Chapter 6

Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Chapter Outline
Mechanical Properties of Metals
How do metals respond to external loads?

! Stress and Strain

" Tension
" Compression
" Shear
" Torsion
! Elastic deformation
! Plastic Deformation
" Yield Strength
" Tensile Strength
" Ductility
" Toughness
" Hardness
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, resilience, details
of the different types of hardness tests, variability of material
properties
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 1
Introduction
To understand and describe how materials deform
(elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function of
applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions we
need first to discuss standard test methods and standard
language for mechanical properties of materials.
Stress, σ (MPa)
Strain, ε (mm / mm)

Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Torsion

Concepts of Stress and Strain

(tension and compression)
To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is

calculated per unit area.
Engineering stress: σ = F / Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to speciment cross-
section; A0 is cross-sectional area (perpendicular to
the force) before application of the load.
Engineering strain: ε = ∆l / lo (×
× 100 %)
∆l is change in length, lo is the original length.
These definitions of stress and strain allow one to

compare test results for specimens of different cross-
sectional area A0 and of different length l0.
Stress and strain are positive for tensile loads, negative

for compressive loads

Concepts of Stress and Strain

(shear and torsion)
Shear stress: τ = F / Ao
F is load applied parallel to the upper and lower faces
each of which has an area A0.
Shear strain: γ = tgθ

θ (×
× 100 %)
θ is strain angle
Torsion is variation of pure shear. A shear stress in

this case is a function of applied torque T, shear strain
is related to the angle of twist, φ.
Shear Torsion

Stress-Strain Behavior
Elastic Plastic Elastic deformation

Reversible: when the stress
is removed, the material
returns to the dimension it
had before the loading.
Usually strains are small
Stress
(except for the case of

plastics).
Plastic deformation
Irreversible: when the stress
is removed, the material
does not return to its
Strain previous dimension.

Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastic deformation

In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-
strain relationship is called Hooke's law:
σ = Eε
E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity, has the
same units as σ, N/m2 or Pa
Unload
Stress
Slope = modulus of
elasticity E
Load
Strain
Higher E → higher “stiffness”

Elastic Deformation: Nonlinear elastic behavior
In some materials (many polymers, concrete...), elastic

deformation is not linear, but it is still reversible.
∆σ/∆ε = tangent modulus at σ2
Definitions of E
∆σ/∆ε = secant modulus

between origin and σ1

Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale picture

Chapter 2: the force-separation curve for interacting atoms
High
modulus Strongly
bonded
Force, F
Separation, r
Low
modulus
Weakly
bonded E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
(r0 – equilibrium separation)

Elastic Deformation: Anelasticity

(time dependence of elastic deformation)
• So far we have assumed that elastic deformation is

time independent (i.e. applied stress produces
instantaneous elastic strain)
• However, in reality elastic deformation takes time

(finite rate of atomic/molecular deformation
processes) - continues after initial loading, and after
load release. This time dependent elastic behavior
is known as anelasticity.
• The effect is normally small for metals but can be
significant for polymers (“visco-elastic behavior”).

Elastic Deformation: Poisson’s ratio
Unloaded Loaded
εx εy
ν=− =−
εz εz
Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those
subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral and
axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio υ.
υ is dimensionless, sign shows that lateral strain is in

opposite sense to longitudinal strain
Theoretical value for isotropic material: 0.25
Maximum value: 0.50, Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30

Elastic Deformation: Shear Modulus
∆y
Zo
Unloaded
Loaded
τ
Relationship of shear stress to shear strain:
τ = G γ, where: γ = tgθ = ∆y / zo
G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)
For isotropic material:
E = 2G(1+υ υ) → G ~ 0.4E
(Note: single crystals are usually elastically
anisotropic: the elastic behavior varies with
crystallographic direction, see Chapter 3)
Stress-Strain Behavior: Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation:
• stress and strain are not proportional
• the deformation is not reversible
• deformation occurs by breaking and re-arrangement of
atomic bonds (in crystalline materials primarily by
motion of dislocations, Chapter 7)

Tensile properties: Yielding
Elastic Plastic
Yield strength σy - is chosen as

that causing a permanent strain
of 0.002
Stress
Yield point P - the strain deviates

from being proportional to the stress
(the proportional limit)
The yield stress is a measure of

resistance to plastic deformation
Strain

Tensile properties: Yielding
Stress
Strain
For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve

includes both an upper and lower yield point. The
yield strength is defined in this case as the average
stress at the lower yield point.

Tensile Strength
If stress = tensile strength is maintained

then specimen will eventually break
Fracture
Strength
Stress, σ
“Necking”
Tensile strength: maximum

stress (~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
Strain, ε
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a

more important property than the tensile strength, since
once the yield stress has passed, the structure has deformed
beyond acceptable limits.
Tensile properties: Ductility
Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture

 lf − l0 
Defined by % EL =   ×100
percent elongation  l0 
or  A0 − Af 
percent reduction in area % RA =   × 100
 A0 
Typical mechanical properties of metals
The yield strength and tensile strength vary with prior

thermal and mechanical treatment, impurity levels,
etc. This variability is related to the behavior of
dislocations in the material, Chapter 7. But elastic
moduli are relatively insensitive to these effects.
The yield and tensile strengths and modulus of

elasticity decrease with increasing temperature,
ductility increases with temperature.

Toughness
Toughness = the ability to absorb energy up to fracture =

the total area under the strain-stress curve up to fracture
Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3
Can be measured by an impact test (Chapter 8).

True Stress and Strain
σT = F/Ai εT = ln(li/lo)
σ = F/Ao ε = (li-lo/lo)
True stress = load divided by actual area in the

necked-down region, continues to rise to the point of
fracture, in contrast to the engineering stress.

Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
If a material is deformed plastically and the stress is then

released, the material ends up with a permanent strain.
If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is
higher than the original yield point.
The amount of elastic strain that it will take before
reaching the yield point is called elastic strain recovery.

Hardness (I)
Hardness is a measure of the material’s resistance
to localized plastic deformation (e.g. dent or scratch)
A qualitative Moh’s scale, determined by the ability of
a material to scratch another material: from 1 (softest
= talc) to 10 (hardest = diamond).
Different types of quantitative

hardness test has been designed
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Usually a small indenter (sphere,
cone, or pyramid) is forced into the
surface of a material under
conditions of controlled magnitude
and rate of loading. The depth or
size of indentation is measured.
The tests somewhat approximate,
but popular because they are easy
and non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
Hardness (II)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Tensile strength (103 psi)

Brinell hardness number
Both tensile strength and hardness may be regarded as

degree of resistance to plastic deformation.
Hardness is proportional to the tensile strength - but
note that the proportionality constant is different for
different materials.

What are the limits of “safe” deformation?

Stress
For practical engineering design,

the yield strength is usually the
important parameter
Strain
Design stress: σd = N’σc where σc = maximum

anticipated stress, N’ is the “design factor” > 1. Want to
make sure that σd < σy
Safe or working stress: σw = σy/N where N is “factor of

safety” > 1.

Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
" Anelasticity
" Ductility
" Elastic deformation
" Elastic recovery
" Engineering strain
" Engineering stress
" Hardness
" Modulus of elasticity
" Plastic deformation
" Poisson’s ratio
" Proportional limit
" Shear
" Tensile strength
" Toughness
" Yielding
" Yield strength

Reading for next class:

Chapter 7: Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
" Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

# Motion of dislocations in response to stress
# Slip Systems
# Plastic deformation in
! single crystals
! polycrystalline materials
" Strengthening mechanisms
# Grain Size Reduction
# Solid Solution Strengthening
# Strain Hardening
" Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):
7.7 Deformation by twinning
In our discussion of slip systems, §7.4, we will not get into
direction and plane nomenclature
Homework #3: 6.3, 6.7, 6.9, 6.23, 6.28

Due date: Thursday, February 15.
Test #1: Thursday, February 15.

Chapters 1 - 5.

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

! Stress and Strain

Strain, ε (mm / mm)

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 3

Concepts of Stress and Strain

To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is

These definitions of stress and strain allow one to

Stress and strain are positive for tensile loads, negative

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 4

Concepts of Stress and Strain

Shear strain: γ = tgθ

Torsion is variation of pure shear. A shear stress in

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 5

Elastic Plastic Elastic deformation

(except for the case of

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 6

Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastic deformation

Higher E → higher “stiffness”

Elastic Deformation: Nonlinear elastic behavior

In some materials (many polymers, concrete...), elastic

∆σ/∆ε = tangent modulus at σ2

∆σ/∆ε = secant modulus

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 8

Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale picture

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 9

Elastic Deformation: Anelasticity

• So far we have assumed that elastic deformation is

• However, in reality elastic deformation takes time

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 10

Elastic Deformation: Poisson’s ratio

υ is dimensionless, sign shows that lateral strain is in

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 11

Elastic Deformation: Shear Modulus

Stress-Strain Behavior: Plastic deformation

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 13

Tensile properties: Yielding

Yield strength σy - is chosen as

Yield point P - the strain deviates

The yield stress is a measure of

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 14

Tensile properties: Yielding

For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 15

If stress = tensile strength is maintained

Tensile strength: maximum

For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a

Tensile properties: Ductility

Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture

Typical mechanical properties of metals

The yield strength and tensile strength vary with prior

The yield and tensile strengths and modulus of

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 18

Toughness = the ability to absorb energy up to fracture =

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 19

True Stress and Strain

True stress = load divided by actual area in the

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 20

Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation

If a material is deformed plastically and the stress is then

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 21