the good. The background assumption here is that the grasp comes either
from reason or from perceptionan exhaustive choice which reects the
long-standing argument against Epicureanism. But on Senecas account
both sense perception and reason are needed to account for our acquisition
of the concept of the good. So the force of the question must be not about
the full range of inputs into the process but rather about the criterion
(NB iudicarent, judged, in 1z.z and iudicibus, judges, in 1z.) which
is decisively responsible for our grasp of the good. (This interpretation
of the question at issue still leaves Seneca diametrically opposed to
Epicureanism.) At D.L. y.j we learn that there is a natural basis for
the concept of the good, but at D.L. y.j we also learn that right reason
is a criterion. Senecas position is like that of his school, that there are
necessary inputs from the senses for the concept of the good, as for any
other concept, but that reasoning is the decisive factor in the mastery of
the concept.
In his critique of Stoicism (City of God 8.y) Augustine takes the
view that by conceding that even the raw material for our concept of
virtue comes through the senses the Stoics align themselves with the
Epicureans (see SVF :.+o). Here Augustine is explicitly grouping these
two materialist schools together in contrast with Platonism. One naturally
wonders whether the vehemence of Senecas opposition to Epicurean
materialism and empiricism here is rooted in his rejection of some such
attack. The Academic Cicero also frequently attacked Epicurus for holding
that his criterion of the good, pleasure, was common to men and beasts
because it rested solely on the evidence of the senses. However, Epicurus
own sometimes extravagantly reductive claims about the notion of good
are themselves sufcient to explain Senecas determination to distinguish
his view from Epicurus. See, e.g., Epicurus fragments o8+j Usener.
rr++ra +: j
1z.z Argument 1: If the senses were alone the judges of what is good
then there would be an automatic and universal approval of every pleasure
(and conversely for pains). This does not happen. So it follows that the
senses are not alone the criterion for the good. Since Senecas question
here is in effect what is the unique and sole criterion for the good?,
this argument is to the point; but it does not establish that input from
perception is not also needed in order to acquire the conception of the
good. That perceptual input is needed is clear from 1zo and 1z1.
1z. Argument z: If the senses were the sole criterion of what is
good then we would not condemn extreme pleasure-seekers or pain-
avoiders. But we do. This, Seneca claims, shows that the senses are
not the sole arbiters. In fact, it shows only that we cannot consistently
believe that the senses are the sole criterion and at the same time maintain
our familiar habits of moral judgement. Either this argument is merely
dialectical or (if he means it to be probative) Seneca is again putting undue
weight on the conventional views of his societyan endoxic method
(see 11y.6).
It is worth noting that being in accordance with the criterion for good
and bad is assumed to be justicatory for actions (but what is their
offence?); pleasure and pain must be assumed to be sole criteria for
this argument to succeed. That this is so is conrmed by the fact that
Seneca, at the end of 1z., wants to deny that we surrender (tradere)
decision-making power for choice and avoidance to the senses. He does
not explicitly deny that the senses, pleasure and pain have a role to play in
our decisions.
pursue and avoid are technical terms (adpetitio and fuga, representing
the Greek verbs hairesis or di

okein and pheugein) for behaviour aimed at

acquiring or evading thingsin effect, most goal-oriented action. See
D.L. y.+oj and passages cited at Inwood +8j: :o and nn. j.
1z. A third consideration against the view that the good is grasped
by the senses. Seneca argues that there is a natural tness of reason
to be the criterion of the good. Judgements should be made by the
organ which is most suitable for making the distinction in question,
and Seneca claims that there is a natural tness between reason and
judgements made about the happy life. Only reason has the capabilities
needed for deciding about what makes a life happy. As Seneca puts it, it
is reasons role to be in charge ( praeposita) and to make determinations
(constituere). This conrms that Senecas claim is that reason is ultimately
cor++av
criterial, not that it acts alone; that it is decisive, not that it is the only
factor.
Detailed reasons for this claim are not given here, but it can be argued
that Seneca elsewhere holds defensible views about the tness of reason
to make the long-term assessments needed to determine happiness, a
condition which extends over a whole life (see Reason, Rationalization
and Happiness in Seneca, ch. of Inwood :ooj); this ts well with the
views Seneca expresses about time below at 1z.161y. The analogical
argument used here puts emphasis on the tness of the tool to the taskan
essentially functional basis for holding to the primacy of reason (see on
1zo and also Getting to Goodness, ch. +o of Inwood :ooj).
A comparison is drawn (unfortunately the text is in part corrupt)
between using the senses (rather than reason) to judge good and using
the sense of touch (rather than vision) to judge ne physical distinctions.
The relative sluggishness of the senses in humans is one basis for denying
their tness for the job of determining the good. An informal argument is
presupposed by 1z.:
+. Our senses are duller than those of animals.
:. Animals do not grasp the good.
. From (:) and the assumption that animals rely only on the senses
(since they lack reason) it follows that animal senses cannot grasp
the good.
. From (+) and () it follows that our senses cannot grasp the good.
j. So if we can grasp the good it is not through the senses. Hence it
must be through reason.
This is a far from compelling argument, not least because it assumes that
animals do not grasp the good, which an Epicurean would deny. It also
fails to consider the possibility that there might be different kinds of
acuteness in the senses, such that animal senses are dull with respect to the
good but acute in some other domain, while ours are acute with respect to
the good but dull in that other domain. If there were a uniquely human
kind of pleasure different from that of animals it might well be graspable
by human sense perception. (But perhaps a Stoic or Platonist would then
want to argue that this hypothetical human pleasure is intellectual pleasure
grasped by reason.)
For on their view. This is a puzzling use of for. There has been
a slight but characteristic leap of thought: having just indicated the right
way for decisions to be made, Seneca explains why the opposing view is
rr++ra +: y
wrong (hence the for) without explicitly stating that it is wrong. The
reader is assumed to have taken that point for him- or herself.
In 1z. Seneca uses an analogical argument. As eyes are more acute
than touch with respect to physical discrimination, so the mind is more
acute than all the senses with respect to the good. This would show that
none of the senses is t to detect the good. The presumably Epicurean
opponent holds that pleasure is the good, and pleasure is detectable by
touch. Since Seneca holds that vision is more acute than touch, he might
well be suggesting that Epicurean reliance on touch is doubly misguided,
since it makes not just sense perception but even the least acute of sense
perceptions the criterion. For the centrality of touch in Epicureanism, see
Lucretius :.:+.
eyes to distinguish. The text is corrupt here and it is not certain
that it can be healed. The Loeb translation retains the transmitted text,
but its translation (that would enable us) does not seem possible. The
emendation of D. R. Shackleton-Bailey (+yo: jcui darent for daret)
may be the most plausible. It would give the translation to which they
would have given [the authority] to distinguish good and bad, supposing
the implicit subject to be the Epicureans. But although the Epicureans
might say that the senses or path

e are the criterion of good and bad,

Seneca would be ill advised to offer them the suggestion that sight among
the senses would be the most plausible criterion. This emendation would
yield respectable sense and the text would be acceptable if transmitted; but
there is no need to saddle Seneca with such a weak claim on the strength
of an emendation. A longer lacuna may be suspected.
1z. Visual judgement and acuity; cf. 6.1y.
tossed to the ground what is lofty. The metaphors of high and low for
reason and the senses, the good and pleasure, though common in Seneca,
have no argumentative weight.
1z.6 The rejoinder. The objector replies that the grounding for
any form of knowledge must lie in something self-evident and sense-
perceptible. So the conception of the happy life (i.e., the good) must also
have a foundation in sense-perceptibles. This is an attempt to use the
Stoics commitment to a form of empirical epistemology to commit them
to treating the senses as the criterion of the good.
8 cor++av
The Stoics are committed to the claim that nihil in intellectu quod non
prius in sensibus; however, Senecas claim is not that the senses play no role
in the conception of the good but that they do not, while reason does, play
a decisive criterial role based on natural suitability for deciding on such
matters. The Stoics do not deny, though, that reason requires perceptual
raw material. This shows the Stoics intermediary position between some
forms of Platonism and Epicureanism. A Platonist argument like that used
by Augustine (see above) forces the Stoics to concede that something is
shared with the animals, viz. the sensory experience which provides the
starting points for a conception of the good, and this was used to suggest
their commitment to a crude physicalist view. An Epicurean can object that
Stoics are neglecting the senses when they locate the criterion in reason
and so suggest that they are abandoning their empiricist commitments.
The viability of the Stoic conception of the good rests on their success in
identifying and defending a middle ground.
The rejoinder also raises the issue of how the lower nature of non-
rational animals is related to rational nature; since the Stoics are committed
to the notion that nature is a criterion and not all nature is rational
(except in the sense that divine causation structures all things), it is
reasonable to ask how the two levels relate to each other. The Stoics are
committed to giving a unitary account of the nature of humans, since
their naturalism has a strongly unitary character. But they must also
give a developmental account, since in their view babies and children
are non-rational in a relevantly similar sense to animals. 1z1 dealt with
the relationship between the starting points of nature and what is natural
to a fully developed rational animal. The same issue is raised here in
an even sharper form, and the success of Senecas position in 1z.y8
depends on acceptance of the general picture of human and animal
nature given in 1z1. For there Seneca gave an account of rational human
nature which preserves the features shared with non-rational animals
but recognizes and grants authority to the distinctive features of rational
nature.
1z.y8 Seneca relies on the graduated conception of the natural out-
lined in 1z1 to help rebut this criticism. What is natural to each stage of life
is the counterpart of the good for that stage of life; similarly for different
kinds of animals, each of which has a normative natural state which is the
counterpart of the good for that kind of animal. In 1z.11 below Seneca
acknowledges the legitimacy of this relative conception of the good but
denies that the good of any other kind of animal is the good for humans;
rr++ra +:
he also claims (what is much harder to show) that the good for humans is
also the non-relative good.
In 1z.y Seneca distinguishes between what is natural and happy (this
will be what is natural for a rational animal qua rational, see Fin. ., D.L.
y., and below on 1z.1) and what is natural and immediately present
to a newborn. The natural in this sense is self-evident and perceptible
(which addresses the critics demand for an experiential starting point).
But it is not criterial of the good without qualication. It is the starting
point for the good in the sense that it is the counterpart of the good for
the initial stage of development in a rational animal. The Stoic theory
is that as the nature of the animal develops, its functional characteristics
and so its good develop along with it; there is a distinctive good for each
stage of development, as there is for each kind of animal (see 1z.q11).
The distinction between what is natural to each stage of development and
to the adult is meant to be analogous to the distinction between what is
natural to each kind of animal and what is natural to humans; this enables
Seneca to allowfor the soundness of the objectors challenge (the need for a
self-evident starting point) and yet still reject the claim that what is natural
to the newborn is criterial for the species. This makes Senecas argument
depend on the soundness of the evolving nature argument of 1z1.
In 1z.y we see a biological comparison. There is an analogy between
the difference between baby and adult and that between roots (even of a
sapling) and the crest (cacumen) of a full-grown tree. Stoic naturalism is
supported by pointing out that the difference between newborn and adult
is a natural kind of difference, one paralleled even among plants.
The argument in this letter is also dependent on the reasonableness of
the claim that the good of each kind of animal is something which is proper
to it, is in some way its own (see also y6.811). This kind of claimgoes back
at least to Republic + (j:e), where Socrates gains agreement to the propo-
sition that the function of a thing (which is the basis of its good) is what it
alone can do or it can do best. Aristotle in EN +.y takes a similar position on
the importance of what is idion or proper to a thing when assessing its good.
what is unimpaired represents integrum, whole or complete. Cicero
makes the same point at Fin. .+y: anyone, given the choice, would prefer
all the parts of their body to be well adapted and sound (integras) rather
than of equal utility but impaired and twisted (trans. Woolf ).
In 1.68 Seneca had elaborated on this theme, claiming that the
rational mind is one which boasts about no good except its own, by which
he means a good which is not shared with or transferable to another. What
yo cor++av
is more foolish than to praise those features in a person which are someone
elses? What is crazier than someone who admires things which can be
readily transferred to somebody else? No one should boast except about
what is his own. After outlining the distinctive merits of the vine, shared
by no other plant, and contrasting them with gilding applied to the leaves
and fruit, Seneca claims that in a vine the distinctive ( proprium) virtue
is its fecundity; in a human being too one should praise what is his very
own . Praise that in him which can be neither given nor taken away,
what is distinctive of a human being. This turns out to be the mind and
perfected reason in the mind rather than any external features which are
contingent or can be shared by other species. For a human is a rational
animal and so his good is fully achieved if he fulls that for which he was
born. And what is it which this argument demands of him? something very
simple, to live according to his own nature. But public madness makes
this difcult .
The traditional view about the importance of the proprium is reinforced
here by the rhetorical (but obviously reasonable) consideration that it is
silly to praise a person for something which does not belong to him. This
line of thought is clearly in Senecas mind as he writes 1z. See also
y6.811 and commentary and compare Epictetus fr. +8 (Schenkl).
1z.8 foetus lurking in its mothers innards. Stoic embryology makes
the foetus plantlike. Their biology also makes pre-rational humans animal-
like. Since on their theory good comes only with reason (see 1zo) the
human before its rational state is no more able to grasp the good than
a plant or brute animal. We need, then, to emphasize the special role
of reason in relation to the good (1zo) as well as the theory of evolving
nature (1z1).
both are equally mature. That is, neither is any more mature than the
other; both are equally immature.
1z.q11 The relativity of functional good to stages of life will be
paralleledby the relativity of eachanimal kinds good to the characteristics
of its species; in this section Seneca develops the former as a preparation
for the explication of the latter in the next section. Part of the work
of foreshadowing is done by the diairesis in 1z.q, which distinguishes
non-rational animals from pre-rational animals of a rational species and
imperfectly rational adults of that species. The good is going to be located
in perfected reason, which is the state towards which we as adults may
rr++ra +: y+
strive. In the case of good relative to stages of life, it is natural (in a
teleological system) to grant that the good of the mature stage is the good
for the species. It is more complicated to privilege the good of any one
species as against that of any other species than it is to privilege the good
of the adult as against that of other stages of life. Hence the Stoic claim
that there is an objective natural hierarchy of species, a scala naturae with
rational animals at the top, is used to support the claim which follows: that
the good of adult humans is the objective good, good without qualication.
See also y6.811 on such uses of the scala naturae.
1z.1o become unied translates coalescere, literally to grow together.
The two relevant senses of the word are to become unied and to solidify.
Both are apposite here.
1z.11 Since there is species-relative good as well as objective good,
the point about the dependence of the good on full development can be
made with the aid of an example drawn from the plant world. The good
of wheat, for example, is only found in mature wheat. So too for human
beings. (So far this does not warrant Seneca to identify human good with
objective good.) Full development is the good of each kind (on which see
also 1).
young green shoot herba lactente is a verbal reminiscence of Vergil,
Georgics +.+j.
reason has been completed. Cf. 1z.z and y6.q.
Nature as a whole . This anticipates the invocation of cosmic nature
as a benchmark (see 1z.1).
1z.1z The specic good for human beings is outlined. Compare 1,
66.6, 1zo.1o. Seneca has sketched his ideal of the good person often enough
that he feels that he can let it stand without argument here. It follows from
this sketch of perfected reason that genuine human good is impossible for
the young at various stages (infancy, childhood, adolescence) and rarely
achieved even by adults.
prolonged and focussed attention. Achieving virtue is a slowbusiness. In
y.81z Seneca gives one of his more detailed descriptions of the process.
y: cor++av
1z.1 The opponent attempts to use the concession that there are goods
relative to species in order to argue that there is a genuine good for an
infant toofrom which it would follow that there is a good not graspable
by reason. If there is a different good for each species, then there is also a
different good for each stage of life (and so too there is a kind of good for
an infant too), so that reason would not be the sole legitimate criterion of
goodness. This is a challenge to Seneca to provide grounds for privileging
the good of an adult human over other relative goods.
In reply there are two tacks Seneca could take. He could argue for the
subsumption of immature good in mature good within each species (which
would directly neutralize this argument, relying as it does on a certain
blurring of age-relative good and species-relative good). He does not,
though, because the point has been made already, in 1z1 if it is properly
understood, and reasserted again in 1z.q and 1z.1z. So he can and
should move on to his more comprehensive point, which is that specic
human good is objective, in the sense that it accords with the cosmic good
(1z.11). Here is an example of how physics, specically cosmology,
plays a role in supporting key theses in ethics. It is important to recall
here that Senecas reply relies on a distinction which goes back to the early
days of the school. See M. .+o8 and Schoeld +8: . For the
importance of the distinction between part and whole see M. .++j+8;
for the natural superiority of wholes see also N.D. :.y = LS jH.
1z.1 good by courtesy is a designation for the kind of good which
is relative to a stage of development or to a non-rational species in its
mature form. Good without qualication is, Seneca claims, limited to
mature rational animals. Things of the kind which are good by courtesy
are not good in human beings, but preferred indifferentswhich can
be called good in a loose sense. See, for comparison, y.11y. For
recognition of a loose sense of the term good, see Chrysippus at Plu. St.
Rep. +o8a (=LS j8H).
The background to Senecas position here is succinctly expressed in the
denition of the good offered at Fin. . (attributed to Diogenes of Baby-
lon) and more fully at D.L. y.: good is that which is perfect according
to nature for a rational being qua rational (teleion kata phusin logikou h

os
logikou). All aspects of this denition are reected in Senecas account
here. Rational animals have non-rational aspects and characteristics, but
the phrase qua rational denies their relevance to the understanding of the
good. And non-rational animals and plants certainly have characteristics
that accord with nature, but the restriction to what is natural for a rational
rr++ra +: y
animal rules out this kind of naturalness. And even a rational animal qua
rational can be defective in its accordance with nature, but the requirement
that the naturalness in question be perfected excludes the relevance of
such traits to the denition of the good.
At 66.111z Seneca gives a similar account of the different and incom-
mensurable standard of value that applies to non-rational animals. There
the distinctive status of human rationality (and so human goodness) is
connected to a divine mind; here (in 1z.1) it is connected to the com-
pleteness of the cosmos, which is identied with god. What seems a mark
of Platonic inuence in 66.1z and elsewhere is here connected more closely
to Stoic cosmology, which, of course, was partly inspired by the Timaeus.
1z.1 The foundation for the claim that only what has reason can
have the good is the notion of completeness. Senecas case depends on
supporting the claim that there is a notion of completeness which goes
beyond completeness in ones kind.
The all-inclusiveness of the cosmos is the basis for the claim that its
good is the true, non-relative good. And in Stoicism (as in Platonism) it is
agreed that the cosmos is rational. Compare 66. and below for the role
of all-inclusiveness in making something dominant or rational.
in accordance with the nature of each. See y6.811, 1z1. and compare
De Finibus j.+.
1z.1 tree. The Stoic scala naturae normally includes rocks and plants
and here tree represents the plant kingdom. Cf. y6.q and (noting the
presence of pneuma in all of nature) NQ .+.+.
On the difference between man and animal see also Cicero, Off. +.++.
1z.1 A further argument. The happy life requires speech. Goods are
only found in conjunction with the happy life. So only speech-capable
animals can have the good. The premiss that happiness requires speech
would not be challenged, least of all by Epicureans who held that even the
gods speakand indeed, that they speak Greek (CHHP, j; Philode-
mus, On Gods col. ). As Seneca argues in 1z.16zo, the lack of speech
entails other deciencies, so that dumb animals cannot have all possible
benets. Speech is not only the cause of these other benets (see below),
but in itself it is one of the benecial abilities given to humans (by the gods,
nature, or providence: see Cicero, Leg. +.:y, N.D. :.+8, just following
y cor++av
the mention of reason in :.+y) which other animals lack. The close
connection of speech and reason is a commonplace both in Greek (logos)
and in Latin (ratio/oratio, for which see Cicero, Off. +.jo).
1z.1618 Seneca elaborates on the incompleteness from which dumb
animals suffer. They do not have a complete sense of time (and so cannot
be complete in their natures). There is no account here of what it is about
a sense of time that is indispensable to a complete nature, but the trope
in 1z.18 is reasonably convincing (in contrast to the reductio in the same
place: if that sort of nature has the good then so do plants).
For a sense of time as a key difference between non-rational and rational
animals, see Cicero, Off. +.++. Cf. on time Brev. Vit. +o.
1z.18 disorderly and confused. The concession that animals have a
drive towards the natural is used as a foil to suggest what is lacking:
orderliness and clarity. Those two traits are built into our notion of the
good and are allegedly found only with reason. Confused represents
turbidum, an adjective which Cicero uses for passions: see Tusc. .:, ..
But animals do not have the rationality which makes genuine passions
possible. The Stoic point is that a misuse or failure of reason produces
behaviours not unlike those produced by the absence of reason. Here
Seneca is describing the state of non-rational creatures; see 1z.1q.
1z.1q An animals lack of order is not a aw with respect to their
kindthis point is needed in order to avoid taking the contradictory
position that an animal whose specic nature is in ideal shape has a defect.
There is a thin line between asserting, as Seneca does, that human nature
is objectively good while no other animal nature is and asserting, as Seneca
does not, that there is something defective about other species. Dumb
animals have this sort of movement bytheir ownnatures andthose natures,
as far as they go, are not defective. As indicated in 1z.1, there is no good
except where there is room for reason. Dumb animals, then, cannot have
genuine vices or defects any more than they can have the genuine good.
1z.zo The optimal state of a non-rational animal has a kind of good a
kind of virtue something complete but not in an unrestricted
sense. These are the goods by courtesy of 1z.1. The unrestrictedness
comes with the ability to understand the set of adverbial qualications on
actions which are associated with the assessment of actions by Aristotle:
why, to what extent, how; compare Ben. .. and see Rules and Reasoning
rr++ra +: yj
ch. , Inwood :ooj: ++:. This is particularly interesting, as these are the
qualications about actions that are needed for successful deliberation.
They seemto come out of nowhere here, but this, inmy view, simply shows
how important they are for Senecas conception of practical rationality
and how natural it is to take them for granted as a component of practical
reasoning. It is just these situational qualications and their application
which are the chief mark of rationality in any decision or action. Cf. q.
and 1oq..
For the quasi-virtues of non-rational animals in contrast with human
virtue, see 66.111z.
1z.z1 There are three ways in which this kind of quaestio is useful.
First, it is good exercise and sharpens the wits. Second, it slows down the
process of deliberation and so provides an opportunity for the avoidance
of error. But most important, this line of argument or, rather, the doctrine
developed here shows that man is to be grouped with god rather than
non-rational animals. 1z.zz purport to show how this is so.
alongside god See 66.1z et al. In 66 the linkage of man to god was
merely asserted as a theological premiss, but in 1z Seneca has argued
non-theologically for mans special status as a complete animal rst (above)
and then argues that this aligns him with the divine.
1z.zz The idea in the background must be that our true good (and
so happiness) is something in which we excel (our function is what we
alone do or do best, as in Republic +, j:e). Among mortal animals, there
is no physical activity or trait at which we are best. So the competition at
which we are bound to win, the competition of reason, points to the trait
which alone is truly ours. And it groups us with god (the rational cosmos)
rather than with any other species.
1z.zz Superior animal capabilities; see y.1, y6.q, Ben. :.:.+. The
great myth of Platos Protagoras explores the theme. Also Plin. Nat. y.+j.
fast as a hare. See y6.8q.
1z.z reason brought to perfection. See also qz.zy, q.11.
bound to lose. See above on 1z.y and y6.q; compare 1.y on praising
various animals for their proper good: no one should boast or be praised
except for what is their own.
y cor++av
1z.z joy comes from within. Joy (gaudium) is a rational reaction to
the presence of genuine good, that is, virtue or what participates in virtue.
Since virtue is a state of ones soul, joy is an affective response to an inner
state of ones own character. 1 and y6 also emphasize the importance of
limiting praise to states which are truly ones own ( proprium), that is, the
mind and perfected reason within the mind (1.8). See above on 1z.y.
The idea that the truly happy person is above other men and a rival to
god because self-sufcient bears comparison with the god within concept
(e.g. 66.1z and 1.1z).
when you can gaze upon . Compare 118. with its echoes of Lucretius.
The sense of the claim that the unstable objects of human striving are
things which one would not want turns on the use of the verb want (velle)
to indicate an unconditional desire for something as being good (as such
things cannot be); velle sometimes represents the Greek verb boulesthai, a
desire for the good as such. Seneca does not deny, though, that one might
prefer such things (malle), that is, that one might choose to have them in
specic circumstances rather than their opposites.
seize, wish for, protect. These ways of handling the external objects
which people overvalue are listed in declining order of aggressiveness. We
take some things away from other people (eripere); other things we might
wish for but do not take action to acquire; nally, there are things which
we already possess but feel we must endeavour to retain. None of these
attitudes is correct according to Seneca.
Seneca concludes the letter and the book with a guideline (formula) or
rule of thumb to be used in self-assessment. Becoming complete involves
not just possession of what is truly ones own, self-sufciency. It also
requires that one understand something, just having the good is not
enough (indeed it is not really possible) without an internal grasp of it.
The guideline to use in determining whether one has this understanding
lies in ones ability to understand a puzzle or paradox: if one can see
how it is that the least fortunate are in fact fortunate. The puzzle is
solved by noting an ambiguity. Fortunate indicates both the possession
of many preferred indifferents and the attainment of happiness. Those
deprived of such external advantages (the most unfortunate) can be
happy: this is a basic thesis of Stoicism. But the claim here is stronger,
that they are most fortunate. How is this to be understood? It may
be simple hyperbole, but more likely it also reects Senecas persistent
rr++ra +: yy
interest in the value of misfortune in moral education, as a corrective
to the misguided values of ones culture. We see this training function
in both 66 (esp. 66.q) and in 1z (we are to welcome misfortune).
For the reassessment of good fortune, cf. 8o.6, qo., q8.1, 1z1..
In q.y it is clear that the key to this paradox is the doctrine of the
indifferents.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aurr, K. (+8o), Textkritisches zu Seneca Epist. y+, y, Hermes +o8/: joo.
(+8+), Das Problem der Faktizit at der Senecanischen Korrespondenz,
Hermes +o/: y:.
Aruarcn+, M. vo (:oo), Wort und Wandlung: Senecas Lebenskunst (Leiden,
Boston).
Aroa+, K. r+ +r. (+), Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy (Cambridge).
Arrroar, G. (+8+), Note alla lettera 8y di Seneca, in G. Arrroar et al., Quattro
Studi Latini (Parma), j.
Arrras-Gorz, R. (+y), Der Begriff Skopos in der Stoa und seine Vorgeschichte
(Hildesheim, New York).
A+s, J. (+a), The Morality of Happiness (New York, Oxford).
(+b), Virtue as the Use of Other Goods, Apeiron :/: j.
Aar, H. vo (+o:), Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta (Leipzig).
Asrs, E. (+8), Epicurus Scientic Method (Ithaca, London).
B+ars, J. (+8), Antiochus of Ascalon, in M. Grifn and J. Barnes (eds.),
Philosophia Togata (Oxford), j+.
(+y), Logic and the Imperial Stoa (Leiden, New York, K oln).
(:oo), Porphyry: Introduction (Oxford).
B+ars, J. and Mrotccr, M. (eds.) (+88), Matter and Metaphysics (Naples).
Br++otr, T. (:oo), Lusage de soi dans le stocisme imp erial, in C. L evy
and P. Galand-Hallyn (eds.), Vivre pour soi, vivre dans la cit e, Rome et ses
renaissances, + (Paris, Presses Universitaires de Paris-Sorbonne), jy.
Brckrr, E. (+o), Senecas Briefe j8 undj. Das Antiochus-Posidonius-Problem,
Rheinisches Museum f ur Philologie, +o: +:o.
Bouzrr, S. (+8), Determinism and Freedom in Stoic Philosophy (Oxford,
New York).
Batscnwro, J. (+8), The Cradle Argument in Epicureanism and Stoicism, in
Scnorrrrn and S+arkra (+8), ++.
(+88), La th eorie stocienne du genre supr eme et lontologie platonicienne,
in B+ars and Mrotccr (+88), ++:y. Also in English translation, The
Stoic Theory of the Supreme Genus and Platonic Ontology in Batscnwro
(+), :+jy.
(++), On a Book-Title by Chrysippus: On the Fact that the Ancients
Admitted Dialectic along with Demonstrations , Oxford Studies in Ancient
Philosophy suppl., 8+.
ururrooa+rnv y
(+), Papers in Hellenistic Philosophy (Cambridge).
(:oo), Stoic Metaphysics, in Iwoon (:oo), :o:.
C+crk, H. (+y), Untersuchungen zu Senecas Epistulae morales (Hildesheim).
C+s+o, V. (+), Something and Nothing, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy,
+y: +j:+.
Coorra, J. M. (:oo), Moral Theory and Moral Improvement: Seneca, in
J. M. Coorra, Knowledge, Nature and the Good: Essays on Ancient Philosophy
(Princeton), o. First publication :oo in Proceedings of the Boston Area
Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy, +: jy8.
Cos++, C. D. N. (+88), Seneca: ., Letters (Warminster, Wiltshire).
Ctaarr, H. M. (+), The Younger Senecas Style: Some Observations, Bulletin
of the Institute of Classical Studies, +: 8.
Drrrs, H. and Ka+z, W. (+), Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker ( vols.), +:th
edn. (Dublin/Z urich).
Drrro, J. (+, repr. of +yy), The Middle Platonists: A Study of Platonism, Sc
B.C. to A.D. ::c (London).
Donns, E. R. (+), Gorgias. A Revised Text with Introduction and Commentary
(Oxford).
Dorr, P. L. (+y), Leclettismo impossibile. Seneca e il platonismo medio, part two
of P. L. Donini and Gian Franco Gianotti, Modelli losoci e letterari. Lucrezio,
Orazio, Seneca (Bologna).
Doaarr, H. and B+r+rs, M. (+8y:oo:), Der Platonismus in der Antike: Grundla-
gen, System, Entwicklung, vols. (Stuttgart).
Enrrs+rr, L. +n Krnn, I. (+8), Posidonius: Volume ., The Fragments. Second
edn. (Cambridge and New York).
Enr, P. T. (+8), Seneca Epistulae Morales .+:, Classical Philology, 8+/::
+y8.
Enw+ans, C. (+y), Self-Scrutiny and Self-Transformation in Senecas Letters,
Greece and Rome, /+: :8.
Foa+ru+ton, W. W. (ed.) (:oo:, repr. of +8), On Stoic and Peripatetic Ethics:
The Work of Arius Didymus (New Brunswick, NJ).
Fa\krr, E. (+:), Textkritisches zu Senecas Briefen, Museum Helveticum,
+: ::.
Farnr, M. (+8o), The Original Notion of Cause, in B+ars et al. (+8o), :+y.
(+), The Stoic Conceptionof Reason, inK. J. Botnotars (ed.), Hellenistic
Philosophy, vol. II (Athens), jo.
(+), On the Stoic Conception of the Good, in Iraonr+koot (+),
y+.
Ftar+tx, H. (+8), The Annals of Tacitus, : vols. (Oxford).
G+uarrr, G. and Scnrrnkrcn+, C. (eds.) (+o), Literarische Formen der Philoso-
phie (Stuttgart).
Grrr, C. (+88), Personhood and Personality: The Four-Personae Theory in
Cicero, De Ofciis I, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, : +.
8o ururrooa+rnv
Gotrn, S. J. (:oo:), I Have Landed: The End of a Beginning in Natural History
(New York).
Gotrr+-C+zr, M.-O. (+), Diog` ene La erce. Vies et doctrines des philosophes illustres
(Paris).
Ga++, M. (:ooo), Humour in Senecas Letters to Lucilius, Ancient Society, o:
+:.
Ga+vra, M. (+), Therapeutic Reading and Senecas Moral Epistles (Dissertation
Brown University).
(+), Philo of Alexandria and the Origins of the Stoic Propatheiai,
Phronesis, /: oo:j.
(:oo:), Cicero on the Emotions: Tusculan Disputations and , (Chicago).
(forthcoming), Stoicism and Emotion.
Gar+r, P. (+8+), S en` eque (Paris).
Garrrr, M. (+:), Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics :nd edn, rst edition +y
(Oxford).
Gtrn+, A. (+8+), Aristotele e un presunto lapsus di Seneca, Giornale Italiano di
Filologia, : 8+.
H++sr, F. (ed.) (+8y+:), L. Annaei Senecae Opera quae supersunt, vols. (Leipzig).
H+no+, I. (+), Seneca und die griechisch-r omische Tradition der Seelenleitung
(Berlin).
H+no+, P. (+8), Porphyre et Victorinus, : vols. (Paris).
H+krso, R. J. (+88), Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought (Oxford,
New York).
H+aarso, S. J. (ed.) (:oo+), Texts, Ideas, and the Classics (Oxford).
Hrnraso, J. (:oo), Morals andVillas inSenecas Letters (Cambridge, NewYork).
Hrorruaock, M. (:ooo), Das Problem des ethischen Fortschritts in Senecas Briefen
(Hildesheim, Z urich, New York).
HrJ+s, B. L. (+y), Inlaboratus et Facilis: Aspects of Structure in Some Letters of
Seneca (Leiden).
How, W. W. +n Cr+ak, A. C. (+:), Cicero: Select Letters (Oxford).
Htrsra, K. (+8y8), Die Fragmente zur Dialektik der Stoiker, vols. (Stuttgart-
Bad Cannstatt).
Htssrv, E. (+), Heraclitus, in Loo (+), 88++:.
Iraonr+koot, K. (+), The Stoic Division in Philosophy, Phronesis, 8:
jyy.
(ed.) (+), Topics in Stoic Philosophy (Oxford, New York).
Iwoon, B. (+8), The Two Forms of Oikei

osis in Arius and the Stoa in

Fortenbaugh (:oo:, repr. of +8), +o:o+.
(+8), Hierocles: Theory and Argument in the Second-Century A.D., Oxford
Studies in Ancient Philosophy, :: +j+8.
(+8j), Ethics and Human Action in Early Stoicism (Oxford).
(+8), Goal and Target in Stoicism, Journal of Philosophy, 8:
jyj.
ururrooa+rnv 8+
(+o), Rhetorica Disputatio: The Strategy of De Finibus II, in Ntssu+t
(+o), +.
(+), Seneca and Psychological Dualism, in J. Batscnwro and
M. Ntssu+t (eds.), Passions and Perceptions (Cambridge), +jo8. Also
in Iwoon :ooj, ch. :.
(+y), Why Do Fools Fall in Love?, in Soa+uJr (+y), jj.
(:oo:, repr. of +8), The Two Forms of Oikeiosis in Arius and the Stoa, in
Foa+ru+ton (:oo:, repr. of +8), +o:o+.
(ed.) (:oo), The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics (Cambridge).
(:ooj), Reading Seneca (Oxford).
(forthcoming), The Importance of Form in Senecas Philosophical Letters,
in Moaarso and Moarr (forthcoming).
(forthcoming (:)), Plato and Platonism in Letter j of Seneca.
Iawr, T. H. (+8), Stoic and Aristotelian Conceptions of Happiness, in
Scnorrrrn and S+arkra (+8), :oj.
K+n, C. (+y), The Art and Thought of Heraclitus (Cambridge).
Kra, J. (:oo:), Nocturnal Letters: Roman Temporal Practices and Senecas Epistulae
Morales (Dissertation Berkeley).
Krnn, I. G. (+jj), The Relation of Stoic Intermediates to the Summum Bonum,
with Reference to Change in the Stoa, Classical Quarterly, New Series j:
+8+.
(+8j), Posidonian Methodology and the Self-Sufciency of Virtue, in H.
Flashar and O. Gigon, edd., Aspects de la philosophie hell enistique: neuf expos es
suivis de discussions (Geneva), +:+.
(:oo:, repr. of +8), Euempt osiaProneness toDisease, inFoa+ru+ton,
(:oo:, repr. of +8), +oy+.
Kr+rr, W. C. and Kr+rr, M. (+8), The Development of Logic (Oxford).
Lrr+, A. D. (+j+), The Epistolary Form of Sen. Ep. +o:, Mnemosyne, :
+yj8+.
(+j:), Seneca and Posidonius: A Philosophical Commentary on Ep. +o:,
+, Mnemosyne, j: jyy.
(+j), Senecas Plans for a Work Moralis Philosophia and their Inuence
on his Later Epistles, Mnemosyne, : oy+.
(+j), Posidonius the Dialectician in Senecas Letters, Mnemosyne, y:
:o.
Loo, A. A. (+y), Carneades and the Stoic Telos, Phronesis, +:: jo.
(ed.) (+y+), Problems in Stoicism (London).
(+), Stoic Studies (Cambridge, New York).
(ed.) (+), The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy (NewYork,
Cambridge).
(:oo:), Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life (Oxford).
8: ururrooa+rnv
Loo, A. A. (:ooj), Stoic Linguistics, Platos Cratylus, and Augustines De
dialectica, in D. Frede and B. Inwood (eds.), Language and Learning: Philosophy
of Language in the Hellenistic Age (Cambridge) jj.
and Srnrrv, D. N. (eds.) (+8y), The Hellenistic Philosophers, : vols.
(Cambridge).
M+r+rsr, E. V. (+8), Socrate e Seneca (ep. y+, y), Studi italiani di lologia
classica, y/+: yy.
M+srrrn, J. (+:), Heresiography in Context (Leiden, New York, K oln).
M+a+s+or, A. (+y), Lanalogia in Seneca: problema retorico o umanistico?, in
Rrros++r (+y), :o8.
M+acovrcn, M. (+y), Heraclitus (M erida).
M+ta+cn, G. (+yo), Der Bau von Senecas Epistulae morales (Heidelberg).
M+zzorr, G. (+8), Le Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium di Seneca. Valore
letterario e losoco, Aufstieg und Niedergang der R omischen Welt, II..,
+8:yy.
Mr, S. (+), The Stoic Theory of Categories, Oxford Studies in Ancient
Philosophy, +y: :+jy.
Moaarso, A. and Moarr, R. (eds.) (forthcoming), Ancient Letters (Oxford).
Ntssu+t, M. C. (ed.) (+y8), Aristotles De motu animalium: Text with Translation,
Commentary, and Interpretive Essays (Princeton).
(ed.) (+o), The Poetics of Therapy = Apeiron :. (Edmonton).
Pruaokr, S. (+y+), Oikeiosis, in Loo (+y+).
Ponrrz, M. (+o), Grundfragen der stoischen Philosophie (G ottingen).
Rrvorns, L. D. (+j), The Medieval Tradition of Senecas Letters (Oxford).
Rrr+n, O. (+), Grundbegriffe der stoischen Ethik (Berlin).
Rrros++r, B. (+y), Studi su Varrone, sulla retorica, storiograa e poesia latina:
scritti in onore di Benedetto Riposati (Rieti, Milan).
Rrs+, J. M. (+8), Seneca and Stoic Orthodoxy, Aufstieg und Niedergang der
R omischen Welt, II ., +:o+:.
S+rrrs, R. (ed.) (:ooj), Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought (Oxford).
Sc+ar++, G. (+yo), La lettera 6, di Seneca (Brescia).
Scnrn+, E. G. (+j8), Der ..S. Brief Senecas. Eine Studie zur Polemik zwischen
Stoa und Peripatos (Dissertation Leipzig).
(+o), Eine Fr uhform der Lehre vom Umschlag Quantit at-Qualit at bei
Seneca, Forschungen und Fortschritte, : ++:+.
(+y), Die Denitionen des Guten im ++8. Brief Senecas, Philologus,
++8: j8.
Scnorrrrn, M. (+8), Zenos Syllogisms, Phronesis, :8: +j8.
(+8), Ariston of Chios and the Unity of Virtues, Ancient Philosophy,
: 8.
and S+arkra, G. (+8), The Norms of Nature. Studies in Hellenistic Ethics
(Cambridge and Paris).
Scnorrrrn, M. et al. (eds.) (+8o), Doubt and Dogmatism (Oxford).
ururrooa+rnv 8
Scnoroo, B. (+), Senecas Epistulae Morales als philosophisches Kunstwerk
(Bern, New York).
Sco++, D. (+j), Recollection and Experience: Platos Theory of Learning and its
Successors (Cambridge, New York).
Srnrrv, D. (+8:), The Stoic Criterion of Identity, Phronesis, :y: :jjyj.
(+8j), The Stoic Theory of Universals, The Southern Journal of Philosophy,
:, suppl.: 8y:.
(:ooj), Stoic Metaphysics at Rome, in S+rrrs (:ooj), ++y:.
Srrr+as, J. (:oo), The Art of Living: The Stoics on the Nature and Function of
Philosophy (Aldershot, Burlington VT).
Sn+ckrr+o-B+rrrv, D. R. (+yo), Emendations of Seneca, Classical Quarterly,
:o: jo.
Soa+uJr, R. (+), Animal Minds and Human Morals: The Origins of the Western
Debate (Ithaca, NY).
(ed.) (+y), Aristotle and After (London).
(:ooo), Emotion and Peace of Mind. From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temp-
tation (Oxford, New York).
S+arkra, G. (+8), Antipater, or the Art of Living, in Scnorrrrn and S+arkra
(+8), +8j:o.
Stras, W. C. (++o repr. +8), Select Letters of Seneca (London, Toronto).
Trrcnra+, D. (+o), Der Philosoph als BriefschreiberZur Bedeutung der liter-
arischen Formvon Senecas Briefen an Lucilius , in G+uarrr and Scnrrnkrcn+
(+o), :y:.
Tnrrrra, W. (+), Die Vorbereitung des Neuplatonismus (Berlin, Z urich).
Trr++ao, S. (+y), Un lapsus di Seneca, Giornale Italiano di Filologia, :
:oj.
Tonn, R. B. (+y), The Four Causes. Aristotles Exposition and the Ancients,
Journal of the History of Ideas, y: +::.
Usrra, H. (+88y), Epicurea (Leipzig).
Wrrnuraora, J. (:oo), Seneca und die Stoa: Der Platz des Menschen in der Welt
(Berlin).
Wrrso, M. (+8y), Senecas Epistles to Lucilius: A Revaluation, Ramus, +:
+o::+.
(:oo+), Senecas Epistles Reclassied, in H+aarso (:oo+), +8y.
Wnr+++kra, J. (+yj), Seneca, Ep. j8.+y, Symbolae Osloenses, jo: +:8.
INDEX LOCORUM
Aelius Aristides, Rhodian Speech
+ :j
Aeschylus Agamemnon
+yy :+
A etius
+.y. +
.y. +jo
.++.+j :
.:o.: :j
Alcinous Didaskalikos +j:
Alexander De Fato
+y.:+: +n
+y+ :8
+:.+8 +
Comm. on Metaphysics
j:.+ +
Aristotle Cat.
j ++y
8 +:
De An.
.:
o8b+++j :8+
++b:yo ++y
+a: ++y
EE
+:yaj8 :
EN
+ ++
+.+ +8
+.y :o, :oj,
:. j
+o :oj
+oa:: +8, +
+ob:+oya ++
+oyb:: :o
++o:a:y o+
++o:b:j o+
++o:b:j++oa ::j
++oa+o :
++oa+ o
++oby o
+++a+ j
+++ya+y:: j
++:ja+:+ +j
++ybo +
++jab:j ::y
++ja+j j
++jb+o++ j
++ya+j:: j
M.A.
8+o :yo
Metaphysics
8yab +:
8yb+: +8y
On Forms fr.
+8R +
Physics
+a:8 +
+a+j+y +
Posterior Analytics
pseudo-Aristotle Divisiones +j
Arius Didymus fr.
+jo, :8j
Aspasius EN commentary +j:
Athenaeus
je
.:y 8
Augustine City of God
8.y
Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae
+:.: xiii
+.8 :y
+.+ +8, jj
Boethius Cons.
:. ::
De Dialectica
j :y
8 rnrx rocoat
Catullus
j.: j8
Chrysippus (SVF .+y) cited at
Plutarch St. Rep.
+o8a +, :o, y:
Cicero Acad.
+.:+: +j
+.o +:
+.8 :+8
:.8 :
:.:+ :y
:.: 8
:.j :8
:.8j :8
:.j :y
:.+j :+8
De Natura Deorum
+.+ +
Fat.
+o :8
+ :j
Fin. xiv, +j, +yj
+.+ j
: :o
:.+y :
:. :8
:.88 +
:. +, +yy
+o,
j :+8
.+ :
.+y
.:oj :
.:+ :y
.:: +8
.: o
.: +
.:y :oy, ++
.+ +o, :8
.: +y, :o
. oy, +o, , y:
. :
. ::, +
.j ::
. ::
.+ +j
.j ++j
.j +y, +, ::
.j+ +
.: +yo
.: :
. ++:, :8
+8
j +j, +, :o:, ::, oy, :
.+ :8
.+ o
.:8 +j:, +j
.:8 +8
.: :yj
.j +
j. :yj
j.8 :o
j.+ y
j.8 +j
j.y+ +y, +
j.8 +j
j.8j +
j.8y +
Hortensius :++
Inv.
:.+o :yj
:.+j :
Leg.
+ +o
+.:y y
+. +
+.j +y
+.jj oy, +
+.j +8y
:.+o :
Letters ,:
Letters to Atticus xiv
+.+: oy
+.+:.+ o8
+.+ oy
+.+. o8
+.+ oy
N.D.
: :
:. :
rnrx rocoat 8y
:. :
:. :
:.y8 y:
:.+:+o :, :
:.+:8 +yo
:.+8 y
Off. +yo
+.++ y
+.+++: +yo
+.+: :
+.+j :y
+.+ +
+.o :j
+.jo y
+.+ :
+.88 :+8
+.+oj+
+.+:8 +j
++ +
.+y +:8
.+:+ :
.8 :8
.8y :j
.++j +
Orator
j +o
8 +:
8+o +:, +, ++
++
+o +o
Paradoxa Stoicorum
j. +j
:, +, +j, +8
+: :
8 :j
Rep.
+.+j+ +8y
+.+ +
+.:8 +8
.+ +j
.: +j:
Sest.
.:o j
Timaeus translation +j
Top.
8 +j
Tusc. xiv
+.+. :y
+.o :
+.j8 +:
:.+y +
:o
.+:+ ::+
.: y
.:8+ :+j
. +8y
.:
.yo :++
.y :+8
.8 +y
.:o :yj
.:+ ::y
.: ::8
.:o ::
.o ::
.+ +y
. y
.8 :+8
. :+8
. :+8
.y :8y
.8o :8
j.+o +8y
j.: +j
j.y +j
Cleanthes (SVF +.+) cited at
Epictetus Diss. .+.+y :+
Hymn to Zeus (SVF +.jjy) ++
Clem. Al. Strom.
:.:+ :oj
VII .. :o
VII .:.: +n
Demetrius Eloc
:o+ :
Diogenes Laertius
.: +
.: +
.8o+ +j8
.8j
88 rnrx rocoat
j.o +j
. +
y.+ ::
y.: +88
y. :y
y.j: :
y.j +8j,
y.j
y.+ ++y
y.8j j
y.8j :o, , :,
y.8j :
y.8 o
y.8y +o, :8
y.88 :y
y.8 o, :+, :, j
y.: +y
y. :
y. +o, +:, , y:
y. +j
y.+oo ++
y.+o+ +:, :8
y.+o: :oy
y.+o +y, :
y.+o +yj
y.+oj j
y.+o +, j
y.++ :8y
y.+:o +:
y.+:8 :j:, :j
y.+o ++, +:y, +, ++
y.+ +
y.+ ++
y.+: ++
y.+jo +8
y.+j +
y.+jy +jo, :j
y.+o :y+, :
y.++ :yj
y.+8 ::
y.+y: +y8
y.+8j ::
+o xiv
+o.:: +
+o.:8 +yy
+o. ++
+o.j jj
+o.++8 +
+o.++ :+
Epicharmus fr. : +:
Epictetus fr. +o Schenkl jj
fr. +8 Schenkl ::, yo
Diss.
+.:. :
+.+8. :
:.+8.8++ ::8
.:.+j :j
..: :j
.+.+y :+
Ench.
.+.: ::
Gnom.
8 ::
+j ::
j +:
Epicurus fr. yy Usener :
frr. o8+j Usener
frr. jo:: Usener ::
Ep. Men.
+: :
+o+ jj
KD
:+ +y
: +
: +
o +
j :8
Letter to Idomeneus +yy
Letter to Menoeceus :+
+:y: +
On the Goal :
Principle Doctrines +
j ::
j :+
Sent. Vat.
+y
Galen On Hippocrates and Platos
Doctrines
rnrx rocoat 8
.:.8+8 j
.:.+ :8
j.:.y ::, ::y
j.:.j..+ ::
Heraclitus B a +:
Hes. Op.
xxi
Hierocles Principles
of Ethics :,
col. III +j:
Horace Carm.
+.8. jo
Epistle
+.j.+ j8
Satires
+.:.+++ ,S, :+
+..+++y S, +
+..+: j
Livy
+.+:+ +y8
:.+o :
:+.: :++
LS (Long and Sedley, The
Hellenistic Philosophers)
:AD :j
CD :y
o :8
+8
DE ++
jGH +8
+
yS j
j: :8
jj :j
jjA-G :
jjA-I +j
jy :
+A-F :y:
:C :j
Lucretius De Rerum Natura
+.yo+ +
+.y +
+.+j ++:
+.+jy :
+.o ,,
+.8+ ++:
: proem o
:.+j8 +
:.:+ y
.:o ++:
.o +jy
.8o o
.8 o
.88 o
j.+o++ +jy
Manilius Astronomica
.+ :
Marcus Aurelius
:.+y +o
++.+o +
Martial
.8o.: jo
y. :+
y.j :+
+. j
Musonius Rufus, Discourse
+.j +y8
Nemesius De Natura Hominis
y :j
y8: :j
Origin On Principles
.+.: ++8
On Prayer
.+ ++8
Ovid Fasti
+.+8j :+
Med.
+ +j
Petronius
j j
Philo Allegory of the Laws
:.:: ++8
Gods Immutability
j ++8
o rnrx rocoat
Quod deterius
+o +:j
Philodemus On Gods
col. y
Plato Alcibiades
+:o j
Apology ++o, ++:, +jj, o8
ob +8
Cratylus
oe +:j
o+e +
Crito +88
c8d jy
Euthydemus
:yja :o
:8oc:8:a +y
:88d :o
Euthyphro
e +:j
Gorgias :88
:ycd +8y
joyd +8
j+++: +8, :
j: +jy
j:bj:ja :+j
Hippias Major
:ya +j
:e +:j
Laches :
Meno ++, 8
y+b :j
y:a +
yya +8j
8yc88e +y
88de +, :
Parmenides +:, +
Phaedo ++o, ++:, +:o,
++, +j+, +j, +, +8,
+8, o:
:b +j+, :8
ab +
+oo :yj
+o :j
Phaedrus ++o, ++:, +:
:b ++
Philebus
+8cd ++y
: ff +y
Protagoras ++, +y:, :, , yj
jy o
Republic :88,
I :o, :o, :
II :+, :8
IV +8, ::+, :, :y
jc :j
j:dja :o
.j:e yo, yj
c j8
:de +
y:c +:j
yyc +:j
8c +:j
jocd +8j
jode +8j
Sophist ++o, ++:
:: +:
Symposium o
:oy +:
Theaetetus
+j:o +:
Timaeus ++o, ++:, +:j, +:y, +o,
+:, +, +,
++, +y, +j, y
:yd:8a +o8
:8a +:j
:8aoa +:
jb +
yyab ++y
oac ++y
:o ++
Pliny the Elder Nat.
y.+j yj
8.
8.+
++.y8 jo
+8.j
Pliny the Younger Ep. +.+j
Plutarch Comm. Not.
+ooc :oj
+o+ +
rnrx rocoat +
+oe +j, +, :8
+oya +:, +
+oyyc :8
+o8b +
+o8bc :y
De amicorum multitudine
b +
De recta ratione
:c +
De Sollertia Animalium
De virtute morali
+b +
On Exile
ojb
On Moral Progress
yjd :+y
St. Rep.
+: +yo
+o:ef :8
+o8a +, :o, y:
Virt. Mor.
oe+d :yj, :y
Posidonius F+ojEK :8y
Quintilian Inst.
:.+:. :
:.+ ++:
:.+.: ++
..: ++
8.. ++
+o.+.+: ++
Seneca
1.z o
1.1 xxxxi
1. +j, +8
z.1 +
z.6 :, +j, +8+
.6 8
.+o :
.1o +, +y
. +yj
6. :
6.y +
y.6 j+
8. +8, :j
q.z ++:
q. :
q.y +j
q.16 +o
q.181q +yo
q.18zo +
1o.1 +
1z.1o +
1z.11 +++
1.18 :o
1. jo
16.y +y
16.8 +
16.1o +
1y +j
1y.q +
18. j
1q.q +
zo :, +j
zo. +
zo.1 :
zz.1 +8
z.18 j
z. +y8, :++
z.6 +y8, +8
z.1y +j+
z.1qz1 +:, +
z.zo o
z6.z +
z6. o
z6.6 :+
z6.1o +
zy.q :, ++y
o.11 +o, :+
1. +:
1.11 +j+
6. :y:
6.6 +j
6.1o +o
6.11 +o
8.1 oy
o.q j:
o.1z ++
1 +, :o, y+, y
: rnrx rocoat
1.1 +j
1.1z y
1.8 :y
1. :y8
1.68 :o,
1.y :o, o, yj
1.8 y
z.1o +yo
. +jy
.6y :o
:+8, :o
.y :
.q +yo, +y, +
8 :o
8. +8, :j
8.6 ++
8.q +8
q :o
q.z +j
q. :j8
q.6 :j8
q.8 ::
q.11 yj
1.6 +j+
z.11 ++
.1 +8
. +:
8 +y, +o, +jj, +j,
+8, ++, :j8, +o, +, jj
8. :yo
8.6 :o, :
8.y +8, ::
8.8 +o, +o
8.1o o
8.1z1 :
8.1 :
8.1 :y8
8.18 +o+, +8
8.18z1 +o
8.1qz1 +8
8.zo +o
8.z1 ++
8.zz +
8.zz +
8.zzy :
8.z +8, +j+, ++, +y+
8. +
8. +jy
8.6 +
q.1 j
q.y :8
6o.
6. +j
6 +:, +j, +j, +8, +8,
++, :j, +o
6. :o
6.1o +8
6.y +:, +:
6.yq +8
6.1 +8
6.1 :j
6.1 +y+, o:
6.16 :+:, :8
6.16zz +:
6.1y +jy, y
6.18 :8
6.1q ++
6.1qzo o:
6.zo 8
6.z1 +jy, :+:
66 +, +8:, +8j, +88,
+, :+, :8, yj, yy
66. :+j
66. +:, :o
66.6 ++, +8j, :+, :,
oj, +, y+
66.8 ++
66.111z y, yj
66.1z +j+, y, yj
66.1qzo ::, +
66.z jj
66.z +, j
66. :8
66. ++, y
66.6 +8, +:
66.1 +8, :
66.q :8, yy
66.q +, +8, :
66.1 :++
66.y1 o
rnrx rocoat
6y. +
6y.1 +j
68.6q o8
yo.y +
yo.11 +8
yo.1 o
yo.161y :
yo.zo +
y1 :o:, :+:, ::o, :+
y1.z :o
y1. :o:
y1. ++, +
y1.6 ++
y1.8 +:
y1.1 ::
y1.16 +, +:, :+:
y1.18 :+
y1.1q :o8, :+o
y1.zo :, j
y1.z1 +:
y1.z +
y1.zy :oj
y1.zy1 :
y1.z8 :
y1.z +j:, +y
y1.6 +y
yz.8 +j
y +8:, +8j, :o:, :+:, ::o, :+
y.1 +8:
y. +y
y.1 :+:, +
y.11y y:
y.1 yj
y.16 :+:
y.1y ++:, +, +
y.zo o:
y.z1 :+o
y.z8 +
y.z6 +, :+
y.1 +
y.81z y+
y.11 +
y6 ++o, +8j, ::o, :+, , y
y6. :o:
y6.6 :o, +
y6.y +8j, ::,
y6.y11 +
y6.8 :
y6.8q :o, yj
y6.811 y+, y
y6.q y, yj
y6.1o +y, +, :o
y6.11 :o
y6.1z :oy
y6.1 :+
y6.1 o, +y
y6. zo1 :
y6.z +:, +
y6.z +jy, ::
yy +y
yy.6 ++o
yy.11 o
yy.1z o
yy.1 +
yy.18 8
y8.1 :
y8.z +
y8.1o +j+:
y8.111z j
y8.1 j8
y8.18 :++
y8.zz jj
yq o
yq.1z :8
8o.6 yy
81. :j, ::
81.11 :o
81.zz +j
81.zq jy
8z :+, :o
8z.1z +y8
8z.z 8
8z.1
8z.1q :j
8z.z o
8 :+, :o
8.1q :8y
8.8 xx
8 :o, :j, :+, :88, :, :
8.1 :j, o
rnrx rocoat
8. :yy
8. :
8.z +8
8.z1 :
86 :o
8y ::o, :88, :, :, +j+,
:o, :j, j
8y.1 :
8y.111 :o
8y. :
8y.q j
8y.6 :o
8y.y :yy, +j, +
8y.q jy
8y.q1o +j
8y.zy :+
8y.1 :+
8y.6 :o
8y.1 ::o
8y.6 +j8
88. ++
88.11 o:
88.1q jo
88.z8 o:
88.6 o:
88.y +j, :yo
88.z ++
8q :j
8q. :j
8q.1 +j, :y+
8q.1y :j
8q.z1 jo
qo.1 :o
qo.1q j+
qo. :88, :8, yy
qo.6 :
qo.6 +
q1.16 :
q1.1qz1 +y
qz ::o
qz. +o
qz. +y
qz.111 +:+
qz.1y +y
qz.18 :8
qz.z +
qz.zy +, yj
qz.o :8
qz. +j+
qz. +
q.1 :o:
q. +y
q. :8
q.1o :8
q +j, ::o
q.y yy
q.18 :y+
q. +y, +
q.z o
q. :+
q.61y :88
q.6q :o
q ::o
q. yj
q.y :
q.q +
q.z +
q. :
q.6 +8
q. +8
q.6 +8
q.z :
q.y +y
q.yz +, +
qy oy
q8.1 yy
q8.1 :j
q8.118 +
qq.11 o
qq.1y jy
1oo ++
1o1.1 :
1o1.y8 o
1o1.1o1 +
1oz.z o
1oz.z :o
1oz.zy :8
1o.z :+
1o. +8
1o6 :o:, :88, :8, ++, :
rnrx rocoat j
1o6.1z :8
1o6.z :o:
1o6.z :jy, ::
1o6. :j, :
1o6.y +j8
1o6.8 :
1o6.11 o
1o6.1z :y:
1o8 +j, :y+
1o8.1 :: ,:yo
1o8.8 :
1o8.1z1 o
1o8.1yzo +j
1o8.1qz1 +j
1o8.z :y+
1o8.z j8
1o8. o+
1o8.8 ++o
1o8.q :
1oq ::, :yo+
1oq. yj
1oq.1y +:, ::, j8
11o +j
11o.1 +j
11o.1zo :, :
11o.18 +y+8
11o.zo +j
111.1 ++:
111.z ::
11z.1q j
11 +, :y+, :88, ::,
:, :8, ++
11.1 :o:
11.z :j
11. +8
11.y8 +8
11.16 +:
11 +
11.8 +j, :y:
116.
116.6 ::y, o
116.6 +8
11y :j, :, :y+, o,
++, , :
11y.1 ::
11y.z :
11y. :
11y. ++:, ++
11y.6 :j, j
11y.y :
11y.8 :o
11y.1o :
11y.1 :j
11y.16 :y
11y.z :jy
11y.zy +y
118 +y, :
118.z +j
118. +y, o, y
118. jj
118.q11 :
118.11 ++y
118.1 +y
11q :, :, +, :j
11q. jy
11q.q +, +
11q.1 +
11q.116 jj, jy
1zo +j8, +, +j, ++,
, :, :, yo
1zo.1
1zo.1 :yy
1zo. ++:, ,
j, +
1zo. +, +
1zo.6 :++
1zo.y +
1zo.1o y+
1zo.11 ++
1zo.1z +j+
1zo.1 +jy
1zo.118 +
1zo.1 +j
1zo.1y18 +:8, +o.
1zo.18 :8
1zo.1q +, :
1zo.z +jy
1z1 +o, :yj, +, +,
:, 8
1z1.1 +8, :o:, ::
rnrx rocoat
1z1. y
1z1. ++, yy
1z1.1o :y, :yj
1z1.16 :
1z1.1qz j
1z1.zo
1z1.z
1zz +j, o, :y, jy
1zz. +8
1zz.6q jy
1zz.1 jj
1zz.116 8
1zz.18 jy
1zz.181q jy
1z yy
1z.1y :o
1z.6 j+
1z :o, +
1z.1
1z.z +y
1z.y1 :y
1z.q1o +
1z.1o11 o
1z.111 +
1z.1 +
1z.11 :o
1z.1 +
1z.161y +y
1z.18 ++, o
1z.z1 8
1z.zz ::
1z.z +y
Apocolocyntosis xi, xviii
:. j:
Ben. ::, ::
+ :j
+..:+..8 :y
+.++. ++y
:.:.+ yj
:.. ++:
:.j.: :o, :o
.y.j :
.:8.: :oy
.. y
.++.j +jy
.+.+
.+y. :8
j.+ ::
j.+:.: :j
j.+. ++y
.+ ::
.: :o
.j.j :
.+:.+ ::
y.+ +j
y.:.j +
y.. jy
y.+ +
Brev. Vit.
j o
+o y
Clem.
+.: +
+..+ :
+.j +
+.y +
+.+8 ++8
Cons. Helv.
:.y +j+
+o.8+o +
:o +:, o:
Cons. Marc.
+o.+ o
+.j o
:.j +j+
::j +j
Cons. Polyb.
+:
.: o
.8 +j
Const. Sap.
+.+ +8j
j. +y8, +, :+
j. +yo
.: ++
. +j:, +8j
+o. :
Controversiae
y.+. :+
De Ira
rnrx rocoat y
+.+.+y :y
+. +y
+.j ::8
+.y. :8, j
+.+.y :
+.:+.+ jo
:.+ ::
:.+: +8
:.:8. +
:.j.+ :8
.+. :8
..: ++:
.+o ::y
.+o.: ::
.+:. :8
.+.: :y
.+y :8y
.. j
.y. :+j
De Otio
j +j+, +j, o:
De Vita Beata :
+. jy
.+ +o
. +
y.+ ::
8. ++
+:. ::
+ :+
:o. o
:.j :o
:j.j o
NQ xiii, xvi, xviii, +o
+ pref. +j+, +j, ++
+ pref. +y +:
+ pref. +++: +j
+ pref. +: o:
+ pref. ++y :8
+ pref. + +j:, +
+ pref. +y +j, o:
+..8 ++y
:.8jo +j
pref. j. ++8
pref. +o :88
.+.:
.o.j +
a pref. +: +
a pref. :o +j:
.:. :
.+.+ y
.: :8y
.: +y
.:. :8
y.:j.: 8
y.: +++
On Favours xvi
Prov. +8, ::
:.
.j :++
. :++
+y8
.: :++
Tranq. An.
+.: ::
+.y jy
:. ++:
:. :y
:.+o +
8 :o, :, +j, +y.8, +j+
Seneca the Elder
Controversiae j:
+..+o j:
+.. +jy
:.+.+o+ jo
:.j.:o j:
y.+.:y j:
Suas.
+.+j j
Sextus M.
y.:+j: :8
y.o+o :8
8.: ++
8.j :
8.yo :y
.y+ :8j
.+o8 y:
.+o :o, +
.++j+8 y:
.::+ :
8 rnrx rocoat
++.:: +y, +o
++.::: +:
++.: :, :yj
++.o :oj
++.y :+o
Simplicius In Cat. (CIAG vol. 8:
:y:8 = SVF :.) +:
Stobaeus Ecl.
+.+.:++.+y. +:y
+.yy.+: +:j
:..j+o +8
:.y.8+o +8
:.jy :j
:.jy.:+: :
:.:.+j.j ::y
:.:.:o.j ::
:..:.+: +8
:..+8j. :y
:..+:+ :y
:. +y, +:
:.yo +o
:.yo +j
:.y:.j :oj
:.yj +o
:.y.8 :8, :
:.y.:+ +8
:.yy +j
:.yy.++ +8
:.y8. :
:.y8.y+: :
:.y8.++y :+
:.8 +
:.8.+y+ :j
:.88.+y ::, :+
:.o :
:. +
:..++ ::y
:.y.+j8.+ :+
:.y.:o8. :+
:..+: ++
:.+o+.+:o :, +8
:.+o:.:o: ++
.:+.j+j ::
j.o.+8oy.j +y, :+y
Suetonius Cal.
j: jo
Nero
:o :o:
+ jo
SVF (Stoicorum
Veterum Fragmenta)
+.8 ++, +8
+.88 ++
+.o :
+.8 :
+.:8+ :+
+.jjy ++, :oy
+.++ +y8
:.+oy
:.:o+ :y
:. +:
:.yy8oo :y
:.yo8oo :
:.8o+y :j
:.8o:: +jo
:.8+j :8j
:.++o8 +8,
Antipater
j :o:, ::,
Antipater
++ :jy
.j +
.::
.:+o :8
.j +
.joo +8
Tacitus Annals
..j j:
.+j j:
+j.y+ :+
+.+8 j+
+.:+ ::
Teles the Cynic On Apatheia
: :j
Tertullian De Anima
j :j
Valerius Maximus :.8 pr.
+jy
rnrx rocoat
..++.:+ +jy
Varro cited at Gellius
Noctes Atticae
+.8 :y
+.8.8 :y
Menippean Satires fr. jy j
Vergil Aeneid
+.+ 6, :8y
j. .,
.+oj ,, :+j
y.:yy:y ,,
y.8o8++ o+
+o.y j8
++.y
+:.yo8
Georgics
+.j :y
+.j8 ,.
+.+yy ,,
+.+:o: ,,
+.:jo+ ,c
:.y: j
.+jo
.:8 j8
Xenophon Memorabilia +88
Zeno Republic o8
GENERAL INDEX
Page references in italics are to the translation; those in roman font are to
the commentary.
Academy
Academic philosophy +y, +j8,
:, oy,
Academic scepticism +y, +j, see
also Old Academics
Alexander the Great 6, ,,, :8y8,
+j, +
anger, see passions
Antiochus of Ascalon +oy, +o, +,
+j, +, +8, :j8, oy, see also
Old Academics and Peripatetics
Antipater of Tarsus ,,,, :o:, ::,
:jy8, ++
apatheia, see passions, see also
freedom
Aristo of Chios xix, +j:, :jo, :
centrality of ethics in
philosophy +j, :+, :,
:y+:, ::, :j, o+
dialectic :8y, o
mind :y8o, :8, :8
unity of the virtues ++, :yj,
:yy8o, :8:, :8
Aristotelianism +oy, ++j, +:,
+o, :oj, +, o
causation .c.:, ++o, +y, +oj,
+y
good, the :o
happiness :+:
metaphysics +o, ++j
ontology ++j
virtue +:, :j, see also Peripatetics
Aristotle +++y, +:, +y, +:,
+y, +8, :oj, :o, :j, :yo,
+, 8, , j, j, y
Categories +o, ++y
Metaphysics +:, +
Physics +
Posterior Analytics
art analogy, see craft analogy
Attalus (Senecas teacher) +j, :o,
:yo, o
axiology ++, +y8, +y+, +y, +yy,
+8:, +88
bad, see good
blame, see praise
categories +++, ++j::, +:j,
:o, :yj, :y, :8, :o, y
Cato the Elder
the Censor ,,,c, ,c, :++, :,
+j, 8
Cato the Younger :6S, ,, ,6, S,
+8, +88, :oy, ::, :,
o8, +:, +, :, o
causation/causes +y8, +o+, +8,
+j+, +y, :o8, :+, :jyo,
:yj, :8, :+, :, 8
active principle .:, .,, ++y, ++,
+y, +, ++, +j, +jj
antecedent j, :jj
efcient/effective .:, j, +:,
:jj
nal +o, +, +y8
formal .:, +o, +:
material +:
paradigmatic +
passive principle +8, ++
subsequent .:, :j, see also
Aristotelianism, Platonism and
Stoicism on causation
o: orra+r rnrx
chance .,, .,, ::, :,, ., ,, S, ,6,
,c., ,,, 6, ,,, S., SS, +y, +8,
:+, :, :jj, :+, :
change, instability ,, .c, :,, 6, S,
S,, +:y, +:, +, +:, +8,
+o+, +, +:oo, :++j,
::j, :, :8o, :8:, ++,
Chrysippus xix, +:j, o,
causation :j
dialectic :+, :jy, o+
disease metaphor for vice ::, :8
good +, :o, y
happiness :+, :o
metaphysics o+
mind ::, :yy, :8:, :8
passions j
raw material for virtue +, :8
syllogisms :+
telos +o, :+, :8
theory of categories 6:, :y:,
:8+:, :8
value theory :+
virtue ++, :y:8:, :8
Cicero ,, ,:, +o, ++:+, +y, +,
+j, +j8, +, +y, +yo, +yy, :+,
:+j, :+8, :o, :8, :, :j8,
:y, :, :j, :y, j,
8o, :, 8, , , y
De Finibus xiv, +, +yj, :o,
::o, oy, +o, ++
De Legibus +o
De Ofciis +yo
De Oratore +j+
Letters ,:
Letters to Atticus xiv, oy8
Orator +:, +:, +o+
Paradoxa Stoicorum :+
Timaeus translation +j
Tusculan Disputations xiv
Cleanthes ::
categories 6:, :yj
good +y8, :oy
metaphysics +:+
paradoxes :+
theological views :
virtue ++
common sense ++, +j, +y, +yj,
+8, +j, +y8, :o, :::, :,
:
corporealism ++8, +:o, +::, +:8, :,
:yo, :o+, :j, +
Stoic incorporeals +:+, +:y, :,
:
Stoic view +::, +:, :, :y:,
:88, ::
cosmos, cosmology ,S, ...,, .6,
:,S, 6:, 6,, ,S, .c., +:8, +o,
+:, +8, ++:, +, +,
+, +jo, +j:j, ++, +yj, +8,
+o:, ::, o:, y:, see
also physics
craft analogy .c, .:., ,,, +j+,
:, :, :+, jj
art analogy j, jo+, 8, +,
++:
skill argument j
Critolaus the Peripatetic :o:
happiness :oj
sophisms :j8
Cynics/Cynicism +j:, :+j, :j, :o,
:88, , jy, o
Cyrenaics :+j
death xx, ,,, ::, :,, 6S,
6,,c, S:, SS, ,c, ,:, ,,S, +++,
+:o, +j, +jo+, +jy8,
+, +y+, +y8, +8+, :oo,
:+:+, ::, :j, :8+, o, o,
y8, j+
mortality .,, ::, ,c, S:, ,,, +:o,
+:8, +, +j:, +o, +:, :++,
::
desire .:, .,, ., ,.,, ,S, ,, ,c, ,,
,,S, S., S,6, ,:, ,,, ++,
+o, :o, :++, :o, :jo+, :j,
+o, +j, +:o, y, j8
Epicurean view ++y, :+, +
dialectic xviii, +y8, :o, :oj,
:+o+, :+8::, ::j, :o,
::, :, :o, :, :,
orra+r rnrx o
:j, :, :y:, :8:, :8j, :8y,
:, o+, +:, y,
dialecticians 6,, S6, :
schools of ,,
divine, the, see god/gods
doxography +y, +, :, :+, :j
dualism +jo+, +jj8, +y, :+j,
::
axiological dualism +y
Platonic dualism +jj, +jy, +y
Stoic dualism +jj, +
substance dualism +jj, +jy, see
also mind-body relationship
education ,S, +8y
moral 6,, ,S, +, :y, :jo,
o, , o, yy
philosophical , ,., :o+:, :yo
emotions, see passions
Epictetus +j, +y, :+j, :, +y
good, the :j
passions jj
technicality o
Epicureanism/Epicureans xix,
++o++, +j, +yj, +y8, +, :o+,
:oj, :::, :o, :8, :, +, +y,
:+, o, , jj, jy, ,
y8
ataraxia +y
axiology +yy
epistemology ++
goal +8+
good, the +yy, , y
pleasure +y8, j, , y
natural and necessary
desires ++y, :+, :+
nature +
Epicurus ,, ::o, ::o, :, +,

goods :,
Letter to Idomeneus +yy
Letters xiv
On the Goal :
epistemologyy +++y, ++:o, +:,
+8, +88, +, :+y, +:, +,
Stoic view +::, :8, y8
epistolary genre, see genre
ethics :6, ,6, S,, +:, +y, +y, +,
:o, :+8, ::o, ::, :o, :,
, ,
ethics and metaphysics :+, :yo,
::, :j, o+
ethics and physics +:8, +8, ++,
:y+:, ::, o
practicality ++:, +j, +y+, +8,
o
eudaimonism, see happiness
Eudorus of Alexandria +oy, +o
exempla .,, :6,, 6, Sc, +j8, +o,
+, +8y, +8, +, +j, :oo, :+o,
:8, :, +j, +, ::,
:j, +
externals :c., +j, +j, +yo,
+y, +8j, +88, +, :oo+, :+o,
:+j, ::o, ::y8, :j, :o, ::,
:j, :y, o, :+, :,
jj, j8, y, see also goods,
external and indifferents
Fabianus ,, +o, ++, jo
fear ., .S, :c:., c, S, ,:, ,,,,
,S, ,:, 66, ,c, ,,, , S,6,
SS,, ,,,, +, +j, +j, +y,
::o, ::8, ::, :o, :8, :o
fear of death .,, :, ,,, SS, ,c, +o,
, see also passions
ux, see change
fortune S, ., .6, :,, :6, :,, .:,
6, S,, ,,, ,6,, ,,, 6,
6,,, ,6,, S., .c., .c, +j,
+y8, +8, +88, ++, +8,
:++j, :8, ::, :8y, o, oj,
o8, +j, :o, ::, :, y
misfortune ,, .,, :,, :,, c, ,, 6,,
S:, +j, +jy, +o, +j, +y+,
+y, +88, +8, :+j+,
:, :j, o, ::, j, yy
freedom (libertas) ..,, .,, ,,, ,,,
+jo, +j:, +jj, +j, +8, +,
:+:, ::+:, ::, ::8, :, j8
o orra+r rnrx
freedom (libertas) (cont.)
from pain ,., +
slavery +j, +j, see also passions,
apatheia
function argument :o8
genre, consolatory +y8, oy8
epistolary xii xiv, xvii xviii, xx,
++, +j, +o, +j8, :+, :,
:yy, oy, ::
literary form :+, o
satire +
goal (nis, telos) ,6,, .c, +, +y,
+jo, +y, +8j, :o, :+,
::, :j, :8, :, ::, :, o,
o, ++, +, +8, , :,
, , :j+, j, j, y+
god/gods ,, ...:, .,, :6, :,S, ,,
,c, ,:, ,., 6.,, 66, 6S, ,c, ,S,
.c., +:j, +:, +:,
+j+, +jj, +8, ++:, :o+,
:oj, :+++, ::+, ::, :y,
:8j, :88, :, :8, , :,
, y, y
active principle .,, +8, ++
artisan/craftsman S, .:, :,, 6., ,S,
+, ++, +y, +
Demiurge +:, +, +:, +,
+j
divine, the ., .,, :S, S:, .cc,
+, +o, :+, :8, :y, :,
8, y, yj
good/goods .., .,, :,, ., ,S, ,,
,6, ,c,,, ,,, 6:, 6,S, ,., ,,
,,, ,,S., S,, +++, +, +y,
+yo, +y:, +y, +y, +y88o,
+8:, +8j, +88, +, +8,
:oo, :o8+:, :+, :+8, ::,
:o, :, :8, :jo+, :jy,
:+:, :j, :y, :8, :8j,
:8+, :j, :oo, +,
:o, :, o+
absolute :o, +, :,
bad, the +, +8, ::, :,
:joj, :jy, :j, o
broad and narrow senses :,
:8, :j+, :jy, ::, :
cosmic :y
equality of goods .S:c, :,, :6,
:S, +jj, +o, +8:, +8y,
++, +, :8
external +j8, +yo, :o+:, :oy,
:
good, the ,6, ,,, .cc, +jj,
+, +yj, +yy, +8y, ++, :o:,
:o, :oy8, ::8, :, :,
:, oy, o+,
:+j, :8, 8, :,
y+, y
highest ::6, :S, c, ,, ,., .cc,
+yj, +8, +8j, +, :o, :+,
:+:
intermediate :.
primary .,.6, :.::, +jo,
+yj, +y8o
secondary .,.6, :.::, +jo,
+yj, +y, +88
species-relative :oy, :y, +,
, y:
tertiary .6, +j, +yj
three kinds of good .,, :c, +j8,
+, +yj, :o+, :oj
happiness .,, ::,, :6, :S, c, ,,,
,S, ,c, ,,, ,S, ,c, ,6, 6,
6,, ,,, ,,, S., S,, ,,.c., .c,
+jo, +jj, +j, +8, +yy,
+8:, +8, +y, +:o+,
:oj, :o8, :+:+, :+j+,
:+8, ::o:, :8, :o, :, :j:,
:, :+, +, +, :y, :,
jy, , yj
eudaimonism +:, +y, +y, +8j,
++, +, :o, :o, :+:, :::,
::j
Heraclitus, change ,, +:8:, ++,
+8
honourable, the (honestum, to
kalon) .6, .S, :c:., :,6,
:S,, ,S, ,, ,:, 6,, ,,,
orra+r rnrx oj
,,Sc, 8, ,6,, ,,, .c:, +jy,
+yo, +y:, +8:, +8j, +8y8,
++, +j, :oo:, :oy,
:o+j, ::8, :8, oy,
+++, :, :8, j
Horace ,S, S, ++, j
genre (satire) xiv, +, y
wealth :+
hyperbole +yy8, +8o, :+, oj, :,
, y
indifferents 66, +, +j, +,
+8, +y+:, +yj, +yy8, +8:,
+8, +, +:oo, :+o, :+j, :+8,
::, ::8, :, ::, :jo, :j:, :jy,
:j, +++:, +y+8, :+,
jj, yy
absolute +yj
dispreferred .S, :c, +y, +y,
+yj, +8, +:, +, :+o, ::,
::, :, :, :8, :j+, :j,
jy
preferred :,, ++:, +j, +jo,
+yj, +y, +8j, +8y, +:,
:o+, :o8, :++, :, :8,
:o, :, :j, :+, +:+,
:o, o, j, y:, y
judgement (iudicium) :., :, ., ,6,
6, ,,.cc, +, +, +jjy,
+j, +y:, +j, :o:, :+
Latin philosophical vocabulary, see
philosophical vocabulary
letters, see genre, epistolary
literary form, see genre
Lucretius ,,, +jy, :y, +, 8, y
dualism :
corporealism :
On the Nature of Things o,
++y
matter, see raw material
metaphysics +o, +++, ++j+,
++:o, +o, +jo, +o, +:, +8j,
:+8+, :+, :, :, :8, :yo,
:8:, :8y, :8o, ::8, o+:
technicality in ::
mind ,,, .:.6, :c:, :6, :S.,
6, S,, ,:, ,,, ,., ,,, ,6,
,,6, 6,,., ,, Sc, S:, S,,
,.:, ,,6, ,,, .c., +:o, +,
+, +:j, +jj, +jy, +o,
+j, +y, +8, +o+, +:oo,
:o+o, :++j, ::j, ::8,
:y8, :jy, :yo, :y8:, :8,
:y, :, :8, 8, +,
y, , y, y
mind-body relationship ..,, ,,
+++, +:8o, +, +j+j, +jy8,
+8, +o, +y, :+:, :+j, :y,
+:, see also dualism
misfortune, see fortune
moral progress xvxviii, xxi, c.,
,, ,S, ,,, +88, +y:oo, :++y,
::, :jj, :yo, ,
mortality, see death
mutability, see change
nature 6, .c, ., .,.6, :.::,
:,c, ,,, ,., 6:, 6,,, ,.,
,Sc, S:, S,,., ,, .cc,
+:8, +8, +, +, +jo,
+jj, +j+, +, +y, +,
+y:, +yjy, +8j, :oo, :o:,
:oy, :+, :o, :8, ::, :8,
oy, +o++, +:+, :, :,
:y, o:, 8, jo+,
jj8, +, j, 8yj
human nature :, :6, ,c, +:,
+8, +8y, +jy, +, :o8,
:::, , j, 8, ,
y
natural, the .S, +j, +j, +yo, +8o,
:o, :, o, ++, j, :
Nero xi xii, :o:, ::, :, jo+
oikei

osis +yo, :, , o
Old Academics +y, +8, +, ::o
happiness :S, +, ::+
o orra+r rnrx
Old Academics (cont.)
three kinds of good :o+, see also
Academy
old age ,,, .,, ::, ,, .c., +,
+, +y8, :oo+, ::
ontology ,S, +++, ++j:, +:jy,
++, +, :yy, :8o, :8, :o+,
:
pain, see pleasure
Panaetius +8, o
theory of personae :j,
paradoxes ,S, +y, :+y, :+, :o+,
++j, +8, 8
passions (path

e) .:, :, 6, ,,, 6c, 6,

,c, S., S,, +y, :+j, :+8, ::o,
::8, ::, :, :8, :y8,
:y8, o, jj, j, y, y
anger ,, ,:, ,,, :y
apatheia +j, ::o, ::, ::8, :,
jy
disease metaphor ,:, ::8, :y8
elimination of the passions ,c:,
,,, :jo
emotions ,6,, S6, :y, :y,
eupatheia :, :, j
moderation of the passions ,c.,
,,, ,,, :oo, :::, ::jy,
:jo,
metriopatheia ::, o
Stoic view ,,, ::, ::8, :jo,
:8, jj
perception, see sense perception
Peripatetics ,c,,,, ,,, ++o, +8, ::,
::, ::, :, :jy, :, ++, :
causation +jy
goods, the good ,c, +j8, +,
:o:, :+8, :y, :8,
:j+, oy
passions ,c, :+8, ::o, :::, ::j,
::y8, :jo, o
value theory +, :8, :jj, :
virtue and vice :o8, :+8, :j,
:j, :j+
wealth :8jo, :j, :o
wisdom 6,, :, see also
Aristotelianism
personal identity +o, +j:, :8+, +
philosophical vocabulary (Greek and
Latin) ,, ,,, +o, ++++,
++8, +:, +:, +o, +y, :j, :j,
:j8, :j, :y, :yy8, :+:,
:, :y, +o++, ::, j,
y, o, y, j, see also
sophisms and technicality
physics +y8, +, +j, :y+,
y, , y:
physics and ethics +:8, +8, +y+:,
++, ::, o:, see also
cosmology
Plato , ,S, +o8, +++, +++y, +:o,
+:j, +:8, +, +j+, +j8, +8,
:oj, ::o, o, :8, 8
Apology ++o, ++:, +jj, +88, +:,
:+, o8
Crito +88, :+
Euthydemus :o
Gorgias +8y, :88
Laches :
Meno ++, +8j
Parmenides +:, +
Phaedo ++o, ++:, +:o, ++, +,
+jo+, +j, +8y, +8, :+, :j,
o:
Phaedrus ++o, ++:, +:
Protagoras ++, +y:, :,
Republic :o, ::+, ::, :88,
Sophist ++o, ++:, :
Symposium: o
Timaeus +o8, ++o, ++:+, +:j,
+:y, +o, +:, +, +,
++, +y, +, +j, y
Platonism xix, +oy++, ++j, ++y, +:o,
+:y, +::, +, +j:, +j,
:, :y8, o+, j, :,
, , 8
categories j, +++
causation +++:, +y, +o+,
:oj
cosmology +:, y
orra+r rnrx oy
Demiurge +:, +, +:, +,
+j
dualism +jo, +jj
ethics +:8
forms 6, .., +:j, +:8, ++:,
+o:, +j, +j8, +8
good, the +, +8j, :o:, :o, :o
metaphysics +o, +++, +:8, :
middle Platonism +oy8, +:, +:j,
+:y8, +, +j+:
ontology (six senses of being) ,S,
+++, ++j, +::, +:j, +:y,
+
Neoplatonism +:o
physics +jo
pleasure and pain .6, :, S,, SS,
,S,, +y, +yy
pain, ,, .,.S, ::, c, S, ,,,,
,., S6, ,,, +, +, +,
+y, +o, +8, :, :,
++y, y
pleasure, S, .:, :,, ,S, ,, ,,
,., ,,, ,,, .cc, +, +j, +y8,
+:, :+, ::o, , :,
, j, j, +:,
Posidonius xix, S,, +oy, :+, :8,

causation :j:j
courage :8y
fortune 6
good :j
sophisms :jy
wealth ,,, :o, :j+, :+
poverty, see wealth, of Latin language,
see philosophical vocabulary
praise, .,:c, :,, c, ,,, ,,, Sc,
S,, ,S, +y, :oj8
blame ,
raw material (hul

e, materia) .,,
:.::, :,, ,,, +:, +, +jj, +j,
+, +j, +y, +, :, :8, :j,
, 8
passive principle +8:, see also
corporealism
reason S, .:, .,, :c:,, ,6, ,., ,,,
,6, ,,.c, +y, +j, +,
+yj, +y, +8, +8, +,
+:o+, :o8, :++, ::j,
:+, :8, :8, , :, yo,
y:j
irrational part +y, ::j
practical reason +8, ::+
rational part c.
rationality 6.:, S,, .cc., .c,
+o, +, +jo, +o, +,
+, +o, ::+, :y, :8j,
++, yo, :, j:,
j, j8, 8, y, see
also mind
rhetoric +j, +8, +j+, +, +y8, :j,
:, o, o8, :, :, j8
rhetorical schools +y8
sage, see wisdom, wise person
self S,S, +o, j, +
self-awareness 8o, ,

self-determination +j
self-knowledge +8j, j
self-motion +:o
self-control .,, :c, :, ,c, ,:, ,,,
,,S, ,S, 6, S., +8, ::o+,
::y, :o, :yo, :88, j:
self-perception S,, ,,, :, ,
+
sensation, see sense perception
sense perception :., 6,, .cc, .c:, +j,
+y, +yy, +, y, ,
y8
sense-perceptible +:
slavery, see freedom
Socrates :6, +, +jo, +, +8,
+8j, +8y, +, :o+, :o, :++,
:+, ::, :, :y, :j, :o, ::,
o:, o8, :, jy, o
ethics +8y, ++:, :+
Socratic tradition xxi, ::+
Socratic use argument +:, +y,
o+, :, :
o8 orra+r rnrx
sophisms ,,, ,c, :jy, :, o,
::, see also philosophical
vocabulary, syllogisms and
technicality
soul-body relationship, see mind-body
relationship
Stobaeus, doxography :, :+, :j
soul ::
virtue +:, :j, :y
wealth +
Stoics/Stoicism xix, ,,, ,:, 6,, ,S,
+oy++, ++j, ++y, +:y, ++,
+, +, +j+:, +o, +j,
+yo+, +y8, +8, +8, +, +,
:oj, ::o:, ::j, ::, :, ::,
:j, :jj, :y, :8, :+, oo+,
o, +, +y, :, :y, y,
:, j:, j, jy, o+, ,
, y+, y, y
axiology +8, +y+, +y, +yy, +88
bad, the :, :
categories ,, ,,, 6:, 6,, :yj, :y,
y
causation .c, +y8, ++:,
++, :o8, :j, :
corporealism +::, +:y, +:, ++,
:, :y:, :88, ::, :
cosmology +:, +, +:, +,
+jj, :8, y
dualism +jj, +, +y+, :+j
epistemology +::, :8, y8
ethics +:8, +8, +8, :+, :+, :,
:y, :8y, ::, :y, o,
+:+, :, :
fear ,,, :o
goal +8+
goods, the good +jo, +:,
+, +yy, +8, +8, :o:, :o,
:oy, :o+o, :, :y, :j,
:j, o, +++, ::, :j,
:, yo
happiness +, ::, :o:
metaphysics +:o:, +:8, +jo, :+,
:yj, :8o, :
mind :8o, :8:, :8
moral psychology :o, ::j
nature +, o
ontology +:8, +, :o
paradoxes ,S, :+y, :o+, +j, +8
passions ,,, ::, ::8, :jo,
:8, jj
physics +8, +jo, +j, :, y
technicality :+, :
theology +:, :, :8
theory of action +y, :yo, :y, :8,
+o,
value theory +, +8, +8:, +,
+8, :+, :+j, :::, :,
:jo, :j, see also
indifferents
vice :, :jo, :8, o
virtue ++:, +y8, +:, :o, ::,
:j, :jo, :j, :8, :y,
:yy8, :88, :
wealth :o, :j+:, :j, +8, :o+
suicide S,, .,, .,, 6,,c, +,
+jo, +j, +o, +, :++, ::,
:
syllogisms :oy, :+:+, ::, :j,
:y, :jo, :jj, :j
Peripatetic :
Stoic :::, :, :jy, see also
philosophical vocabulary,
sophisms and technicality
technicality 6,, .:, ,,,, 6:, ,c.,
,,, +++, ++, +, +j:, +j,
+8y, :+8+, ::+, :j, :+,
:yo:, :o, o, +o++, ::,
, y,, see also
philosophical vocabulary and
sophisms
telos, see goal
time xxxxi, ,, 6,, .:., .,
,,6, 6S, ,., ,,, .c:, +:+, +:,
+:y, +o, +j, +, ::, :+, :,
:y+, o
future S:, .c:, o
past S:, .c:
present ,., S:, .c:, +y, ::j, o
orra+r rnrx o
tranquillity .,, :, c, ,c:, ,S, ,,,
,:, ,,, .c:, +:, :++, :::, ::,
::8, see also freedom
transience, see change
Vergil , .,, ,, ,c., ,,, ,., 6, ,c,
,,, ,,, ++:+, +jy, :8y, 8,
:, y+
vice, see virtue
virtue .,.6, :, :S., ,S, ,c,
,:,, ,,, ,c., ,,, ,,, ,,6,,
,,S., S, S,, ,,,, .c:, +,
+jo, +jj:, +y+, +y8,
+8:, +8, +8, +88, ++j,
+y:o+, :o, :o, :o8+o,
:++, :+y+8, ::o, ::8,
:j8, :o, :, :jy, :j,
:+, :j, :8, :y:88, :,
o+, +, :o, :y, o, j,
y, j, j8, +, ,
yo+, y
equality of virtue .,:., 6.,
+:, +y, +y:, :8
unity of virtue ++, +8j, +8, ::,
:y:, :yy, :8:, :88, :y
vice ,c:, ,,, ,,, 6c, Sc, S, S,, ,.,
,, ,6S, +o:, +, +8,
::j, :jo, :, :y,
:y8, :
wealth xxi, .,, :., :S, ,6, ,S,,,
,:, ,6Sc, ,, ,,, ,,, +8,
+yo, +y8, :o8, :+o, :j,
::, :jjj, :jy, +y:+,
:j, +, , j:, jy8
natural wealth +8, :o
poverty .,, :., ,,S, ,,,, ,6S,
Sc., ,S, +, +8, +o, +8,
:++, :, :y, :jy, :o+
will and the voluntary .S.,, :,, :S,
,, ,, +8, +, +y+:, +yj, :oo,
:oj, j
wisdom ., :6, :S, ., 6, ,6, ,,,
6,., +8, +8y, +8, +, +8,
:o+, :++y, :o, :, :, :+,
:y, :88+, :oj
being wise ,,, 6,,., ,,, :+,
:88+, :o+, +y
practical wisdom ,,, 6:, :8, o:,
+
wise person .S, c, ,,., ,,
,,,, ,., ,,, ,,, 66, 6S, ,c, ,6,
S, ,S, +j+, ++, ++, +,
+j, :o+, :+, :+, ::o+,
::, ::, :o, :, :j, :y,
:j, :j, :j, :, :8, o8,
+j, +8, :o, :y, +:,
o+
Zeno of Citium xix, +y, +j:, +j,
+88, :+, ::, :y, o8
metaphysics +:+, o+
paradoxes :+
reason :o