IB Psychology Revision Guide

IB Psychology Revision Guide

IB Psychology Revision Guide

Core: Paper 1 - First Exams 2011
Written by: Chris Ting 13H

3/23/11
Disclaimer
Thank you for purchasing or using this guide for your revision purposes. I hope you find this
guide useful and I hope it makes your Psychology revision a bit easier.
This guide covers the core area of the Psychology syllabus, which are the three levels of analysis.
For the research methods and ethics questions, details and a general evaluation of the research
methods used in each level are provided and also relevant ethical concerns. These questions
can be answered by using the research provided in the guide.
Please do not rely solely on this revision guide for your tests and exams. This guide is meant
to be used in conjunction with your own notes and those that are provided in class. If you fail
because you only used this guide, it is not my fault. There is usually more research than
required provided in this guide and it is not a definite way to answer it.
Thank you and good luck.
Chris Ting 13H

25/03/2011
Table of Contents
Biological Level of Analysis ................................................................................. 1
General Learning Outcomes ............................................................................... 1
Physiology and Behavior ..................................................................................... 6
Genetics and behavior ...................................................................................... 31
Cognitive Level of Analysis .................................................................................. 41
General Learning Outcomes ............................................................................. 41
Cognitive processes .......................................................................................... 44
Cognition and emotion ..................................................................................... 66
Sociocultural Level of Analysis ............................................................................ 74
General learning outcomes ............................................................................... 74
Sociocultural cognition ..................................................................................... 78
Social norms ..................................................................................................... 88
Cultural norms ................................................................................................ 100
Research Methods and Ethics ........................................................................... 104
Biological Level of Analysis
General Learning Outcomes
Syllabus Question: Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis.
The three principles that define the biological level of analysis are:
I. Emotions and behavior are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and
endocrine systems.
II. Patterns of behavior can be inherited.
III. Animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior.
IV.
Syllabus Question: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be
demonstrated in research.
Principle 1: Emotions and behavior are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and
endocrine systems.
I. Suggests that behavior is genetically inherited. The patterns of behavior we see today are
theorized to have been of evolutionary benefits.
a. What is inherited may be a predisposition for a certain behavior that require
particular environmental stimuli before behavior will manifest
Research that demonstrates this principle are:
Heston (1996)
What was the study on? An adoption study, which assume that if offspring are separated
from their biological parents we can conclude that any physical and
behavioral similarities between parent and child are caused by
genetic factors
Aim of the experiment Study was too see whether schizophrenia is genetic or not
Conditions of the experiment If genetic, adoption would not affect number of children later
diagnosed with schizophrenia but due to biological inheritance a
higher incident of schizophrenia would be expected among adopted
children of schizophrenic mothers than those without schizophrenic
mothers
If nurture, incidence rate would be approximately same as other

adoptees
Results Incident of schizophrenia in general population is about 1% and was

similar for those who were adopted with no family history of
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schizophrenia
Over 10% of adopted children with family history of schizophrenia
were later diagnosed with it
Conclusion Research shows that schizophrenia has a strong genetic component
Link to syllabus question This research demonstrates that schizophrenia can be inherited and
therefore shows that patterns of behavior can be inherited.
Bailey and Pillard (1991)

What is this study about? Studied monozygotic and dizygotic twins and measured how often when
one twin was homosexual the other was also homosexual
Aim To whether homosexuality can be caused by genetics.
Conditions Tested MZ and DZ twins
Results There is a difference in concordance for homosexuality
DZ twins had a concordance rate of 22%
MZ twins had a concordance rate of 52%
Conclusion Results suggest that there environmental factors to explain why MZ twins
didn’t reach 100% and that there is a strong genetic factor as to why MZ
twins had double the concordance rate of homosexuality than DZ
Link to question Research demonstrates the principle by showing the homosexuality can be
inherited and can be genetic.
Principle 2: Animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior.
I. Based on idea that humans and the many different species of animals or different because of
evolution and therefore suggests we are fundamentally the same thus it is valid to try to make
predictions on human behavior based on animal research.
a. The mechanisms that underlie behavior are the core similarity we share with animals
Research that demonstrates this principle are:
Martinez and Kesner (1991)

What was this study about? To test the effects of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine on memory
formation of mazes in rats.
Aim To see whether acetylcholine plays a role in memory formation
Conditions Rats were trained to go through a maze and received food at the end.
Once rats could do this experimenters injected:
One group of rats with scopolamine which blocks acetylcholine sites thus
decreasing available acetylcholine
A second group of rats with physostigmine, which blocks production of
cholinesterase, which removes acetylcholine from synapse and return
neuron to resting state
The control group was injected nothing.

Results Rats injected with scopolamine were slower at finding way around maze
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and made more errors than compared to other two groups
Physostigmine group ran through maze quicker and made less errors
Conclusion Concluded that acetylcholine played an important role in a memory for

maze
Link to question Demonstrates how conduction research on animals allows us to inform
our understanding of behavior.
Matsuzawa (2007)
What is this research about? Tested spatial memory in humans and chimpanzees
Aim To compare the differences of spatial memory between young
chimpanzees and humans
Conditions Researchers took three pairs of chimps and taught them to recognize
the numbers 1-9 on a computer screen
Both the chimps and human participants were seated at a computer

terminal, where the numbers flashed up very briefly on a touch-screen
monitor in a random sequence
The numbers were then replaced with blank squares and the participant
had to remember which number appeared in which location and to
tough the squares in the appropriate sequence
Results Human participants made many errors and accuracy decreased the
numbers were replaced with blank squares more quickly
Chimpanzees showed remarkable memory for spatial distribution of

numbers, with no difference when numbers were shown for shorter
durations
Conclusion Concluded that the memory of chimpanzees was a necessary adaption

to survive and humans didn’t need it anymore
Link to question An example of evolution and shows us how studying animals allowed us
to see differences in aspects of memory between chimpanzees and
humans
Principle 3: Emotions and behavior are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and
endocrine systems
I. Suggests that all observable behavior, as well as internal mental activity of an individual can be
traced back to physiological events
II. Links have between found between psychological and physiological activity in the effects of
neurotransmitters, hormones and brain localization.
Research that demonstrate this principle are:
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One group of rats with scopolamine which blocks acetylcholine sites thus
decreasing available acetylcholine

Results Rats injected with scopolamine were slower at finding way around maze
and made more errors than compared to other two groups

maze
Link to question Demonstrates the effects of neurotransmitters and therefore how
physiological aspects of our body influence the way we operate.
Schachter and Singer (1962)

What is this study about? To see the effects of placebos and see the different effects of hormones
when in different environmental contexts
Aim Proposed that adrenaline causes emotion but the nature of the emotion
was dependent on contextual factors
Method They recruited volunteers to receive a vitamin injection and informed
them that they would be participating in vision experiments. None of the
184 male participants received a vitamin injection. Three groups received
adrenaline injection and a fourth group received a placebo injection. The
three groups receiving the adrenaline injection were either given correct
or incorrect information about the effects of the injection
The participants were placed in one of the two conditions. Euphoria, a

confederate of the experimenters encourages the participant to join in
games. Anger, a confederate fills out a mock questionnaire with the
participants but gets increasingly outraged by personal nature of
questions
Experimenters use observational data based on structured observations

of participants in each condition and asked them to complete a form that
assessed their mood in terms of happiness and anger
Results In the euphoria condition, the groups who received an adrenaline
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injection with incorrect information about effects showed more euphoric

and happy behavior
Conclusion Conclude that emotion occurs by cognitive labeling
Link to question Shows how a physiological aspect such as hormones can affect our
behavior.
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Physiology and Behavior
I. Localization refers to the idea that behavior, emotions and thoughts originate in the brain in
specific locations
a. Left hemisphere:
i. Dormant for language, writing, logical, analytic and calculating thought
b. Right hemisphere
i. Dormant for visuospatial tasks such as drawing, face recognition, visuospatial
problems, synthetic and holistic thought
Sperry (1968)
What was this study about? The effects of brain localization on a patient who underwent split brain
surgery .
Aim Presented studies investigating behavioral, neurological and
psychological consequences of split-brain surgery resulting in
disconnected hemispheres.
Studies were used to suggest that each hemisphere: Has slightly
different functions, possesses an independent stream of conscious
awareness, has its own set of memories inaccessible to the other
Method A natural experiment was conducted on patients who underwent split
brain surgery. The capabilities of each hemisphere was tested by
presenting visual information, at fast speeds so patients eyes can’t
refocus, to either left or right visual field when patient was looking
straight ahead. Information presented to left visual field will be received
by right hemisphere
Presenting tactile information to either left or right hand behind a

screen. Tactile information from objects felt by right hand will be
received by left hemisphere
Results Visual stimuli presented in one visual field at a time
II. Objects shown once to a visual field are only recognized if
presented again in same visual field
III. Objects presented in right visuals, received by left hemisphere,
can be named verbally and in writing
IV. Objects presented in left field, received by right hemisphere, ca
not be named verbally or in writing but can be identified
through pointing
a. Suggests two hemispheres have different abilities and
functions and therefore shows localization
Different visual stimuli presented simultaneously to different visual
fields
V. If different visual stimuli are presented simultaneously to
different visual fields and subject is asked to draw with left
hand what was seen, subject will draw the stimuli from left
visual, if asked what left hand has drawn, subject replies with
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what was seen in right visual field

VI. If two related words are simultaneously presented to different
visual fields, left hand will select what was seen by left visual
field amongst objects, the right hand will write what was seen
in right visual field without being influencing by what was seen
by left visual field
a. Left hand is for what was seen by left visual field
b. Right hand is for what was seen by right visual field
c. What was seen by left visual field is processed by right
hemisphere
d. What was seen by right visual field will be processed by
left hemisphere
Tactile stimuli presented to different hands
VII. An object felt by left hand can be recognized by left hand again
but cannot be named or recognized by right hand amongst
objects
Conclusion Certain functions and behaviors are suggested to be localized to certain

hemispheres of the brain.
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Syllabus Question: Using or one more examples, explain the effects of neurotransmission on human
behavior.
I. When your brain is stimulated by your environment, it reacts by sending electrical impulses
through your body to react. The method these impulses are sent is neurotransmission, when
electrical impulses travel down the axon it releases neurotransmitters which cross the synapse
junction. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that send message from one neuron to
another
II. Examples of neurotransmitters include:
Acetylcholine Results in muscle contraction and a role in the development of memory in the
hippocampus
Dopamine Results in voluntary movement, learning and feelings of pleasure
Noradrenalin Results in arousal, alertness and stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
Serotonin Results in sleep, arousal levels and emotion
Research that demonstrates the effects of neurotransmission on behavior include:

One group of rats with scopolamine which blocks acetylcholine sites

thus decreasing available acetylcholine

Results Rats injected with scopolamine were slower at finding way around
maze and made more errors than compared to other two groups
maze
Link to question Demonstrates the effects of neurotransmitters on human behavior and
functions.
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Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)

What was the study about? Carried out an experiment to see how sensory deprivation affects the
brain
Aim To see how sensory deprivation affects the brain.
Method Researchers studied a group of Buddhist monks who went on a 72-hour
pilgrimage to a mountain in Japan. During their stay, they did not speak,
consume food, and were exposed to cold weather. After 48 hours they
began to have hallucinations, researchers took blood samples before the
monks ascended the mountain and immediately after monks reported
hallucinations
Results Found that serotonin levels had increased in monk’s brains. Higher level
of serotonin activated the hypothalamus and frontal cortex resulting in
the hallucinations.
Conclusion Researchers concluded that sensory deprivation triggered release of
serotonin.
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Syllabus Question: Using one or more examples, explain functions of 2 or more hormones in human
behavior.
I. Hormones are chemical that affect behavior. They are produced by glands that make up the
endocrine system. Hormones enter directly into the bloodstream and therefore take longer to
produce changes in behavior than neurotransmitters
II. Examples of hormones include:
Adrenaline Fight or flight response, arousal

Cortisol Arousal, stress hormone, memory
Melatonin Regulation of sleep
Oxytocin Mother-child attachment
Testosterone and Oestrogen Development, emotion
Research that demonstrates the functions of hormones in human behavior include:

Method They recruited volunteers to receive a vitamin injection and informed them
that they would be participating in vision experiments. None of the 184
male participants received a vitamin injection. Three groups received
three groups receiving the adrenaline injection were either given correct or
incorrect information about the effects of the injection

participants but gets increasingly outraged by personal nature of questions
Experimenters use observational data based on structured observations of

participants in each condition and asked them to complete a form that
Results In the euphoria condition, the groups who received an adrenaline injection
with incorrect information about effects showed more euphoric and happy
behavior
Link to question Shows how a physiological aspect such as hormones can affect our
behavior.
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Morhenn et al. (2008)

What was this study about? To test the effects of massaging on human behavior.
Aim To see if how massaging affect behavior.
Method Randomly assigned 96 students to three groups, massage and trust, rest
and trust and massage only.
Massage conditions consisted of 15 minute Swedish that were shown to

increase oxytocin levels I many people
Rest condition required participants to rest for the same amount of

time in same room
Participants then played a trust game that asked them to make a

decision about how much money to give to another participant,
knowing the money would be tripled and possibility that the other
participant might share the profit . Sending large amounts of money
was taken to indicate trust
Blood samples were taken to measure oxytocin levels, once at the

beginning of their participation and again close to their decision in the
same.
Results Massage only group showed no significant change in oxytocin levels
Participants in the massage and trust group who made the decision
about sending money sent an average slightly higher than the rest
without massage group. But the amount the receiver send back to the
decision maker was significantly different
Found a positive correlation in participants who were sent money and

the change in their oxytocin level, according to whether they had
received a massage or simply rested
Conclusion Concluded that oxytocin levels helped people display trust towards
strangers and oxytocin levels are able to predict the amount of sacrifice
participants make in a trust game.
Suggests oxytocin’s effect of on behavior is to increase generosity and

cooperation among adults
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Syllabus Question: Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.
I. Effects of the environment include and the relationship between light and melatonin and the
sleep-wake cycle. There is a relationship between Light and melatonin secretion leading to
Seasonal affective disorder.
II. Melatonin is a hormone with a role in the cycle of sleep and is secreted from the pineal gland.
Gland secretes melatonin due to changes in light. Research has shown Seasonal Affective
Disorder (SAD) is related to seasonal variations in the production of melatonin .Melatonin is
produced primarily at night so more is produced during dark winter months
Research that melatonin and light play a role in seasonal affective disorder include:
Terman (1988)
What did the study show? Found that nearly 10% of those living in New
Hampshire (northern part of USA) suffered from
SAD compared to 2% in Florida
Conclusion Suggests melatonin is involved as northern
latitudes get longer nights than southern latitudes
Lam et al. (2000)

What did the study show? Found that phototherapy has been found to
reduce or eliminate depression
Phototherapy involves exposing sufferers to 2

hours of intense light shortly after they wake up
in the morning
Conclusion Suggests light and melatonin plays a role in SAD
as light inhibits the secretion of melatonin and
exposing to light reduces depression which is
linked to melatonin.
L. Rosen et al. (1989)

What was this study about? Extended Terman (1988)’s research, who surveyed New Yorkers and
found that severity of sadness in a sample of New Yorkers was worse
for those interviewed in winter rather than summer, by compare
symptomatic seasonal changes in mood and behavior at four different
latitudes
Aim To compare the severity of sadness between those living in different
latitudes.
Method 1671 men and women completed and returned a Seasonal Pattern
Assessment Questionnaire (SAPQ) with an almost male to female ratio.
Questionnaire asked for information about time of year subjects felt
best and worse. Degree of change in mood and behavior according to
season and factors such as sleep patterns, weight gain, energy level
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and mood
Responses were scored 0-24 with 10 being required to suggest winter

SAD
Results Greatest seasonal mood variation was reported in New York, least in
Florida
Variations in sleep patterns was highest in New Hampshire and New

York and lowest in Florida
As age of respondent increased, levels of seasonal mood variation

decreased
Overall, approximately 40% of respondents felt worst in winter months
Only 25% of those in Florida felt there was no seasonal variation on

mood compared to 50.7% of those in New York
Sufferers of SAD were found to be higher in northern latitudes than

southern
More women suffered SAD than men

Conclusion Results show that SAD exists and may be to due light and melatonin
production
Evaluation
Strengths Weakness
Results correspond with other studies Questions related to winter depression may have
triggered negative memories in some
Addresses geographical locations at four latitudes respondents and affected their mood at time of
and relationship to SAD and gender and age questionnaire
Older participants may be more susceptible to

forgetting negative experience and moods related
to season and therefore could have affected
responses
Questionnaire was mailed to sample, response

rate was not high
Sample size does not represent general

population
Questionnaire may have attracted those who may

have no had experienced of seasonal variations in
mood
Factors such as locations, cost of living,
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employment, leisure facilities, age of sample may

have affected responses gained
Research that suggest that melatonin may not play a role in seasonal affective disorder include:
Lam et al. (1998)

What was this study about? Examined whether there are genetic links between SAD and
personality.
Method Gave 163 MZ twins and 134 DZ twins questionnaires measuring levels
of SAD and levels of personality
Results Results suggest that correlations found between SAD scores and
some personality scores can be attributed to genetics
Conclusion Results suggest that correlations found between SAD scores and
some personality scores can be attributed to genetics
Schuller et al. (1996)

What was this study about? Investigated the personalities of a group of SAD
sufferers and compare them to people who also
suffered depression, but not related to seasons
Method Participants were all out patients of a clinic in
Canada. 100 participants were assessed during an
episode of depression. 43 patients were classified
as suffered SAD. 57 were classified as non-
seasonally depressed. All participants were
diagnosed as having a major depressive episode
Were given a personality test called NEO-PI that

tests: Neuroticism (Anxiety and moodiness),
Extroversion (Sociability and impulsiveness),
Openness, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness
Results Results showed there was a substantial difference
in scores of the two groups on openness scale and
SAD group scores consistently higher than the
non-seasonal group.
SAD group emerged as considerably more open

that other depressed people
Conclusion Researchers suggest that a important factor in

SAD may be personality type and that certain
personalities react strongly to SAD and amplifies
the normal depressing nature of winter
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I. The environment has effects on our biological rhythms, biological rhythms are periodic
fluctuations in physiological functioning.
Types of biological rhythms include:
Circadian rhythm Repeated every 24 hours and is an example of the

sleep-wake cycle
Ultradian rhythm Shorter than 24 hours, an example of this is that
it occurs within sleep
Infradian rhythm Lasts longer than 24 hours such as the menstrual
cycle
Circacannual rhythms Repeated every year, an example is hibernation in
animals
Two factors control biological rhythms.
Endogenous factors are our internal bodily mechanisms. An example is Michael Sifre (1975) a French
geologist who spent 7 months in an underground cave with no cues at all to time. His sleep-wake cycle
was fairly irregular at first but eventually settled into 25 hours
Exogenous factors are the environment, such as temperature or light. The most important external cue
for the sleep wake cycle is presence of light. Sunlight readjusts the cycle and is referred to as a zeitegber.
Aschoff (1979) showed that many species of animals that were maintained in constant darkness will
reset their internal clocks with a brief flash of light.
Russell et al. (1980)

What was the study about? Investigated zeitgebers and the regulation of the menstrual cycle
Method Collected daily samples of women’s sweat and placed it on the upper
lips of a group of female participants
Results The menstrual cycle of the donors and recipients were synchronized,
indicating that pheromones act as a zeitgeber for the menstrual cycle
Wilkinson (1968)
What was the study about? To test the effects of temperature on our
physiological functioning.
The low body temperature point in our daily cycle

is called the “dead spot” and is when people
perform badly no matter what they are doing and
report that they would prefer to be asleep
Method Tested Navy recruits on vigilance, arithmetic and
other criteria after various schedules of sleep and
sleep loss
Results Tests showed that there was no loss of ability on
short tests conducted on a highly motivated
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sleep-deprived person
If individual had spent a full 8-10 hours doing

various tasks requiring very astute observation,
then deterioration was apparent
Peak performance coincided with highest body

temperature and poor performance with low
temperature
Other effects of the environment that can affect our physiological function include shift work. Shift work
usually involved three 8-hour working periods rotating anti clockwise or a phase advance schedule
which goes from night to evening to day shift instead of a phase delay which goes from night to day to
evening. Phase delay is the best order of shift rotation.
Research has shown that such shift rotations can cause internal desynchronization. Long term
disorientation, stress, insomnia, exhaustion and negative effects on reaction speed, co-ordination skills,
attention and problem solving.
Phase advance schedule:
III. Creates a mismatch or desynchronization between body rhythms of arousal and zeitgebers of
activity levels
IV. Don’t allow enough adjustment time for body rhythms to catch up with new activity levels
V. Delay the catching up of body rhythms by shortening rather than lengthening days
Research on the effects of shift work includes:
Czeisler et al. (1982)

What was the study about? Experimented to see whether the negative
effects of shift work patterns can be reduced by
using research on biological clocks
Method Participants were all men, aged 19-68, and
worked at an industrial plant following a phase
advance schedule and were split into three
groups:
Control group consisted of 68 men who didn’t

work shifts but did comparable jobs to shift
workers
Research group 1 who were put on a phase delay

shift schedule
Research group 2 who were put on a three week

schedule with identical shifts to the other
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research group
Measures were taken of worker’s satisfaction and

health for three months and productivity was
measured for 9 months
Results Both research groups reported improved
satisfaction
Three week group expressed greater

improvement and showed greater improvements
in health and work productivity than one week
group
Control group showed little change
Conclusion Results suggest that negative effects of shift

rotation can be reduced by making worker’s
schedules more compatible with human circadian
rhythms
1.
Evaluation
Strengths Weakness
High mundane realism and ecological validity Sample doesn’t represent general population
Control group showed that improvements were Only men, no females

not due to experimenter bias
Only industrial workers, might be different for
Addressed age differences other jobs
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Syllabus Question; Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior.
Evaluate two relevant studies.
I. Cognition refers to the mental processes of knowing, including aspects such as awareness,
perception , reasoning and judgment
II. An example of an interaction between cognition and physiology is amnesia. Amnesia is the
inability to learn new information or retrieve information that is already stored in memory.
Amnesia can be caused by brain injury or infection or due to alcohol misuse which causes
Korsakoff’s syndrome
i. Anterograde amnesia is the failure to store memories after a trauma
ii. Retrograde amnesia is the failure to recall memories that have been stored
before a trauma.
Memory is piece of information that we store in our brains and can be retrieved at a later date.
Types of memory
Episodic memory A form of long term memory concerned with
personal experiences or episodes that happened in
a given place at a specific time
Semantic memory A form of longer term memory consisting of
general knowledge about the world, language etc
Implicit memory Remembering information without consciously
memorizing it
Explicit memory Remembering information that involves conscious
awareness and remembering it
Episodic and semantic memory have been shown to be stored in different parts of the brain and suggest
that these are partially separate episodic and semantic memory systems.
Tulving (1989)
Aim Aimed to show the distinction between episodic
and semantic memory
Method A small dose of radioactive gold was injected into

the bloodstream of volunteers, including Tulving.
They then thought about personal events or about
information in semantic memory. Blood flow in
different areas of the brain was recorded
Increased blood flow indicated that certain part of

the brain was active
Results When episodic memory was used, the frontal
cortex was active
When semantic memory was used the posterior or
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back regions of the cortex was active

Conclusion Episodic and semantic memory are different and
separate.
Evaluation
Strengths Weakness
Shows that there is a difference in content Research doesn’t if there is a difference in the
between information in episodic and semantic processes involved as both kinds of memories are
memory interrelated
Tulving et al. (1982)

Aim Tested the differences between explicit and
implicit memories
Method Participants learnt a list of rate words and one
hour or week later their memories were tested in
two ways:
Implicit memory- Participants were asked to fill in

the blanks to make words. Half of the solutions
were words from the original list but they were
not told this. Using implicit memories as
participants weren’t consciously recalling the
words
Explicit memory- Participants were given a list of

words and asked to identify the words that were
on their original list. Explicit as they had to
consciously recall the words they learnt .
Results Implicit memory- Participants were better able to
complete the fragmented words that were in their
original list opposed to words that weren’t in the
list. Fragment completion performance did not
change significantly over time
Explicit memory- Recognition memory was much

worse after one week than after one hour
Conclusion Results demonstrate a difference between the two
kinds of memory
Evaluation
Strengths Weaknesses
Use of rare words disallows the use of schemas or Can be argued that fragment-completion task was
previous knowledge of words actually testing explicit not implicit memory
because participants deliberately searched
through original lists
Doesn’t explain why there was a difference in
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performance after the retention interval on

implicit and explicit memory
Research has shown that there may be different levels of impairment and ability to form or recall the
different kinds of memories
Spiers et al. (2001)- Reviewed 147 cases of amnesia and found that there was evidence of impairment
on tests of episodic memory in all patients but several of them had reasonable ability to form new
semantic memories
Vargha-Khadem et al. (1997)

Aim Studied two patients who had suffered bilateral
hippocampus damage at an early age before they
had had the opportunity develop semantic
memories
Both patients had the very poor episodic memory

but both attended ordinary schools and their
levels of speech, language development, literacy
and factual knowledge were within normal range
Results Findings suggest that the two memories depend
on different brain regions but they are very close
to each other so brain damage in the area usually
results in amnesiacs having problems with both
episodic and semantic memory
A follow up study by Vargha-Khadem et al. (2002)

on one of the patients at age 20 showed that his
semantic memory continued to be better than his
episodic memory
Conclusion Shows how amnesia can affect different types of
memory.
Link to question Shows the effect of how a cognitive process can be
negatively affected through our physiology,
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Graf et al. (1984)

Aim To see the differences in amnesiacs and non-
amnesiacs in memory tests for explicit and implicit
memory.
Method Presented participants words list with each list
followed by one of four memory tests
Three of tests very conventional explicit memory

tests such as free call, cued recall, and recognition
memory. The fourth tests was word completion
and involved implicit memory
Participants were given three-letter words stems

and they had write down the first word they
thought of starting with those letters. Implicit
memory was assessed by the extent to which word
completions corresponded to words from previous
list.
Results Results showed that amnesic patients did much
worse than normals on all three explicit memory
tests but performed as well as normals on implicit
memory tests
Supporting study Ryan et al. (2000) showed that amnesic patients
can show impaired implicit memory performance
when task is complex and requires remembering
the relations among objects
Two famous case studies showing the effects of our physiology on our cognition is Clive Wearing and
Henry Molaison.
Case studies are in-depth analysis by using all research methods on an individual that is usually atypical
Clive Wearing
Suffered from a brain infection called herpes encephalitis affecting the parts of his brain
concerned with memory and was left with a memory span of only a few seconds. His ability to
perceive what he saw and heard was unimpaired but he did not retained any impression of
anything for a blink. Once he blinked he would forget the view before the blink.
He suffered from anterograde and retrograde amnesia. His episodic and some of his semantic
memory were lost. He could still play the piano and conduct music that he knew before his
illness. The fact that he could do this is evidence of a distributed memory system and that
implicit memory is linked to something else beside the hippocampus. His emotional memory is
also intact as he is very affectionate towards his wife.
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Henry Molaison (HM)
Suffered from epileptic seizures in the 1950s and it wasn’t possible to control them with drugs,
the doctors than decided to remove a structure from the hippocampus from both hemispheres
of his brain as it was the origin of his seizures. The operation stopped his epilepsy but had a
dramatic negative effect on his memory.
His personality and intellect remained the same and he could still talk and recall skills he knew
previously showing his semantic memory is intact and he could form short-term memories but
couldn’t form long term ones. He can memorize a number and recall it 15 minutes but forget it
after a while. He could read the same magazine over and over again without knowing it.
It took HM 6 years to know his way around his house. This shows he had memory capacity and
intellectually he was intact as he was aware of his problem.
For many years he thought that the year was 1953 and that he was 27 years old but realized that
it couldn’t be possible so he started to guess a more appropriate answer. This shows he tried to
reconstruct his memories.
In 1997, after being studied for 44 years, an MRI scanned was conducted on him and revealed
that the hippocampus, amygdale and other areas close was damaged. This allowed researchers
to know which areas of the brain are related to memory and learning.
Generic Evaluation for case studies

Strengths Weaknesses
I. Studies like these can raise interesting VIII. Researchers can sometimes become too
questions for further research close to participants in these studies so
II. In there are enough similar cases then their accounts can become subjective
generalizations can start to be made IX. Highly time consuming
III. Very in depth, rich data achieved through X. Ethical implications as its long and intense
a variety of research method so it can get stressful
IV. Each case is unique providing insights into XI. These studies don’t come by often.
things that we would not know from XII. Can’t generalize as people in case studies
laboratory research are atypical
V. High ecological validity as it is a case study.
VI. Longitudinal as we see changes in behavior
over time and therefore find things out
that we wouldn’t have.
VII. Can be ethical as you’re not forcing them.
Page 22
Conclusion and evaluation
i. Research on anterograde amnesia suggest that episodic memory is more vulnerable to disruption by
brain damage than semantic memory
ii. Research on retrograde amnesia supports distinction between episodic and semantic memory and
that often one or the other type of memory is affected
iii. Distinction between episodic and semantic memory doesn’t address findings on amnesic patients
that have intact repetition priming effects and skill learning
iv. Distinction between explicit and implicit memory is useful in categorizing tests of long-term memory
on which amnesic patients perform poorly in
v. Finding that amnesic patients generally perform well on tests involving implicit memory and poorly
on tests involving explicit memory provides a useful starting point for theorizing about amnesia
vi. Notion that amnesic patients have deficient explicit memory is an explanation of their memory
impairments
Page 23
Syllabus Question: Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship
between biological factors and behavior.
Before modern brain imaging techniques were invented and used widespread, scientific research into
brain function was, until the 20th century, largely limited to case studies of individuals who were known
to have suffered some kind of brain damage or head injury. It was unethical to conduct the kind of
experiment required to test the effects of, for example, the effect on behavior on a person after a
portion of a volunteers brain is removed. Examples of these case studies include Phineas Gage and Paul
Broca and his patient “Tan”.
Modern brain imaging technologies allow us to build a more accurate understanding how the brain
works.
Examples of brain imaging technologies include:
Brain imaging techniques

Technique How it works Strength Weakness
Electroencephalogram Electrodes are placed Not sufficiently
(EEG) outside of a person’s accurate for most
head in specific research into
locations using a special localization of the
cap or helmet so that brain as electrodes
electrodes are fitted to are outside the skull
standardized places on and this make the
skull. electrodes detect an
uncountable number
Electrodes detect of neurons on the
changes in electric surface of the skull
activity below them,
when areas of brain are We get vague ideas of
active, the EEG what parts of the
produces a graphical brain are active but
representation of the not enough
activity from each
electrode
Computed tomography Combines computer Extremely useful for Structural images is
(CT) and x-ray technology showing structural the only kind of image
changes in the brain CT scans can produce
Images acquired from a
CT scan can be taken
from top, bottom, back,
front or sides of the
head and can show the
brain at any depth
Page 24
Magnetic resonance When the body is Can represent a slice of Exposure to

imaging (MRI) exposed to a strong the brain taken from any magnetism can be
magnetic field, protons angle and create a 3D dangerous for people
in the water inside body image of the brain with metal screws
change their alignment used after surgery for
Still being enhanced bones
When a magnetic field allowing more precise
is used in conjunction images Brain function cannot
with radio frequency be shown, only
fields, alignment of Produces more detailed structure
hydrogen atoms is information and can
changed in a way as to detect very small tumors
be detectable by a
scanner
The signal from the

scanner is transformed
into a visual
representation of the
area of the part of body
being studied
Functional MRI (fMRI) Modification of the More flexible than MRI Blood flow follows
regular MRI technique to provide dynamic neuronal activity by
by taking advantage of rather than static about a second, fMRI
the fact that when information assesses blood flow, it
neurons in a particular does not give
region are active, more More precise than PET immediate evidence
blood is sent to that of brain activity
region Produces 3D images that
provide structural and
fMRI can map functional information
metabolic changes that
indicate brain activity
to show us with a
picture that shows with
increasing precision
which parts of the brain
are active while certain
activities are being
performed or certain
emotions or thoughts
occurs
Positron emission Requires the injection Good for showing Much less precise
tomography (PET) of a radioactive dynamic image of than the fMRI
substance into a activity
participant Does not provide a
Most appropriate for real time analysis, but
Page 25
Usually a form of a conditions that do not shows activity over a

sugar that produces show structural changes 60-second period
gamma rays as it is early enough to be
metabolized by the detected by MRI or CT
brain
Shows the brain in
Relies on knowledge action and which part is
that parts of the brain active when different
will metabolize the tasks are performed
sugar at different rates
according to whether
they are more or less
active
Gamma rays produced

are detected by the
machine the person is
placed in
The signal is turned into

a computer image that
displays a colorful map
of activity in the
different parts of the
brain
Research demonstrating these brain imaging technologies in action include:
MRI
Goldstein et al. (1999)
Aim Aim of the experiment was to scan the whole of
brain cortex in a sample of patients with
schizophrenia and compare the size of each region
with that in a control group of healthy volunteers
Method 29 patients were diagnosed with schizophrenia
according to DSIM-III-R system and there was a
control group of healthy adults
Match pair designs was used in which two groups

were matched for sex, age, ethnicity, socio-
economic status, handedness and catchment area
Brain of each participant was scanned using a MRI
scanner and average sizes of 48 areas of brain
were compared in the patients and controls,
controlling for head size
Page 26
Results In patients with schizophrenia, several areas of the

cortex were significantly smaller than control
group
MRI
Sanderson et al. (1999)
Aim Investigated reasons for the relatively high
frequency of schizophrenia in learning disabled
populations and to see whether the major
presenting symptom is schizophrenia or learning
disability
Method Three groups of patients and one group of normal
controls were compared, each group matched on
age and sex and scanned by MRI:
I. 20 patients with learning disability
II. 25 patients with schizophrenia
III. 23 patients with both disorders
IV. 29 normal controls
Results Scans of group with schizophrenia and group with
both learning difficulties and schizophrenia were
very similar in terms of both general structure and
structure of amygdale-hippocampus
Amygdala-hippocampus in both groups was

significantly smaller than those in normal controls
Brains of learning-disabled patients who did not

have schizophrenia were smaller than those of the
other three groups, but amygdale-hippocampus
was larger
Therefore brain structure of people with both

resembles that of people with schizophrenia but
not that of those with learning disability
Page 27
MRI
Draganski et al. (2004)
Aim Aimed to determine whether both function and
structural changes could be detected in the human
brain as a result of learning a new motor skill
Method Twenty one females and three males where used
and half of the participants spent three months
learning to perform a basic juggling routine for a
minimum of 60 seconds
MRI scans were done before and after the three

months of practice and a third scan was made
three months later, during which time participants
were not supposed to practice their new skills
Results No significant group differences in brain structure
in first scan, two areas of brain were significantly
different in size after training
Difference became smaller in third scan, when

practice had stopped for three months
Conclusion Differences were due to an increase in volume in
two regions of the juggler’s brains which are
associated with the retention of visually detected
movement information rather than physical
coordination
Therefore the practice of watching balls moving

through the air repetitively and learning to move
in response to this has strengthened the
connections between neurons in parts of the brain
responsible for this activity
fMRI
Gabrieli et al. (1996)
Aim Used fMRI to study the parts of brain involved in
processing of meaning
Methods Participants were given two tasks to perform
a. Deciding whether words were
concrete or abstract
b. Deciding whether words were in
capital letter
i. Gabrieli et al. argued that
first task involved processing
of meaning and second didn’t
Results fMRI indicated that parts of the left prefrontal cortex
Page 28
were more active when the meaning task was being

performed
Found that words that had been processed for

meaning were recalled much better than words not
processed for meaning
Conclusion Concluded that the process visualized in left inferior
pre-frontal cortex may be thought of as a search for
meaning
fMRI
Brefczynski- Lewis et al. (2007)
Aim Examined differences in brain activity that might
have resulted from having engaged in meditation
over a long period of time
Method Experimenters compared newly trained meditators
with people with between 10 000 and 54 000
hours of meditation practice in a Tibetan Buddhist
method
Hypothesis was that meditating activates specific

parts of brain not active at rest and that those with
most experience would show less activity in those
regions than less experience as experienced
people reduce the amount of effort required to
sustain attention
7 of the 12 experienced meditators were Asian and

were compared with untrained Caucasian
participants with an interest in learning to
meditate
To prevent this interest to be a cofounding

variable, a third group of participants were
promised a financial incentive if their attention
regions were most activity
fMRI scans were conducted while they

concentrated on a dot on a screen in front of them
and while at rest with no concentration
Experimenters played various noises in an attempt

to distracted participants from their meditation
and force them to work harder to sustain attention
Results V. fMRI scans revealed that attention-related
networks in brain and visual cortex were
more active during meditation than during
Page 29
rest periods and novice meditators found

it harder than experts to sustain attention
VI. Experienced meditators showed less
activation in areas of brain associated with
daydreams, emotional processing and
other thoughts not related to task
VII. Experienced meditators showed a
response to disturbing stimuli but not by
losing concentration but by adjusting their
concentration to resist distraction
VIII. Statistical tests were conducted to
eliminated age, brain culture, ethnicity
differences
IX. Concluded that differences were due to
neuroplasticity
Conclusion Concluded that differences were due to

neuroplasticity
Page 30
Genetics and behavior
Syllabus Question: With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic
inheritance influence behavior?
The nature versus nurture debate is about the extent to which human behavior is attributed to
environmental or genetic factors.
Researches into mental disorders such as schizophrenia have shown that it has a genetic component:
Heston (1996)
genetic factors
mothers

adoptees
schizophrenia
therefore shows that there is a genetic component
Homosexuality:

Page 31
Santtila et al. (2008)

Aim To see whether homosexuality is genetic and can
be inherited.
The researchers wanted to test the idea that

reported rates of homosexuality might
underestimate the frequency of homosexual
attraction and is more appropriate to study
potential for homosexual response
Method Carried out an enormous twin study in Finland
using 6001 females and 3252 males
Researchers asked twins to answer a questionnaire

to establish sexual orientation, asked how likely
they would agree to engage in sexual intercourse
with a handsome person of the same sex if asked
and no one knew
Results MZ Males and Females had a 53,4% and 52.6% for
potential for homosexual response respectively
A 38.0% and 59.4% to overt homosexual behavior

respectively
DZ Males and Females had a 23.4% and 26.4% for

potential for homosexual response, respectively
0% chance to overt homosexual behavior for both

groups
Concordance rates for both potential for

homosexual response and overt homosexual
behavior indicated there is a genetic component as
MZ twins were more than twice as likely to answer
the questions the same way
Page 32
Depression
Research for the notion that depression may be due to genetics:
McGuffin et al. (1996)

Aim To see whether depression can be genetic
Method Sampled 214 pairs of twins, at least one of whom
was being treated for major depression
Results 45% of MZ twins and 20% of DZ twins of patients
had also suffered major depression, suggesting
moderate genetic influence
MZ twins may be reared more similarly to fraternal

twins, therefore genes may not be only factor
Silberg et al. (1999)

Aim To assess both the role of genes and recent life
events on depression
Method Participants were taken from an ongoing
projected called Virgina Twin Study of Adolescent
Behavioural Development. Each adolescent
completed a standard psychiatric interview to
assess depression. Life events measured both by
questionnaire given to the young people and an
interview with their parents
902 pairs of twins took part

I. 182 pre-puberty girls
II. 314 pubertal girls
III. 237 pre-puberty boys
IV. 171 puberty boys
Results Girls suffered more depression than boys. On
average more susceptible to depression in
response to life events. Girls who suffered
depression after a negative life event were often
those whose twin also suffered depression
Suggests a role for genes in determining

individual differences in vulnerability to
depression in response to life events
Conclusion Suggests a role for genes in determining
individual differences in vulnerability to
depression in response to life events
Page 33
Research that is both for and against depression and genetics
Klein et al. (1995)- Examined depression in families of 100 patients suffering from dysthymia or
major depression. Found that:
Both dysthymia and major depression were more common in families of both groups of patients than
in the general population
In bipolar cases, the families of patients of unipolar disorder are at no increased from bipolar
disorder than the rest of the population, but relatives of patients with bipolar disorder are at greater
risk from unipolar
Suggests that bipolar disorder is more influenced by genes than unipolar depression
Kendler et al. (1992)- Carried out a twin study on sufferers of relatively mild major depressive
disorder and found little difference between probability of identical and fraternal twins sharing
depression. Compared to McGuffin et al. (1996) research suggests that there is a genetic component
for depression in more severe cases only
Research that is against depression and genetics
Brown and Harris (1978)

Aim Aimed to investigate the link between depression
and both current and past life events in the lives
of suffers
Focused on working-class women as women tend

to experience more depression than men and
because working class people tend to experience
more stress than the middle class
Method A complex structured interview called the life
events and difficulties scale (LEDS) was used
Interviewers were trained to use LEDS

a. Group of 539 women in
Camberwell, London was
interview using LEDS and details
about what stressful events had
occurred in previous year along
with back circumstance in which
they occurred where obtained.
Page 34
LEDS also aimed to uncover

stressful childhood events
b. Interviews prepared a written

account of each event of source
of stress which is rated by a panel
of researchers for how stressful it
would be for a typical person. To
avoid bias, raters had no
knowledge of whether person
were looking at had suffered
depression
c. Associations between those who

suffered depression and who had
recently had a stressful life and
who had had stressful events in
their childhood were looked for
Results Both recent high levels of stress and having
suffered a stressful childhood event left people
vulnerable to depression
80% of women who suffered depression had had

a major stressful life event in previous year
opposed to 40% who didn’t
Factors that caused this include:

I. Lack of intimate relationship
II. Lack of paid employment
III. Presence of three or more children at
home
IV. Stressful childhood events
Conclusion Concluded that there was a link between recent

negative life events and depression
Loss in childhood made women more vulnerable

to depression
Lack of social support and family discord made

women more vulnerable to depression
There is a theory that social causation ( low socio-economic status) causes psychopathology, social drift
is the idea that people with individuals and families with mental disorders tend to drift into lower SES.
Research suggests that low socioeconomic status can relate to depression.
Page 35
Ritscher et al. (2001)- Tested for social causation and drift effects in study of 756 participants across
two generations. Found that low parental educational level was associated with increased rates of
depression in following generation even when there was previously no depression in family history
Parental depression did not predict lower SES in offspring. Study supports role of causation
Radziszewska et al. (1996)- Compared rates of depression in 15 year olds whose parents adopted
different parenting styles
Results showed that lowest rates of depression were found in authoritative, firm and kind strategies
with a degree of freedom. Highest rates of depression in unengaged parents who took no interest in
children. Authoritative and permissive parents had children with intermediate levels of depression.
Most frequent in higher SES groups possibly because in low SES groups it’s too time consuming and
hard
Lupien et al (2000)- Suggested that high levels of stress in parents affect children’s development by
affecting their own levels of stress. 139 mothers were regularly assessed for stress and depression by
telephone interview. Their children (217) were assessed for cortisol levels and for cognitive
functioning
Results showed that low SES mothers reported more stress which in turn was reflected in cortisal
levels and cognitive functioning of their children
Evaluation of question:
General evaluation of the research presented in this question is that it does not actually locate the gene
or genes responsible for the behavior. Research on depression has shown there may be genetic factors
but research on SES has shown that it may be also to due environmental factors. Therefore, genes have
some role in influencing behavior but they work together with environmental factors to form a behavior.
Page 36
Syllabus Question: Examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior.
I. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution states that those who adapt best to the environment will
have a greater chance of surviving, having children, and passing on their genes to their offspring
II. Most inherited behaviors stem from the time of environment of evolutionary adaption (EEA)
a. The period in human evolution during which our genes were shaped and naturally
selected to solve survival problems operating then
III. In the biological level of analysis, one principle is that patterns of behavior can be inherited as
behavior is due to evolution and that the behavior we see today is from advantageous genes
a. Evolutionary psychology is based on some of the key principles of the BLOA
i. A predisposition for certain behaviors is inherited
ii. Principles of evolution dictate that genetically based behaviors of individuals
who has reproduced are passed on and genetically based behaviors that are
unsuccessful are lost over time
1. Therefore the behaviors we see today must have helped our ancestors
survive and have therefore lived on today
a. Adaptive behaviors
b. Evolutionary theory suggests that aspects of behavior or emotional reaction that appear
disorders may actually have or had an important evolutionary survival function and
therefore adaptive
i. But may be maladaptive because:
1. Represents over activity or excessive genetic expression
2. No longer adaptive in the modern world since they evolved in a
different environment of evolutionary adaption
a. Genome lag hypothesis
ii. May still exist due to:
1. Strong linked to genes or adaptive behavior
2. Actually has benefits to genetic relatives
a. Inclusive fitness
3. Result from genetic predisposition when triggered by environmental
cues
4. Have not had sufficient evolutionary time to disappear due to
environmental selection conditions and pressures
c. Explanations for human mental disorders include:
i. Genome lag are behaviors that are no especially adaptive today but they have
not been removed though natural selection
ii. The increased fitness theory is that the genes underlying mental disorders are
responsible for other more desirable traits
1. Mental disorders such as mania are what made the greatest world
leaders great
Page 37
Schizophrenia has been proposed to have been a behavior that has been passed on through evolution.
Heston (1996)
genetic factors
mothers

adoptees

schizophrenia
therefore shows that patterns of behavior can be inherited.
There are several theories to the evolutionary origin of schizophrenia and why even though it is seen as
an maladaptive behavior it has been passed on through genes.
One explanation to the evolutionary origins of schizophrenia was proposed by Stevens and Price (1996)
and called the group-splitting hypothesis. It suggests that characteristics of schizoid personality (mood
changes, bizarre beliefs, hallucinations, delusions, and strange speech) serve an adaptive function
under certain conditions .A crazy person may act as a leader and enable a subgroup to split off from a
main group. Can be valuable at times when main group has become too large to be optimum as when
group sizes increases so do the risk from predation, difficulties in finding enough food and intergroup
rivalries.
Another explanation is the origin of language theory. Crow (2000) suggested that schizophrenia is the
price humans pay for language. Explains how despite the fact that schizophrenia should reduce
reproductive capacity, the apparently genetic condition exists. But language has clear adaptive
advantages. Proposes that a genetic mutation on the Y-chromosome at some time in our ancestral past
led to the development of language but also predisposed individuals to certain mental illness
Page 38
Homosexuality has also been suggested to an adaptive behavior and genetic even though homosexuality
means that there will be far smaller chance of reproduction and therefore this behavior cannot be
adaptive or genetic.
Zietsch et al. (2008) provided a possible answer to how homosexuality can be genetic as it is more likely
to prevent reproduction
Through an evolutionary psychology perspective he considered that the presence of an individual

homosexual person in a family offers some kind or reproductive advantage to others in the family,
possibly by sharing resources and care of others and therefore increasing the reproductive fitness of the
family
He investigated the idea that the genes which incline a man towards homosexuality are advantageous in
a heterosexual man, possibly by somehow increasing his attractiveness to women. He mailed
questionnaires to 4904 identical twins, asking them about sexual orientation, number of opposite- sex
partners and gender identity.
Results showed that, sex-atypical gender identity is associated with having more heterosexual partners
than others and that this was exaggerated in a twin pair. When one twin was homosexual, the
heterosexual twins’ brothers of homosexual men had a large number of sex partners
When we inherit some of the genetic predisposition for homosexuality, but do not consider ourselves
homosexual, we have inherited some characteristics that are usually associated to the opposite sex and
this makes us more attractive to them

Page 39
Santtila et al. (2008)

Aim To see whether homosexuality is genetic and can
be inherited.
The researchers wanted to test the idea that

reported rates of homosexuality might
underestimate the frequency of homosexual
attraction and is more appropriate to study
potential for homosexual response
Method Carried out an enormous twin study in Finland
using 6001 females and 3252 males
Researchers asked twins to answer a questionnaire

to establish sexual orientation, asked how likely
they would agree to engage in sexual intercourse
with a handsome person of the same sex if asked
and no one knew
Results MZ Males and Females had a 53,4% and 52.6% for
potential for homosexual response respectively
A 38.0% and 59.4% to overt homosexual behavior

respectively
DZ Males and Females had a 23.4% and 26.4% for

potential for homosexual response, respectively
0% chance to overt homosexual behavior for both

groups
Concordance rates for both potential for

homosexual response and overt homosexual
behavior indicated there is a genetic component as
MZ twins were more than twice as likely to answer
the questions the same way
Evaluation of question
Research on schizophrenia and homosexuality suggest that there may be an evolutionary origin and
advantage to these behaviors. Research on genetics for these two behavior support that there is a
genetic influence and therefore suggests it can be inherited. Ultimately this means that there may be an
evolutionary root to these behaviors.
Page 40
Cognitive Level of Analysis
General Learning Outcomes
Syllabus Question: Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.
I. There are two principles that define the cognitive level of analysis
a. Mental processes can be studied scientifically
i. Based on following claims:
1. Viewing mental processes in terms of information processing has made
it possible to formulate testable theories about unobservable cognitive
structures and processes
2. Modals or theories can be tested by conventional scientific methods
without having to rely on introspection for data collection
3. Study of mental processes has enabled psychologists to address
important psychological phenomena which behaviorism couldn’t
address
4. Advances in modern cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience and
other fields bear witness to success of addressing psychological
phenomena at the cognitive level of analysis
5. Study of phenomena at the cognitive level of analysis can often be
integrated with study of these same phenomena at the biological and
sociocultural levels therefore leading to more comprehensive
explanations
b. Mental representations guide behavior
i. There are cognitive mediators between what happens in the environment and
how we react to it. The processing that intervenes Is based on the way the
world is represented in our memory. Examples of mental representations are
schemas, which organize our knowledge of objects, events, ourselves and
others
Page 41
Syllabus Question: Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be
1. Mental processes can be studied scientifically
Research that demonstrate this principle include:
Goldstein et al. (1999)

Aim Aim of the experiment was to scan the whole of
brain cortex in a sample of patients with
schizophrenia and compare the size of each
region with that in a control group of healthy
volunteers
Method 29 patients were diagnosed with schizophrenia
according to DSIM-III-R system and there was a
control group of healthy adults
Match pair designs was used in which two groups

were matched for sex, age, ethnicity, socio-
economic status, handedness and catchment area
Brain of each participant was scanned using a MRI

scanner and average sizes of 48 areas of brain
were compared in the patients and controls,
controlling for head size
Results In patients with schizophrenia, several areas of
the cortex were significantly smaller than control
group
2. Mental representations guide behavior
Bransford and Johnson (1972)

Aim Attempted to identify more precisely the
processing stage or stages at which schemas are
likely to exert their influence
Method Study involved participants hearing a long speech
under three different experimental conditions:
I. No title condition, participants only heard
the paragraph
II. Title before, participants heard the same
paragraph after being told “The
paragraph you will hear will be about
washing clothes”
III. The title after condition, participants
were told the paragraphs about washing
clothes after they had listened it
Page 42
After hearing the paragraph participants indicated

how easy they found to understand the speech
and tried to recall as much as they could
Results Participants in the no title and title after

conditions found the paragraph difficult to
comprehend than the title before group
Conclusion Concluded that the title before condition
participants activated schematic knowledge
about what is involved in washing clothes and
helped disambiguate the paragraph
The title after information came too late to

provide necessary context, so participants
couldn’t comprehend it and forgotten it
Page 43
Cognitive processes
Syllabus Question: Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.
I. A schema is a cognitive structure that provides a framework for organizing information about
the world, events, people and actions, integrated chunks of knowledge stored in long-term
memory
a. There are different terms to refer to different schemas
i. Scripts
1. Schemas which provide information about the sequence of events that
occur in a unchanging order in particular contexts
ii. Self-schemas
1. Schema that organize information we have about ourselves
iii. Social schemas
1. Schemas that represent information about groups of people,
stereotypes
b. Schemas allow us to form expectations
c. Schemas perform many interrelated functions:
i. Organize information in memory
ii. Can be activated to increase information-processing efficiency
iii. Enable the generation of expectations about objects, events and people
iv. Regulate behavior
v. Relatively stable and usually very resistant to change thus ensuring continuity in
ways we process information and ways we act
d. Schemas also lead to distortions and mistakes when
i. Settings are unfamiliar and require different approaches
ii. Wrong schemas are activated
II. Advantages of schemas:

a. Allows us to store the central meaning or main bits of new information without
necessarily remembering the precise details. This saves memory resources
b. Helps use understand new information more readily and fill in or guess missing aspects
of it through default values
c. Makes the world more coherent and predictable
III. Disadvantages of schemas
a. Information that doesn’t fit our schemas, especially minor details, may be ignored and
forgotten or distorted in order for us to make sense of it
b. Guesses and filling in of memory by default values may be completely inaccurate and
may cause inaccurate, stereotyped and prejudiced remembering
Page 44
IV. Schema theory aims to explain how memories are organized. This is based on the idea that new
encounters with the world are rarely completely new, the way we process information at any
particular moment is determined by relevant previous knowledge we stored in our memory and
organized in the form of schemas.
Research that provides evidence for schemas include:
Bartlett (1932)
Aim To test the effects of schema on recall.
Bartlett asked English participants to read “The

War of the Ghosts”, a Native American folk tale
Method Participants’ memory for this story was tested by
using:
Serial reproduction- The first participant reads

the original story and reproduces it on paper and
this is read by the second participant who
reproduces it for a third participant and continues
until the sixth or seventh reproductions are
completed by an equal number of participants
Repeated reproduction- The same participant

contributes all six or seven reproductions, these
reproductions or separated by intervals of 15
minutes to several years from reading the original
story
Results The two methods led to very similar findings
With the serial reproduction method, the stories

became shorter each time and there were
distortions in the story that participants
introduced. These distortions made the story
more understandable from the participants
experiences and cultural background, things
cultural unfamiliar to the participants were
replaced with familiar ones. (Hunting seals to
fishing). Shows that schemas were used
Evaluation
Strength Weaknesses
Provides us with evidence that the way we Only used English participants, different cultures
remember depends on our prior knowledge in the may produce different results and these
form of schemas participants are not of the general population
Ecologically valid
Bartlett didn’t give very specific instructions to his
participants; as a result the distortions were due
Page 45
to conscious guessing rather than deficient

memory. Gauld and Stephenson (1967)
found that instructions stressing the need for
accurate recall eliminated almost half the errors
usually obtained
His approach to research lacked objectivity,

psychologists believed that well controlled
experiments are the only way to produce
objective data. Bartlett’s methods were casual as
he simply asked a group of participants to recall
the story at various intervals and there were no
special conditions for this recall
Possible that other factors affected their

performance such as the conditions around them
at the time of recall.
The distortions could be simply guesses by

participants who were trying to make their own
recall seem coherent and complete rather than
genuine distortions
Bransford and Johnson (1972)

Aim Attempted to identify more precisely the
processing stage or stages at which schemas are
likely to exert their influence
Method Study involved participants hearing a long speech
under three different experimental conditions:
I. No title condition, participants only heard
the paragraph
II. Title before, participants heard the same
paragraph after being told “The
paragraph you will hear will be about
washing clothes”
III. The title after condition, participants
were told the paragraphs about washing
clothes after they had listened it
After hearing the paragraph participants indicated

how easy they found to understand the speech
and tried to recall as much as they could
Results Participants in the no title and title after

conditions found the paragraph difficult to
comprehend than the title before group
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Conclusion Concluded that the title before condition

participants activated schematic knowledge
about what is involved in washing clothes and
helped disambiguate the paragraph
The title after information came too late to

provide necessary context, so participants
couldn’t comprehend it and forgotten it
Evaluation
Strengths Weakness
Research has three experimental conditions so These participants don’t represent the general
results are more objective and it allowed the population and so difficult to generalize
effects and evidence of schemas to be more
apparent Lacks ecological validity and mundane realism in
the no title condition as people would usually
know what a speech they’re about to listen is
about. Also, this was a laboratory experiment so
this makes ecological validity and mundane
realism worse
There could have been demand characteristics as

participants knew they were in an experiment
and knew they were going to listen to a speech so
they could have paid special attention to it when
in real life they wouldn’t
Marcae et al. (1994)

Aim Examine the relationship between the effects of
schema on stereotypes
Method First task, participants had to form impressions of
a number of target persons described their name
and 10 personality characteristics
At the time same participants were also doing a

comprehension test for which there were two
conditions
I. Half of participants were told the jobs of
the target persons
II. Half were not
Results Participants who relied on job stereotypes did
perform better at both tasks
For example knowing that someone as a doctor

made the participants give characteristics such as
caring, reliable, intelligent
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Martin and Halverson (1987) argued that children as young as 2 or 3 who have acquired basic gender
identity start to form gender schemas, which consist of organized sets of beliefs about the sexes
The schema that is formed is an ingroup/outgroup schema. Organized information about which toys and
activities are suitable for boys and which are suitable for girls. Own-gender schema which is how to
behave in gender stereotyped ways
These are used by children to organize and make sense of their experiences and if they are exposed to
information that does not fit one of their schemas then the information would be distorted to make fit
the schema.
Martin and Halverson (1983)- Showed 5-6 year old children pictures of schema consistent and
inconsistent activates. Schema inconsistent activates were often misremembered 1 week later as
schema consistent
Bradbard et al. (1986)- Boys and girls between ages 4-9 were presented with gender neutral objects
and were told that some of the objects were boy objects and others were girl objects . Results
showed that children spent much more time playing with objects they had been told were
appropriate to their gender. A week later the children remembered whether any given object was a
boy or a girl object
Masters et al. (1979)- Young children of 4 and 5 were influenced in their choice of toy more by
gender label attached to the toy than by the gender of the model seen playing with the toy
Evaluation of gender schema theory:
I. Helps explain why children’s gender role belief and attitudes often change rather little after
middle childhood
II. Focuses on child as being actively involved in making sense of the world in the light of its
present knowledge
III. Theory emphasizes too much the role of the individual child in gender development and de-
emphasizes the important of factors
IV. Likely the importance of schemas and other cognitive factors in determining behavior is
exaggerated within theory
V. Doesn’t explain why gender schemas develop and take the form they do
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Evaluation of schema theory
Research has provided strong evidence for the existence of schemas and provided insight into its
purpose. Bartlett’s original research was more ecologically valid than most but was criticized for being
informal and lack of experimental controls. But many recent and well controlled experiments have
consistently shown the reconstructive effect of schemas on memory.
Bartlett and other reconstructive memory researchers have been accused of over emphasizing the
inaccuracy of memory and using unfamiliar material to support their claims. Research has shown that
emphasizing the importance of accuracy in memory has found to eliminate inaccuracies.
The concept of a schema and its actions is still a little vague.
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Syllabus Question: Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to
research studies.
A theory of memory is Craik and Lockhart’s (1972) Levels of Processing theory.
The LOP is the extent to which something is processed, not in terms of how much processing is done but
in terms of how much meaning is extracted. The more meaningfully processes something, the more
likely it will be stored in long term memory but if you process something superficially then it won’t be
stored
The LOP basically revolves around the notion that the more meaningful or in depth something is
processed the better it will be remembered, research has shown that factors such as the depth of
processing, elaboration, organization and the distinctiveness of information will make information more
easily stored in long term memory
In the Levels of processing theory there are three main kinds of processing
I. Structural level of processing

a. Encodes the physical features of the relevant stimulus
II. Phonological level of processing
a. Delivers information about how words sound
III. Semantic processing
a. Level that extracts the meaning of information
Craik and Lockhart proposed that as information moves from each of the three levels of processing,
depth of processing increases and this allows information to be better remembered
Craik and Tulving’s (1975) series of experiments

Experiment 1
Aim To demonstrate that memory is an automatic by-
product of semantic processing
Method In one experiment participants were shown a list
of words and asked a question for each and the
answer was yes and no, the questions were of
three types
I. Case (shallow processing)
II. Rhyme (phonemic processing)
III. Sentence (semantic or deep
processing)
Participants were tested on either intentional or

incidental learning
Results Words processed semantically were recalled best
Words processed phonemically were recalled

second best
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Intentional learners did better than the incidental

learners but in both conditions semantic
processing produced the highest results for that
condition
Experiment 2
Aim Craik and Tulving conducted an experiment
where shallow questions were more difficult to
perform and thus would take longer than a
deeper semantic task
Method Participant had to say whether a word shown had
the pattern CCVVC (C= Consonant, V= Vowel)
Results The deeper but shorter task still produced better
recall and therefore supports the importance of
depth
Experiment 3
Aim Craik and Tulving tested how elaboration of
processing can lead to greater recall
Method Participants presented on each trail with a word
and a sentence containing a blank and asked to
decide whether the word fitted into the
incomplete sentence
Elaboration was manipulated by varying the

complexity of the sentence between simple and
complex sentences
Results Recall was twice as high for words accompanying
complex sentences, this suggests that elaborating
benefits long term memory
Mandler (1967)
Aim Demonstrate the effects of organization on
lasting memory
Method Gave participants a pack of 52 picture cards with
each printed with a word. Asked to sort cards into
piles using between two and seven categories
with any system they wished. Were asked to
repeat sorting until they had achieved two
identical sort. If any participants were still trying
to do this after 1.4 hours they were excluded
After they could do this, they were given an

unexpected free recall test
Results Recall was poorest for those who used only two
categories and best for those who used seven
Conclusion Participants who used several categories in
sorting were imposing more organization on the
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list
Organization is a necessary condition for memory
Eysenck and Eysenck (1980)

Aim Tested the effects of distinctiveness on memory
Method Used nouns having irregular grapheme-phoneme
correspondence (eg comb with its silent b)
I. Participants were split into three
conditions
a. To perform the shallow task (non-
semantic) of saying such words as
if they were regular (pronouncing
comb with the b) resulting in a
unique memory trace
b. Or simply pronounce the word in
their normal way (non semantic,
non distinctive)
c. Or the nouns were processed in
terms of meaning (semantic,
distinctive)
Participants they went through an unexpected

recognition test
Results Non-semantic distinctive condition were much
better at remembering than the other two
Conclusion Concluded that distinctiveness was important in
memory
Research against the levels of processing theory
Morris, Bransford and Franks (1977)- Found that stored information is remembered only if it is
relevant to the memory test. Participants who were tested with a rhyming recognition test recalled
words that had been processed in terms of sound than their actually meaning. Goes against the
prediction of LOP
In this case processing the meaning of the list words wasn’t helpful when the memory test required
identification of words rhyming with lost words, information acquired from shallow rhyme task was
more relevant
Page 52
Evaluation for the Levels of processing theory
1. LOP has been supported in a large number of experiments

2. There is no convincing measure of processing depth
3. More of a description of what happens than an explanatory theory
4. Criticized on empirical grounds, simple order in which LOP is based on
5. Research has shown that deeper processing does not guarantee better memory
6. LOP doesn’t address the retrieval stage of memory processes
7. Hard to decide whether a particular task involves shallow or deep processing because of the lack
of any independent measure of processing depth.
8. Craik and Tulving (1975) assumed that semantic processing involved greater depth than
phonemic processing, with no real evidence, only the fact that semantic processing resulted in
more memorability.
9. Participants may not have stopped at the expected level of processing in experiments.
The Multi-store memory model
The MSM was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). According to the MSM consists of three
memory stores:
Store Function
Sensory Information received by the senses enters its
corresponding sensory stores and registers in a
way reflecting its initial form. Visual information
enters the visual sensory store, iconic memory.
Auditory information enters the auditory sensory
store, echoic memory
Sensory stores have unlimited capacity but

information stores it will be forgotten unless
given attention. Attention is the control process
responsible for the transfer of information of
information from the sensory store to the STS.
Only information given attention will transfer to
STS
Short-term stores (STS) Has an extremely limited capacity and will be lost
unless it is maintained through rehearsal.
Information rehearsed enough get transferred to

the LTS .
Long-term stores (LTS) Has unlimited capacity and information and can
last a life time
Information in the LTS is recalled by the process
Page 53
of retrieval
Research that shows evidence for the multi-store memory model include:
Peterson and Peterson (1959)

Aim To test the MSM and its theory.
Method Presented participants with consonant triplets
(KDS, CLS) to memorize. The triplets were
presented one at a time and had to be recalled
after an interval during which participants had to
count backwards in threes from a given number
The counting task lasted for 3,6,9,12,15,18

seconds after which participants had to recall the
triplet
Results As time interval increased, recall of the triplets
became progressively worse
After a 3 second interval participants could recall

around 80% of the triplets
After 18 seconds, recall fell to less than 10%
Shows that when rehearsal is prevented,

information is rapidly loss from the STS
Evaluation Shows evidence of the MSM
Lacks mundane realism and ecological validity
Sample doesn’t represent general population
Different time intervals tested the length of short

term memory
Free recall is when participants study a list of items, usually unrelated, presented one at a time and then
attempt to recall these words in any order. Typical findings are that the words at the beginning and at
the end of the list are better recalled than those in the middle
Primary effect- Better recall of first few items
Recency effect- Better recall of the last few items
The pattern that emerged when recall is plotted against the position of the words in the list is called the
serial position curve.
Page 54
Glanzer and Cunitz (1996)

Aim To test the serial position effect
Method Half the participants recalled the words
immediately after presentation (IFR)
Other half recalled after a delay of 30 seconds

(DFR). To prevent further rehearsal of list words
during the delay, participants in this condition
had to count backwards in three from a three
digit number
Results IFR showed the serial position effect. The first few
items were stored in the LTS as the first few items
were given attention. The recency effect was
explained by saying that those words were in the
STS and could be recalled
DFR showed the primary effect but no recency

effect
Case studies have also shown evidence for the MSM.
Cases of anterograde amnesia such as H.M or Clive Wearing provide strong evidence for the distinction
between STM and LTM. Anterograde amnesia is often caused by brain damage to the hippocampus and
those suffering from it seem incapable of transferring new factual information between STM and LTM.
Patients afflicted by anterograde amnesia often retain most of their long term memory for events up
until the moment of brain damage and maintain their procedural memories. While they seem incapable
of gaining new long term declarative memory for semantic or episodic information most are able to
learn new procedural skill.
If these people are given free recall experiements, they show good recency effects but extremely poor
primacy effects. (Baddeley and Warrington, 1970)
Evaluation for the Multi-store memory model
I. Well supported by relevant experimental and neuropsychological studies

II. Simplistic view of how memory works
a. Importance of rehearsal has been doubted
b. New research has shown that both STS and LTS rely on different codes to represent
information
i. Semantic processing takes place in STS
ii. LTS uses a variety of codes such as visual, acoustic and semantic codes
Page 55
c. The linear order of the MSM is too simplistic to account for the multiple ways in which
different memory stores communicate
d. The STS has been subdivided into a number of distinct and interacting short term
memory components
i. Led to new models such as the working memory model
1. View STS as a far more active and important system than just a
temporary stop for information before its processed into the LTS
e. LTS has been subdivided into different components specializing in the storage of
different types of information
i. Declarative, procedural memory
f. Emphasizes on the stores and doesn’t investigate the processing between each in detail
and it does state how attention and rehearsal is required but it doesn’t explain how
much
III. Under-emphasizes the interactions between the stores.
IV. STM and LTM are more complex and less unitary than the model assumes.
V. Rehearsal is too simple a process to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM,
the model ignores factors such as the effort and strategy subjects may use when learning and
does not account for the type of information taken into memory. (Dealt by LOP)
Syllabus Question: Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process.
Case study examples: HM, Clive Wearing
Experiment examples: Sperry (1968)
Neurotransmitters: Martinez and Kezner (1991)
Page 56
Syllabus Question: Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process.
Bartlett’s work has shown that schemas originating from one particular culture affected how text from
another culture is recalled. Different cultures have been shown to remember things different and at
different levels of effectiveness. There is also a link between culture and face recognition.
Bartlett (1932)
Aim To test the effects of schema on recall.
Bartlett asked English participants to read “The

War of the Ghosts”, a Native American folk tale
Method Participants’ memory for this story was tested by
using:
Serial reproduction- The first participant reads

the original story and reproduces it on paper and
this is read by the second participant who
reproduces it for a third participant and continues
until the sixth or seventh reproductions are
completed by an equal number of participants
Repeated reproduction- The same participant

contributes all six or seven reproductions, these
reproductions or separated by intervals of 15
minutes to several years from reading the original
story
Results The two methods led to very similar findings
With the serial reproduction method, the stories

became shorter each time and there were
distortions in the story that participants
introduced. These distortions made the story
more understandable from the participants
experiences and cultural background, things
cultural unfamiliar to the participants were
replaced with familiar ones. (Hunting seals to
fishing). Shows that schemas were used
Evaluation
Strength Weaknesses
Provides us with evidence that the way we Only used English participants, different cultures
remember depends on our prior knowledge in the may produce different results and these
form of schemas participants are not of the general population
Ecologically valid
Bartlett didn’t give very specific instructions to his
participants; as a result the distortions were due
to conscious guessing rather than deficient
Page 57
memory. Gauld and Stephenson (1967)

found that instructions stressing the need for
accurate recall eliminated almost half the errors
usually obtained
His approach to research lacked objectivity,

psychologists believed that well controlled
experiments are the only way to produce
objective data. Bartlett’s methods were casual as
he simply asked a group of participants to recall
the story at various intervals and there were no
special conditions for this recall
Possible that other factors affected their

performance such as the conditions around them
at the time of recall.
The distortions could be simply guesses by

participants who were trying to make their own
recall seem coherent and complete rather than
genuine distortions
Cross cultural research have shown that American students and those in Liberia learn differently.
Cole and Scribner (1974)

Aim To investigate the differences in learning and
development of memory among tribal people in
rural Liberia
Method To overcome barriers of language and culture,
researchers observed everyday cognitive activities
before conducting the experiment and used
college educated locals as experimenters
Conducted a free recall test and presented the

nonschooled Liberian participants with a list of
items they were familiar with
Results Liberian children showed no regular increase in
memory performance during middle childhood
unless they had attended school for several year
Non schooled people improved their performance

on these tasks very little after the age 9 or 10
They remembered approximately ten items on

the first trial and managed to recall only two
more items after 15 practice trials
Page 58
Liberian children who were attending school

learnt the materials rapidly like the school
children of the same age in the United States
Found that if they presented the list in a

meaningful way as part of a story, the non
schooled Liberian participants recalled them
easily, clustering the objects according to the
roles they played in a story
School children in Liberia and United States learnt

the list more rapidly but also used categorical
similarities to aid their recall
After the first trail they clustered their responses
Non schooled Liberian participants did very little
clustering
Kagan et al. (1979) - Tested children’s memorization skills among Mayan people, and when Mayan
children were presented with a free-recall task their performance lagged considerably behind those
of age-mates in the United States
Rogoff and Waddel (1982)

Method Constructed a diorama of a Mayan village located
near a mountain and lake, similar to the locale in
which they children lived
Each child watched a local experimenter selected
20 miniature objects from a set of 80 and placed
them into the diorama. Objects included things
that would be found in a real town
The objects were then returned to a group of 60

others remaining on a table
After a few minutes, the children had to

reconstruct the full scene they were shown
Results Results showed that under these conditions, the
memory performance of the Mayan children was
slightly superior to that of their United States
counterparts
Page 59
Ross and Millson (1970)- Investigated whether reliance on oral traditions might make people better
at remembering. They compared the memories of American and Ghanian college students in
remembering stories that were read aloud
Results showed that Ghanian students were better than Americans at remembering the stories
Concluded that cultures with an oral tradition were better at remembering things, but Cole et al.
(1971) found that nonliterate African subjects didn’t perform better when they were tested with lists
of words instead of stories. Suggests that cultural differences in memory as a function of oral
tradition may be limited to meaningful material.
Malpass and Kravitz (1969)- Showed photographs of either African American or European American
individuals to observers in either a predominately African American or European American university
Results indicated that observers recognized individuals of their own race better than they did people
of the other race.
Bigler and Liben (1993)- European American children were asked to recall stories about European or
African Americans that were either consistent or inconsistent with racial stereotypes. Negative traits
were associated with either the European or African American child in the stories
Results showed that children with better memory for counter-stereotypical stories had lower
degrees of racial stereotyping and greater ability to classify people among multiple dimensions
Concluded that memory may affect stereotypes and the way by which we understand people
Page 60
Syllabus Question: With reference to relevant to research studies, to what extent is one cognitive
process reliable.
Research on eyewitness memory lends itself to this question. Much of eyewitness memory research is
based on Bartlett’s research on reconstructive memory. Eyewitnesses do not reproduce what they
witness but reconstruct their memories on the basis of relevant schematic information.
In Bartlett’s War of the Ghost, participants replaced details of the story when they were recalling it with
their own culture or personal relevant schematic knowledge. Therefore, from research on schemas it is
shown that memory can be an unreliable process.
Reliability in a research context means that if you can fully replicate the results of an experiment then it
is considered reliable. In the context of memory, reliability means if you can accurate reproduce a piece
of information from memory without any distortions
Research on leading questions, a question that contains hints about what the right answer to it may be,
have shown that memory may be unreliable.
Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Aim To test the effects of leading questions and
schemas on memory
Method Participants watched seven film clips of different
car accidents. After each clip, participants
described what they saw and answered questions
about it. The critical question asked about the
speed of the cars in the accident.
The experiment involved five experimental

conditions which were defined by the verb used
to ask the question about the car’s speed. The
critical question was “About how fast were the
cars going when they hit each other?” For the
other conditions the verb hit was replaced with
contacted, collided, bumped and smashed into.
Results The average estimates of speed increased when a
stronger verb was used in the critical questions
Conclusion Leading questions affect memory and may
negatively affect it. Schemas may be argued to
have been used as the verb may have activated a
certain schema.
Study 2
Method Participants were presented with a one-minute
film showing a multiple car accident and were
then asked questions about it with a critical
question about speed.
Three conditions were used and two groups were
Page 61
asked questions about the speed by using either

smashed or hit. The control group was not asked
anything about speed.
One week later, all participants were asked: “Did

you see any broken glass?” There were no broken
glass.
Results 32% of those who had been asked about the car’s
speed with the verb smash claimed to have seen
broken glass compared to only 14% of the
participants in the hit group.
Conclusion The schema activated by the verb smashed must
have aroused a stronger expectation of broken
glass than that activated by the verb hit.
But 12% in control group also reported seeing

glass.
Loftus et al. (1987)- In this study the researchers studied the weapons effect, the theory that when a
witness is asked to report for example, a robbery where the thief pointed a weapon against the
victim, at the time of the crime the witness will most likely be focused on the weapon than the face
of the criminal. Therefore reducing the reliability of the witness being able to identify the criminal.
Participants heard a discussion going in the next to the one they were in. There were two conditions:
- No weapons condition in which a man with greasy hands emerged from the next room holding a
pen
- Weapon condition in which a man came out of the next room holding a paperknife covered in blood
All participants were then asked to identify the man from a selection of 50 photographs.
Participants in the no weapons condition were more accurate. Loftus et al. explained that the
attention allocated were different between the two conditions. The weapon drew more attention to
itself than the pen, so less attention was paid to the man’s face. This explanation was supported by
an analysis of the participant’s eye movements.
In these three studies, they all lack ecological validity as it was performed in a laboratory condition and
doesn’t represent what happens in real life. Also, in real life you may get more information than from a
film clip or a picture slide. Also participants knew they were going to be shown something interesting
therefore this may have made participants pay for attention then they normally would.
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The Yerkes-Dodson Law also helps explain the reliability of memory in the context of eyewitness
memory. The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that arousal, stress or anxiety can increase performance up to a
certain level, but past that level it will hinder our performance.
Deffenbacher et al. (2004)- Conducted a meta-analysis of studies investigating the role of emotion on
eyewitness testimony. They found that anxiety and stress reduces the reliable recall of crime details
including information about the behavior of the main characters.
Other studies have shown that anxiety and stress and stress seem to improve eyewitness accuracy.
Deffenbeacher et al. suggests that increases of anxiety up to a certain level increase accuracy but
further increase may produce the opposite effect.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)- Found that real-life recall can be very accurate. They analyzed interviews
from people who had witnessed a crime in which one person was shot dead and another was
seriously injured. There were interviews with the police immediately after the crime and several
months later with the researchers. Yuille and Cutshall found that the accuracy and amount of
information recalled di not decrease over time. The eyewitnesses’ accounts were not distorted by
leading questions posed by the police.
These findings suggest that post-event information may distort memory less in real life than in the
laboratory.
Evaluation
The memories of eyewitnesses are fragile and are susceptible to distortions, therefore negatively
affecting the reliability of memory. The evidence that post-event information can easily distort an
eyewitnesses’ recall of the incident indicates the unreliable nature of eyewitness memory.
But post event information is less likely to distort recall in real life than in a laboratory. Also, there are
differences between eyewitness reports obtained in the laboratory than those provided in real life. The
reports of real accidents or crimes, unlike those in experimental studies, are very often provided by the
victims themselves. Watching a video of an accident is far less stressful than observing one in real life.
Also, cases of mistaken eyewitness identification in real life have real and very serious consequences
than in experiments. Most of the memory distortions demonstrated seem to involve minor details
rather than central aspects of the crime.
But, Ihlebaek et al. (2003) found that witnessing an event through a video was more reliable than
witnessing in real life.
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Syllabus Question; Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes.
Refer to BLOA section on brain imaging techniques and use relevant studies.
For example:
1. Gabrieli et al. (1996)

2. Sperry
3. Brefcynskil- Lewis et al. (2007
4. HM
Platt (2002) found in fMRI studies, the prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex activated during decision
making and Paulus et al. (2001) found that the activation is stronger when the decisions studied involve
risk
Huettel et al. (2006) presented participants with pairs of monetary gambles and had to choose among
them. Included both risky and ambiguous decisions, risky decisions have several possible outcomes, the
probabilities of which are known
Results showed that fMRI scans showed that the prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex showed increase
levels of activation. Preference for ambiguity increased activation in lateral prefrontal cortex. Preference
for risk was associated with increased activity in posterior parietal cortex. Impulsiveness in decision-
making was associated with activity in prefrontal cortex. Found that prefrontal cortex was associated
with less impulsivity in decision-making under uncertainty
Ochsner and Gross (2008) through fMRI scans, found that when participants are asked use cognitive
reappraisal in cognitively reinterpreting the meaning of emotional stimuli in ways that change their
emotional value, they found that:
1. Increases in prefrontal cortex, more active it is the more successful the reappraisal
2. Decreases in amygdale which are associated with negative emotions
3. Increases in nucleus accumbens, associated with positive emotions
Page 64
Wager et al. (2008)

Method Carried out a study involving three conditions
and participants took part in all three and
during these conditions, participants viewed
imaged presented during fMRI scanning
Condtions Look/neutral condition- Participants viewed
neutral imaged
Look/negative condition- Participants viewed

negative images
In both these conditions participants were

asked to look at the images and experience
whatever emotional response they might elicit
Reappraise/negative condition- Participants

viewed negative images and were asked to
generate positive reinterpretations of those
imaged so as to reduce their negative emotional
impact
Following presentation of each image

participants were asked to rate their emotional
reaction
Results Reappraisal was successful in lowered
emotional impact of negative images and
resulted in increased activation in the prefrontal
cortex
Reduced activity in amygdale caused increased

activity in nucleus accumbens
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Cognition and emotion
Syllabus Question: To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion.
The Two Factor Theory
According to Schater and Singer (1962)’s two factor theory, two factors interact to determine specific
emotions: physiological arousal and an emotional interpretation and labeling of the physiological
arousal. According to the TFT, experiencing distinct emotions in specific settings requires the interaction
between physiological arousal and an interpretation of what has caused the arousal in that setting. The
strength of the physiological arousal determines the intensity of the emotional experience, its
interpretation determines which particular emotion is experienced

Method They recruited volunteers to receive a vitamin injection and informed them
that they would be participating in vision experiments. None of the 184
male participants received a vitamin injection. Three groups received
three groups receiving the adrenaline injection were either given correct or
incorrect information about the effects of the injection

participants but gets increasingly outraged by personal nature of questions
Experimenters use observational data based on structured observations of

participants in each condition and asked them to complete a form that
Results In the euphoria condition, the groups who received an adrenaline injection
with incorrect information about effects showed more euphoric and happy
behavior
Evaluation 1. Methodologically lacking as physiological arousal was measured by
pulse rate only
2. Subsequent research by Marshal and Zimbardo (1979) found that
arousal produced by adrenaline injections is unpleasant rather than
neutral
3. There has been replication failures
4. Lacks ecological validity
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5. Does not systematically link specific types of cognitions to specific

emotional states
6. The judges who rated emotion knew which condition the participants
were in, this may have biased their ratings
7. Judges didn’t use a standardized coding system for recording the
participant’s behavior
The James- Lange Theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion states that different emotion-arousing external stimuli will produce
specific physiological responses that in turn directly cause specific emotional feelings. Thus, external
stimuli of a dangerous object will cause the physiological response of adrenaline release/increased heart
rate, which in turn is felt as the emotion of fear. Physiological arousal is necessary and sufficient for
emotions to occur.
Ax (1953) found different physiological changes associated with particular emotions, for example fear
seemed associated with physiological effects of adrenaline, anger with the effects of noradrenaline.
Schwartz et al (1981) also found distinct physiological reactions for anger, fear, happiness and sadness.
Laird (1974) found that facial feedback affected mood.
But specific physiological changes have not been found for every emotion, only the strongest and most
basic ones. Maranon (1924) found that physiological arousal is not suffiecient to cause emotion, by
injecting subjects with adrenaline. Over two thirds of them reported only physical symptoms- the rest
merely reported “as if” they were feeling an emotion.
Lazarus’s appraisal theory
Proposed by Lazarus (1982, 1991), refers to the evaluation of situations according to the significance
they have for us. We experience emotions when we appraise events as beneficial or harmful to our well-
being. There are two types of appraisal:
I. Primary appraisal relates to deciding whether a situation is personally relevant

a. Three components to appraisal
i. Motivational relevance
1. Is situation relevant to goals set, an emotion will only be experienced if
answer is positive
ii. Motivational congruence
1. Is situation favorable to my goals, positive and negative emotions will follow
yes and no answered respectively
iii. Accountability
1. Who is responsible for what is happening
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Outcome of primary appraisal is not full emotion but a basic positive and negative approach and
avoidance responses towards or away from the situation that caused them. Experiencing more specific
emotions require secondary appraisal
II. Secondary appraisal aim is to provide information about the individuals coping options in a situation
a. Three components:
i. Problem-focused components
1. Can I cope with the situation by changing it to make it less threatening?
ii. Emotion-focused components
1. Can I change the situation by changing the way I feel about it to reduce
emotional impact?
iii. Future expectancy
1. To what extent can I expect the situation to change?
iv. Which emotion we experience in a particular situation is determined by the pattern
of answers individuals give to the questions above
The Core Relational Theme (CRT) is the summary of all the appraisal judgments that define specific
emotions
Re-appraisal may also occur, this is when the stimulus situation and coping strategies are monitored,
with the primary and secondary appraisals being modified if necessary.
Research that supported Lazarus’ appraisal theory of emotion include:
Smith and Lazarus (1993) asked participants to identify with the central character of stories they were
reading. In one of the stories, the character is appraising his very poor performance in an important
course. Accountability was manipulated by either describing the situation as one that involved an
unhelpful teacher or the character’s bad working habits
Results showed that manipulation of appraisal components led to the participants reporting emotional
states that were largely consistent with appraisal theory
Herrald and Tomaka (2002)

Aim Investigated the relationships between different
emotions, patterns of cognitive appraisal and
cardiovascular reactivity during real emotional
episodes
Method Participants were asked to express their opinion
on a variety of college-related topics in the
presences of a confederate behaving in a way to
make them feel anger, shame, or pride by using
behavior based on CRTs outlined by Lazarus
Physiological arousal was measured by
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monitoring participant’s cardiac activity and

blood pressure
Results Largely consistent with Lazarus’ theory
Discrete emotions were closely associated with

specific appraisal patterns
Anger and shame were associated with greater

physiological arousal than pride
Speisman et al. (1964)

Method Showed participants a stressful firm depicting
boys undergoing circumcision in the context of a
puberty rite. Film was accompanied by a
soundtrack and by manipulating the soundtrack,
investigators defined four experimental
condition:
1. Trauma
1. Pain experienced by boys and the use
of a sharp knife were emphasizes
2. Denial
1. Boys’ anticipating of entering manhood
was pointed thus de-emphasizing the
negative aspects of the film
3. Intellectualization
1. Soundtrack ignore the emotional
aspects of the situation and
emphasized instead the traditions of
aboriginal culture
4. Silent
1. No soundtrack
Arousal state was measured galvanic skin

response (GSR), a measure of electrical
conductivity of skin and an indicator of autonomic
arousal and heart rate
Results GSR and heart rate were highest in trauma and
lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions
Denial was in the middle

Conclusion Concluded that the way participants appraised
what they saw in the film affected their
physiological reaction to it
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Ohman (2000)
Method Presented pictures of spiders or snakes to
participants who feared spiders, feared snakes,
and no fears of either
Two experimental conditions

1. Stimuli were presented at durations that
enabled the participants to consciously
recognize them
2. Pictures were shown for 30 milliseconds and
followed by a neutral stimulus, participants
would not be aware of the context of stimuli
presented
Results Phobic participants showed nearly identical
physiological responses to picture of their phobic
animals, regardless of whether or not they had
conscious seen the spiders or snakes presented
Conclusion Results indicate that appraisal can occur as
unconscious levels
I. Whalen et al. (1998)
1. Used the same technique to
show participants photos of
faces with fearful expression for
about 30 milliseconds and
participants reported no
conscious awareness of the
fearful faces
i. Imaging data showed
activation within
amygdale
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Syllabus Question: Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process.
Two concepts called repression and flashbulb memory show us the effects of emotion on memory.
Repression suggests that it could cause forgetting and flash bulb memory suggests that it prevents
forgetting. Both are due to emotional effects.
Brown and Kulik (1977) define FBM as memories of the circumstances in which one first learned of a
very surprising consequential or emotionally arousing event. FBMs are most likely to occur when the
event was not only emotionally surprising to the person but also had consequences for their own life.
They proposed a theory of the formation and maintenance of FBMs.
1. Form in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional information

2. Maintained by means of overt rehearsal (discussion) and covert rehearsal (private rehearsing)
3. Differs from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more consistent and
accurate
4. Require the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores information
permanently in a unique memory system, in order to be created
Research that shows evidence for FBM include:
Brown and Kulik (1977)

Aim To show evidence for flash bulb memory.
Method Asked 80 American participants (40 white and 40
black) to answer questions about 10 events
Nine were mostly assassinations or attempted

assassinations of well-known American
personalities. Tenth was a self-selected event of
personal relevance and involving unexpected
shock
Participants were asked to recall the

circumstances they found themselves in when
they first head the news about the 10 event.
They were also asked to indicate how often they
had rehearsed (overtly or covertly) information
about each event
Results Assassination of Kennedy led to the highest
number of FBMs with over 90% of participants
recalling its reception context in vivid detail
African Americans reported more FBMs for

leaders of civil rights movements than Caucasian
Americans
Most participants recalled a personal FBM

Conclusion The results shows evidence for flash bulb memory
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and the role of emotion in it. The results suggest

that emotional significant events that affect
people emotionally in negative or positive ways
create a “FBM” effect.
But events such as JFK being assassinated may

not be as emotionally significant to African
Americans as the assassination of Martin Luther
King.
Conway et al. (1994) used both UK and non-UK citizens to study FBMs caused by unexpected
resignation of Margaret Thatcher in 1990. They found that 85.6% of UK citizens and considerably fewer
non-UK citizens had FBM after 11 months. This shows evidence of emotion playing a role in helping
consolidate memory as it is argued that Margaret Thatcher’s resignation is emotionally significant to UK
citizens than compared to non-UK citizens. Non-UK citizens had considerably few FBMs than UK citizens
therefore suggesting the role of emotion in FBM.
It has been demonstrated in research that current attitudes and emotion towards a certain event or
thing affect memory and that the memories of these events are partly reconstructed based on people’s
current appraisal of events. Breckler (1994) found that people’s current attitudes towards blood
donation impacted their memories about how they felt when they donated blood in the past. Holmberg
and Holmes (1994) found that men whose marriages had become less happy over time tended to recall
early interactions in the marriage as being more negative than they had originally reported. But the data
was co relational so we can’t say that changes in appraisal actually cause changes in memory for
emotions.
Research that goes against FBM:
Neisser and Harsch (1992) asked participants to report on circumstances when they learnt about the
Challenger space disaster. Participants reported on this event twice one day after the disaster and 2 and
half years later. Results showed that one day after event 21% of participants reported hearing it on TV
and two and half years later this rose to 45%.
Concluded that the participants memories of how they learnt the news changed over time and that their
memories about how they heard the news deteriorated during the two and half years.
Suggests that FBM may not exist and that FBMs are just normal memories and that emotionally
intensive memories doesn’t always mean that it’ll make it more accurate. Talarico and Rubin (2003)
found that emotional intensity was often associated with greater memory confidence, but not with
accuracy. They asked participants to recall events of 911 on four different occasions:
1. A day after
2. A week after
3. 42 days after
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4. 224 days after
They also tested participants memory for an everyday event that had happened at around the same
time with the attack. Memory was tested four times, same arrangement
Results showed that the FBMs remained very vivid throughout the study and that participants were very
confident about their accuracy but not more consistent than the participant’s everyday memories the
everyday event
Also, FBM’s may be just a result of extra attention and rehearsal being given to a certain event because
of the emotional significant or shock of it. We are more likely to talk to people about a very shocking
event and rehearse it in our head than more mundane events. Therefore creating the vividness in the
memory and “accuracy” of it and as a result FBM.
Repression
Repression is a concept from psychodynamic psychology which focuses heavily on emotion. Freud
proposed that forgetting is motivated by the desire to avoid displeasure, so embarrassing, unpleasant or
anxiety-producing experiences are repressed and pushed down into the unconscious. Repression is a
protective defensive mechanism that involves the ego actively blocking the conscious recall of memories
which become inaccessible. Direct recall attempts will either fail, lead to distorted recall or digression
from the topic.
Sigmund Freud argued that repression was the most important of defense mechanisms and that it not
only accounted for his patient’s anxiety disorders but was a common cause of everyday forgetting.
But theoretically speaking, forgetting more unpleasant than pleasant memories could just mean that
people rehearse upsetting material less because they do not want to think or talk to others about it. It is
also difficult to assess the extent to which the repressor chooses not to search for the memory or is
unable to.
Experimental evidence is difficult to gather due to the ethical problems of probing for traumatic
memories or creating them by exposing subjects to unpleasant, anxiety provoking experiences. Also,
studies that have been conducted show mixed results and where negative emotions have been found to
increase, there has been debate over the cause on whether or not emotion can affect memory.
Loftus and Burns (1982) showed two groups a film of a bank robbery, but exposed one of the groups to
a far more violent version where a young boy was shot in the face. The group that saw this version later
showed far poorer recall of detail than the control group. In this study, Freud may have suggested
repression, but Loftus (1987) could explain the forgetting with the weapons focus effect.
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Sociocultural Level of Analysis

General learning outcomes
Syllabus Question: Outline principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis.
I. There are three principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis:
a. The social and cultural environment influences individual behavior
i. Other people have influence on the way we behave.
ii. Social norms and internalized standards of behavior regulate our social lives
iii. Group behavior and conformity
iv. SLT
b. We want connectedness with and a sense of belonging to others
i. In and outgroups and SIT
c. We construct our conceptions of the individual and social self
i. Stereotypes, ingroup, outgroups, SIT
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Syllabus Question: Explain how principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis may be
1. The social and cultural environment influences individual behavior.

a. This means that people around us or whatever is happening around us will influence our
behavior
Research that demonstrate this principle include:
Asch (1951)
Aim To investigate the effects of the social
environment on conformity
Method Participants were told they were taking part in a
study of visual perception and were asked to
indicate which one of three comparison lines is
equal in length to a standard line. This was
repeated 18 times, the task was so easy that
participants would almost always get it all correct
if done by themselves.
In the main control of the study participants had

to state their answers aloud in the presence of
people they think were six other participants.
They were confederates and behaved in a way
prearranged by the experimenter. The
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confederates gave the wrong answer on 12 of the

18 trials and the real participant was always the
last to answer .These set of 18 trials was repeated
many times, each time testing a genuine
participant
Results Participants conformed and went along with the
wrong answer given by the majority on nearly
37% of critical trials
76% of participants conformed on at least one

critical trial. Only 24% of participants remained
independent throughout the experiment
After the experiment, when asked why they

conformed, participants said that they wanted to
gain approval and avoid criticism and social
disapproval
2. We wanted connectedness and a sense of belonging to others
This principle can be demonstrated by conformity research and research on SIT and ingroup and
outgroups. Asch (1951)’s conformity study shows this as participants said that they didn’t want to get
criticized and socially disapproved and gain approval instead.
Research that demonstrates this principle include:
Tajfel et al. (1971)

Aim To see if being categorized into groups would
cause ingroup and out group bias
Method Divided a number of British schoolboys into two
groups. They were divided randomly but were led
to believe they were sorted according to their
preferences for artwork
The boys had to individually distribute points to

ingroup and outgroup members and were not
allowed to give points to themselves
Results The boys showed a strong tendency to favor
members of their ingroup over the outgroup, this
shows ingroup favoritism.
The boys would also sacrifice the amount of

points they would give to their ingroup in order to
maximize the difference from the outgroup.
Giving more points to the ingroup would mean
you have to give corresponding points to the
outgroup, the more you give to ingroup the more
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you have to give to outgroup too. Boys chose to

give 7 point to ingroup instead of giving 13 as
giving 7 would result in 1 point to outgroup and
13 would result in 13 to outgroup also.
Conclusion Simply being categorized into groups is enough to
show an ingroup and outgroup bias. This
demonstrates this principle.
3. We construct our conceptions of the individual and social self
This principle basically means that we have develop our own self based on the social environment. This
principle can be demonstrated by SIT, in group outgroup , SSB, etc research.
Research that demonstrates this principle include:
Johnson et al. (1964)

Aim Test self serving bias
Method Participants were psychology students that taught
two children how to multiply numbers by 10 and
20
Teaching was done in phases via a one-way
intercom
1. First phase involved teaching children
how to multiply by 10
2. Second phrase involved teaching children
After each phase, the children’s worksheets were

made available to the participants to assess the
learning progress of the children
The worksheets were actually marked in a way

that in both conditions:
1. Pupil A gave right answers to all
questions both worksheets
2. Depending on condition, pupil B either
did badly on both tasks or did badly on
the first worksheet but improved on the
second
3. Participants had therefore either failed
or successes in teaching pupil B the two
tasks
Results Where pupil B’s performance improved,
participants explained the improvement as a
success based on their abilities as teachers
When pupil B failed to improve they attributed
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this to the pupil’s lack of ability

Link to principle The principle states we construct our own
individual and social self. This research about self-
serving bias demonstrates this as the way we
attribute success and failure influences the ways
we construct our sense of self and self- worth.
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Sociocultural cognition
Syllabus Question: Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior.
I. The attribution theory is the theory of how we attribute certain behaviors and what we
attribute them to:
a. Dispositional attribution is attribution the cause of people’s behavior to their internal
characteristics
b. Situational attribution
i. When a people’s behavior is attributed to external factors
II. The Actor Observer Effect is where people attribute a behavior depending on whether they are
performing an action or observing somebody else doing it
a. The actor attributes behavior to situational factors
b. The observer attributes behavior to dispositional factors
Research that demonstrates the Actor Observer Effect include:
Choi and Nisbet (1998) studied cultural differences in the AOE between Americans and Koreans.
Participants read and essay after being told that the writer was biased on one side
Participants carried out 2 tasks
1. Rate the extent to which the writer expressed his/her genuine feelings
2. Wrote an essay un same situational pressure as original writer
Results showed that American participants showed the AOE, they thought that the writer expressed
his/her true feelings more than themselves. The Korean participants felt that the writer was no more
likely than themselves to be expressing his/her true feelings
Storms (1973) argued that we exaggerate the situation’s importance in determining our own behavior
because we can see the situation but no ourselves. In this study, conversations were videoed from the
actor’s POV and from the observer’s POV. When actors viewed the video from observers POV, they
generally attributed their own behavior to dispositional rather than situational factors.
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Syllabus Question: Discuss two errors in attributions.
The Fundamental Attribution Error is when people overestimate the role of dispositional factors in a
person’s behavior and underestimate the situation factors, in other words they falsely blame the person
and not the situation
I. Theories that aim to explain why people commit the FAE are:
a. Predictability Theory
i. The theory that we attribute an error just because it makes our life easier and
making future behavior easier to predict.
1. We meet a quiet person that was boring; we assume all future quiet people
we meet will be boring.
b. Terror management theory
i. The theory that we assume a person’s personality will be the same in all situations
regardless of current situational factors
1. An aggressive person is aggressive in one situation, we assume that person
will be aggressive in all situations
Research that demonstrates the FAE include:
Lee et al. (1977) in this study, participants were randomly assigned one of three roles and know that
everyone in this experiment is acting as either a game show host, a contestant or the audience.The
hosts were instructed to make up their own questions, the audience watched the show through these
questions. After the show was over, the audience were asked to rank who was the smartest.
Results showed that most people said the host, this shows FAE because they knew that it was all
randomly assigned and that the host wrote his/her own questions. Participants attributed the hosts
behavior to dispositional than situational
Choi and Nisbett (1988) asked American and Korean participants to read an essay supporting or
opposing capital punishment.. They were informed the essay writer had been told which side of the
issue to support
Results showed that American participants showed a much stronger FAE than Koreans and that there is
a difference in FAE between individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
Jones and Harris (1967) asked their participants to read essays written by fellow students. Essays were
about Castro’s rule in Cuba and either supported or went against him.
Participants had to guess what attitude the writers of the essay really held towards Castro.
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1. Half the participants were told the essayists were free to chose whether to take a positive or
negative view
2. Other half were told the essayists had no choice
Participants in the choice condition assumed that the essays reflected the true feelings and the no
choice condition also assumed they were writing their true feelings. Results shows FAE as they ignored
the situation.
Research has shown that people make the fundamental attribution error even if the conditions are told
beforehand. But in many of the research states above university students were used and they don’t
represent the general population and also university students are used to listening to authoritative
figures. It is possible that these students have learnt that these figures are smarter and so therefore just
simply listen to them and not ask questions. This suggests that it may not be the FAE.
Also, people, especially in Western cultures often exaggerate the importance of dispositions and
minimize that of situations as causes of behavior. The fundamental attribution error is also much weaker
in collectivistic cultures that in individualistic ones. Through general McEG questionable, the
fundamental attribution error is less important in everyday life than in the laboratory. In everyday life,
we realize that many people have hidden motives influencing behavior.
Fien et al. (1990) in his study asked US students read an essay about a character called Rob Taylor. In
one condition, the participants were told that Rob had been told to write in favor or against some view
and the FAE obtained. In another condition, participants were led to believe that Rob’s essay was similar
to the view of his professor and no FAE was obtained. Concluded that we won’t demonstrate FAE if the
actor has motives.
Self serving bias
1. Self serving bias is when we explain our successes to the basis of internal, dispositional factors and
blame our failures to external, situational factors
a. Greenberg (1982) say that SSB is to protect our self-esteem and is a form of self protection
i. If we attribute successes to disposition our esteem will go up and by attributing
failures to situational factors we protect ourselves
Research that shows evidence of the self serving bias include:
Johnson et al. (1964)

Aim Test self serving bias
Method Participants were psychology students that taught
two children how to multiply numbers by 10 and
20
Teaching was done in phases via a one-way
intercom
3. First phase involved teaching children
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4. Second phrase involved teaching children
After each phase, the children’s worksheets were

made available to the participants to assess the
learning progress of the children
The worksheets were actually marked in a way

that in both conditions:
4. Pupil A gave right answers to all
questions both worksheets
5. Depending on condition, pupil B either
did badly on both tasks or did badly on
the first worksheet but improved on the
second
6. Participants had therefore either failed
or successes in teaching pupil B the two
tasks
Results Where pupil B’s performance improved,
participants explained the improvement as a
success based on their abilities as teachers
When pupil B failed to improve they attributed

this to the pupil’s lack of ability
Link to principle The principle states we construct our own
individual and social self. This research about self-
serving bias demonstrates this as the way we
attribute success and failure influences the ways
we construct our sense of self and self- worth.
Bernstein et al. (1979) considered students who had obtained a good or a poor grade on an exam.
Those with good grades typically attributed it to their intelligence or hard work, dispositional factors.
Those with bad grades typically attributed it to bad luck or an unreasonable lecturer, situational factors
Lau and Russel (1980) showed professional athletes and coaches attribute 80% of their wins to internal
factors. Losses are far more likely to be attributed to external factors.
Although SSB is widespread, there are exceptions. We are more likely to rely on SSB attributions when
we fail in a domain in which we cannot improve. Duval and Silvia (2002) demonstrated that we are
more likely to attribute our failure to internal causes if we believe we can do something to improve the
situation in the future. Abramson et al. (1989) demonstrated that depressed people often rely on an
attribution style that attributes success to external and failure to internal causes.
Zuckerman (1979) has shown that the effect of SSB depends on a desire to maintain self- esteem. He
reviewed a number of studies of SSB and evidence shows this as so. Therefore, this is one of the many
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exceptions to SSB. Heine et al. (1999) found that members of collectivistic cultures are far less likely to
strive for positive self esteem than individuals from individualistic cultures. Consequently, the Japanese
were found to be less likely to make SSB attributions than Americans.
Kashima and Triandis (1986) found similar results where they asked American and Japanese students to
remember detailed information about landscapes shown on slides. Both groups tended to explain their
success in terms of situational factors and failure in terms of task difficulty. But Americans were more
inclined to explain their successes in terms of high ability than their failures in terms of low ability,
whereas the Japanese showed the opposite pattern.
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Syllabus Question: Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies.
I. Social identity theory assumes that individuals strive to improve their self image by trying to
enhance their self esteem based on either personal identity or various social identities
a. There are three stages to social identity theory by Tajfel and Turner (1979)
i. Social categorization
1. We divide our social environment into ingroups and outgroups, this allows:
a. Reduced perceived variability within the ingroup
b. Reduces perceived variability in the outgroup
c. Increases perceived variability between the ingroup and outgroup
i. The exaggeration of group differences and intragroup
similarities is called the category accentuation effect
ii. Social identification
1. We adopt the identity of the group we have categorized ourselves as
belonging to
a. Intergroup behaviors
iii. Social comparison
1. SIT states that we strive for a positive self-concept, we seek positive social
identities to maintain and enhance our self-esteem
a. We socially compare ourselves for positive distinctiveness
i. The motivation to show that our ingroup is preferable to an
outgroup
Research that demonstrates the social identity theory include:
Tajfel et al. (1971)

Aim To see if being categorized into groups would
cause ingroup and out group bias
Method Divided a number of British schoolboys into two
groups. They were divided randomly but were led
to believe they were sorted according to their
preferences for artwork
The boys had to individually distribute points to

ingroup and outgroup members and were not
allowed to give points to themselves
Results The boys showed a strong tendency to favor
members of their ingroup over the outgroup, this
shows ingroup favoritism.
The boys would also sacrifice the amount of

points they would give to their ingroup in order to
maximize the difference from the outgroup.
Giving more points to the ingroup would mean
you have to give corresponding points to the
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outgroup, the more you give to ingroup the more

you have to give to outgroup too. Boys chose to
give 7 point to ingroup instead of giving 13 as
giving 7 would result in 1 point to outgroup and
13 would result in 13 to outgroup also.
Conclusion Simply being categorized into groups is enough to
show an ingroup and outgroup bias. This
demonstrates this principle.
Poppe and Linssen (1999)

Aim Aimed to see what stereotypes European
adolescents held regarding the morality and
competence of their own and other European
nationalities
Method 1143 15-18 year old students from different
European countries answered a questionnaire
which examined beliefs about the characteristics
of people from European countries including all
those from which participants were taken from.
Questionnaires required participants to rate each

nationality according their competence and
morality. Counterbalancing was used,
questionnaires given to different participants
listed the nationalities in different order. Ensured
participants were not influenced by order in
which nationalities were presented.
Results Social identity affecting people’s judgments about
other nationalities
Eastern Europeans tended to favor their own

nationality over those of other Eastern
Europeans, but not over Western Europeans
National stereotypes were upheld and rated

Germans as most competent but least moral and
the English and most moral
Conclusion Concluded that being in a particular nation would
show in-group favoritism to that nation but not
blindly as other factors were taken into account
Brown (1978) reported a study of factory workers who were highly motivated to maintain wage
differentials between their department and others in the same factory even if this would lead to a
reduction in their own earnings.
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Research has suggested that people only show ingroup favoritism due to personal gain. They expect that
by showing this favoritism towards the ingroup, the ingroup will give them something back in return.
Rabbie, Schot and Visser (1989) in their ingroup reciprocity hypothesis, they argued that ingroup bias is
due to self-interest. Individuals reward ingroup members more than outgroup members because they
expect to be benefited in return by other ingroup members. They reported a study in which some
participants would receive only what outgroup members gave them, these participants could not be
benefited by other ingroup members and so they showed outgroup favoritism rather than ingroup.
Gaertner and Insko (2000) using minimal groups, told participants they would not receive any bonus
money in contrast to other ingroup members and most of the outgroup members. Under these
conditions, participants showed no ingroup bias, presumably because other ingroup members could not
benefit them in return
Using the theory of ingroup favoritism, people should be biased for their ingroup, even for pain. But
Mummendy et al. (1992) has shown this to not be so. They instructed participants to distribute different
durations of an unpleasant, high-pitched tone to members of the ingroup and the outgroup. They
showed no evidence of ingroup favoritism, with many participants equalizing negative outcomes
between two groups.
Evaluation of social identify theory
Strengths
1. SIT has been supported by many studies

2. Demonstrates the crucial role of social categorization in intergroup behavior
3. Drew the distinction between personal and social identity and explored ways our basic need to
belong affects social interaction
4. Contributed very significantly to the explanation of lots of social psychology phenomena
5. The original SIT theory has been expanding and continues to generate a lot of research
Weakness
1. The self-esteem hypothesis is no longer viewed as central to SIT

2. Studies have shown that the increase in self esteem associated with outgroup discrimination is too
short lived to have long term effects on how ingroup members view themselves (Rubin and
Hewstone, 1999)
3. One of the aims of SIT was to favor situational over dispositional, there is evidence suggesting that
individual differences do affect SIT processes Platow et al. (1990) found that competitive
participants showed greater ingroup favoritism than cooperative participants.
4. Research suggests that SIT may have limited explanatory power. Also suggests that SIT may lack
relevance when explaining prejudice and discrimination
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Syllabus Question: Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior.
I. According to Aronson et al. (2007), stereotypes are widely held evaluative generalizations about
a group of people
a. Stereotypes assign similar characteristics to all members of a group, despite the fact
that group members may vary widely from one another
i. Fiske (1998)
1. Notes that extensive research has shown that both men and women
perceive women as nice but not competent and men as competent but
not very nice
ii. Williams and Best (1982)
1. Regard stereotypes as having some cross-cultural generality as they
have been detected throughout all over world
II. There are several theories on stereotype formation
a. Social cognitive theories state that our social world is very complex and presents us with
too much information. Since our capacity to process information is limited there is a
need to simplify our social word. We avoid information overload by social categorization.
1. Energy-saving devices
2. Can be automatically activated
3. Stable and resistant to change
4. Affect behavior
Research that shows schematic nature of stereotypes include:
Bargh et al. (1996)

Aim To test the effects of stereotypes.
Method Participants in this experiment were asked to
complete a test involving 30 items. They were
told it was a language proficiency task
Each of the 30 items consisted of five unrelated

words. For each item participants had to use four
of the five words to form, as fast as possible, a
grammatically correct sentence
Two conditions: One task contained words

related to and intending to activate the elderly
stereotype and other were with words that were
unrelated to elderly stereotype
After the experiment participants were directed

towards and elevator
A confederate, sitting in the corridor, timed how

long the participants took to walk from the
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experimental room to the elevator

Results Participants who had their elderly stereotype
activated walked significantly more slowly
towards the elevator than the rest of the
participants
Conclusion Concluded that the stereotype activated
unconsciously as there were no references to
time and speed or elderly people in the
experiment
Illusionary correlations is the phenomenon where observers conclude that two factors are associated
despite the lack any real association between them.
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) asked participants to read descriptions about two made up groups (Group
A and B). Descriptions were based on a number of positive and negative behaviors
I. Group A was the majority group and has twice as many members as Group B, the minority group
a. Group A performed 18 positive and 8 negative behaviors and B performed 9-4
Results showed that undesirable behaviors were attributed to the minor group. They concluded that:
Group B had fewer members and were numerically distinct and so negative behaviors from Group B
stood out compared to A. Shows an illusionary correlation. This research shows us the effects of
illusionary correlations and how it applies to stereotypes.
Other explanations for stereotypes include the Grain of Truth hypothesis where an experience with an
individual from a group will then be generalized into the whole group and confirmation bias where we
believe that certain groups or people will act a certain way and when we finally see it we generalize it
and ignore other factors.
Research on the stereotype threat effect have shown that stereotypes may have negative effects on
behavior such as spotlight anxiety
Spencer et al. (1977) found that simply informing female participants, before they took a math test, that
males usually do better in math led to deterioration of female performance in the test.
Steele and Aronson (1995) found that performance of African Americans in a difficult verbal task is
impaired if they are asked to indicate their race before taking the test. This may be due to the concern
that they may be judged in light of a negative stereotype that affected their performance.
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Social norms
Syllabus Question: Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.
I. Social learning theory or social cognitive theory (SCT) is the theory that we learn behaviors of
models and behave like the models
a. Based on the following cognitive processes:
i. Motivation
1. Our present behaviors are largely governed by internalized outcome
expectancies
ii. Attention
1. The model’s behavior and its consequences must be attended to by the
learner
iii. Coding and memory
1. The behavior of the model needs to be properly encoded and stored in
the learner’s memory in ways that allow both for immediate imitation
or deferred imitation (delayed)
b. Vicarious learning
i. Also called observational learning, we learn behaviors by observing and
imitating models
c. Vicarious reinforcement
i. Pairing two stimuli behavior that result in favorable outcomes
Research that shows evidence for SIT include
Bandura (1965)
Method Showed young children a film of an adult behaving
aggressively toward an inflatable Bobo doll
Aggressive acts performed by the adult model
included throwing the Bobo doll in the air, kicking it
across the room, hitting it
II. Three experimental conditions in which this
was shown
a. Control condition
i. Children were shown the film
with adult behaving
aggressively towards the Bobo
doll
b. Model-rewarded condition
i. Children saw the same film as
control but after a second
adult appears and rewards
the aggressor
c. Model-punished condition
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i. Same as model-rewarded but

instead the second adult
punishes the adult
After watching the film, all the children were taken
individually into a playroom with several toys which
included a Bobo doll
Children’s behavior was observed for a period of 10

minutes for any acts of aggression similar to those
performed by model
Results Control and model-rewarded groups showed an equal
level of aggressiveness towards the Bobo doll
Model punished condition was associated with

significantly fewer aggressive acts
At a later stage when children were asked to

reproduce the behavior of the model and were
rewarded for each act of aggression they shown all
the children regardless of the condition they were in
showed the same number of aggressive acts
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

Aim Demonstrated that learning can occur through
mere observation of a model and that imitation
can occur in the absence of that model
Method Participants were children and there were three
conditions
A. Aggressive model shown
B. Non-aggressive model shown
C. Control- no model shown
A. Participants were individually shown
into a room containing toys played
with some in a corner for 10 minutes
while, depending on the condition,:
i. The non-aggressive model played
in a quiet and subdued manner
for 10 minutes
ii. The aggressive model distinctively
aggressed against a 5 foot Bobo
doll by attacking it and also
uttering verbally aggressive
statement and non-aggressive
statements
B. The children were then individually
taken into a different location and
subjected to mild aggression arousal by
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being stopped from playing some very

attractive toys, in order to make sure
everyone had a chance to show
aggression and to allow non-aggressive
group to demonstrate and inhibition
against aggressive behavior
A. All children were then shown into
another room which contained
aggressive toys and non-aggressive
toys and were observed for 20 minutes
Results 1. Children in the aggressive model showed

significantly more imitation the model’s
physical, aggressive and non-aggressive
verbal responses than the other two
groups
2. Children in the aggressive condition
usually showed partial imitation and non-
imitative physical and verbal aggression
than the other two conditions, but not
always to a significant degree
3. Children in non-aggressive model showed
very little aggression, but not always
significantly less than no model group
4. More likely to imitate same-sex models
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Syllabus Question: Discuss the use of two compliance techniques.
Aronson et al. (2007) define compliance as a form of social influence involving direct requests from one
person to another. Compliance techniques are tactics humans use to persuade others to comply with
their appeals.
Cialdini (2009) outlined six factors that influence the likelihood that people will comply with a request.
1. Authority: People comply more often with those in positions of some authority.
2. Commiment: Once people have agreed to something, either by their behavior or by a statement of
belief, they are likely to comply with similar requests.
3. Liking: People comply with requests from people they like.
4. Reciprocity: People often feel they need to return a favor.
5. Scarcity: Opportunities seem more valuable to people when they are less readily available.
6. Social proof: People view a behavior as correct if they see others performing it
The foot-in-the-door technique (FITD) aims at increasing compliance with a large request by first asking
people to go along with a smaller request.
Freedman and Fraser (1966) arranged for researcher, posing as a volunteer worker, to ask a number of
householders in California to allow a big ugly public service sign to be placed in their front gardens. Only
17% of householders complied with this request. A different set of homeowners were asked to big a
smaller sign. Nearly all those who were asked agreed to the request.
Two weeks later those same homeowners were asked if they would display the bigger sign. 76%
complied with this request compared to the much smaller 17%.
In a second study Freedman and Fraser (1966) asked a number of householders to sign a petition in
favor of keeping California beautiful, nearly everybody agreed to do. After two weeks, they send a new
“volunteer worker” who asked these homeowners whether they would allow the big and ugly sign from
the previous study to be displayed in their front gardens.
The two requests relate to completely different topics but nearly half of the homeowners agreed with
the second request.
Cialdini (2009) theorizes that this effect is due to consistency and commitment. Freedman and Fraser
(1996) suggest that by signing the petition changed the view the homeowners had about themselves. As
a result, they saw themselves as unselfish citizens with good civic principles. Agreeing, two weeks later
reflected their need to comply with their newly-formed self image. This links to other theories such as
SIT and one of the principles of SLOA.
Sherman (1980) called residents in Indiana (USA) and asked them if, hypothetically, they would
volunteer to spend 3 hours collecting for the American Cancer Society. Three days later, a second
experimenter called the same people and actually requested help for this organization. 31% agreed to
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help, much higher than the 4% of a similar group of people who volunteered to help when approached
directly.
Dolin and Booth-Butterfield (1995) found that an FITD manipulation during a health fair at a shopping
mall increased compliance with a request to schedule a gynaeecological examination. Lipsitz et al.
(1989) found that FITD helps increase blood donations and Girandola (2002) found that this increases
the willingness to be an organ donor.
Mieneri and Gueguen (2008) used FITD to motivate people in France to take part in a demanding energy
conservation project. For a randomly selected half of the participating households, the request was
preceded by a telephone call asking them to answer a short questionnaire on environmental issues. A
higher percentage of households receiving the telephone call before the request agreed to participate in
the energy- saving project.
Lowballing
Lowballing is when an offer is changed to a less attractive offer to the target person after this person has
agreed to it.
Burger and Cornelius (2003)

Aim To demonstrate low balling
Method Students were contacted by phone by a female
called and asked whether they would be prepared
to donate five dollars to a scholarship fund of
underprivileged students. There were three
experimental conditions:
1) Lowball condition: Students were told they

would receive a coupon for a free smoothie at a
local juice bar. Students who agreed were then
informed that the investigator realized she had
run out of coupons. The students were asked they
would still be willing contribute.
2) Interrupt condition: Caller made the same

initial request in the lowball condition. However,
before the participants had a chance to give their
answer, the caller interrupted them to let them
know there were no coupons left.
3) Control: Participants were simply asked to

donate without coupon mention.
Results Lowball- 77.6% agreed.
Interrupt- 16% agreed
Control- 42% made a donation
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Conclusion Results show that the lowball technique is based

on the principle of commitment.
Palak et al. (1980) had investigators first asked Iowa householders to conserve energy by providing
them with energy-conservation tips and encouraging them to try to save fuel. This achieved nothing.
Following this, a different sample of householders was contacted by the interviewer. This time in
addition to the requests as made to the first group, homeowners were told that those agreed to save
energy would have their names published in the newspaper as good, fuel conserving citizens.
One month later, this manipulation results in an average saving of 12.2% of gas. At this stage,
homeowners received a letter informing them that it would not be possible to publish their names in
the local press after all. For the remaining winter months, these families saved 15.5% of gas.
Cialdini et al. (1974) asked a class of first year psychology students to volunteer to be part of a study on
cognition that would meet at 7 am. Only 24% were willing to do this. In a second group they were asked
the same favor but were not told the time. Under this condition, 56% agreed to take part. When they
were then told they would have to meet at 7 am and that they could back out if they wished, no one
backed out. On the day of the actual meeting 95% of the students who had promised to come showed
up.
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Syllabus Question: Discuss factors influencing conformity.
I. Conformity is a type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or behavior to
adhere to existing social norms
a. Private conformity
i. The private acceptance of social norms
b. Public conformity
i. Overt behavior consistent with social norms that are not privately accepted
II. Three social influence processes have been proposed to explain conformity
a. Informational influence or mastery
i. When we accept the views and attitudes of others as valid evidence about how
things are in a particular situation
1. Based on the need that everyone has for certainty, when people are
placed in ambiguous/uncertain conditions, they are more likely to refer
to others to know how to react
a. Social comparison
2. Under these conditions people possess expert power and individuals
may show internalization conformity
a. When behavior and opinions coincide with the group’s
b. Normative influence
i. When we conform to the expectation of others
1. Based on our need for social acceptance and approval and we fear
social disapproval and rejection and so we often behave in ways that
conform to what others expect of us with little concern about the
accuracy of the beliefs we express or the soundness of our actions
c. Referent informational influence
i. A SIT explanation of conformity, from an SIT perspective, conformity is adhering
to a person’s ingroup norms
1. We conform to have a sense of belongingness and by doing so we form
and maintain desired social identities , we are more likely to conform to
the norms of groups we believe we belong and identify with
ii. People conform because they are group members, not to validate physical
reality or avoid social disapproval as other theories suggest
iii. People conform not to other people but to a norm, they use other people as
sources of information about what the appropriate ingroup norm is in a
particular setting
III. Dual process models
a. Based on informational and normative types of social influence
i. According the model, people conform because they want to be right and they
want to be liked
IV. Dispositional and situational explanations of conformity
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a. Hogg and Vaughan (2008) suggest several dispositional characteristics associated with
increased conformity
i. Low self esteem
ii. High need for social support and approval
iii. High anxiety
iv. Feelings of low status in the group
b. Situational explanations have been shown by research on conformity
V. Group polarization
a. Refers to the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than
decisions members make on their own
i. Risky shift
1. Refers to the tendency for group discussions to produce riskier decisions
than those reached by group members working on their own
b. The factors involved in group polarization include:
i. A strong and often explicit need to reach consensus
ii. A preference, within the group, for the same side of an argument
iii. An ingroup social identity defined in relation to an outgroup
1. Given these two preconditions, informational and normative influences
will be intensified and if SIT factors then this further strengthens the
chances and magnitude of group polarization
c. Therefore group polarization act as conformity magnifiers
d. Explanations for group polarization include:
i. Social comparison theory
1. Group discussions make public the prevailing social norms, including
norms indicating whether the group favors risky or cautious decision
a. As a result of normative influences, group members seek
acceptance by the group, shift their initial views in the direction
of the group social norms
i. Group polarization is the result
1. Some individuals also attempt to satisfy their
need to stand out
ii. Support for the overall norm of the group ensures that
such individuals are accepted by the group
1. These individuals show their individuality by
exaggerating in the direction of the group norm
and as time passes that group norm will more
extreme than the average of the group
members’ initial positions
ii. Social identity theory of polarization
1. Treats polarization as regular conformity
a. Using the ingroup/outgroup theory and social categorization,
group norms are formed by the positions held by ingroup
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members in relation to positions assumed to be held by

outgroup members
i. According the category accentuation effect, the
emerging group norms minimize variability in the
ingroup and maximize the distinction between the
ingroup and outgroups
1. Norms are therefore polarized away from target
outgroups
e. Groupthink
i. Refers to a thinking style in high cohesive groups where the desire to reach
unanimous agreement is so strong that it overrides the motivation to use
appropriate decision-making procedures
1. Groupthink outcomes usually include
a. A strong tendency to maintain group cohesion and force
conformity by suppressing independent thinking and
downplaying disagreements
b. Exaggeration of prospects of success and downplaying if any
talks of serious risks to the group
c. A perception of the group as superior and invulnerable and
perception of outgroups in negative and stereotypical ways
Research on conformity include
Asch (1951)
Aim To investigate the effects of the social
environment on conformity
Method Participants were told they were taking part in a
study of visual perception and were asked to
indicate which one of three comparison lines is
equal in length to a standard line. This was
repeated 18 times, the task was so easy that
participants would almost always get it all correct
if done by themselves.
In the main control of the study participants had

to state their answers aloud in the presence of
people they think were six other participants.
They were confederates and behaved in a way
prearranged by the experimenter. The
confederates gave the wrong answer on 12 of the
18 trials and the real participant was always the
last to answer .These set of 18 trials was repeated
many times, each time testing a genuine
participant
Results Participants conformed and went along with the
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wrong answer given by the majority on nearly

37% of critical trials
76% of participants conformed on at least one

critical trial. Only 24% of participants remained
independent throughout the experiment
After the experiment, when asked why they

conformed, participants said that they wanted to
gain approval and avoid criticism and social
disapproval
Abrams et al. (1990)

Method Replicated Asch’s experiment with psychology
students using three confederates
Depending on the condition genuine participants

were either led to believe that the confederates
were psychology students from a neighboring
university (ingroup condition) or ancient history
students from the same neighboring university
(outgroup)
18 trial sequence consisting of 9 correct and 9

incorrect response were presented by
confederates in a random order
In this part, all four group members responded

publicly
Results 100% of participants conformed at least once
when they thought the confederates belonged to
their ingroup
50% for those participants who thought the

confederates belonged to an outgroup
Sherif (1935)
Method and Results Study uses the autokinetic effect, an optical
illusion that makes a stationary light appear to
move when seen in complete darkness
Participants were led to believe the experiment

was investigating visual perception and told that
the experimenter was going to move the light.
Participants had to make 100 judgments as to
how far the light seemed to have
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moved .Participants made their judgments alone

first, their estimates varied until they settled to a
personal norm (standard estimate). These norms
varied considerably between participants
In further sessions, participants were joined by

other participants and they took turns in a
random order to call out their estimates about
the light’s movement. Participants’ estimates in
this condition eventually reflected the estimates
of others in group and eventually a social norm
emerged, an average of the individual estimates.
Participants denied their estimates were
influenced by other group members
During the third phase of the study, participants

performed the task alone again and their
estimates were still according to the social norm
Wallach et al. (1962) asked participants to complete the Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire, which
involves a series of 12 stories in each of which the main character faces a dilemma with two options,
one riskier than the other
During the first phase the experiment, participants worked individually and in the second phase worked
a group and asked to arrive at an unanimous decision for each dilemma
Results showed that the options chosen in the group condition were riskier than those chosen by
individuals working alone. Research shows conformity as the results in the group condition were riskier
than individual condition. This suggest that in order to reach a result quicker in the group condition,
participants conformed to others.
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Syllabus Question: Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.
Asch (1951):
I. The experiment took place in the 1950s in American, at that time behaving individually or “doing
your own thing” wasn’t considered socially acceptable.
II. Participants were put in a difficult and embarrassing position which may have led to greater
levels of conformity due to the particular culture prevailing at the time
III. Unethical because of the situation put caused stress and discomfort to participants
IV. Participants were deceived and did not provide fully informed consent
V. Participants were put in a situation with high social pressure and conflict so this increased
conformity
VI. Artificial, may not reflect what would happen in real life
Sherif (1955)
VII. Used a very artificial situation, so therefore low ecological validity and mundane realism
VIII. There was no correct answer in Sherif’s situation so it is not surprising that people relied on the
judgments of others when they have no clear way of deciding what judgments to make
IX. The method was an ineffective way to study conformity, conformity effects can be assessed
more directly by arranging for all but one of the participants to give the same judgments.
a. Jacobs and Campbell (1961) obtained strong evidence of conformity using the
autokinetic effect with the above method
X. Small sample size and so they don’t represent the general population
XI. Doesn’t address cultural differences as research as shown that there are cultural differences
XII. May be unethical as participants may have felt stressful or pressurized into making a decision
our conforming to a group norm
XIII. Participants made 100 judgments, so there may have been demand characteristics or
participants may have guessed the purpose of the experiment
Bond and Smith (1996) carried out a meta-analysis of 133 conformity studies all using the Asch
paradigm. The studies were carried out in 17 countries. Results showed that more conformity was
obtained in collectivistic countries than individualistic countries.
Members of collectivistic counties value conformity because it promotes supportive group relationships
and reduce conflicts. Agreeing with others in collectivist societies is more likely to be viewed as a sign of
sensitivity than submission as perceived in individualistic societies.
Earley (1993) found that the level of conformity depends on the exact nature of the grup. Thus,
collectivists are more likely to conform to members of a group they are tied to than they are to groups
they are not.
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Williams and Sogon (1984) found significantly higher levels of conformity among Japanese groups who
already knew one another than among groups lacking a pre-acquaintance.
Cultural norms
Syllabus Question: Define the terms “culture” and “cultural norms”.
I. Culture is a set of attitudes, behaviors and symbols shared by a large group of people and
usually communicated from one generation to the next
II. Cultural norms are the norms of an established group which are transmitted across generations
and regulate behavior in accordance with the group’s beliefs about acceptable and
unacceptable ways of thinking, feeling and behaving.
III.
Syllabus Question: Using one or more examples, explain “emic” and “etic” concepts.
I. Emic approaches look at behaviors that are cultural specific

II. Etic approaches are taken within cross-cultural psychology where behavior is compared across
specific cultures
III. Emic and etic approaches to study of depression

a. Emic
i. Manson et al (1985) on the development of the American Indian Depression
Scale
1. Through interviews with native informants, authors derived five
translated Hopi illness categories related to depression
a. Worry sickness
b. Unhappiness
c. Heartbroken
d. Drunken-like craziness
e. Disappointment
2. Most Hopi participants said they could not identify a Hopi word that
was equivalent to the term depression
ii. Some of the characteristics identified by Manson et al. were similar to Western
ways of looking at depression, while others were entirely different
b. Etic
i. WHO (1993) on the diagnosis and classification of depression in Switzerland,
Canada, Japan and Iran
1. Investigators used a standard diagnostic scheme to investigate
symptoms of depression of 573 patients in these four countries
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a. Found that most patients experienced several symptoms that

were the same in all four countries
i. 70% of patients reported sadness, joylessness, anxiety
and a sense of insufficiency
ii. 40% of patients in the WHO project displayed
symptoms such as somatic complainants and obsessions
that were not part of the symptoms measured by the
diagnostic scheme used. Suggests cultural factors
Syllabus Question: Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior.
Individualism/collectivism- In individualistic cultures, identity is defined by personal characteristics. In

collectivistic societies, identity is defined more by the characteristics of the collective groups to which
one belongs.
Power distance- This refers to the extent to which different cultures promote and legitimize power and
status differences between individuals. In high power distance cultures, less- powerful members learn to
accept inequalities in the distribution of power as natural.
Uncertainty avoidance- Cultures high in this feel threatened and anxious by the unknown or ambiguous
situations than those low.
Masculinity/femininity- High masculinity cultures are characterized by an emphasis on achievement,

success and possessions. High femininity cultures emphasize interpersonal harmony, taking caring of
others and quality of life. The dimension also refers to the extent to which cultures promote differences
between the sexes.
Time orientation of Confucian dynamism- The extent to which a culture has a dynamic future-
orientated mentality and refers to the degree to which a culture encouraged delayed gratification of
material, social and emotional needs among its members.
Individualism and collectivism
In individualistic cultures (e.g. USA, UK, France) the personal is emphasized more than the social,
persons are viewed as unique, individual autonomy and self-expression are valued and competitiveness
and self- sufficiency are highly regarded.
In collectivist cultures (e.g. Japan, Hong Kong, Brazil) the social is emphasized more than the personal,
the self is defined by long-standing relationships and obligations, individual autonomy and self-
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expression are not encouraged and there is more of an emphasis on achieving group harmony than on
individual achievement.
Heine and Lehman (1997) found that in collectivistic cultures, people are less likely than those in
individualist cultures to behave consistently with their personal choices and earlier commitments.
Petrova et al. (2007) studied over 3000 students at a US university, Nearly half were native US students
the rest were Asian students at the same university. An e-mail was sent to everyone asking them to
participate in a survey and a month later, a second e-mail was sent asking them whether they would
agree to take part in an online survey.
Results showed the proportion of students agreeing to the first request was higher among Asian
students than US students. However, compliance with the first request had a stronger impact on
compliance with the second request among the US students than among Asian students. The proportion
of US students who agreed to the second request while having agreed to the first was twice as high as it
was among the Asian students, the FITD effect is greater among US students (i.e. individualistic culture)
Bond and Smith (1996) carried out a meta-analysis of 133 conformity studies all using the Asch
paradigm. The studies were carried out in 17 countries. Results showed that more conformity was
obtained in collectivistic countries than individualistic countries.
Members of collectivistic counties value conformity because it promotes supportive group relationships
and reduce conflicts. Agreeing with others in collectivist societies is more likely to be viewed as a sign of
sensitivity than submission as perceived in individualistic societies.
Earley (1993) found that the level of conformity depends on the exact nature of the grup. Thus,
collectivists are more likely to conform to members of a group they are tied to than they are to groups
they are not.
Williams and Sogon (1984) found significantly higher levels of conformity among Japanese groups who
already knew one another than among groups lacking a pre-acquaintance.
Time orientation
Cultures high on this dimension show a dynamic, future orientated mentality. These are vultures that
value long-standing traditions and values. Individuals in such cultures strive to fulfill their own long term
social obligations and avoid “loss of face”. Cultures with a short term view are not as concerned with
past traditions. They are rather impatient, are present-oriented and strive for immediate results.
Chen et al. (2005) investigated differences between Western and Eastern mentalities through 147
Singaporean “bicultural participants”. This assumes that both cultures can affect behavior depending on
which is more actively represented in the mind.
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Chen et al. selectively activated one or the other of the two cultures by presenting half of the
participants with a collage of easily recognizable photos which were relevant to Singaporean culture and
the other half relevant to US culture. Impatience was tested by having the participants perform an
online shopping scenario in order to purchase a novel. The book could be delivered either within four
working days for a standard fee or next day for an additional charge. The extra money participants were
willing to pay for faster delivery was a measure of impatience.
Results showed that US-primed participants valued immediate consumption more than the
Singaporean-primed participants.
Wang et al. surveyed over 5000 university students in 45 countries and compared them on time
orientation and found that students from long term cultures were more likely to postpone immediate
satisfaction and wait for bigger rewards later.
Ayoun and Moreo (2009) used a survey method to investigate the influence of time orientation on the
strategic behavior of hotel managers. A questionnaire was posted to top-level managers in the USA and
Thailand.
Results showed that compared to US managers. Thai managers were found to place a stronger emphasis
on longer term strategic plans and a stronger reliance on long-term evaluation of strategy.
Levine and Norenzayan (1999) measured how fast people walked a 60-foot distance in downtown areas
in major cities, the speed of a visit to a post office and the accuracy of clocks in 31 counties. Found that
life was fastest in Switzerland, Ireland and Germany and slowest in Mexico, Indonesia, Brazil and Syria.
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Research Methods and Ethics
Use relevant research from each level to answer the questions.
In the biological level of analysis three main research methods are generally used: laboratory
experiments, case studies and co relational studies.
Laboratory experiments are commonly used to establish a cause-effect relationship between the
variables studied. In the BLOA, animal experiments are used as well as human experiments. To test the
effects of changes to physiology or to test the effectiveness of medication it is unethical to carry out the
experiment with human participants if there is any possibility that the participant can get harmed. Even
if participants give their informed consent, there will be a very limited number of people willing to do so.
Also, human participants are not used because there is a risk that receiving full information about the
nature of the experiment might lead to changes in the participant’s behavior (e.g. placebo effect).
Research that aims to see the effect of specific parts of the brain when they are damage are impossible
to carry out on human participants.
Animal participants are used because such research cannot be conducted on humans. It is also assumed
that animals have a lesser experience of pain or have less conscious awareness of their suffering than
humans would in the same situation. There are guidelines for the treatment of animals in laboratories
and adherence to these is usually monitored closely.
But there is strong argument that animal experimentation is morally wrong. The difference between
animal and human suffering is not large enough to justify what can seem like very cruel treatment. If
animals are so different from people that we feel ethically excused from the treatment given to them
then it must be asked whether it is still valid to do the experiments on them and generalize the results
to humans.
Case studies is a way to deal with the ethical issues of carrying out research on human participants.
Researchers can take advantage of naturally occurring irregularities by obtaining detailed information
about the participant’s condition. This approach is mostly descriptive and relatively little harm is done to
participants. The most important ethical risk is that the depth of information and the possible
uniqueness of the case makes it more likely there is a threat to participant’s anonymity.
Correlational studies takes scores on two or more measures and works out the relationship between
them. In the BLOA, this is often seen in twin studies and adoption studies. But although a relationship
can be established we cannot say that that one variable causes the another variable.
Page 104
Research at the cognitive level of analysis usually uses experimental methods and neurophysiological
techniques such as brain imaging. Use strengths and weakness of experimental methods for relevant
research.
Neuophysiological techniques include brain imaging and these technologies are very sophisticated but
ethically, scanning procedures are time consuming and many individuals find them very unconformable.
Use evaluation of brain imaging techniques and use relevant research demonstrating it.
Page 105

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Chris Ting 13H

Biological Level of Analysis

General Learning Outcomes

Research that demonstrates this principle are:

If nurture, incidence rate would be approximately same as other

Results Incident of schizophrenia in general population is about 1% and was

Bailey and Pillard (1991)

Principle 2: Animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior.

Research that demonstrates this principle are:

Martinez and Kesner (1991)

The control group was injected nothing.

and made more errors than compared to other two groups

Conclusion Concluded that acetylcholine played an important role in a memory for

Both the chimps and human participants were seated at a computer

Chimpanzees showed remarkable memory for spatial distribution of

Conclusion Concluded that the memory of chimpanzees was a necessary adaption

Research that demonstrate this principle are:

Martinez and Kesner (1991)

The control group was injected nothing.

Conclusion Concluded that acetylcholine played an important role in a memory for

Schachter and Singer (1962)

The participants were placed in one of the two conditions. Euphoria, a

Experimenters use observational data based on structured observations

injection with incorrect information about effects showed more euphoric

Physiology and Behavior

Presenting tactile information to either left or right hand behind a

what was seen in right visual field

Conclusion Certain functions and behaviors are suggested to be localized to certain

II. Examples of neurotransmitters include:

Research that demonstrates the effects of neurotransmission on behavior include:

Martinez and Kesner (1991)

One group of rats with scopolamine which blocks acetylcholine sites

The control group was injected nothing.

Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)

II. Examples of hormones include:

Adrenaline Fight or flight response, arousal

Research that demonstrates the functions of hormones in human behavior include:

Schachter and Singer (1962)

The participants were placed in one of the two conditions. Euphoria, a

Experimenters use observational data based on structured observations of

Morhenn et al. (2008)

Massage conditions consisted of 15 minute Swedish that were shown to

Rest condition required participants to rest for the same amount of

Participants then played a trust game that asked them to make a

Blood samples were taken to measure oxytocin levels, once at the

Found a positive correlation in participants who were sent money and

Suggests oxytocin’s effect of on behavior is to increase generosity and

Syllabus Question: Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.

Lam et al. (2000)

Phototherapy involves exposing sufferers to 2

L. Rosen et al. (1989)

Responses were scored 0-24 with 10 being required to suggest winter

Variations in sleep patterns was highest in New Hampshire and New

As age of respondent increased, levels of seasonal mood variation