Cc) © FIGURE 17-4 [ayout of luminaires for uniform lighting. (a), (b) The entire space is divided into unit areas fortotal uniformity. (9) (@) The luminaires are located in the area where uniformity is desired, (e) (Insufficient luminaire spacing will create dark (shadow) areas. TABLE 17-1 Spacing: mounting height of luminalres (Al denon fc earl laveslegl an Se je oe Ss ‘Sach 1 cn Tom G-§ Fundamentals of tight and tithe514 CHAPTER 7 | PROJECT! ——— ra a AVERAGE ILLUMINANCE pROLECT NO: CALCULATION FORM [For noo] Are /Engr: off’ ‘Visual Interpolation of CU eS anpauras RCS [es cuinwer cxecens ——_} Es 2 a nak CRITERIA MAINTAINED ILLUMINANCE, FC, (und wou aC 80 wrR/vooE. | Tyee 25 chapter 1 TYPE DISTRIBUTION] Oerect 3 ; FIXTURE NO. OF LAMPS PER FIXTURE nar RATED LAMP LUMEN & WATTS/LAMP. TLMENS PER ATURE (pr) jroo owENSONY nh | RF] wor(w)] 26 Lenct()] 36 i hee [Lo Rs Rut |S ROOM Rote Real ee CHARACTERS [ye [eed [2 | Pas 1 P [PERIMETER, FI(M): 2x54 2x26 | /Z4 FLOOR OR CEILING PLAN } A_|AREA, SF(SM): 36x26 | 986 rit haa ' PAR |PERIMETER/AREA RATIO (P = A) -3) F a : COR [2.5 x PAR x h 2 ROR [2.5 x PAR x tre (#) 228 FOR [2.5 x PAR x hy, at 1 5 Pic |FROM Ro & Ryi & COR 80. ! ‘Weekes one, } Ay |SAME_AS Ry OR Ro GRD 40 f os | Ae |FROM Ry & Ry & FOR 720 Mt | [a fea Ee ce |! Tr ccs Pw Fie 1 LOF [VF — VOLTAGE FACTOR -Ja| . 93 : | Kates OTHER fs boh fe a0 LLO=LAWP LUMEN DEPREC. | BS" = Elevation LUF [LOD-LUMINAIRE DIRT DEPREC.|. 95] -BO nee = (USE SEPARATE DRAWINGS FOR ADDITIONAL 7 onan CE RR Tos (ore oe & = 50 = NAGS 00 *92) 08 x O66 mans N=20 726 z Soa e=& fie = Seg = b25f +N — NUMBER OF LOMNARES536 CHAPTER 18 18.10 SOUND IN DUCTS 18.101 How-Generated Sound ajor source of sound in HVAC the only source. Flow-generated Although fans a systems, they are sound is generated by ducts, duct elbows, dampers, branch rakeof's, air modulation units, sound attenua tors, and other duct elements. The sound power levels in each octave frequency band are a function of the geometry of duct clements and the turbulence and ve locity ofthe airflow near an element. Duct-related acto: dynamic noise problems can be avoided by + Sizing ductwork of duct configurations so that ait velocities are low + Avoiding abrupt changes in the cross-sectio area of the duct. ‘+ Providing for smooth transitions at duct branches, takcofls, and + Arcenuating sound generated at duct fittings with al sufficient sound attenuation elements between a fitting and a corresponding air-terminal device 1810.2. Air Velocities in Ducts The amplitude of aerodynamically generated sound in ducts is generally proportional to between the fifth and sixth power ofthe air velocity in the vicinity of a duct ft ting. The velocity of sound in air is 1100 fi/see or {66,000 fi./min; by comparison, the low of air in ducts is 2000 ft/min or less for a low-velocity system, and 3000) to 5000 fe/min for medium- to high-velocity systems, Thus, air propagates upstream or downstream with «equal case IF there i undesirable flow. penerated noise in a duct element, it may manifest itself upstream as well 35, downstream, a8 offen happens with sharp takeofis 18.0.3. Characteristics of Ducts Unlined Rectangular Sheet Metal Ducts Straight unlined rectangular sheet meral ducts are the ducts most commonly used in HVAC systems, They are the least costly and make efficient use of space, How. ever, they provide very little sound attenuation, Atten uation is greater at low frequencies and tends to de- crease as frequency increases. Also, attenuation lessens 1s the sive ofthe duct increases. Maximum attenuation ‘occurs at lrequencies whose half wavelength is equal 10 the small cross-sectional dimension of the duct. For standard wall thicknesses, low-frequency breakout noise can be a problem that requires additional creatment, This is illustrated in Example 18-4. fxample 18-4 24 in, x dB reduction = 50 log (0.5) 15 UB. 24 in, cross-section duct is made of 22-gauge ‘metal and is 20 8 long. The sound power that “breaks out” through the duct wall is approximated by the equation A PW = PWL,, + 10 log where PW... sound power radiated from the outside surface of the duet PWLa is sound power entering duct . Sisarea of outside radiating surface of duct, in? Ais cross-sectional area of inside of duet, in? TLyax = normalized duet breakout transmission loss, dB The sound power entering the duct and the Tyg, of the duct is a follows: Octave center Entering Frequency, He sound power Thar ___PWLoug 63 8 20 8 15 8 2 a 250 ae 2 78 500 a 23 oe 1000) 76 2 0 2000 70 7 49 4000 66 3 3 000 6 45 2 Breakout sound power is given by A= 24 x 24 = 576 ind 23,040 in? 10 log (576/23040) = 10 log (40) = 16. PWLoe = PWLyy + 16 ~ Tage The results are shown in the last row of the table. Note thar duct TL is different trom wall-type TL, 4x 24 x 240 Straight unlined rectangular sheet metal ducts that are externally lagged tend to have slightly greater atten uation atlow frequencies. Ductlagging isa specially for ‘mulated tarlike material that is applied to the outside of a duct to reduce breakout Circular and oval ducts generally cxhibi ly exhibit greater ‘TL characteristics than rectangular ducts because of the additional stiffness of the duct walls as a result of the curved surfaces, Acoustically Lined Rectangular Sheet Metal Ducts Rectangular shect metal ducts with internal fiberglass or similar lining ae effective in absorbing high teteaey ductborne sound. Low-frequency attenuation i only slightly greater shan tae of uolined duct, Typical lining thicknesses range from 0.5 in. to 2 in, The greater the thickness, the greater the attenuation, A minimum464 CHAPTER 15 35.44 Whavis the approximate huminous efficacy range of (a) incandescent lamps? (b) fluorescent lamps? (c) high-intensity discharge lamps? 15.45 What is the approximate lamp life of (a) an incandescent lamp including halogen and quartz? (b) a fluorescent and HID lamp? 15.46 For incandescent lamps, how is the rated life re~ lated to efficacy? 15.47 What is the benefit of Tungsten-halogen lamps? 15.48 Explain briefly the light generating process of @ fluorescent lamp. 15.49 For most fluorescent lamps, what are the optimal bulb wall temperature and the optimal ambient temperature? 15.50 What are the three most common lamp-color temperatures for fluorescent lamps? 15.51 Rank the luminous efficacy of HID lamps (mer- ‘cury, metal halide, HPS) in the order of increased «flicacy. 15.52. Rank the following from low to high in! efficacy and in color temperature: (a) Mercury vapor lamp (b) Metal halide lamp (c) High-pressure sodium lamp 15.53 Which type of lamp has a better lumen depr tion fuctor—fluorescent or metal halide? 15.54 Which of the following lamps is (are) mo chromic—fluorescent, mercury vapor, metal halide, high-pressure sodium, or low-pressure sodium? ‘i 15.55 Which of the following three is (are) not appro priate to describe a low-pressure sodium lamp? (a) High luminous efficacy (b) Poor color rendition (©) Used for interior lightingNOISE AND VisaTiOns IN MECHANICAL AND EuecTRiCAL Sistess. 527 there are some generally accepted perceptions of sound at may help in relating subjective experiences to quan tified noise levels. For exampl * A103 increase in sound presure lic is pene: allyperceived as twice as oud. A 10 dB dewtanns sound pressure level if generally perceived as ha as loud. ‘45 dB change in ound pressure levels perceptible TABLE 18-1 Perceptions of sound Peceoion ar Very auiet Quiet Moderate toud Vervfoud eafening ee TABLE 18-2 ‘Some common sounds common household appliances, dBA measured at 3 ft Anplance. tow. Freezer 38 Refrigerator Electric heater Hair ipper Humiifier fan Dehumidifier hothes dryer Aitconditioner Htecte shaver Water faucet Hairdryer Gathes washer Mater coset Distmasher ‘ecticcan opener Focd mixer flecticknife Elec knife sharpener Sewing machine Ora avage Vacuum deaner ood blender ote mit Food waste disposal simmer Home shop tools fie tlmmer Hclawn mower A 3 dB change in sound pressure level is hardly Pereeivable, even though this is a doubling or halv ing of the acoustical power, Low-frequency sound, below approximately. 500 Ha, is perceived as less loud than high-frequency sound when both are experienced at the same level, 60 dBA is the long-term average voice level for speech communication in a normal voice, absent significant background sound, At 85 dBA background sound, conversation in a reasonable normal voice beyond a distance of 2 ft becomes strained 120 dBA approaches the threshold of physical pain Some subjective perceptions of loudness. are shown in Table 18-1 18.4.6 Common Sounds To help develop a correlation between experience and sound level in decibels, Figure 18-1 and Tables 18-1 and 18-2 show and lst some typical sounds. Table 18-2 NUNNRRVSRReeees540 CHAPTER 18 18.14 DUCT END REFLECTION LOSS When low-frequency plane sound waves interact with ‘openings into a large room, a significant amount of the sound energy incident at the opening is reflected back into the duct. This is similar to the way an organ pipe amplifies sound at specific frequencies associated with the pipe length, End reflection loss is greatest for small cross sections and low frequencies and decreases as pipes become larger and frequencies higher. Diffusers that terminate in a suspended lay-in acoustic ceiling can be treated as terminating in free space, but the grilles have the effect of reducing the end loss somewhat They usually have a restriction associated with them— a damper, guide vanes to direct airflow, a perforated metal facing, of a combination of these elements. Cur- rently, no hard data are generally available to quantify the extent to which these elements effect the end loss attenuation. 18.15 RETURN AIR SYSTEMS The plenum retura air system makes use of the plenum space between the lay-in ceiling and the structural floor above. A ducted return air system is essentially the same as the ducted supply system and ducts the air from the room to the intake side of the AHU. When only total sound power of a fan is known, itis generally assumed that one-half is emitted to the supply side of the fan, ‘Thus, the sound power to the supply side and return side of the fan are each 3 4B lower than the total sound power gencrated by the fan. The open or unducted re- turn system to the ceiling plenum, however, is quite different The reentry of air from the ceiling plenum into the mechanical equipment room is often via a direct ‘opening to the ceiling plenum, It may also be via a ducted opening directly from a corridor or lobby. In ei ther case, there is usually little or no inherent attenua- tion between the mechanical equipment room and the ceiling plenum. Unless attenuated, high sound levels will be transmitted directly to the cciling plenum, lobby, or corridor. Occupied areas in proximity to a mechanical equipment room can experience noise in- trusion from the ceiling plenum as a result of noise emitted to the ceiling plenum. Sound in ceiling plenums comes not only from di- rect connection to the mechanical equipment room but also from casing-radiared (breakout) noise from supply ducts in the ceiling plenum. The return air system TE sul be designed so that the sound level in occupied sn ee irr of the epi ceo Tha turn system sound to a room is 5 dB less than the sup- ply sound, the combination of the supply and return sound is only about 1 dB greater than the supply system ere ‘The effectiveness of a lay-in ceiling assembly as a noise barrier is often limited by these flanking paths, no mat- ter how seemingly insignificant. 18.16 ROOM SOUND CORRECTION The sound level throughout a room is a function of the sound power transmitted to the room by the HVAC sys- tem and other sound sources such as grilles, registers, and diffusers; air-valve and fan-powered terminal units; fan-coil units located in ceiling plenums; and re- turn air openings. It is also a function of the acoustical absorption properties of the room (room effect), The ceiling is usually the largest unencumbered surface in a room and as such is an important element in absorbing, sound. Sound is also absorbed by wall treatment, fur- nishings, and people, According to free field theory, the sound pressure decreases at the rate of 6 dB per doubling of dis- tance from a point sound source, For example, ifsound is measured to be 60 dB at a distance of 10 ft from a point sound source, it can be expected to measure 54 dB at a distance of 20 tt. Ina room, there is theoretically a direct sound that comes from the sound source to a receiver with- out reflecting from any surfaces. The sound field that is composed of all the reflections off, of all surfaces is the reverberant field. It is one in which theoretically the sound travels in every direction at the same level with equal probability. Diffuse field theory applies only to empty rooms in which there is no furniture or ‘other objects that can scatter sound. There is theoret- ically a distance from the sound source at which the ‘sound level in the room becomes constant. However, in the real world, there is scattering by furniture and other objects, Experience has shown that in real rooms, the sound pressure levels decrease at a rate more like 3 dB to 3.5 dB per doubling of distance from the sound source because of reflections and scat tering of sound. Generally, a reverberant sound field ‘does not exist in small rooms (room volume less than 15,000 f°). In much larger rooms, reverberant fields may exist, but usually at large distances from the sound source, “i neCALCULATION By; _WKT OATE:_2/17 __ pace: ILLUMINANCE. CRITERIA FIXTURE DATA 00M DIMENSION: aaa ROOM we | al, fae) Rar bay cuaracters | Ye | a5 Ry | a7] Ra ar i s el 2.2} Res [ar P_[PERIMETER, FT(M): a S21 FLOOR OR CEILING PLAN } A |AREA, SF(SM): ms PAR | PERIMETER/AREA RATIO (P + A) | ape COR [2.5 x PAR x h ree ROR [2.5 x PAR x by, rh FOR [2.5 x PAR x he 2 Poo |FROM Re & Ryi & COR oes L By |SAME AS Ry OR Ryg ao je |FROM Ry & Ry3 & FOR 20 FROM CU TABLE OF FIXTURE MFOR] CU |INTERPOLATING BETWEEN RCR AND] 247 ec» A» Fre =| BF — BALLAST FACTOR 12) LH 10 LOF [VF = VOLTAGE FACTOR 10) OTHER = LLD-LAMP LUMEN DEPREC. | 7) | ULF [LOD-LUMINAIRE DIRT DEPREC:} 12) (USE SEPARATE DRAWINGS FOR ADDITONAL OTHER - “N-NUMBER OF FIXTURES FIGURE 16-10 “lation form for Design Problem 62fpample 16.1 Determine the LE . avon sed on the following," *HEMnginwal “The luminaires are ayn type ore wthaprismatc plastic lens, The ampasre ore W,sapt start (430 millampere ight loading) wie cif of the amp is 20,000 hous Malte he ronment is very clean, and the estinnary i {S12 months ater 10,000 hours oF pene OSE ‘Answer: From Figure 16-8, the lara the luminae is V- Fora very dean emipeamn ot -month cleaning oye, the estimated [Domine ae salltion is found to be 98 percent by interpola From Figute 16-5 or from the lamp manufactory 4a, the LLD is interpolated to be 81 perentrand LLF = LDD x LLD 93 x 0.81 = 0.75 ample 1612__Determine the LLE for another lighting insallation based on the following: "The luminaires are suspension- mounted slas globes, “Te lamp isa general service type incandescent lamp with a nted fe of 1000 hours. The estimated normal usige § 4000 hours per year, and the scheduled cleaning eyce i ‘months. Building: environment is medium (M). Ansver From Figure 16-6, the maintenance cate- tory of the luminaire is V (totally enclosed). For a nnedium environment and a 6-month cleaning cycle, the LDD of this installation is 0.87, However, since the lamp has only 2 1000-hour fated life, an average lamp souk! have burned out and been replaced long before the scheduled cleaning time. Its reasonable to expect thatthe glass globe of the luminaire is cleaned each time the lamp is replaced. Therefore, the LDD value is taken 43 months instead of 6 months, or LDD = 0.92. From Figure 15—4 in Chapter 15, LLD at 100 per «eat of rated life is 0.85. Thus, LLE = LDD x LLD = 0.92 x 0.85 078 ample 1613. Determine the LE for the instalation inthe second example above with the lamp ¢ ™aEs n-type incandescent lamp. ‘Anoper: Te humen's output oft Ye is neadly constant throughout it demonstrated in Figure 16-5. Thus, LD ‘Se LLP fortis installation i UF = Lop x LLD = 0.92 X 10= sen halogen Sat life, as S10, a 092 1643 Limitations and Applications of the Zonal Cavity Method 1d by the zonal ge value The ituminance ealeulae i ethos a representative av ‘CALCULATIONS OF ILUNATION 483 ‘minaires are installed to meet manufacturers? rec- ‘ommended minimum mounting height and spac- ing. Even so, some variations are to be expected. Mos likely the illuminance will be higher at the center ofthe space and lower neat the wall +The calculated illuminance is vali only under the conditions assumed for the ealculation, Ic is en- tirely possible thatthe illuminance of a room with, dark walnut paneling (15-20 percent reflectance) ‘would be doubled if the wall was refinished in high-reflectance colors, This, of course, depends ‘on the distribution characteristics of the hunt naires. ‘The effect of wall reflectance values is ‘more pronounced for wide-distribation, direct or indirect lighting systems, including the diffuse (or directindirect) ype. Ceiling reflectance is ‘more critical for indirect systems and has litte ef fect on narrow (spot) types of direct (down) lights. Calculated illuminance is for an assumed ‘working plane, such as a desktop. Alehough de sign calculations normally select 30 in. as the ‘working plane, this method will work well with the work plane at ather heights ‘The zonal cavity method may also be applied to de~ termine the illuminance and luminance values on vertical surfaces by using the wall reflected radia tion coefficient (WRRC), which can be found in the IESNA Lighting Handbook. Methods aso are available for caleulating luminance in irregular sibaped spaces, illuminance affected by low parti- tions, and other applications. Refer to the TES Lighting Education Manual (ED-150) for these applications. 16.4.4 When to Use Initial and Maintained Iluminances Gation by 4light-loss factor. The resulting illaminance Prpequently, say only about 1000 hours a year using oe so used to check the system per anes cringe commisioning of 3 new install fom da eo sma te Mand or head of time sion, There i target illurinances470 CHAPTER 6 * Laminaiesin terms of appearance, cirect glare reflected gare, ight fax distabution, control, Alexis etc ‘Mounting and location of luminaires in terms of light dimnburion, divighting integration and controls, modeling ees, points of interest, iret and rected glare, geomet offices oF This evaluation process for determining quantity and quality of iluminaton can be consolidated in a matrix fr in a composite table forall spaces and tasks. The LIESNA Ligiting Hanaboot, th edition, provides one ofthe many possible matrices, 16.3.3 Other Design Considerations ‘Not included in the issues of quantity and quality, but byno means less mpertant, are the isues of economic, nergy, and environment. These topics will be addres in epeh in Chapter 17 Brample 16.2 nance level and an appropriate Tigh [Kindergarten classroom vended lami Determine the reco + The visual rads for kindergarten dassrooms are us- ally ange posters, graphic paintings, ad storybooks wth large tpefices of high const, From Table 16-5, luminance estegory D (300 Ix) is selected While all quality issues are important, no single de sign isaies sand out. Thus, foorescent luminaires ‘with an appropriate distribution and fusing, nedium would be the normal choice sample 16.3. Same as Example 16.2, but for a com. ter or word processing laborton + The spe of tsk would normally be high contrast and small iz. From Table 16-5, iluninance cate gory E(S00 Ix) oF (1000 ix) would be the proper Selection, Final scecton between categories Fad may be affected by the selected lighting systems. (fall the design issues, direc late from the ignt sources and reflected glare (image) of the lumi. aires on the VDT terminal are both very impor tant. Thus, an indirect lighting mstem (category 5) ora natrow distribution direct lighting system (category Fare probably the systems to consider, ample Wo4 Same as Example 16.2, but for a medium-size hotel lobby. *A-hotet lobo includes vatious spices, such as pas- ‘sageways(catszory A) seating (Category B), casual reading (categories C and D), snack bar {ate- ‘gots C and D), check-in counter (category D or ), and cashier (Category E or F). No. single lighting system wil sty all the Mei cas elena ene area iby often hs pantngs and decorative objects, trhch ate-points of Hottest fequting special trol Occasional igh contest 8 ium interes liberal we of oun Hight sures for spevtal modeling, well selded fluorescent ight Pores for the working counters, and large-area fn ow righ bt somes nling hy lights over the seating ares, ar ust afew Of the posible design solutions, (See Chapter 17 Ro fey and design conaderatons) 16.3.4 Comparing the Selection Methods The nwo methods for determining the quantity and qual iy of illumination may appear to be different but could lead tothe sare recommendations, Table L6-1 provides “range of luminance values forthe designer to choose afer evaluating design issues on contrast, age, and speed factors, Table 16-5 provides a single luminance vale in conjunction with the evaluation of many: quality and de sign isues. Thus, either method may be used atthe dis- ‘rstion of the designer. However, che designer mas un slesiand that lighting. quantity (illuminance) selection alone is only a smal pat of the lighting design proces 16.4 TUMENS (ZONAL CAVITY) METHOD. ‘The lumens meth of zal ity mathe i wily ser dtrinng the vere aoa ance oa spac, The metho snp w om i pes but edous to we Ineodced here are te pomp Dre ber dead aa eco 3s wll athe algo or compar propning “impli procedure ao introduced To ele eden purpose se ME Pvt Eon (142) fom Chaper "he lem method i bated onthe defo ile anaes, hich the amino hn (hment) ieee on: uni ae (a) morag Th pe minous Bux wea A ame 165. TF 1000 lumens of the luminous hse {romallibing fixtures fils, director indict onto 4 20/841 m work plane, then the average linance 1000/20 = 50 x Siilal,i the work plane areas 200 '4 then the average illuminance is 1000/200 ~ $f 42)cine Equiement aNo Srstems 459° 2X4 3-Lamp TI2 or 18 18 or 24 Cell PHOTOMETRIC DATA © ATALOG# reassess TST, UMS nevWaTS 18 PB YEA YONG BEAT os a ag tee HE CANDLEPOWER 1 NS = $8.85 BASED ON 3000 HRS. AND $.06 FER KWH. [MAINTAINED ILLUMINATION TABLE- Soon Fesi/ixun') | COEFFIENT OF UTIUZATION Bee hd some cae "50-20 Baleconcer (Caling Wall Fos } iI a8 eee ..| 18 2 2) sie. ep & eS ee ees times fee | 2]: a[3 5 : 2 a 2 Saeaanieaeats Sa pias 2 ae “AVERAGE LUMINANCE peal [Link] i en 3 | _y nS MENaes | |S iorenctemm oe = 3 | fe Ser) [ae ee [UGH DisipuTION = ae waif & S See edifee = = con ee eran amen = SAE AGMMARES wwramrouiettuari LE PHC ‘CATALOG #7065376 AMPS = F218 PUT WATTS = 5 | and JOTOMETRIC DATA CATNOG. TPCT 17°" RALAST= EECTONC BAUASTEACTOR = 73 ae of 75 COMPARATIVE YEARLY UGHTING ENERGY COST PER 1000 LUMENS = 93.58 EASED ON SODD HRS. AND $08 PERIOWH cs [MAINTAINED ILLUMINATION TABLE- Sq Fo/Fome"| | COEFICENT OF UTRIZATION anted ELE 2/8 : 07, Coogan 2 5S [Sines esse esi Po ste ba Perera: EPitaey (sag amtemtee| | | EEE Gas be saa ieee sees LIGHT DISTRIBUTION ae 8 a oma 5 oes 3) se we te $8 SiS ais age the photo dent (9K GURE 1 contains photometics of hwo different e c ent toute TIsFepO perenne pvamentc datasheet of2 601 Ara ape uses Nee AF on a 1g OF ys contgurations forthe same A, Te one uses three 324, F8 rapld-start lamps with electronic ane plat naving 0.8 alt 440° TT nergy cost sans of he ee sing F8 amps with electronic hang dba eee Note met sy Thomas Industes,TUPeI. MS? ect magnetic ballasts (Col the 712 lamps with electtOPPA Rooftop units (RTUs; sce Figure 18-8) have unique, significant noise problems, Not the least of these sare Tightweight roof construction, Large roof open are usually required for supply and return air duct rections, These ducts run directly from noise: en: trating rooftop air handlers to the building interior “There is insufficient space between the roof mounted ‘equipment and the closest occupied spaces below the sabeeo make use of adequate mcthods of sound contro. Rooftop units should be located above spaces that are pot acoustically sensitive and should be placed as far as possible from the n ‘occupied space, This measnre fan reduce ‘of treatment necessary 10, Schieve an acoustically acceptable installation, Elevating Supply duct Pruraulence caused by tan cacharee No deck under— rrtsene in] co FIGURE 18-8 Top and section view problems. ‘of genesicroofiop unit \ \ [Noise AND ViawaTions IN MECHANICAL AND EuECTRICAL SrstEMS 533 78.8 ROOFTOP UNITS (RTUs) the RTU above the roof so as to decouple it ftom the roof is effective in eliminating vibrations and reducing tasing breakout into the ceiling plenum. While the re: turn air side is usally the larger problem, there are ‘other potential problems that can be as bad. Some of the potential problems are lustrated in Figure 18-8. 18.9 NOISE IN AIR SUPPLY SYSTEMS 18.91 General Considerations {The aie distribution system isa system of arteries that teach throughout a building. fe caries nor only con dlttoned ait but also noise. The general approach to Return tans Return plone pared | 8 | is CN f , | ee \Kcooting section | eur eau arin L_Sestosoin penun ‘and sources of potential nseThe owning and operatin; snore often than not the dete Meetion ofa system, Hower ost data MUSE IncOFporate fictors, which vary widely among pro intangible tieare too complex to be included hone lildesigners must be keenly: jpevery design decision, 5 COsts Of the desi mining ctor a ge cd here; ny l 5 neverthel aware of cost, ‘considerations 1, Calewlations Using the average illuminance caleulati flows we il tt forthe eee ee calculation, the number i eee 2, Uniform layout * of luminaires required is 21, Given the space configuration, the luminaires may be arranged in three rows of seven each, This configu: ration is unsatisfactory for the workstation layout. Trials indicate that four rows of five each are mostap- propriate, even if this configuration is one luminaire short of the number required. Thus, we have: «Scheme A. For uniformity within the entire area, the four rows of luminaires are more or less evenly spaced on the ceiling in a north-south di- rection and at the front of each workstation in an cast-west direction. This scheme provides a neu- tral expression and satisfactory illumination. 3. Nonuniform layouts To achieve maximum lighting of task areas, illami- nance levels at the central corridor may be reduced. Scveral schemes are possible: + Scheme B. The luminaires are moved within the workstation partition lines, with two luminaires in the front of each workstation and no Tumi naires in the corridor. : + Scheme C. In lieu of locating the Lene in Scheme A, the second row of luminaires 1s a ‘ed closer to the first row, and the third row closer to the fourth row. eer One 2” XH luminaire is used fo sab hae Boe ee workstation areas, and three single 2’ * naires are used in the corridor area: Scheme B. Ifthe workstation partitions are than the 5’ level within the 9”-6" ceiling space, or ifthe partitions become full height to the ceiling, luminaires must be moved within each worksta- tion room. Scheme F. The luminaires in each workstation oom in Scheme E are irregular in location and aesthetically unpleasant. This is because of the continuation ofthe grid in the ceiling, Ifthe ceil- ing grids are installed on a room-by-room basis, the lighting within the individual rooms can be centered within each room. 4. Lighting plan for the conference area ‘There are even’ more alternatives for illuminating the conference area than for the workstation area. With scheme C as the base for the workstation area, sev- eral schemes are possible for the conference area. ‘The schemes are: + Scheme Cl, Continue the same 2’ X 2" luminaires for the conference table area * Scheme C2. Use the same 2/ x 2/ luminaires, ex: cept that the unit over the conference table is ‘composed of six 2’ X 2/ luminaires suspended 3 fi below the ceiling. The composite 4” x 6” unit may be sclected for dircet, indireet, or direct- indirect distribution, ‘The file storage and seating areas are illuminated with incandescent or com pact fluorescent downlights, or wall washers. + Scheme C3. Asa totally different design, two dec- rative luminaires using. either incandescent or circular fluorescent lamps are suspended over the conference table. The suspended luminaires are for direct distribution only. A separate linear fu~ ‘orescent unit is mounted over the board for ver- tical illumination. ‘The preceding are just a few of the alternatives compatible with the basi lighting design (scheme C) of the space. Selecting the appropriate lighting system is indeed a challenge to designers. Creative ideas and close coordination among designers will be rewarded with great satisfiction.512 CHAPTER 17 some situations. Ultimately, educating the end userand ‘owner on the long-term sustainability needs of the sys- temisa key to the design’s real success 17.8 DESIGN PRACTICE AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS. Although every designer should arrive at a singular so: lution to a design problem, there is ahways more than ‘one alternative. The design exercise below is intended to make this point Suppose you have been commissioned to design the lighting for a small architectural or engineering of fice, as shown in the floor plan below. The office con. tains seven workstations, one reception desk, and one conference area (see Figure 17-17). The room data and design criteria are as follows: + Room data: Dimensions 48° x 26 Ceiling 9-6" height, 2” x 2 lay-in grid Ceiling reflectance 80 percent (base) Wall reflectance 50 percent (base = effective) Floor reflectance 20 percent (effective) + Luminaire to be used: 2’ x 2’ parabolic, 3-20 watt (1500 Im), type 25 (see Figure 16-4), + Design criteria: Maintained illuminance—50 fe minimam, LLF = 0.75 Refer to Figure 17-17. 1, Using the average illuminance calculation form, cal- culate the number of luminaires required for uni- 7 it he workstation area on} form illumination over the workstation " (go” x 26"), The balance of the room isto be de. igned separately. ea If 4 SRulated number of luminaires includes a fraction, use the appropriate integral number of ly. rrsraires to best suit the workstation layout and the interior aesthetics. Luminaires at each workstation Should be in front of or above the drafting table whenever practical he 3. The central corridor space of the room is approxi- mately one-third of the room width. Suppose the illuminance at the central corridor is not a con- cetn, and make a modified layout to concentrate the luminaires over the workstations by using slightly more than two-thirds of the number of lu- minaires calculated previously to fit the worksta- tion pattern 4. Make your own design for the reception and con- ference area. Select any luminaire or luminaires from Figure 16-4. Describe the design, and make a per spective of the area viewed from the entrance door toward the conference table, as a visitor would see it. Although this design exercise is only for a small ar chitectural or engineering studio, it covers most aspects of the design practices. The exercise must address the following: + Galeulations of illumination for uniform lighting, nonuniform lighting, and lighting effectiveness Decisions on the layout of luminaires Coordination with ceiling grids Lighting aesthetics Lighting reinforcement of users’ impressions O}FF/0, oe meter} ee FIGURE 7-7 Floor plan of an architectural or engineering office.476 CHAPTER 6 COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION aa 70 86 81 05 88 64 $9 93 @7 S647 a 82 38 aoe 45 35 20 Precae 329 25 FIGURE 16-2 Typical data on the CU of a luminaire, provided by Juminaire manufacturers, 9 3 832 36047 41 54 46 41 242 38 50 42 47 3 Mw 4535 29 44 4 29 41 32 28 40 33°27 39 29 25 38 29 25 FIGURE 16-3 Exercise In visual interpolation from tabulated data, Figure 16-3 shows how the preceding calculation is ar- rived at using the manufacturer's data, Preliminary Method for Determining the Coefficient of Utlization The previous example demonstrates the tedious and time-consuming nature of the manual procedure for calculating CU. To save time and effort one may use a computer program, For preliminary design purposes, the designer may bypass some of the time-consuming steps by choosing effective rellectanees at the outset, rather than base reflectances, With this method, CU ean a be found directly from the photometric data, although it will normally be higher than if it is calculated by the full zonal cavity method. Example 1610 For the same installation as in Example 16.9, assume the effective reflectances are 80, 30, and 20 percent for the ceiling, walls, and floors respectively, ‘Then from Figure 16-2, with RCR = 3, the CU is found to be 54 percent in one step. There is about 4 percent variance or (52-4)/52 between the two meth- ‘ods, For most applications, the variance will not be no- ticed. A more conservative selection of the effective re- flectances is recommended. Coefficient of Utilization of Generic Luminaires ‘The CU of the luminaire should be provided by the manufieturer based on certified laboratory tests, prefer ably by an independent testing laboratory. Experience indicates that the CU of a higher-quality produet may be considerably. greater than that of a lower-quality product of the same appearance, owing to a number of factors, such as the effective reflectance of luminaire sur faces, the positioning of the lamps, the geometry of the housing, the efficacy of the diffusing media, and the power loss of the ballast. This variation may resule ina rnced for more or less luminaires to be installed in an identical space. It is, therefore, extremely important to use the specific laboratory testing data of the selected luminaire prior to final design calculations However, for preliminary design and evaluation, using the CU values of generic luminaire types pub lished in the TESNA Handbook can provide valuable comparisons between different types of luminaies. These are shown in Figure 16-4 Two luminaires may appear to be similar, but have Wiley diferent CU values. For example, with effective ceiling reflectance at 70 percent, wall at 30 percent, and. RC = 1, luminaire CU for type 7 is 1.03 (> 1.0) and only 0.91 for type 8, Type 7 is definitely more effective for this room configuration. However, for the same l= ‘minaires in another room with RCR = 10 (a very small room), CU for type 7 is only 0.45; CU for type 8 is 0.53, Therefore, type 8 is a more effective selection. 16.4.2 Maintained Illuminance ‘The light output of a lamp and ofa luminaire installed in the field differs from that obtained in controlled lab- oratory conditions. ‘The light output also depreciates with time, Lighting system design must therefore in clude a factor in the calculations to compensate for the anticipated losses. This factor is ealled the dight fos. fie™ tor (LLF), and the resulting. illuminance is called the556 © CHAPTER 18 only those applications where rubber expansion joints are not suitabl + lll suspended equipment, including. piping and ductwork, whether isolated or not, must be braced against sway and axial motion, Cable braces are recommended for isolated equipment and either cable or solid braces for nonisolated equipment. Suspension rods may require bracing to prevent them from buckling under compression stress + Wherever possible, use OSHPD or other govern ‘ment preapproved seismic devices with preapproved ratings. When such devices are not available, ratings based on tests are more reliable than ratings based on calculations. When testing is impractical, calculation should be made by a professional engineer with a minimum of five years’ experience in seismic design, 18.261 Applicable Codes and Standards + BOCA National Building Code, Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. + Standard Building Code (SBCC1), Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. + Uniform Building Code (UBC), International Conference of Building Officials FIGURE 18-28 Seismic zones in the United States, te and local codes that have adopted one sree des by reference and hae inne ete local amendments. — National Fire Protection Association (Epa, 18.26.2 Seismic Zones “The world has been classified into seismic zones that. flect the relative potential severity of earthquakes in zones. They are based on past scismic activity and the ¢ timated probability of future occurrences. ‘The seiaic zones for the United States are shown in Figure 18-95. Governing design codes vary with each jurisdiction, Foy design purposes, peak dynamic forces have been into equivalent static forces and are based on the applica. ble seismic zone. These static forces are prescribed by ‘codes for use in calculations for design of seismic restraint, ‘The methodology of analysis using these seismic forces ig beyond the scope of this chapter. (See Reference 2,) 18.26.3 Commercially Available Seismic Restraints Many types and sizes of seismic restraints are available, Figure 18-29 illustrates some typical restraint methods,QUESTIONS 151 Daylight is plentiful and economical; however, it (widely during the day. Fuoreenr hips were fist intruced i the (1930s) (1940s) (1950s). ‘The rated life of lamps is based on the sme clapsed when only (_) pereent of & group of lamps still remain burning. Light output depreciates with time, The light output of general-service incandescent lamps is about (—) percent at their rated life Depending on the manufacturer's specifications the color temperature of warm white fluorescent lamps is normally between () and ( kelvins 15.6 The CRI for a 3000-K incandescent lamp is given a rating of 100. ‘Thus it can reproduce the true color of any object. (True) (False) 1527 To reduee the stroboscopic effect from fluores cent and HID lamps, itis desirable to wire ight ing fixtures on alternate circuits or to use lead-lag ballasts for multiple lamp fixtures. (True) (False) 1.8 Whatis the physica size, in inches, of the bulb of 2.G-40 incandescent lamp? 9 What docs PAR stand for in an incandescent re flector lamp? 1610 What lamp base is a 150-W general-service in candescent lamp? Ifthe voltage at the lamp socket is 6 percent over the rated voltage of an incandescent lamp, what ‘would be the expected percentage increase in Tight output? What is the percentage decrease in the life ofthe lamp? 15.2 153 1 N82 ‘The efficacy of an incandescent lamp varies with the size of the lamp, ranging from approximately ( )ipwro( pw Tungsten-halogen lamps contain halogen gas (io dine, fluorine, etc.), which reacts with the tung sten filament to form a halogen-tungsten com- pound and redeposits the tungsten back into the filament, prolonging the life of the lamp. (True) (False) BB 8M Miniature reflector lamps are compact halogen lamps, (True) (False) ‘The rated life of standard 40-watt fluorescent lamps is about ( ) hours, based on an wig Hos persare cele thy, Nbstisthe CRI rating of fluorescent lamps? The color temperature of fluorescent lamps is ty {telat 3500 K (True) (False) in electromagnetic ballast for fluorescent lamps [EY consume up to (_) percent of the rated “™p power, Ifa lamp is rated for 40 W, the bal- 185 Licemine Equipment ano Srsrems 463 ast may consume( _) Ws thus, the total power des med by the lamp and ballascis(/—)W. 4519 ‘The fluorescent lamps most commonly sed afe lamps. 1520 The she caxpur of a standard 40-W fluorescent Jamp is about (percent of ts input Enerey: 15.21 Name the earee major types of high-intensity is- charge lamps When ae the characteristics of LPS lamp The CRI of standard HPS lamps is very low: However, newly developed HPS lamps may have aCRIof( — )ormore 15.24 The efficacy of HPS lamps is as high as (_) jumens/watt, excluding the power loss of the ballast. 45.25 All incandescent lamps have the same olor tem perature, (Truc) (False) 45.26 ‘All FID lamps require a ballast. (True) (False) 45.7 ‘The ballast factor is used to modify the himens output ofa lamp-ballast combination. (Trac) (False) 15.28 ‘The ballast factor is always smaller than 1. (True) (False) 15.29 What is BEF? 15.30 Can BEF be compared for lamps? different num- bers and sizes? 15.31 What is BEF? 45.32 High-pressure sodium lamps are monochromic. (Crue) (False) 15.33 What is the typical efficacy of a 1000-W, clear MH lamp? (83) (100) (150) lamens//watt. 15.34 What is the depreciated lamp lumen of a 400-W, clear HPS lamp at 70 percent of its rated life? (68 percent) (70 percent) (73 percent) 15.35 Name two electrodeless lamps. 15.36 What isthe difference between the TES and CLE lighting system classifications? 15.37 What are the two most valuable pieces of data on the performance ofa luminaire in the luminaire’s photometric report? 15.38 What iva light pipe, and what are its applications? 15.39 Inaddition to the type of ight source, installation, and maintenance, what are the important elements in selecting a lighting fixture for interior space? 15.40 Lighting accounts for approximately what per- cent of all electrical energy consumed in the United States? 15.41 Initial lumens of alight source are typically mea sured after how many hours of operation? 15.42 Define luminous efficacy. 15.43 Theoretically, 1 W of electric power can be con- ‘verted to approximately how many hours? (a) 600 (b) 60 (6490 CHAPTER 16 ‘The point method is commonly used for the fol- lowing: + Manual calculation of the illuminance ata pointon a surface from a single luminaire. ‘Manual calculation ofthe illaminance ata pointon 1 surface from multiple luminaires, provided that the calculations have taken into consideration the intricate angles of incidence between the lumi- naires and the point. ‘Computerized calculation of the illuminance of a point on any surface from multiple sources at dif ferent angles, including the reflected flux from the interior surfaces. The algorithm of the calculations is complex and inciudes thousands of calculations; thus itcan be done only by a computer, Computer programs are available from the Illuminating gineering Society of North America, consulting ‘engineers, lighting designers and most ofthe lead- ing lighting fixture manufacturers. ‘Computerized calculations of sports lighting. The point method is the only method applicable to sports lighting design, which demands accurate prediction of iluminances on the horizontal and vertical planes, as well as the uniformity ratios. The design of sports lighting is very specialized Design problem 16.3 The following design is for a ‘commercial carpet showroom that displays carpets on the floor. From IES categories, its determined that the medium value of category D is proper, ic., 30 fe. ‘The preliminary design determined to use two type A indirect distribution luminaires (Figure 16-4, luminaire type 2) and six type B direct distribution luminaires (Figure 16-4, luminaire type 8), is shown in the follow- ing sketch: Determine the lamp lumen per fixture required, based on the following information: 1. Room dimensions: Rectangular room with semicir- cular ends, as shown in the drawing above. 2. Reflectances: + Ceiling, 80 percent + Wall, 50 percent average + Floor, 20 percent without carpets in place. .. This work problem is designed ro illustrate a num- ber of variables encountered in lighting design ap- plications: + The working plan is the floor, not the standard 30 in level at desktops. Although it is assumed that the floor reflectance is 20 percent, the actual floor reflectance could vary considerably, depending on the reflectance of the carpets displayed in various parts of the room. ‘The room is not rectangular bur rather is a compos- ite ofa rectangular and a semicircular shape. ‘There are two types of luminaires to be used, each covering @ different part of the room. There are a number of approaches to take to tackle this design. One suggested way isto calculate the ik luminance produced by the type A and type B humi- nates sepatately and then superimpose the illumi- nance produced by both.Noise ani 3 VIBRATIONS IN MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL Systems 549. Machine (2) Rigia floor Machine ———+_ 2 __, Column Column {c) Flexible floor FIGURE 18-19 Models of one and two degrees of freedom (D/F). where gis the gravitational constant (386 in. /sec”) and d isin inches. Normally we think of frequency in Hertz (cycles per second, Hz) whereas the mathematics above gives the frequency in radians per second. To convert to Hertz, divide by 2m: Be 21 fllz) = 3 a821) Frequency in Hertz is usually connoted by f The dynamic force transmitted to the base (F) is the deflection (x) of the spring times the spring constant (i). The ratio of the peak transmitted force to the peak applied force is z —— ieee ( ““) n 2, is shown in Figure shaking the mass at ey at de atart te (18-22) ‘This function, Equation 18-2. 18-20. If we think of beginning: zero frequency and slowly increasing frequency ratio w/a, ~ O-and the syste™ ee att one in which the displacement is the eal es, dleilection equal to the amplitude of aPPIEE Te the forcing fequeney increases, the tFAMSOT Ty and the deflection increase. ‘The force FeFosinog Machine | clad WLI VLU L oe (0) 1D mode! me ah Effective ‘mass of tloor Rigid bose (4) 207 model ine 2 te a : 2 yuency ratio, 5 | Freaener ro 5 iia oe 3 4 Eo4 FIGURE 18-20 Mransmitted force versus frequency fora system with single degree of freedom.luminance cate€0r¥ E is $00-750-1000 Ix or approx imu 50-75-100 The decien to ae ST pane Goa fabs aie depends on te Sateen torus or ofh ceeee soma oan hares dem ie fetal cred eee ? Sep 2 Slee a category from Tate 16-1 inthis easter ep 3 The ilaminance range for category Eis 50- 16.2.4 Step 4: Select the 5100 (500-750-1000 8 lane inaninde Sep 4 Slect and accumulate the weighing fc tors on Tale 16-2 Target iluminance may be defined asthe iminance Age (255) foe which the lighting system i designed The eae Spen/accorcy high) i aded by valation of several weighting factors, gion Reflectance s 0 in Tables 16-8 and 16-4 Tora weighing factor 2 The calculated weighting fictor is “+2.” From Table 16-4, select the high value of eategory E, oF 1000 Ix 100 fe) as the targer illuminance ample 161 Select the illuminance ya le for the pre scription counter of a pharmacy TABLE 16-2 Recommended illuminance values of common ask/areas ‘trons Lobes toungesana Dark fabrics, low contrast assembly reception areas Lghtto medium fabs Socal activity Malsoning Sportsand Recreational 23) suage/paform Offset printing an Baseball diel out tans duplicating area ‘Gassi(4) Lobby-general spaces with vos 0) Cassi wring area Reading asi Tee's stations Xeronraph, mmeoaraph Basketball indoor) Confrence Rooms Gar screens casi) Coofering #3 pencl and softer leads hast ital seeing #4 pendilandharderteads Footbal indoon Corndors Ballpoint pen ass 1(4) Dating Reading mixed material Cassi tow contrast Schools Sofa (outdoon Bueprins| Casstooms (see Reading) ‘lassi ‘hiton/Comention Science aboratonies asst ‘General ‘Shops (se fS handbook) Soccer (see ootbald Depiey Sairwaysand Corndors Tennis(ouidoor and indoor) tivais| Resident Spaces ass areas in) General ighting a eee trerainment os ° rd fes Passa areas or Seca specie visualtasks {ipso slop ans Merchandising Spaces are, opsanonvoume ct encooo retin Grooming ‘Dituminance for sports shal efor ecandise sctenen general enzora ane veri planes. See 896 86 Otces ‘otchen counter Spots tinting Manca Acco chen (hdase professional merational Senne tena a atonal Cs cole: Cass thigh sdovisualarea chen sink patos {erence (see Conference room) Laundry aM era gmc ng\see Orating) Must study (piano or roan aces (Grea and private offices ee tral (see Ubrares) ae ‘fe: om 1 Handbook and caren architectural Eaneerng aTypeeinnonty 2» wo fo Tpeetewonty Tae] a0 70 Py Parca 5 5 Rpeiaeoe urviinee [m= |e 9 10 [eam [eo 29 vo] so m/s #10) 0 Wart | gg [POR ont naan fo 20 Per Cont cat t acre Poo any Rtecaen = 2) » Wa? | 0 fer wr ov]es as as [ea 2 2 [oo 0 6057 57 57) 56 {|e so aolse sy ss (ae 56 59 [s¢ 59 sz [sz si 50/40) 7 | 1 SIS SSIES also ar as las as a4 ae a4 a ae| a | 2 ot | 3 [ae a Sofas ae se [as 41 a3 [a2 40 7 jas 20 a7 [6] re | a S| 4 [es ae [ao Se aa |m gs ofan ot gear 38 tat) am | & | 5 [sr 22 2 | os a1 26 {a5 a1 26 |36 30 27/30 90 27/26) 150 | § ser © [so as at (se an at (at a7 24/30 27 20 |30 26 26/28) 199) 6 | 5 |i ae at [oe as ar [an 24 2 [an 20 21 [a7 zo 25/20/00) 7 a |e a so [20 22 aw ae 22 10 [25 21 19/24 21 19/17] 120 | @ [os a ar [oe a0 a7 [oe a0 v7 [za v0 a7 [za 39 s7/46/ 012| 9 ae so [ea se sy ze ae as ze 8 1 [21 10 ts [21 17 15|s4| 105 | 10 ; One nie @ ofa «las 2 25/00 08 08/00 1/64 G2 3/56 59 51/38 36 8 [22 21 20 [07 7 7] 00) 000 2 |s0 Se at [40 a az|39 31 23 [19 18.17 |o8 06 05/00] 000 3 [eo a4 alae a a5 [29 26 20 (07 15 14/05 05 05/.00] 000 4 [a se ae |ar as ms [26 0 0 [15 13.12 [05 06 04 00/000 5 [se 30 26 |a0 a 25 (20 20 <7 [1s 42 10 [04 04 03 |.00| 000 @ |3¢ 26 2¢ [a9 a5 21 [20 7 5 [12 10 09 [04 09 03| 00] 000 7 |at 2 21 [am 22 10 [we 15 13 [11 9 8 [05 05 05/00| ooo & [20 2 sola to te [te is 11 [10 0 or [oa 09 c2|c0] 00 @ |2s zo lz a7 wis 12 10 [oo a7 8 [on ce 02|.00| 10 |25 7 vw |z0 15 2/14 11 on fon 06 os [00 ce 02 || 000 ‘nae = [aa wo ci a 2 2 2 2 ; 3 aes sii 3 8 segs s = sits ais $8 si =a gine 3 seas 2/333 7353 2|g 33 : alg 23 sea e sean aR ay 5 ra ‘ as : sea ess gs ; eee ree: la sles 22 wat | a ao 9 | \ as ae 23 slay ae [rs 2 _rematcreectance ~ 18%, Cavity wt rivera BEERS HS Ss ij ‘Pein wh 00 rbcare ania 58 32 5(23a25% yore | *| | eaeegeae 2 phon i bord 3 eae 2s 2 ae 3 ; ess (gs 4 Bs al =e ' J) ating atc 80m: 45 > fsa Hee so : aes Ree ie eth 8 10 = 5. : Ba : cnr : Fee ce ; : ee eels FIGURE 16-4 (CONTINUED) ae Bae Coefficient of utlization (CU) of genetic luminaires. (Courtesy thu Mum Engineering Society of North America, New York, NV) ereDistance tom Hetoer to ah, FIGURE B-4 Speech interference levels. For spec intelligibility in spaces where this is 2 primary requirement—churches, auditoriums, et: the background sound level should beat east 15 dB be low the voice level. 18.5.4 Outdoor Noise Criteria Outdoor sounds from rooftop units, coeling towers, chillers, emergency generators, and any other exterior ‘equipment afe potentially a matter of concern. More and more, urban areas are adopting ordinances 10 regu lave emission of sound co adjoining property. Typical ‘outdoor noise ordinances are drafied in srt of sound ‘measured at the propery’ line of the receiving property and are based on the use, not the zoning, of the recels ing property. There are usally different cntera for dif ferent receiving land uses and for time of day. Table 18-4 shows typical, bur not universal, levels for contin uous noe emitted to different eatogories of land use The most stringent ofthese is residential land use, The consensus is that daytime (7:00 A.M. to 10:00 1) lev- Js should not exceed 55 dBA, nighttime (10:00 rt ro 7-00 a.6.) levels should not exceed 80 dBA, and both should preferably be much lower. Other categories of land use have clferent levels. Some erceia provide for higher levels for shorter pesiods of time so long. asthe total acoustical encrgy forany one-hour period does not exceed that fora constantcriterion level forthe same pe- riod of time TABLE 18-4 “ypleal urban noise criteria Continuous Sound Level dba land use ‘Daytime tints Nightime Ls recehing Property 7.00x1.- 1:00 a1, 1200 rat. 7ODAM Residential 58 30 Commercial 6 0 Light Industrial 0 0 easy indus %0 60 ee 18.6 ACOUSTICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN HVAC SYSTEMS Sound generated by and rane through HVAC 3s temvean be the mont pervaine and unwanted noise in Iniing A oon HVAC system design Snconortes proper contrcl oF VAC gencated sound and wbraton voc does not permit them intrude nto occupied spaces Sound produced bythe HVAC equpmenr shan Tanunoberane pro th background and shoud not Te convo pie oe pcr estimates of sound fom te sources (such sea fan or Gills) ed ts siesoatn ere erie ea meals ober ieee ce oie ee meee poral objectionable, the desigaients en be vo prone the appropriate acoustical envionment, Dag chines ace deer 6 recipes to the HVAC syxem deign. Optimom contol of HIVAC nokie—or of any nie or hat mater-shou not est wth the HVAC desigher lon. The mow eos cfteve wy co control HVAC noise trough review of architectural and HVAC designs to ena the op ‘kim contol satay: Wall and floor construction Cation ofmechanisl lean ase ae face tr leginacly ss mucha part of nose contol sae sce aleners and other inysem devices Some ofthe mote common noje and vibration problems encountered in HIVAG sytem and thee tremens Failure to sea around duct and other penetrations through a wall. oe Treatment: Seal lage gps with expand in-place foam and a sufice coating of acousial sealant. Simal gaps can be sealed with acousel sealant Breakout of nose fons within the dace to ons pie space i he eli pen, ‘reat inns Bose fob me! fom ills Fan oF pied 5P ‘Treat grille + Noise throu Treatm and mac Failure ¢ other eq sulting is ‘Treatme Terminal Properiy FeatmeAttenuation, 68 250 * e Octave band center frequency, Hz FIGURE 18-12 ‘wpical performance of absorptive and active duct silencers. Active ‘vise control has great potential, though it has not yet become commercially attractive, Instala .s where it has been properly used in HVAC systems for low-frequency noise control have shown it to be quite effective Figure 18-12 shows typical attenuation data for several different lengths of absorptive silencers and. compares these with active silencers. 18114 Other Types and Uses of Silencers There are also elbow silencers that effectively atten ate the noise with splitters, which turn the air acrody hamically to minimize system pressure drop. There ars {pecal an infer and fan discharge silencers including cone silencers and inlet box silencers, that minimi=e cerodynarmic eee effeess andl reance ReeGacahls ae 78.12 PLENUM CHAMBERS en used to smooth out eurbu- pair asit leaves the outlet see ors the ducted air distri= tion ofa fan and before ie eners th de di tition seem. of. buldingynenesat: chamber tially placed between the discharoe le and the main duct of thea - ir distribution syst Plenum chambers are oft lent airflow associated wit chambers are usually lined with acoustically absorbent material 1o reduce fan noise and other types of noise. Plenum chambers are usually large rectangular enclo- sures with an inlet and one or more outlet sections. The ‘main disadvantage of plenum chambers is that they re- guire a large volume to be effective, On the other hand, they can be designed to fit in odd spaces. —— 78.13 SOUND POWER DIVISION IN DUCT BRANCHES Where a duct branches into two or more separate ducts, the sound power contained in the incident sound waves in the main feeder duct is distributed be- tween the branches associated with the junction. Many physical and aerodynamic factors can influence how sound power is distributed among the branch duets, Absent any information that would permit as Sevsing these factors, the best estimate of sound power division is to divide the main trunk sound ower to each branch by the ratio ofthe area of that branch to the area of all branches (Equation 18-4) ‘This division of sound power is referred to 2s the ‘ranch sound power division, Duct branches can be Big noise generators branch area Diet (es area zl Branch attenuation = branchesee 544 CHAPTER 18 Octavebend 62125250 SPLspectrum 438 5053 = o—— © bitterance-0 | 5043-82 7 o—_ € | sesas-ses o 7 55 FIGURE 18-15 00 Lapeta-a0a. faves Difference =0 — 55 +3=58 1000 2000 49008000 5450S, Example from Figure 18-3 determining overall level by two-by-two decibel addition. Point souree Intensity ‘ x Spherical sur FIGURE 18-16 Point sound source radiation in free field. If there isa point sound source emitting sound in all directions equally as illustrated (in two dimensions) in Figure 18-16, then the total sound power is the sum ‘ofthe sound intensity times the area. The sound power level (PWL) in decibels is: PwL Os og 0 where § is the surface area J equ sou piterence=86 | 6oa+1=613 pat sour of 10 88423-0039 Ata spher ‘TABLE 18-7 es Standard accoustical reference quantities ‘easure _Engish Metric Power a) 102 W ow Inensty 9.280 10-10 Wim aa Pressure (Pa) 2.901% 10-"psi 2 10 newtons/m? : 47x10 ost 20yNIm* Bos es factor The sound pressure level (SPL) is a special case of : inensty level tease “ source SPL = 10- tog = 20- tog" es Pes reer Note that all the levels above are a ratio of the acousti> «al power, intensity, and pressure toa reference quantity rather than the quantity per se, These reference quant tes are given in Table 18-7, _At standard atmospheric conditions, IL and PWL- ate forall prt purposes, numeral equal in Eng ish units, 1819.2 Propagation of Sound Because sound presure level isa special ease of sound intensity level, the propagation of sound from a point source radiating in a spherical pattern can be general- ized by Equations 18-12(a) and (b),554 CHAPTER 18 Eye bolts em | — fp and bottom fr Qr werernoriamal boks ‘AL arith projecting ‘bushing to prevent steel to steel contact TE \ Precompression plate (5) hangers are precompresser \Z4960% of rated lone. Plate open when full load is appiled. (a) Double deflection neoprene henger Steel frame Minimum 1 V4sn. thick ~ neoprene element ‘with projecting fod isolation bushing Neoprene spring BD) cap with projecting BZ rod isolation bushi re d Hing fod can swing 50 before contacting resilent bushing () Spring and neoprene hanger FIGURE 18-24 Examples of isolation hangers. (Courtesy: Mason. Industries, Hauppauge, NY) es Magnitude, richter 5 FIGURE 18-25 earthquake catalogs web page.) the lateral force is used to determine the guesnONS Name some illumination quati i 161 expressed as numerical Malty Seton which can |) What are the factors determini F 62 tuminance? mining the selection of 3, Name the steps recommended 163 jection of illaminarice. by TESNA for the .4 Select the maintained illumin, 7 we tory. ance for a sewing 465 State the reasons why initial illumi ier portant design applications, sl 166 What isthe recommended illuminance for profes- sional football in an indoor stadium? 67 What is the Iumen’s output for a. general servi incandescent lamp if the voltage at the lamp socket is 5 percent below its rated voltage? 18 Is the ballast factor always lower than 1.02 469 What are two most important factors that make up the lamp operating factor (LOE)? 1630 What is the ceiling cavity ratio (CCR) for a ceiling recess-mounted fluorescent fixture? What is the affective ceiling reflectance if the base ceiling re- flectance is 80 percent? {611 What is the simplified approach in zonal cavity : method calculations? What variance can be expected? f 1622 Determine the coefficient of utilization ofa type 2 : indirect distribution incandescent luminaire in- i stalled in a room with RCR = 2, Pz = 80 percent, | p= 50 percent, pye = 20 percent. 161) For the luminaire in 16.12, but installed in aroom 1 with RCR = 10, pe = 30 percents Pr ue cent and py = 20 percent, whatistheCU. ‘KH What is the maintenance category fora ee with open top and bottom and with 65 Pe uplight? W645 IF the luminaire is installed in an ‘office building in a suburban environment, whatis the appropriate LDD factor with 2 12-month cleaning cycle? 1616 A spotlight is aimed at a bulletin board on a wall. ‘The light i 5 ft infront of the board. The center Of the board is 10 fe below the light. Ifthe maxi- ‘um candlepower of the light is 10,000 candela, based on rated lamp lumen, what isthe illumi- nanee at the center of the board? W647 What is the illuminance 4 fect below the eciling for a wall washing installation, using the lighting fixtures illustrated in Figure 16-10? The fixtures are mounted 3 from the wal and spaced on 4 centers 1618 What are the principal applications of the point method? 1619 The design project given in Section 16.4.4 describes ‘a practical lighting design project which started with a desired lighting concept, that is, to use indirect lighting at the two ends and down lighting at the center portion of the room. How is the size (wattage) calculated for the lamp in each luminaire? "The project may be assigned to individual stu- ddemts or a group of students consisting of two or three students on a team. Additional assignments may include (a) Alternative design concepts (b) Alternative illuminance level selection based ‘on the new method introduced by the hus nating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) as given in Section 16.3 (©) Graphic presentation of the design or designs in perspective ; (a) Precoet selection from actual manufactures catalogs and specifications of the luminaires496 (CHAPTER 7 VCP of 70 o higher is considered acceptable for sisual comfort. Reflected glare can cause a loss of visibility: A Tighting system with low reflected glare can be designed wwith the equivalent sphericad illumination (ESI) method, which requires specialized computer software, In gett ‘cal, rellected glare can be minimized by providing proper surface texture for the task and by controlling the frientation of the Inminous flux. 172.4 Architectural Lighting Needs Lighting is called on in many situations to enhance a chitectural form or detail, Early in the design phase of a project, the jahting specifier should try to determine {chat architectural attributes may require lighting rei: forcement. As the overall lighting design evolves, £00. sideration of these architectural lighting needs should take place concurrently, fostering a more integrated 80- Jution. Indirect light coves for ceiling illumination, re cessed wall slots to accent vertical surfaces, and conceal ment of a highlighting source within a column capital are a few common examples. In many cases, an actval laminaire may become the architectural lighting embellishment. Themed or deco rative luminaires in the form of chandeliers and sconces are often featured as focal points of architectural light ing in interior spaces. 17.2.5 Light Reinforcing Spatial Impressions {Ir has been clearly demonstrated through both research and practice that light plays an identifiable role in shap- ing human impressions, Although lighting’s support of the performance of visual tasks is of prime importance, its ability to either enhance or detract from the users" ex- perience cannot be overlooked. Examples of how the distribution, intensity, and ‘color of the light ean reinforce users’ impression of a space include these: + To create an impression of spaciousness, provide uniform wal lighting. + Tocreatean impression ofrelasation, create nonuni form light distributions, provide relatively low in: tensity, and emphasize peripheral light placement. + To create an impression of visual darity, provide bright, uniform light A conscious awareness ofthese factors wil help the lighting designer determine how and where 10 distrib- ate light in order to reinforce the desired impressions, ‘This use of light asa subjective infience can signifi- cantly enhance the user's experience of space, 17.2.6 Color For a better understanding of color, chromaticity, color rendering, and the use of color, the lighting designer Should refer to Section 5 of the reference volume of the TES Lighting Handbook. The terms chromaticity and ‘olor rendering ate often misused. To put it simply, chro ‘mariity refers to the color appearance of alight source, such as its color temperature, and color rendering refers to the ability ofthe light source to render colors of str- faces and objects as one would expect them to appear at the same color temperature. Both factors are important in finding the proper light source for a lighting clesign. 17.2.7 Systems Integration Lighting is but one ofthe many systems incorporated ine bing’ design. Suctural HVAC, fie rote thon plumbing and power distribution are xual im an seiy thebaccen of bul eovironment. The de Aigner mt loser consider the impact hat the Lighting ey have on teas other systems, and vice vers. Celing Canty confit between huninates and other systems ‘hequene oeaurence Code-dcated sprinkle spacings fan ideally ale the ucided placement of lighting auipment High energy consumption for bghting so: Ii ray fre the selection of ager than normal ie oodidontag unity alien increasing lt ei Thee we prc canbe facut quently omar on multidcpinary projec Abough sore conflec ia bubding seems sm avoidable a lose working lationship with member of cee digs Carel caine meio spac. Patod eign sewions ond. coordina Fe nis ts ale etc oe ea elles thal actualy mat Lucena terion and undetanding of ihe esher emcee ee paresis Fey ted cooing ea job 17.2.8 Energy Energy consumption ina lighting system should always) bbe a prime design consideration, Since most electricity is generated from the consumption of fossil fucls, the more fel is required to power a lighting system, the ‘more pollution is produced. As lighting energy con sumption goes up, the building owner or user must pay more to operate the system. The higher power re quirements may also affect both first and long-term ait conditioning, costs National, regional, and local legislation related to energy has increased dramatically over the past decade and ill continue 1 grow for the foreseeable tite lighting designer must become familiar with the90s PLPHC-1 Lighting Panelboard PROG-LI Energy Management"SUBE AND Visan NOMS IN MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL steams 554 'solation efficiency, 6 9% 4 Bo __0 % 7980 To” 00 97 30 20 20 10 Static deflection 8 30 Natural frequency, rem 8 ! 20 500 —| 600 10 700 05 00 100 200 300 © 500 ‘1000 2000 5000 Forcing frequency, -pm 8 8 H TO os ap le csle a 2 5 10 » 0 00 7 Forcing frequency, Hz @ FIGURE 18-21 Determining Isolation efficiency for a system with a single of degree of freedom. base, For the simple case the floor is modeled as asim-_of freedom changes the natural mode shapes and fre~ le spring and an effective mass of the floor, as shown in quencies of the structure. ‘For most situations encoun- igure 18-19(d). Analytica description ofa system with tered in practice 2 single degree of freedom is adequate two degrees of freedom, or any system with more than to specify ibraon isolation. However, there are cases ‘that can inadvertently lead to trouble, These often in= one degree of freedom, is beyond the scope of this chap- Hose such as. volve very flexible roof or floor structures. An experi> ter. In isolating a machine from a soft f . lightweight floor, the isolation springs must have 2 enced structural dynamics engineer is lesser spring constant than the base (floor). such cases. - ae eee eeof or floor structure bas many modes and nat- Some generalizations can be offered for complex ural frequencies of vibration. Adding a mass or Pring systems, but like any generalizations, they must be ap> ‘vith more than one degree plied judiciously. wih isolated mass to a structure STATE UNIVERSITY GeO) (GINEERING: ee EB a falFIGURE 17-9 Exercise in evaluating lighting expressi i tect e (oe (a) tes Bia eR 0 Ee (Design ribution, Considerations”), the and color of light all contribut response to an environment. — Tor caample, guests at 2 fie Fest Te £050 fe by eiling, recessed fluorescent POF WET no woul reading the mene bathe bution of ight world certainly notenhance ah Ty, of ee ‘and romance. Dimmel, porns ee amore appropriate reinforce would provide ie ee (a ‘ons in terms of form, pattern, orientation and locations: je ae = rie tmee oe [jaa «thor hand, dimming the iluminance over the dining area ‘vould require lighting a match to read the menu or to see What one i eating; this is actually the case in. some igh- priced restaurantsan example ofthe ote extreme. The IESNA Lighting Handtvok includes a com prehensive review of ight’ influence in shaping human Frood and impression. The designer should consult tis Source for further insight on using the lighting system to full advantage in creating, pleasant, psychologically appropriate environments498 CHAPTER T7 773 LIGHTING DESIGN DEVELOPMENT ‘Once the basic lighting design has been formulated and a lighting system sclected, itis necessary to apply the design concept throughout the entire space or building. Light ing lavouts and arrangements must satily a variety of re Quirements in order to fulfill the design concept. They thust deliver the determined levels of illuminance neces sary 10 support the performance ofthe space’s visual tasks ‘They must work harmoniously with the architecture and interior design so as to present an integrated, overall con cept, And they must create a luminous environment that appropriately reinforces the impressions intended ‘The most difficult of the designer's charges is sat ising all these nceds in a single, unified layout. More often than not, i will be necessary to examine a series of alternate arrangements for the lighting system’s vari ‘ous luminaire types in order to arrive at a desirable so lution, The composite design layout should be as seam: less and integrated as possible. 1731 Lighting Layout ‘The number of huminaites for a desired evel of visual per formance within space is determined using the calcula tion methods outlined in Chapter 16, Whether the goal isto provide uniform illumination throughout an entire space or within ona portion ofit, a lighting layout ean be developed to meet the objective. Two basie criteria are used to ensure uniform illumination across a defined work place or task surface—the principle of general area layout, and the ratio of spacing to mounting height. ‘The working area to be illuminated is divided into as many unit areas a the number of luminaires to be in- stalled, For example, ifcalculations show that a space re ‘quires eight luminaires, then the space is divided into ‘eight unit areas, and one luminaire is located at the cen: ter of each unit area, The divided areas should be as symmetrical to the luminaire distribution pattern as is practical. Figure 17-4(a) and (b) illustrates the principle involved. Ifthe objective isto illuminate only a portion of the space, then the working area to be illuminated is siill divided into unit areas accordingly. Figure 17-4(c) and (d) illustrates this principle __The general layout principle applies ro all lumi- naires with symmetrical flux distribution, There are, however, luminaires designed for asymmetrical distribu. tion where the luminous flux (lumens) is stronger (higher) in one direction than the other, such as wall ‘washers ot adjustable accent lights. In such cases the lor cation of luminaires is governed by tome distribution bimini 5 For uniform illumination, the spacing of the humi- naire must not exceed the spacing-to- mounting height ra- fio (SMHR) recommended by the manufacturer. The problem associated with a design that exceeds the econ: vended SMH is illustrated in Figure 17-4{) and (P), (ower illuminance) between. showing a relatively dim area the luminaires. Although most manufacturers furnish the jeal information in their JH with as part of the technic pes it can be visually estimated by not exceeding the angles between the maximum and 50 percent values of the eandlepower distribution curve provided in the pho- tometric data. The SMHR is greater (more spread out) for semi-indirect and totaly indirect luminaires. Narrow. team ditect distribution luminaires are normally selected. to highlight a localized area, and selecting them to light a lange space uniformly is inappropriate ible 17-1 provides general guidelines for deter mining the maximum SMHK of different classes of lami- naires, For example, the SMH of a general diffuse class df luminaite should not exceed 1.0, and that of an indirect disebution luminaire can be approximately 1.25. In de- Sign applications, if the lumen output and class of dist bation of luminaires. are properiy selected, the actual SMH for most highly demanding visual performance spaces, sich as classrooms, offices, and retail stores, is nor mally lower than the maximum SMH required. When- fever the manuficturer’s photometric test report for the specific SMHR is availabe, the designer should consult it. 17.3.2 Lighting Expressions ‘The arrangement or organization of a lighting system's layout will be a factor in an occupant’s perception of a spice. According to William Lam, the expression of a lighting system may be described as any of the following; 1. Newiral. The lighting system is deemphasized, and the lighting elements do not draw the special atten tion of the occupants oF visitors to the spa Expresive. The lighting system is designed to har- ‘monize with, supplement, or enhance t tural expressions in the space, eee ‘The lighting system dominates. the pace, overpowering most other elements. Confused (disorganized). The lighting system is dis: orderly, either in its configuration or in its relation to other elements in the space. In this case, ighting becomes liability of the entie design. the architec~ For example, 3 sal square luminaire intalled atthe center of the ceiling of a square room is obviously neu trl large square could be expressive, and « square X of ceiling dimensions would be dominant, These de- signs are illustrated in Figure 17-5,NOISE AND Vinrarions IN MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL StstEms. 543 speakers, sprinklers, ete, These eleme: duce the acoustical transmission | providing flanking paths, Estimating the noise transmi ansmitted the to.a room is a guess, at best, using equal oe eens able data and experience. Experience indiana rn. best to derateeciling transmission loss daw by 2 on 4B for design use. To estimate the sound Lack aw room associated with sound transmission threagh th ceiling, the sound power levels in the celine one must be reduced by the transmission loss ofthe eeling stem before converting from sound power lees to corresponding sound pressure levels in the room, In the absence of a recognized test standard, the transmission jos velucsin Table 18-Gcusybeued, | nts significantly re- oss ofthe celing by a 78.18 ADDING DECIBEL QUANTITIES A decibel, abbreviated dB, is ten times the common logarithm of a quantity dB = 10 log X (8-7) where Xisa quantity we wish to [Link]. For example, 10 log 10° = 60 dB. More generally, 10 log 10° = 102. If A= 10 log X and B = 10 log ¥, how do we ‘add Xand Y and express the result as a decibel, 10 log, (X + 1)? Figure 18-14 shows a simple method. If Xis greater than or equal to ¥, take the difference (r- ¥) and enter the chart in Figure 18-14 on the bottom scale at this value; then read on the top scale the inerement to be added to the larger of the rye Guantiics (3). For example, X= [Link] and Y — 58 db, Difference is 2. Read above and we get 21s there fore 60 + 2.1 = 62.1 dB sry cog aie a ea, 10 Woe 2+ 10 log X= 10 log X * 3 ‘Adding two equal oie tel quantities results in a decibel quately sha is 3 reser than either ofthe two being added To geen, ize this, adding » equal decibels X gives 10 log Tog n Bor quick reference, 3 10log3= 48 10 log 6 = 78 10 log 1 10 log 2 = 101085 =7 10 log 8 =9 10 log1 = 0 10 log 4 = 6 10 log 7 = 8.5 : [Add to larger of two decibel quantities 2h 8 AE 1 os Pepe tte ey neon wo desl ans ng aed FIGURE 18-14 Addition of two decibel quantities. Note that 10 log 4 = 10 log 2 + 3, = log 2 + 3, 10 log 6 = 10 log 3+ 3,10 log 10 = 10 log 5 + 3. ’ iz Example 18-7 Determine the overall dB level from the octave band spectrum shown on the NC curve (Figure 18-3). Use the chart in Figure 18-14, taking two levels at a time, This is illustrated in Figure 18-15. As a mat ter of convenience, the octave levels are arranged in de- scending order, However, it is not necessary to add the decibel values in any particular order. Je 18.19 SOUND PRESSURE, SOUND POWER, AND SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL Sound pressure, sound power, and sound intensity level are the basic quantities of acoustics, so it is best to in troduce them at this 18.191 Definition of Quantities Sound! intensity level (IL), sound power level (PWI), and sound pressure level (SPL) are decibel quantities all ar avhich relate to acoustical power, Sound intensity (1) or function of mean squace ofthe sound pressure (7?) the density of air (p), and the speed of sound ()- 1-2 as-8) ve Intensity level (IL) is defined as: r I= Wolo as)ta poo 20 7 50 joal CU for a 3lamp, T8 fvorescent ngs parsboe owvers Ses 10 soa oe eee | 9 | 987 087 087 | 08 085 oss [os os: om 1 | 981 078 076] a7 07 o7 for 72 070 2 | 075 070 68 | 073 069 oss /ose 063 ost 3 | 969 063 058 | 068 os 057/060 056 O52 4 | 068 058 051 | 062 055 050 |084 049 046 5 | 069 051 045 | 058 050 oat loss 044 040 8 | 055 04s 040 | 083 045 040 |048 039 0.95. 7 | 981 oa 038 | 060 041 096/040 035 o3t FIGURE 16-4 (CONTINUED) 8 | $4 038 032) 049 029 osz/osr os 028 4 929 | 043 Das 03a ceendenarunaton tienen 8 [ft $8 38/88 ER Se lek ER oe luminaites, (Courtesy: luminating Engineering Society of North America, New ork, NY) maintained illuminance B, 1 ‘my OF simply, £). The relation between both of these and the initial illuminance is E= EX ULF F, x CU/A) X LE = [(@ x LOF x CU/A)] x LLE (16-7) where nitial illuminance, fe (Ix) F = rated lamp lumens published by manufacturer ictual lumens produced by the lamps under field conditions E = maintained illuminance, fe (Ix) sq ft (sq m) lamp operating factor coefficient of utilization light loss factor Light Loss Factor Cament practice for calculating light loss Factorinchudes all causes affecting luminous output, from field condi tions to depreciation. More appropriately, these causes should be split into two groups: those that cause varia tionsat the start of usage and those that cause luminous efficiency to drop over time. The first group includes VE-TR, BE, and PE, which have been renamed amp oP trating factors (LOB). This applies to inital illuminance Second group, which can be truly named light loss ie ‘or(LLE), shall include only the following factors LLE = LED x LDD x LBO x RSDD (16-8) Where LID) = Jamp lumen depreciation factor LDD = luminaire dirty depreciation fae LBO = lamp burnout factor ciation factor RSDD = room surface ditty depr Pits fctors, only LD and LDD are of mer thting designers have often neglected 1 Tne designers ha redictable. When 3 cither insignificant oF UMP! the environment is extremely dirty, as in industries with heavy smokestacks, the designer should refer ro the IESNA Lighting Handbook for recommended values on, RSDD, otherwise, RSDD = 1 is always assumed, Un- less the system is for large open spaces where group re lamping* is the practice, the lamp burnout (1 tor is also neglected, i., LBO = 1. According calculation for LLF may be simplified to LE LLD x LDD. (16-9) The lamp lumen depreciation (LLD) is determined by selecting a percentage of the rated lite of the lamp for ‘which the lamps are expected to operate efiienty. Nor mally the mean lumeas or the lumens output at 70 per cent of rated life is used. For example, if a fluorescent lamp is rated tor 12,000 hours (based on § hours/start), the lumen’ output at 8400 hours tothe rated lumen of the lamp in percent will determine the LLD factor. The LLD characteristics of various types of lamps are foond in Chapter 15, but also can be found from Figure 16-8 The luminaire diet depreciation (DD) values for various types of luminaires are shown in Figure 16-6. According to TESNA, there are six maintenance cate- gories based on the construction of the luminaires, of which five categories (I, Il, IIL, 1V, V) are included in this figure “Atroopheric conditions are divided into five cate gories: very clean, clean, medium, dirty, and very dirty For commercial and institutional lighting applications, categories Land TT are normally selected. The LDD also depends on how offen the luminaires being leaned and on the maintenance program used, For design purposes, sax month or one-year cleaning cycle is normally used. croup relampingisamaiaenanc procedure when limps a a atone dine regardless of whether ee lamps ng Ths sully done at 5 0 $5 penn of ar erred lamp ile. The purpose so save te cost of abor in hhard-to-servce locations.534 © CHAPTER 10 ; s ferent capabilities and analyzing duetbore noise is to begin with the supply fren ts, Forward sat ‘Fork through the duct system clement - erly in the 1 frequency (32: ‘ement through the terminus (grille) to the o¢cuPY genet acterized 38 space of interest. In systems where flow- generat ore sige wise is not a concern, usually it is necessary t0 ana: ive area Iyze only the shortest duct path to an occupied space a ale al Tfsound to this nearest space is within the criterion, it aes is usually not necessary to analyze rooms further ae . is suey uct run, However, f flow velocities are" WA | high enough to generate significant noise, a more seine es railed analysis isin order, Terminal units can be no in low-velocity systems. . Figure 18-9 illustrates the evaluation of sound i a duct element. The attenuation of entering soundis re and often has a more prominent “duced by the attenuation of the element, The generated due to blade pass frequency. eal sound is determined, and the two arc combined as the quency is usually within the i ‘sound entering the next element in line. This procedure range. That makes this type of fan | SS Eta sheet through the terminus of che duct run, is usually done by octave band at least from 125 Hz through Fan Blade Pass Frequency 4000 Hz, and preferably includes the 63 Hz octave band, Analsis i offen limited to the 125 Hz octave band at the low end because ofa lack of good sound data to work with. Fans generally have a signature noise blade pass frequency (B). It is de tion 18-2. RPM X number of : 60. BAH) = ‘18.9.2 Fans ee pass frequency is important be =e seaaareat nest pete te shu ne Fans are & major source of noise. In order of increasing primary feqaccy cone he common peso fas Henisoung howe x low. (See Section 6.5 in Chapter 6 for fan The best source 31 “ 1c best source of sound data design features and configurations.) the equipment, ASHRAE aE + Propeloe: Uned in applicaions requiring move: yauadfegare ce Sees | Sas caning coi and song omen, controlling noise, for fans to opera Contrifugnt: The workhorse of the HVAC gystem. ee ee Suitable for a wide range of applications and mum or peak efficiency, (See Section ngeonditions, Oper: discussions 3 sngcondtions, Difcrentbladetpesprovide dif’ peak poiny ou fs ad en ‘Sound from “AAA Ae es Duct omen FIGURE 18-9 ‘Analysis of sound In a duct element. SeLucHnine Desicn 515. SCHEME A. For uniformity within the entire area, the four rows of luminaires are more or less spaced evenly on the celling InaNs ditection and at the front of each workstation in an EW direction. Note that some of the luminaires are located directly above the 5fthigh partitions, which is acceptable. This scheme provides a neutral ‘expression and satisfactory ‘llumination. SCHEME B With this scheme, the luminaires are moved within the workstation partition lines, having two luminaires inthe front of each workstation and no luminaires in the corridor. total of 1 luminaires are used, resulting in 220 percent reduction in equipment ‘over scheme A. However, lighting in the workstations and the overall ‘space is spotty. This schedule isnot a desirable solution. SCHEME C In lew of locating the luminaires shown in scheme A, the second row of luminaires ismoved closer to the first 0%, and the third row closer to the fourth row. This reduces the illuminance level in the corridor and increases the illuminance level \within the workstations to about 70 fc which isa more desirable level for drafting tasks. This scheme Is preferred,772 DESIGN CONST DERATIONS 4721 Visual Performance ATighting design is a plan to acl hieve the visual pe jeance desired for the visual ta oa sk oF tasks for which ghting system is to be used. Deternin leary the types of visual tasks tobe performed ing aie is fundamental to good design, The designe should sek this information from the user or key et sion makers on the project, Also, itis often usefil to ear. seya user's existing facility. Once these tasks are lend fed, level of visual performance can be established that in keeping with user's needs and expectations ] pe associated 17.2.2 Selection of illuminance Clupter 16 gives calculations of illumination for visual ask categories and the criteria for selecting illuminance, icine Desicn 495 taking into account visual display, the age of the ob- servers, the speed and accuracy required for the task, and the reflectance of the task and its background. Fur, ther refinements should take ino account other inf Encing factors, such as the duration of the task, the in ‘erfacing of adjacent tasks in the space, and othe? spatial, architectural, structural, and mechanical relationships. Specific fuminance ratios for various applications 48 offices, educational facilites, institutions, indus- trial arcas, and residences ean be found in the IES Light ing Handbook. In general, « higher luminance ratio (contrast) is desired between the task and its immediate background for better visibility and visual acuity. (See Figure 17-2.) However, a low luminance ratio is actu ally mote desirable for visual comfort. Good lighting design tries to balance these conflicting criteria and ar rive at appropriate solutions, 17.2.3 Visual Comfort Visual comfort is achieved when there is no prolonged Visual sensation due to excessively high Iuminances within the visual field. One measure of visual comfort is the visual comfort probability (VCP) of a lighted space due to either daylight or an interior lighting system. A. Cs @) ® Foure 7-2 ‘objec task) is seen by its color, 2.0: and luminance against its ‘elt@und. When there is more anl8stin luminance, as in (b) or, iaabetter. with less contrast, a9 ald, and less difference in ‘tye “uty s poorer,538 CHAPTER 18 come in stock sizes. Often more than one silencer is re: quired in parallel to provide the required face area. To achieve this, several standard silencers are assembled: into a bank of silencers. frample 18-5 A 24 in, x 24 in, rectangular duct branches into a 24 in. * 6 in, duct and a 24 in. X 18 in duct, What is the sound power split between the two branches? 2x6 6 branch: Atenation = 10 o 24 x 6 br roles (22*8) 6a (24x 18) 24 x 18 brinch: Atenuition = T0og (28) 18 branch: At 1o og (2418) -1208 Generally the flow-generated noise is much less than the entering ductborne noise and does not con: tribute to the silenced noise level on the quiet side of the silencer. However, flow-generated noise should be eval uated if static pressure drop across the silencer exceeds 0.35 in, water gauge. FIGURE 18-10 Typical duct silencers. (a) Rectangular configuration, (b) short tubular type silencer, (¢ long tubular duct size silencer. 18.1.2 Reactive Silencers Reactive silencers are the type used on moror vehicles, There are also applications for this kind of silencer in HIVAC systems, but they are somewhat specialized, ‘A reactive silencer (unlike an absorptive silencer) usually contains no fiberglass or other absorptive media. ‘This avoids the problem of entrapping contaminants from the airstream, Attenuation is achieved by a series ‘of tuned cells that resonate at certain frequencies and in tloing so absorb energy.* The outside physical appear- ance of reactive silencers is similar to that of absorptive Silencers. Because of tuning, broadband attenuation is tore difficult to achieve with reactive silencers than ‘vith absorptive silencers, Greater lengths may be re- {guited to achieve similar attenuation. Airflow generally increases the attenuation of reactive silencers. 18:13 Active Silencers Active duct silencers are very effective in reducing noise at lower frequencies by producing sound waves that can- cel the unwanted sound waves. Figure 18-11 shows a schematic of an active silencer. An input microphone ‘measures the noise in the duct and feeds it to the con- troller. The controller isa digital computer that changes the phase of the sound so thar it is opposite the input sound and plays it back into the duct. The level and phase of the canceling sound is adjusted by the controller 30 that it just cancels the undesirable sound. Because the components of the system are mounted outside the duct, there is no pressure loss or generated noise. Performance is limited, however, by the presence of excessive turbu- lence in the airflow detected by the microphones, *These are know as Helmboltz resonators Sen csliag =) Reduced tel sound Input ‘microphone ‘ Controller + Eror Loudspeaker microphone FIGURE 18-1) ‘Schematic of an active noise control silencer showing cancellation of unwanted sound. sh hi ti fe qi xeo —. se rent FIGURE 18-22 Two degrees of feedom with vertical displacement and rocking. As long as the natural frequency of the isolation. system is considerably lower than the natural fre quency of the floor, one degree of freedom will gencrally be adequate; ic, the forcing frequency is at least 3 times the natural frequency for a single degree of freedom system, ® Avoid natural frequency ratios (ie., natural fre ‘quency with a single degree of freedom to floor natural frequency) that are close to one. If the floor is “soft,” the isolation system must be “softer.” If very soft floors are involved, and if the installed ‘equipment is motion sensitive, get help from an expert. It is possible, with lightweight construe: ‘Bion, that the dynamic behavior ofthe entire build ing may be involved 8.23 VIBRATION ISOLATORS tion isolators come in all sizes and shapes. Figure 3 illustrates some of the common types. Figure 18-23(a) is « typical neoprene wafile pad. ed in noneriical applications where small static tions are required. Ic is most effective in isolation of sound. The cxample shows two pads in aisteel shim between to get more deilection 18-23(b) shows a double deflection neo It fictions much like the wate pad, but to provide greater deletion Figure 18-23{c) isa typical unhoused freestanding spring, The acoustical pad on the bottom is to minimize critureboone nese aswell a6 0 Keep the MOU from Slipping. Springs ofthis type generally require sideways nt to avoid horizontal motion such as is shown in. sare 180) =F Figure 18-23(d) is a restrained spring mount. Ver- ses on ste provide the neat le tabu mtd ota ge movin snot po ble. Horizontal motion is also restrained. Such a mount Salas neoprene pat holt suctreorme pow Figure 18-23(e) is « housed spring that functions much like the restrained mount in providing for isolation ‘motion, but not motion beyond this in any direction, Note that al the mounts in Figure 18-23 provide 4: means of attaching to the equipment to be isolated, Most also provide a means of adjustment so that the load can be balanced out over several mounts Figure 18-24 illustrates ns0 isolation hangers fune- tionally typical of a wide variety of isolation hangers These are most often used in isolating ceiling systems, gure 18-24(a) is a typical neoprene isolation hanger. Its primary function isto minimize transmission of structureborne sound. Figure 18-24(b) is typical of 4 wide varity of spring hangers. It has a neoprene pad for structureborne sound. Similar hangers are available with only a spring, These hangers are used for isolating ceiling systems in critical situations and for isolating ducts, pipe, conduits, hanging ait handling tnits, VAV boxes, and virtually anything thar must be hung, They are available with different spring constants for a wide range of loads. The isolation efficiency is the same as for bottom mounts 18.24 SEISMIC VIBRATION CONTROL AND RESTRAINT The intent of this section is not to lead the reader to seismic design but to introduce some of the considers: tions in building planning. The objective of seismic re= straine isto limit the motions of equipment that can oc ‘cur during a seismic event so that dynamie loads and ‘motions that would occur in unrestrained vibration-iso- lated equipment cannot happen. At the same time, seis ine Festraint must allow motions that are necessary for effective vibration isolation under normal nonselsmic operating conditions. Because seismic isolation is im- Portant for life safety, seismic design has been codified by structural engineers2, Thesum of the deviations ns at all 16 f test curve below the: contour shal = ‘This is an average deviation of 3 Fquencies of the Inorexceed 32d This is illustrated in Fi STC contour is thus adjusted ( sTCvaluc is read from the ve as the TL value correspondin : “sponding to the interse, STCcontour and the 500-Hitrequenss ee ote ample, the STC value (87) is pow tal deviation below the contour, ss PY the 82 dB to- re 18-13(b), wh, Cinimtegral decibels), te ecbels, the tical scale ofthe ters 18.212 Field Sound Transmi Class (FSTC) = he FSTC is determined exactly the same as§ the same reference contour and criteria we above the exception that STCis performed in alaboratery sad n wed ina laboratory and FSTC is performed in the field on an actual wal cl ation. The BSIGis te be petfarmed fp acvordanee wt an The performed in accordance with 18.213 Noise Isolation Class (NIC) Noise isolation class (NIC) differs from sound transmis sion class (STC) in that, as explained in Section 18.17, NIC also considers the acoustical absorption in the re ceiving room and the area of wall common to the nwo rooms. The greater the acoustical absorption (A) in the receiving room, the lower the transmitted sound level in the room. The greater the wall area (S,) common to the ‘vo rooms, the more sound power is transmitted. 18.214 Laboratory versus Field Transmission Loss ‘Another facet of NIC and STC is field versus laboratory measures and what this comparison tells us about the mount of acoustical energy that is transmitted through a partition relative to the amount chat is eansmitiss 0 other paths (Le., lanking paths). In the laboratirys tests are very carefal to seal every flanking PO s js transfe 1 receivin the acoustical energy that is transferred to flanking paths room is through the partion and not flanking ath. : : afield 3 dB less than the labo~ ss js reaching the re~ ceiving room by flanking paths 95 tions ESTO, itself Iris not unusual to find ET) sheet laborarory Te- measures that are 5 AB or more lee per se is the same in transmission loss (FTL) ratory TL means that as much enerE ~ rumen 19 IIECHIANICAL AND ELECIRICAL SYSTEMS 34 sults for the same py \¢ same partition design. Note: Do not spec ify STC in specifications if PSTC is intended. ; _ The example in Figure 18-13, while nota typical One, illustrates the axiom that effective acoustical isola tion in the field is a ‘manship as design. While partitions that a designer may draw on paper are perfect for the occasion, workman- ship is ulti least as much a matter of work ately the deciding factor. A second observation from considerable experi- cence with acoustical transmission loss and STC and NIC is that use of STC and NIC alone can often be mislead ing. For the types of partitions in question here, low frequency transmission of sound is often the limiting factor in determining STC and NIC, as is illustrated in Figure 18-13(b). Low-frequency sound isolation (at tenuation) usually requires special treatment. 18.215 Composite Walls Where the transmitting wall is composed of sections with different TL characteristics, the nominal TL of the composite wall is given by Ggtas testa (8-16) TL = 10 log where §;is the area of wall sections of different compo- sition and 7, is the transmission coefficient of the wall section, defined as 1 1,=10 0 (8-47) and ‘TL; is the corresponding transmission loss, 18.22 ISOLATION OF MECHANICAL VIBRATION Tn building structure design the usual concerns are for dead load and live load. These are both gravitational forces, Dead load is the weight of the stracture alone. Live load, a misnomer, s the “dead” weight of machin ery, people, bookcases, etc, that sits on the struenure, A thied loading condition is dynamic loading, resulting in dynamic motion of a building. Dynamic loading may be from an external force, such [Link] or an Ir may also be largely localized motion, as in the: vein= ity of a mechanical equipment room. Tn buildings there are two primary concerns re garding isolation of vibration. The first is isolating Equipment so that vibrations generated by machine#y ‘and other dynamic loads are not462 CHAPTER 15, ® FIGURE 15-18, {a) Light track isa very flexible lighting system. It can, accommodate a variety of light sources and luminaires. (Source: IES Lighting Handbook ) (b) A fiber optic lighting system provides an illuminated outline of an amphitheater in Lake Eola, Florida. tis an effective way to decorate and identify a structure. (Source: Fiberstar, Fremont, CA.) Tota! interna reflection (1) peg J So7 Reet wat ian ee i basmati watt ee hy a (a) An FIGURE 15-19 Light pipe consists ofa concentrated light Source and a prism light Quide (PLG). When light enters the interface between the transparent material and its prismatic boundary interface, light wil either refract or totaly intemal reflect (Tik) depending on the angle of Incidence. This property sillustrated in (a); (b) and (c), ilustrate the construction of some TIR units. (Courtesy: ‘UR Systems LTD, Burnaby, B.C. Canada.) O) a —Qegp ee ayINotse AND VIBRATIONS IN MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SrsTEMs 529 TABLE 18-3 Criteria for background noise levels in unoccupied spaces Occupancy Use Range of Range of ries Ei oes -aapiationss — ‘vate Residences a = ‘era ‘Apartments: 30-35 25-30 Hotels/motels: 340 30-35, nde esis sates Meeting/banquet roams: paid 30-35 Halls/coridors/lobbies on 30-35 Service/support areas: 6 35-40 Offices: 45-50 40-45, conference rons was 0 Prva 2 330 Open-plan areas = 30-35, Suances cra — 25-40 Pubic eruation io Hospitals/ctinics: oe 40-45 vrards x 530 Jperating ror # — betes oe 530 Comidors: a a pubcare ae 303s curches — ia ‘Schools: ae gi ce oom em oe a 2 ian womes eS courtooms 20 Cetmate heaters 303 reveurats os Concer and rectal als tran feeordng stdlos a0 m8 TWstudios Soar ASTRA HandbOOK. 18.5.2 Room Criteria (RC) vod remains the most used, other ethos have been proposed for speciation and tation of noise in buildings. One alternative St 2° ccna room eriteria (RC), eis shown in the APB vnn Vilemes ofthe ASHRAE Handbook for 1995 208 Although the NC meth liter. "The method ext ency range down tet. The method ends the frequen al svhere one has the ments; but it is of data and theory encics. into the 16 and 32 Ha octave bands able for evaluating, an existing Pace ‘inury of appropriate noise measin litle valu in design, since the available do not adequately extend to these lowes BSA 18.5.3 Guidelines for Speech Interference “Another useful ctterion is the voce level required for ‘bee to-face communication in the presence of back: nel noise, Figure 184 provides some guidelines for Bevninal speech interference levels that can be wsed t0 judge suitability for speech communication, For ex ve, as mentioned previously, if we havea background level of 60 dBA, we cnconmanices ie aoa distance of approximately 6 70. eee aed and at a distance off, we would have to speak with a raised voice o be understood: ashould be studied to understan petition” is pre: ighting design Viewing conditions. Key views and site should be examined te impact of a lighting strategy f id what visual “com: inted to the development of a to the building © determine the Distant drive-by, and local pedestrian views ve all beiniportant Pedestrian views could ncent prop pertics. is important to keep in mind le impact of a lighting system on neigh: >perties, Excessive spill light or perceived ghitime “sky glow" is to be avoided in most ar cas. This is an especially sensitive issue in residen | communities, boring p Exterior building lighting equip. ment may have to be integrated into new or exist al codes or ordinan Some regions and locales have ordinances in force that limit the extent of ex: rior lighting for anything beyond safety and se curity. The designer must research these before starting work Bi he designer must establish budget guide- nes with the client or owner before proceeding so ime is not wasted studying unaffordable con s. Often, exterior lighting is one of the first ‘ems subject to cutbacks should a project be over 7.7.2 Lighting System Selection ‘A wide variety of light sources and equipment are avail able for cxtcrior environments. Design concerns for building and site lighting will gover the selection of the appropriate system. ation of life, efficiency, size, cost, and color. Chapter 15 1¢s of each type of source be the deci details the important attribut Tn illuminating building facades, color may ‘olor and texture of the facade materi a tically and attractively as als should be rendered as reali possible, Whenever practical, the desi duct on-site or lab test mockups to i jgner should con Jealize the match the material being lighted. the source and tenes between Landscape should also be illumi cn source, Lvvally metal halide of halogen isthe lamp of ee, since i diam distorts the plant — ‘Compact fluorescent is since high-pressure s0* "5 natural appearance: also a good option in warm climates, eh Sine aminaies 10 full he bghting des eal part of the process. Buin critical pity are available ina variety Of concept i th floodlights and accent light ee UGHTING Desion 511 distributions and intensities. The precise control of light may be critical if only selected areas of a building or building features are to be illuminated, as is shown in Figure 17-16. Equipment size and mounting may di tate what styles can be used. The daytime appearance of the luminaire could be important if it is outwardly vis: ble It shouldbe reviewed with bo the architect and the owner. Landscape lighting equipment should be as dis- creet as is reasonably possible, since it is normally in plain view of the pedestrian. Glare to passersby should be minimized through the use of louvers or shields. Luminaire selection should place a great deal of emphasis on long-term sustainability as well as the ap propriateness of the design. Equipment of poor quality and workmanship will quickly fail in the harsh outdoor environment, leading to a breakdown of the lighting design concept. Accessibility for relamping and routine maintenance is of prime concern. Safeguards against ve- hicular and pedestrian damage may be necessary in FIGURE 17-16 Precise control of floodiight distributions can be Important when the designdemands varyingthe gradient of light across surface or the minimization of spilllight onto adjacent facades. (Courtesy: HOK. St Louis, MO.)lectcighting systems area relat opment in the history of the built envi ud ac, Stsan bildngs were generally long ant nance a 17.61 Light and Thermal Balance As indicated in ‘Table 14-1, solar heat gain through a clear glass window ean be as much as 250 btuh/sq ft (2.800 KJ/m), with a luminous fhax of 1000 to 10,000 Ii per square foot. The extreme amount of heat gain is fap wet during cold weather, but a liability during hot weather. With solar control devices and innovative ar chiectaral design, the effect of solar heat gain can be tainimized while the desirable level of daylight is re tained, In climates where substantial hearing is required, the benefit of daylight can be evaluated between the so lar heat gain and the conducted heat loss, The complex ty of the lighting and thermal balance of building sys is addressed in Sections 1.8 and 1.9 of Chapter 1 In addition to direct sunlight, which varies with sun's position and orientation, the sky provides an Excellent source of relatively constant and uniform day Tight. Three conditions must be taken into account in Aesigning for daylight: Light from an overeast sky Light from a clear sky + Light froma clear sky plus direct sunlight Light reflected from the proud can also be anim Characteristics of the ground plane surrounding {Ne building will vary (white conerete; midreflestances © Dal, low reflectance), typically about 5 ro 15 percent ot aylight will eome from this source. Or exposes N° fasing the sin, reflected daytight may account FOr = ground: reflected lights normally directed itis best utilized for lighting the interior part of a room. ‘The amount of daylight available is dificul to pre- dtict, si varies from hour to hour. Thus it must be sup- plemented by an equivalent interior lighting system. Figure 17-14 shows a daylie space where s recessed dowalighting is controlled by a photocell. Veil- Ing reflections from daylight can eause discomfort due 1 glare. A good design should provide glare control de- vices, stich as blinds and exterior or interior shades. 17.6.2 Factors to Consider in Designing, for Daylight In designing for daylight, one should take note of the following factors: = Daylight is a dynamic source of light, varying in both position and intensity. External shading due to landscaping, the configu- ration of the building, and nearby structures must be considered. Proper interior and exterior controls of daylight should be provided, ‘Attention must be paid to glare from windows and. When combined with electric light sources, day- light may alter the rendering of colors in the inte- rior of a building. The design must account for the interfacing of daylighting with interior lighting. FIGURE 17-1 ‘A daylit dining space includes supplemental recessed ‘downlighting, which is controlled through a dimming, system bya photocell. This helps maximize the enerdy cfficiency of the daylighting system. (Courtesy: HOK, St. Louls, MO.)494 CHAPTER 17 Design considerations ‘© Determine user's needs and preterences — light source, Equipment, and maintenance © Analyze the psychological aspect ‘of lighting © Dotermine the space and functions @ Evaluate the visual tasks and sheet target illuminances © Understanding of architectural fequirements — features, finishes, ‘olor, display, and expressions ‘© Goordination with daylighting © Determine the light source, color temperature, and color rendering requirements ‘© Determine the security concerns. Preliminary cast analysis to establish budget © Determine the energy and environmental concerns © Review code requirements — building and electrical Additional design issues © Cost refinement ‘© Propare the lighting layout — coorainating with interiors, furnishings, end other building systems. Interface with electrical gstrbution ane auxiliary electrical systems. ‘© Preliminary selection of products Additional design issues © Finalize cost © Finalize controls Final checking for code compliances © Coordinate with electrical wiring plans ‘© Final selection of fitures and controls, Programming and concepts |__| @ Analysis of user's needs © Design approaches: © Concept development © Project guidelines ‘Schematic design ‘© Mockup of lighting effects Preliminary budget © Concepts presentation Design development © Development of deta Luminaire selection © Lighting and controls plan Construction documents © Detail drawings Control plan and schedule Lighting fixture schedule © Specifications Activities and issues ‘© Review shop drawing ‘© Fioid observations and reports Prepare punch lists Prepare final acceptance reports © Review operating manuals ‘© Prepare postoccupancy analysis FIGURE 17-1 Constructo ‘Administration ¢ Se noataion ® Conaiweton observations & Postoceupanoy evaluation Lighting design flow diagram and checklist. (Based on IESNA recommended procedure.)ceiling cavity height, ft (m) room cavity height, fe (m) dy, = floor cavity height, fe (m) bample 16.7 A room is yg to be 2.0, 7.0, and 2 20 fe by 25 fe with fhe, yy and fe, respectively. Find the cavity From Equation 16-5 PAR = 2 x (20 + 25)/20 x From Equation 16-6a, CCR. 18 = 25 0.18 x 2.0 =0.9 5X 018 x7.0 5 X018 x 2.5 From Equation 16-6b, RCR 15 113 Step 2: Select the base reflectances ‘The surfice re flectances of the ceiling, walls, From Equation 16-6e, ECR. s of the c and floor greatly affect the coefficient of utilization ofa lighting installation, Although reflectance values may not be known during the initial design of the space, the designer must make a reasonable assumption or an educated guess. In general, unless otherwise specified: As regards ceiling reflectance (R,), assume a white ceiling having 70 to 80 percent base reflectance, unless otherwise given. + For all reflec ice (Ry), assume 50 percent base reflectance for medium to light-colored wall 20-30 percent for dark wood paneling, and 60-70 percent for white walls With respect to floor reflectance (R,), normally use 20 percent base reflectance for the combination of furniture and floor, Use 10 percent for dark floor finishes and 30 percent for light floor finishes. Siep 3: Determine the effective reflectances Effective ceiling reflectance (pq). As illustrated in Figure 16-1, when lighting fixtures are mounted. 4 certain distance below the ceiling, the upper portion of the wall between the ceiling and the fistuces is, in effect, an extension of the ceiling. ‘Thus, the effective reflectance of the ceiling is the combined reflectances of both the ceiling and te §pper wal. For surface- or recess-mournted Tht ing installation (CCR = 0), Pais of cours Oe same as the base ceiling reflectance: ‘Table omy ites effective ceiling or floor reflectances <6 lated from given base eciling and floor 4. Bectances. Ae fective walt reflectance (Py). The atte “tance is numerically equal tthe Base + fectince (Py, = Ry) iver ane (pg The tote ar fletance for CU tables published by the 8 "8 fixture manufacturers is standardize CALCULATIONS OF ILLAMINATION 473 nt. Effective floor reflectances other than t shall be modified by a multiplier. The impact of the effective floor reflectance is less sig nificant than that of the effective ceiling, re- flectance, In design practice, an eflective floor re- flectance in the 10-30 percent range is often selected. Table 16-9 provides the multipliers re- quired from the values given for a 20 percent floor in a photometric report. The multiplier varies from 1.1 for 30 percent effective floor re- Alectance for large spaces to 1.0 for zero percent reflectance for small spaces. For extremely light- colored floors, the multiplier may be extrapo- lated from these data Step4:Determinethe CU _Use the mannfacturer’s pho- tometric data and the previously caleulated wales RCC, Piss Po» and py to determine CU. Photometrics normally include data on the CU of the luminaire. The latter data are presented in a tabular format so that the designer can choose between the room cavity ratio (RCR), effective ceiling reflectances (80, 70, and 50 percent), wal reflectances (70, 50, and 30 percent), and effective floor reflectance (20 percent) only. A typical CU table for a fluorescent luminaire is shown in Figure 16-2, Example 16.8 Determine the specific CU for the lumi- naire with its CU data shown in Figure 16-2 installed in a room with an effective floor reflectance (p,) of 20 per- cent, an eflectve ceiling reflectance (p,) of 70 percent, and 2 wall reflectance (py) of 30 percent. The room con: figuration is such that its ROR is 2.5. From Figure 16-2, the CU for 70 percent ceiling, 30 percent wall, anc RCR = 2is 61 pereent with RCR the CU is 54 percent. Thus, by interpolation, with 2.5, the CU is 87.5 percent, Example 16.9 Using the same luminaire in Example 16.8, calculate the CU of a lighting design for a small workshop. Use the following data + Room dimensions: length, 20 fe width, 15-ft ceil ing hight, 11 ft + Room finishes: base ceiling = 80 percent; wall = +30 percent; base floor = 30 percent + Work plane: 3.0 feabove floor (bench top) Luminaire: Suspended 3.0 ft below ceiling Calculations: «From Equation 16-6e: z ECR = 2.5 X 0.23 x 3.0=17 + From Table 16 ors pe z iting reflectance (p.) for 80 percent Be ty pal so CCR 1.7 B15 percent (use 52 ed fTABLE 16-5 Determination of iluminance categoriest Ortentation and simple visual tasks, Visual performance is largely unimportant. The se tasks are found in pubic ere readingand visual inspection. Performed any occastonalyHiherleves are fecammered or eas a anand isl ispecton ae Fecommeniied for tasks where visual performance i occaslonally important. Recommended luminance 30KG IO Son (50 Wore 10) fategory Description Public spaces Simple orientation for short visits Working spaces where simple visual tasks are performed ‘common visual tasks, Visual performance s important. These tasks are found in commercial, Indust residential applications. Recommended iluminance taskbeing illuminated, Higher level ‘orsmall size and eels dfer because ofthe characterises of the visual sare tecommended fox visual asks with critical elements of low contrast Recommended ‘uminance 300 W300) category Description Perfomance of visual tasks of high contrast and lage size Performance of visual tasks of high contrast and smal size, of visual asks oflow contrast andlarge size Performance of visual tasks of low conttast and small size soo Ks0.e 190100) ‘Special visual tasks. sual performance is of critical importance. These tasks ae very specialized, including those with very small or very iow contrast critcal elements, Recommended luminance levels should be _achleved with supplementary task lighting, Higher recommended levels are often achieved by moving the light source closer to the task Recommended category Deserption ‘Murainance G Performance of visual tasks near threshold 3000-10,000 6. (300-1000 fe) ‘Freqpeanred Mmrinances ofthe insalediahing salem shouldbe witin(+/—) Wis af the ecommendedvales Source: Courtesy of ESNA, New York MY Rellected glare (veiling reflection) Shadows Source andl task geometry Sparkle /desirable reflected highlights Surface characteristics ‘The design issues to be evaluated include, but are ean Tasks mited to, the following . Illuminance selection regarding: © Horizontal illuminance—its importance and the selected value (lux) Very important Important Somewhat important Not important or not applicable 1. Special considerations regarding * Appearance of space andl luminaires locappsranee and ol contrat Daylighting integration and control Direct glare Flicker and strobe Light distribution on surfaces Light distribution on task plane (U0 Luminances af room surfaces “Modeling of faces oF objects Points of interest iformity) «Weta Homineee is importance andthe eae) ateipebl te designe ona hops dee aah ses fisher, spe ity, ete0 nn Note ani 1 VIERATIONS IN MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL Sistems 557 eles motion but isattached to theitocs pening allow a ea Ws another he through-bolt pass quality neoprene unit and the uprer hough * bridge prene is attached 10 the bottore bea enket The neo: force from the restrained unit has to . neoprene insert, Figure 18-29(.) fo, Pass through the Figure 18-30 shows a lawecman, spring assembly that is designed cient for vibration isolation but re displacements Restraint of vertical piping is in Fi neoprene insert. This type of restraint is also good for preventing structureborne noise from transferring from waste pipes to floor structures Teis very important that ducts, pipes, conduits, and other hanging objects be restrained from becomi wild pendulums during a seismic event. Figure 18-32 i lustrates one type of restrain for lateral bracing of pipe. AA similar type of restraint is available that replaces the cable with an angle iron or a similar structural shape so that it restrains not only lateral movement but also lon- gitudinal motion Just about everything in a building’s mechanical and electrical system must be tied down in one way or another to resist seismic forces. For example: pacity restrained allow freedom sufi strain larger seismic All mechanical and electrical systems AC units Condensing units hillers Motor control centers Fans (all types) ‘Variable frequency Tanks (all types) drives fr distribution boxes. Boilers ‘Compressors Conduits Generators Piping Transformers Water heaters ‘Air handling units Bus ducts Computer room units Cooling towers Pumps (all types) Cabinet heaters ‘Heat exchangers Unit heatei ‘Air separators Ductwork Condensers Rooftop units Luminaires Cable ways: Electrical panels Switching gear Unit substations Battery racks Stool bushing All-diretion bridge Dearing quality neoprene bushing < Snubber bolt 7S vb ee Restraining angle (9) All-cvection seismic snubber Replaceable all-direction bridge bearing quality neoprene, Upper bracket, twequipmont \ SS restructure b) All diection seismic srubber | Bridge bearing ‘quality neoprene wwasher-bushing Bridge bearing pad \ {) Example of bolt isolation FIGURE 18-29 Seismic restraint devices. | Hauppauge, NY.) |porated € protec- wally im . The de- c lighting, a. Ceiling, systems is r spacings flighting ghting so: normal ait s that fre integrated always yould st elects sil fuels # snd ordinances that wl fect «ba cots (0 establish any ee iin vg, tester than fice the prospect ofan he rroer to fit within imposed constaings en BltSE 17.2.9 Economics reiting designer must be aware Rounding the project and the bud th liking. must be developed, Fale Wo meow {ho eatin the process may result in wasted etsy spfliled expectations. The responsibilty for malin Ate the lighting budget is met should be clear ingy ty the client. If this task falls to the lighting designer, shat wil De extremely important to monitor equips san cost estimates frequently during the design de ‘opment in order to anticipate problems, of the economics iget within which 17210 Maintenance and Operation The long-term maintenance and operation of a lighting gstem should not be neglected during the design pmces. The lighting, design professional must assess the ‘atainabilty ofthe lighting system over the project’ ie ‘nd commuaicate to the user what measures will be nec- gary to ensure continued high performance. Trade-ofls boeeo design and maintenance are often necessary in ‘ager balance the user's short- and long-term expect thns for the project. The designer should engage the user inthe process carly and arrive at an understanding a8 0 _xceptable maintenance and operational characteristics | 1, flour 07-3 ‘@torenttion is important in lahting. (Courtesy; General Electlc rsh shi ignting desi. (a) Harr cama Desicn 497 17.211 Selection of Lighting Systems Selecting the appropdate lighting systems to fully real ie the design is, perhaps, the most pivotal considera- tion, The systems mst Rll as many ofthe projec?’ Jightng ctria as possible ‘TheTES define six general clasfcations ofighting systems, which are strated in Figure 15-15, Selecting the system and assoxiated luminaire types that are appro- Pate for aspecitic projec will be hase on the various v- sual needs ofthe project. Which sjsem or tems best full che visa perfomance requirements ofthe asks cccutring in each space Which will appropriately en hance the important architectural ature? Which wil rove ght ditebution and intensity that wil einforee the desired impresions foreach room? Which wll pro vide the appropriate spatial modeling’ (See Figure 17-3.) ‘Although one lighting system might serve 38 the predominant choice in most areas, it kelp that a range of luminaires wil be required to addres specific necds of special conditions. Wall washing for presenta tion sifies, accent lights for artwork ar signage, the atric ighting for autor stages, and high-intensity spotighting for indoor plans ate jst afew frequenty encovintered conditions in which the basic overall ight- ingaystem may not be suficene. “Architecturally integrated fighting and decorative Juminaires fora project shuld be selected collabora: tively with the architect the interior designer and, fap propriate, the end user. Although these stems may add Some fantional light to a room, hie primary role isto create spatial atmesphere and reinforcement acows ae rose otened with objects wth unidirectional iahting OS pa, OHNe 520 CHAPTER 17 ic nena FIGURE 17-19 Furniture layout of the comprehensive lighting design problem fora typical junior high school.20, Duil-in emergency lamp, a built-in lige dss bythe IES mio sx fe eategorcs. The cutegoies a bration above and below tre 15-15 ilusates the ax ca FIGURE 5-15 The Sand CE classi lrnairesn accordance wth the percentage ofthe luminal oufpat they em above anc below the horizontal thin ths percentage. there may be many varations, depending on the specic design of the lumnare. atures Wits there & EME sbieling, ores and by the CIE sdonthe per at th dae nal plan. Fig 100 persent of the fa isd Direct, where 90; Sidinec, where 6 16 90 perent ofthe axis ed eee Gessrn ffis ree ceca $0 0nd Oph P the fx is dutected either upward or ownward and the ds uniform i ll directions Dinecrndirc, where beeween 40 and 60 por ‘ent of the tux is directed cither upward or ‘downward and there is very fie flac inthe hor iaontal diction. The CIE consides the dite al diffise tape oflaminstedribetion, Prom a designers poinc of vw, these two types should be cased Separately, av they produce dnt spi rela fons in terms of sich properties as wall any ance, wire, and coccen of uation, Semi indirect, where 60 1090 percent ofthe as is upward Indirect, where 90 0100 pereent of the fas is tupeard indirect category a6 part othe ge Genera toe are two examples ofthe general speiiaio 1. Tipe Ra The ares es xing i et fhorscet ire forest dso, eal thine 32. 18 rm we rs ne “Tht ve a2 prbof ane fax dbo sl ave beeing pe ent, aed on 80: 80-20 cling wal 40 festanc dso cavalo (RCH CF2. 2, ‘TigeSh Te anare shall be aspen mot Satie witha Yn -aamesc op ab fate ual conan one 130 genes tenet np, Th hanger sabe f= 15.9 LUMINAIRES: PHOTOMETRY Phocometn cata (Figures 15-26 and 18-17) 88 ‘Most icaportane pieces of information requed © imine the perormance of ae 1 #6 Sas wed ed in aeons of tin: 8, Seti dats moray prepared ya ge “sting boro athe orto of anal tances Ty sha sont se aos maton when apr) ; Zz. s ee PHOTOMETRIC | | compasarive vean ‘ANDLEPOWER a ata | {ata468 carn ‘TABLE 16-3 . Weighting factors to be considered in selecting specific luminance within ranges of values for each illuminance = category on 2 Fortluminance Categories through ¢ bee wes Weighting factor } oom and Occupant charactesics 1 Room and Occupant Characteristics _ a —___ __ Occupants anes Under 40 40555 overs5 a Room srface reflectances? Greater than 70 percent 301070 percent tessthan 30 percent : ¢ a 2. forlluminance Categories Dtvouh ; ue - Task and Worker Characteristis 1 + jes Workers! ages Under 40 40-55 Over 55 “ask ‘Speed and/or accuracy’ ‘Not important Important Gitical sim ‘Reflectance of task background” Greater than 70 percent 30 t070 percent Less than 30 percent e ‘Rverage weighted surface ecances cluding wal Nou and cae ‘around For nstance, nan elevator tb, where te celing heh Is 76m 25} nether the tasknor the vs surround encompasses the {ling s0 cn the oor and wale ances woul be considered, “in determining whether speed and/or accrac snot peta. posta, oi the owing questions nee to be answered What are the time imtaons? How moran so perform the task rapid Wil errors produce an ursfe condition of produc Wi eos fede rogue and be cost for example. In reading for lesa thee are no tne iran ad snl important read apd, iors ot be costa othe relae to safesy This, speed and/or acaray isnot portant. however, a workers Imohestinexactng work accuracy cia beease (tthe close tolerances, and time important because of production demants, "he taskbeckaycund i tht potion of he task upon whic he meaning eval spay sented ox example on this page the meaning \suadsoay includes each eter which combines wth other eters to fom words nd pases The spay medium or ask backound he ‘aer, whics has aefectance of apprenatel 3 pee Source: Reproduced wth permission 10m eS ignng Handbook TABLE 16-4 Guidelines for selecting the illuminance level for weighting facior Weighting Categories A-C ‘Gategories D4 factor (No Task Acta) (Mask Acti) 4 vox tow 4 Low Low = Low Medium ° Medium Medium 1 High Medium 2 High igh : x igh 16.3 COMPREHENSIVE METHOD. FOR DETERMINING QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION ‘The Illuminating Engineering Society of North Amer ica (IESNA) has introduced a new comprehensive ‘method for determining the quantity of illumination re quirements for spaces, and activities. They also intro- duced a matrix approach to identify the quality and de- ne, hey encompass a are porhon othe askarea oral sign issues. For additional information, refer to TESNA Lighting Handbook, th edition. Following isa brief de scription of the methodology. 16.31 illuminance Categories ‘The method divides a visual enviconmeat into three groups and seven illuminance categories + Group 1—Orientation and simple visual tasks with categories A, B,C. + Group 2—Common visual tasks with eategores DEE. * Group 3—Special visual tasks with category G- Table 16-5 shows the classification of ask &f0UDSs illuminance categories, and the recommended ilu ‘nance values on task plane, The task plane may behor ‘zontal, vertical, or inclined, as selected by the designe 16.3.2 Evaluation of Design Issues and Design Solutions In addition to selecting illumination quantity the signer evaluates the relative importance ofa «design issues to determine whether each issuespeakers apenker ete. These elements significantly re Speake acoustical transmission loss of the ceiling by providing flanking paths Estimating the noise transmitted through a ceiling toa room is a guess, at best, using equal parts of avail able data and experience. Experience indicates that it is best to derate ceiling transmission loss data by 5 to 10 &B for design use. To estimate the sound levels in a room associated with sound transmission through the ceiling, the sound power levels in the ceiling plenum must be reduced by the transmission loss of the ceiling system before converting from sound power levels to corresponding sound pressure levels in the room. In the absence of a recognized test standard, the transmission loss values in Table 18-6 may be used. 18.18 ADDING DECIBEL QUANTITIES A decibel, abbreviated 4B, is ten times the common logarithm of a quantity dB = 10log X «s-7) where Xisa quantity we wish to express as a decibel. For example, 10 log 10° = 60 dB. More generally, 10 log, 10" = 10 If A= 10 log Xand B = 10 log ¥, how do we id X and ¥ and express the result as a decibel, 10 log + ¥)? Figure 18-14 shows a simple method. If js greater than or equal to ¥, take the difference —¥) and enter the chart in Figure 18-14 on the scale at this value; then read on the top scale increment to be added to the larger of the two ities (X). For cxample, X = 60 dB and Y = 58 Difference is 2. Read above and we get 2.1; there- 60 + 2.1 = 62.1 4B. TE = X; then X + ¥ = 2X; 10 log 2X = 10 log 10 log X = 10 log X + 3. Adding two equal deci. [quantities results in a decibel quantity that is 3 dB ster than either of the two being added. To general this, adding, » equal decibels X gives 10 log X + 10 mn, For quick reference, WOlog2=3 10log3=48 Olog5=7 10log6=7:8 10log8=9 10log 10 ‘Add to larger of two decibel quanttios rer 1 os a eerste tat ied Det eee ete it tah ene e Difference between two decibel quantities being added FIGURE 18-14 Addition of two decibel quantities. Note that 10 log 4 = 10 log 2 + 3, 10 log 6 = 10 log. 3 + 3,10 log 10 = 10 log 5 + 3. Example 18-7 Determine the overall dB level from the octave band spectrum shown on the NC curve (Figure 18-3). Use the chart in Figure 18-14, taking two levels at a time. This is illustrated in Figure 18-15. As a mat- ter of convenience, the octave levels are arranged in de~ scending, order. However, it is not necessary to add the decibel values in any particular order Sh 18.19 SOUND PRESSURE, SOUND POWER, AND SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL ‘Sound pressure, sound power, and sound intensity level are the basic quantities of acoustics, so it is best to in- troduce them at this time. 18.191 Definition of Quantities Sound intensity level (IL), sound power level (PWL), and sound pressure level (SPL) are decibel quantities, all of which relate to acoustical power. Sound intensity (1) function of mean square of the sound pressure (7), the density of air (p), and the speed of sound (¢). P == as-8) pe Intensity level (IL) is defined as: . tte IL = 10 log Z (18-9) nt ie wih516 CHAPTER 17 SCHEME D With this scheme, (one) 2’ x 4” Juminaire Is used to substitute For (two) 2’ x 2" luminaires within the workstation areas, and (three) single 2 x Y'luminalres are used in the corridor area. Although this scheme Uses more luminaires than Scheme B, [tis lower in cost, since 2’ x 4° luminaires are the most popular type Used commercially, and thus more competitively priced. SCHEME E Ifthe workstation partitions are higher than the 5’ level within the 9° 6” ceiling space, or if the partitions become full height to the ceiling, lighting luminaires must be moved ‘within each workstation room. In this ‘ase, the room cavity ratio of each workstation room will be greatly increased and the CU values decreased, resulting in a need to add another luminaire within each room. SCHEME F The lighting ficture locations within each workstation room shown in scheme E are regular in location and aesthetically unpleasant. This Is. because of the continuation of the ceiling grid in the celling, ifthe celling grids are installed on aroom- by100m basis, lighting within the individual rooms can be centered within each room, This is a much better lighting design, although it will add to the cost of the ceiling.Ce eee 3 SeSSShegek| ganaecsen ole | |S8#888net2 acaseascee areie SShURHRNREE [Sz esgRanere wees 5 SERRESRRNRE/ aaa casnangelsgznageaace|sugeenacans|aaezaaanens g RoteRSheaas sossaasenanlageensegagieancevanana SSRs enARRNE, Fe chGRSSSRE=)eaeaaeangrelasenaaneresleaseanaananlanacazans nels S)etaaargaage|sesosaeegce Sneeagangeeleoauesnnann|seaecnaanaale: | SSHAS ELSES was vensanan|aazraagaade|eeusgecaane|auggesnacecle le 8 os a a BRIRARRR RSS SReeaRRRR m8 CALCULATIONS OF ILLUMINATION 479 SIRRRRENRTE RVG URSRRATE/ Sar RaRNeDes|SrenegAaRAa|saResRARRRA F[Poseaaasnes/cszeesaqgag/exsesgegns:|srageqagaer|ssaseeaaans J/PICBASBARAS/ROS SoS aHRRAleaesRanqnaglaReanszenaa|RegaeesnanRlarsagessnas SURARKAS ae eTTTRARRR a82anaeklazencecnaRs| senegvnagngs|sgecaggaact|sessassnhaRn| as ! BeRaRRARRSH seaeRggsaet|eReRRRRgE es |aeaaeeRAReRler [fictasececce SaRESaneaaa|geaeaessnaslacssaseenaa| BEGGECH ARS sega eT RARR Rec uaseHARRT| aSS aR RAKES |GERERARaReH BPVASAHRRAR | arasezRanRelsegesquner ASERSRN RANE BRGo IRA RAR cRAcAAR ARES |RURSaSTARAR|aRUAREERMRAlaraazesHAAR| Sseagagnanlaranseesnan|neaeraagegulsarseatcena|sacansseaaalsnecasezena|§ .s, (Courtesy: luminating ) 5 New York, NI jc juminalte: 0 a ee ee err eeceerereses | a 5 fata tating. exons | ‘ent of utilization (CL) of gener “ting Society of North America, SlOmm2) mes escent nh FIGURE 16-4 (CONTINUED) ci Mine . C fCHAPTER 16 Determine CU from photometric data of type 1 (Figure 16-4): p.-of 0.66 (between 70 percent and 50 per- cent}, RCR of 37 (between 3 and 4), and wall reflectance of 70 percent extrapolated beyond 50 percent; the interpolated and. extrapolated value of CU is 0.47 (see calculation form). + Estimate LF to be 0.7 (LLD = 07, LDD. # Calculate lumens per fixture required lumens 2. ‘The lumen output of a 300-W, ps-25 general-service type of incandescent lamp, found in the IESNA Handbook ori the lamp manufacturers data, is 6100 Im. The output is about 20 percent higher than re quired. However, it would be appropriate to use a dimmer to vary the illuminance under different op erating modes and to extend the life of the lamp. 3. Ifthe wall is painted or covered with 30 percent wall covering, the p,. will be reduced to 0.43 and the CU reduced to about 0.3. Asa result, the lamp has to be enlarged to 500 W, an increase of 66 pereent (Cl 0.47 versus 0.30), The impact of wall reflectance on illumination design, particularly in low-RCR spaces, is demonstrated 0). 5152 16.5 POINT METHOD ‘The point method, also referred to as the point-by point method, is based on the definition that the illa- minance on a surface perpendicular to the light beam incident on it is inversely proportional to the distance from the light source to the surface (equation 14-3). If the surface is not perpendicular to the light beam, then cosine factor should be included (equation 14-4). The later equation can be rearranged as follows. 16.51 Initial Illuminance ‘The component ofthe nit illuminance on 3 horizon tal plane i T,X cos _ 1, x cos B Fas pi ae _ hx if Refer Figure 16-11. The component ofthe nil i luminance on & vertical plane is (6-10) T,X sin _ 1, X cos B nati (enn) 1, X cos 6X sino P ‘The intensity (1) in any direction ftom a luminaire is normally presented in a polar diagram in the photomet- ric report provided by the manufacturer. The intensity values in candela (ed) are the actual intensity (I,) OF the luminaire including temperature factor (TF), ballast fac- tor (BF), and position factor (PF) except for the voltage factor (VE). Thus, an LOF factor need not be included in the initial illuminance calculations when the values from the photometric report are used. 16.5.2 Maintained Illuminance The component of the maintained illuminance on a * LLF (16-12) ‘The component of the maintained illuminance on a ver tical plane is: Boye = By * ULE X sin 0 _ Keo a ae (16-13) Bose (8) Horizontal plane ‘Vertical plane FIGURE 16-11 Tigonometricreatonships apptcabieto the inverse Sauare a tghtncient ona horzonal anc and (b) vertical plane. eRe +, m, Ps teow546 CHAPTER 18 6 dB for each doubling of distance. See Example 18.8. Near a finite-size sound source, such as the wall of a rooftop unit or noise enclosure, the sound may not de- cay at 6 dB per doubling of distance as it would for a point source. The space near a finite source ina free field where the sound does not follow the rule 6 dB per dou- bling of distance is the near field sound of the source. Reverberant field isa space in which the sound re: fleets from many surfaces many times. In a reverberant, room, the sound is considered to be in the direct or free field until it first strikes a surface, after which it becomes, part of the reverberant field. The second term in the Parentheses in Equation 18-14(a) and (b) describes the reverberant field. In a reverberant field the sound decay. does not follow the rule 6 dB per doubling of distance because of the many reflections, Far field is the space in which the source can be considered a point source and would follow the rule 6 dB per doubling of distance were it not for the rever: berant sound. Far field and reverberant field can over- Jap, as shown in Figure 18-17. 18.20 ACOUSTICAL ABSORPTION When a sound wave fills on a surface, some of the en- ergy is absorbed in and beyond the surface, and the re: mainder is reflected back into the surrounding medium. The absorptive properties of a material are defined by the coefficient of absorption a, which is in turn defined as the ratio of the energy absorbed by a surface to the total incident energy falling on the surface. The value of a may vary from 0.01 fora plate glass window (virtually all energy is reflected) to almost 1.0 for an open window (virtually all energy is absorbed). ‘The absorption characteristic of a particular mate~ rial is a function of the frequency of the impinging, sound. Tables of experimentally determined values of absorption for various materials are available in numer- ous publications. Most commonly, a is given by octave band, usually for octave bands of 125 Hz through 4000 Hz, occasionally for the 63-Hz and 8000-Hz octaves, and rarely for the 32-Hiz octave band. ‘As a general guideline, most materials litele absozption at low frequencies and incr sorption as frequency increases. To balance this out, we frequently use thin panels such as tin plywo« Jow frequency. Single-layer gypsum nificant. low-frequency ‘ sound energy is not strictly’ terials, bur rather by forcing « ‘The noise reduction coefficient (NRC) is defined, as the average of coefficients at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz. ‘Absorption is also a function of the incidence an- gle of the impinging sound wave. However, absorption coetlicients as typically reported are for random inci- dence. Measurements of the coefficients are made in conditions that approximate a diffuse field as closely as is practical, For a surface composed of many materials, the av- ‘erage absorption coefficient is given by: ga ti tS +o +5 9 15) HtSth+. 45, where §) is the area associated with material having ab- sorption coefficient «. 18.21 SOUND TRANSMISSION LOSS In Section 18.17, transmission of sound through walls ‘was mentioned briefly. We will now fill in some addi- tional details. 18.211 Sound Transmission Class (STC) Sound transmission class (STC) is a method of rating the aisborne transmission of sound through a wall or other structure at different frequencies by means of a single number. Sound is transmitted through walls and other di- viding building elements differently at different frequen- cics, Generally, sound is transmitted more easily at low frequencies than at higher frequencies; ic., sound attenu= ation is less at low frequencies than at higher frequencies. ‘The STC rating method is based on the laboratory test procedure specified in ASTM Recommended Prac~ tice E 90, in which the sound transmission loss of atest n 1/3-octave from 125 to 4000 Hz. To specimen, its dNotst ax 1 VIBRATIONS IN MIECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SrstEMS 553 Cap serow to secure equipment eS ? Cap screw ‘equipment S168 plato covers to prevent coron {b) Double deflection neoprene mo. Cr. FAB is sme BP rewsing \ Neoprene Neoprene “ ee ‘acoustical pad (a) Restrained spring mount FIGURE 18-23 Earthquake activity since 1900 on the west coast of the continent is shown in Figure 18-25. In 1971 there was a major earthquake in San Fernando, Califor~ nia, that measured 6.0 on the Richter scale with hori zontal ground accelerations recorded at 0.2 g. More re cently, there have been even more severe earthquakes in Turkey, Mexico, and Taiwan, with heavy loss of life. ‘There was also tremendous damage to buildings and in terior equipment. Most of the damage to mechanical equipment was a result ofthe “softness” of the vibration isolation, which permitted large motions of the equip- to seismic loading. In many cases, equipment jumped off the vibration isolation tents tuipmenc itself but also severely damaging not only the eq the mounts and connections such as piping and con ment in response duit An example of the damage is shown in Fight 18-26. The machinery was mounted on unrestrained fecomnding eprings with inadequate ehrst eDH=INE fo) ecuipment Wate pad Bot___10P and bottom hole &.. (a) Layered watte pads Bolt to fasten with ste! shir Ductile holding cupe Nonskid neoprene. acoustical pad — (c} Unhoused spring mount Bol to fasten Adjustment oft Assent Housing ‘ ‘ene ~snubting collar pons Up-stop (@) Housed spring mount Examples of spring Isolators. (Courtesy: Mason Industries, Hauppauge, NY.) TThe dynamic response of the system tore up the con- crete housekeeping pad and broke the restraints. The photo tel an all t00 often repeated story. All-direction reismie snubbers, as shown in Figure 18-27, could have prevented this destruction. (Reference 16 contains thay excellent photos of earthquake events.) Th other events, pipes, ucts, and conduits broke Joose. Suspended HVAC equipment plunged to the floor, Equipment was rendered inoperative, It would, have been better, in terms of preventing seismic dam- age, ifthe equipment had been attached rigidly to che supporting structure arranging and severe damage can be inflited in a short period of time, Asa resot of experience, partis ‘arly during the second half ofthe twentieth centor ares and. specifications for seismic protection have trolved. Most local building codes have axlopted seis. ore codes by reference, These codes provide ‘empirical ‘equations for developing & maximum lateral foree, and ——tquESTIONS- ———_ 1 A lighting system is an iny tectural expression of the ferbed as SPSS Which may be ge. 72. Illumination must be designed fy se Oe) honzonteieaa (True) Fac Uniformity on For uniformity in hori Sin Dare oun b ae Soa lumi. recommended spacing-to-mounting height ae 114 Anideal lighting system is a total ing. (True) (False) 175. To obtain the best visual modeli dimensional object, light flu sheet ae from one direction. (True) (False) 116 Lay out, on a reflected ceiling plan for uniform lighting, six round luminaires with general diffuse distribution in a 15’ X 457 rectangular space. ‘7 Ifthe cciling height is 10 ft and the work plane is 3 fi above the floor, do you think the preceding layout would provide uniform lighting? If not, what would you suggest? Show your design in a reflected ceiling plan. 178 Asan exercise in lighting design practice, lay out on a reflected ceiling plan, five 4” X 4” square lu- minaires in a 20’-diameter round room (sec figure below). The ceiling grid for this round room shown on the plan is 2’ X 2’. The space is a casual living space where uniform lighting is neither mandatory nor desired. ot From a lighting expression point ofiew an alteative layout, with any sae or shape ofT8- minaires that may be more compatible wit space and ceiling grid combination. tegral space att ofthe archi. ly Luminous ceil- th about — "9 Daylight is effective UP ‘© * ae times the window height v0 vn TR m3 ma was UcHTING Desicn 519 North gl lazing will provide the most ci daylighting, (True) (False) oe West lazing will have the greatest effect on a building's cootin $ cooling load in the northern hemi- sphere. (True) (False South glazing may create ovetheating in spaces with southern exposure, even in winter, (True) (False) J Glazing should be extended to the floor level to {ain the most benefits from daylight. (True) (False) The glazed area need not be greater than Percent ofthe floor area for maximum daylight. A Comprehensive Lighting Design Problem This problem is intended as practice with lighting layout, controls, and wiring. The room to be de signed isa lecture space with auniliary areas. The architectural plan of the space, including the fur niture layout and the layin ceiling grid, is shown in Figure 17-19, From separate calculations it was decided that the following luminaires would be installed: + Main lecture area + (10) type A, semi-indirect fitures. Bach fix ture is 1-t x 4-ft, using two 32W, T-8 fuo- escent lamps. + (6) type B, semi-indirect luminaires to bein stalled infront ofthe chalkboard. Each lumi- Imire is 1-fr X 4-f using two 32W, T8 tuo- rescent lamps. One of the two lamps provides downward asymmetrical distribution on the chalkboard, which should be separately snitch, Se photomericillsation + Lab area: (2) type C, direct distribution lumi- Tanah amine contains (3) 32 78 fluorescent lamps. Its desirable to switch the center lamps from one switch and the outer ‘evo lamps from another switeh + Coat room: (1) type D,2 ft X 2 fr, direct dis- tuibution fluorescent luminaire using (4) 20, °8, fluorescent lamps, caret wpe Ey sure mounted fore eneluminsres using (2) 40W, T-12 lamps. ‘ing the calculated number of tuminsres, de ‘elop lighting layout in these rooms. Keepin ‘mind th ae ceiling grid is already determined. ee eet wal (Note: There ae addtional computes Seadent’s desis. Howereh, 20 ses ie provisions wil be reanied) Ince the Bi tobe vite:EL 472 CHAPTER 16 in the laboratory. For clectromagnetic ballasts, the BF is always lower than unity or 100 percent. However, for some electronic types of ballast, the BF may be higher than unity, say 120 percent, In other words, in this lat ter ease, the light output of the lamp-ballast combina tion is 20 percent more than the lamp manufacturer's rated output, For preliminary calculations of illumi: nance, the BE shown in Table 16-7 may be used. The position factor (PF) is also called the tile fae tor. Position is critical for HID lamps, has a minor effect on incandescent lamps, and has no effect on fluorescent lamps, The lumens rating for HID lamps is normally based on a lamp mounted in the vertical position. Typ- ical lumens outputs for HID lamps mounted at 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° from the vertical are 95, 90, 95 percent respectively. The manufacturer should be consulted for specific lamp performance characteristics Example 16.6 A fluorescent luminaire is designed to use lamps rated for 3000 lumens at 120 V with a CBM. certified magnetic ballast. IF the actual voltage is 115 V at the lamp socket, what is the LOF of the installation? ‘What is the actual light (lumens) output of each lamp? ‘The actual voltage at 115 V is about 4 percent Jower than the rated lamp voltage at 120°V, From Table 16-6, find VF = 0.96. From Table 16-7, BF Thus LOF = 0.96 x 0.95 Aad actual light output = 0.95 a1 = 3000 im x 0.91 30 Im Coefficient of Utilization ‘When a lighting system is tumed on (energized), light power (flix) fills the space. Depending on the flux dis- tribution characteristics ofthe luminaires, some or all of the flux fills directly on the work plane and the rest will not. As a result, the flux emitted from the luminaires only partially utilized. The coefficient of utilization (CU) is the multiplier that accounts for the fraction of the total tlux that is being utilized at the work plane. ‘TABLE 16-7 ‘Typical ballast factor (BF) of electrical discharge lamps. Tamp-alast Combination ‘ypical BF Fluorescent 30Wand lagen with 095 CBM certified magnetic ballasts Fluorescent below 20 watts) with CBNtertied 0.85 magneticballasts* Fluorescent with electronic ballasts venfyiwth 0.810 12 ballastlamp manufacturer) lamps (mercury, metal halide, HPS) tor” "Ceniedtallast anTacrers (CBM, *umale manufacturers often provide a combined factor known as the equipment operating actor OT or HIO laminates, THstactor Inqudes HF and. That is: _ flux on the work plane CU =" sctual lamp flux (a The lumens or zonal cavity method is based on the laminous radiative transfer theory, which holds fluxes are interreflected until they reach equilibrium, This theory provides the engineering base for cleul ing the average illuminance level on the work pin, The method divides the room into three zones or ea itesceiling, room, and floor cavities —as seated Figure 16-1 There are four bese step to followin detentiai rom the CU of a lighting installation. a step 1: Calculate the cavity atios From the room é- ai mensions and luminaire mounting, as illustrated in Fig. be: ‘ure 16-1, caleulate the cavity ratios (CR) as follows. ao CR = 2.5 x (perimeter area of the cavity/floor area of the init the room) reasons = 2.5 X (perimeter * cavity height) Mloor area of unless the som (16-5) =2.5 * (perimeter/Mloor area of the room) X cavity height = 2.5 x PARXh where PAR 2x (L+ WAL W) for rectangular rooms (1653) 4/D for Grcular rooms (16-56) 3.27/D for semicircular rooms (16-56) ngth of a rectangular room, Ft (m) jth ofa rectangalar room, fe (m) fiameter of a circular room, ft (m) in which L 5 PAR X hy, (16-6) 5 PAR x bi, (ee) B PAR x by {16-61 Calling Cavitycanseonang| cnneeerene| caeveerces| ~anreereee AaRRRGRESS| EORRRREERS) gaaeEseaea| 8408882322 5 dcsecmengae|eeeasansaaa|@seAneuaaas|s 2 Fi Pacinos 0 ea 4 . Typical $" mineral fiber tayin 4 5 6 i a a « Above w/coneaed spine $a 4 3 i 2 “ Abert cing 2 : 4 : 542‘Treatment: Treat duct upstream with acoustical lining or duct silencers to eliminate the noise. En: close duct in a drywall chase. ‘Rumble caused by bad flow conditions in duct sys rem elements, ‘ Treatment: Use good duct design practices; avoid sharp, abrupt edges at takeofis; keep the velocity swell below 1500 fpm. (See Chapter 6.) Noise generated by flow through grilles, ‘Treatment: Reduce flow velocity and/or size grilles properly, or use different grilles Fan or flow-generated noise transmitted to occu. pied space via grilles. Tretmant. Ateamate @uc nolie peat wit drow Bing or dt sneer rlest the gale frther om he main duct Sir tac ener ag pees bi pl Shou return openings inthe aa wal Treauwene:Tnsal slencers or oer atenéaon seve inthe shaft wall opening Sine nanamed bose pice mn lig Penne ‘Resumen Rede oie in osing plenum by otis seus abone Use ound 29508 (OP irerwangles Pipes hang fom primary bung sete e suing n sructarsborme ne. ‘Tathene Uae prope se een hang Machinery tened sli ro srt Root suing in sactrehome noe Tne Une propery sid Bolton mous tha machinery bes Hila wan Rell couplingin pump, chlo he uipmene incuing elec condiy suling in sructarbome noi Fane adions eof exible couplings Tena umes tha are too noisy o ote Peres pe amounc of wie they gene ee Use guiter unis, posiby 3 se lrg or lost gh wal ies chat ae hey Fee proper latencies ars i a teenth cepale frequencies generated ‘by various sources, TTT AVA [Notse AND VIBRATIONS IN MECHANICAL AND Etscrmicat Sistems. 531 Pulsing Rumble Hum Whine Hes ites Pumps Fan VAV boxes Sicwaraone Ff r ne Signe taser eee) Rimage Octave band contr frequency, Hz FIGURE 18-5 Principal frequency ranges of some HVAC nolses. ee 78.7 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT ROOMS (MERS) “Mechanical equipment rooms (MERS), by their nature, are generally very noisy areas, The noise in the interior fhe MER should be held to 2 minimum by acoustical treatment within the room, but of more importance is the transmission of noise to adjacent arcas. Tat all pos: ible, the MER should be distant from noise-sensiive aicas, Figure 18-6 illustrates some of the paths by which, MER noise can be transmitted to adjacent areas. ‘Adequate wall and ceiling acoustical sound trans mission losis required. The effeciveness of awall orcel- ing assembly as « noise barir is limited by any ai path, aso called flanking path. Treating the walls and ceiling of {mechanical equipment room with acoustically ab- Sorbent material —fibergass duct liner, for example—can help by lowering the revesberant sound in the mechani ‘al equipment room, However, 2 § dBA reduetion in in terior sound is the best that can be expected under the best of conditions. Acoustically absorbent materials have ‘poor absorptive qualities in the lower frequencies. Low frequencies are generally the dominant sound in me~ Chanical equipment rooms, Double layers of gypsum Doard on exch side of stel or wood studs are often re- quired. Dense concrete block soften used, but conerete tlockis « poor noise barrier if snot painted, preferably ‘with epoxy paint, co fillin the air paths through the block. Tsing resilient channels (Figure 18-7) on the noise side ‘of awal can help to reduce low-frequency transmission,550 CHAPTER 18 larger than the applied force. As the frequency ratio ap proaches one (1.0), the excitation frequency approaches the natural frequeney of the system and, for the un damped case, the force ratio theoretically becomes inf nie because the denominator in Equation 18-22 be. comes zero. Up to this point, the mass and the force are in phase; ic., they move in the same direction. When the frequency ratio is greater than one, the force and the mass are out of phase; i, they move in opposite direc: tions. But we note that as the frequency ratio increases above one, the force transmitted becomes smaller and smaller. When the frequency ratio is equal to V2, the force ratio is again negative one (~1.0). Above this fe queney ratio the force ratio continues to deer Objective of vibration isolation is to operate at a fre quency ratio much greater than V2 The isolation efficiency, at forcing frequencies sgreater than the natural frequency, is the percent of the exciting force thats prevented from being transmitted to the supporting stracture expressed as a positive number Isolation efficiency (%) = 100 ( - A frequency ratio of 3 to I eliminates about 88 percent of the exciting force from transmitting to the base. This is a good rule of thumb to use as a minimum in selecting vibration isolation A chart for determining isolation efficiency for the simple spring-mass equation (18-23), is shown in Fig- ure 18-21. Since the natural frequency can be expressed bby the static deflection, the static deflection is also shown in this figure. Frequencies are also shown in rev lutions per minute (rpm) because machine speeds are usually expressed in rpm. Example 18-9 Refer to Figure 18-21 (a) We wish to provide 90 percent isolation eff ciency for a motor running at 1800 rpm (revolutions or cycles per minute), enter the chart at the bottom at 1800, read up to the 90 percent line, read across to the static deflection scale, and read approximately 0.12 in, ‘An isolator needs to have only about in. static deflee- tion for 90 percent isolation efficiency. (b) If we nced to provide 99 percent isolation eff ciency, we read up to the 99 percent line, We sce that we would need about 1.3 in. static deflection, 18.22.2 Inertia Base [An inertia base involves adding mass to the machine be: ing isolated, usually by adding, a block of concrete be- ween the machine and the isolation springs. It is im: portant to note that if there are no changes other than adding mass, the dynamic deflection is decreased by the ratio of the masses, the static deflection of the spring is inereased, and the isolation is improved. If the spring. constant is adjusted so that the static deflection, and thus the natural frequency, of the base-machine config- uration remains unchanged with the addition of the base, the isolation is unchanged. This does not change the isolation efficiency, because the frequency ratio is unchanged, as can be seen from Equation 18-23. All this does is add to the dead weight on the floor. ‘An inertia base can add significant stability to the system and change the coupling between vertical and. rocking motion, particularly where the center of gravity is high above the base of the machine, For an inertia base to be effective, a good rule of thumb is that the weight of the inertia block should be at least twice the weight of the machinery. This is not of- ten feasible for lightweight floor or roof construction, so one must look to the springs for isolation 18.22.3 Coupled Vertical and Rocking Motion In its simplest form, coupled vertical and rocking vibra tion can be modeled as a system with two degrees of freedom, as shown in Figure 18-22. Coupled, as dis cussed above, means that we cannot lift vertically (the dynamic load) without also causing, a rocking motion: When the geometry is ideal, the vertical and rocking are uncoupled. In practice, there is usually some degree of coupling of tne vertical and rocking degrees of freedom: ‘The strength of the coupling depends on several actors that are beyond the scope of this discussion, To mini- mize coupling, the springs should be symmetrical about the center of gravity (CG), and the CG should be as low as possible, Using an inertia base will lower the CG of the system and make it more stable. 18.22.4 Undamped Vertical Vibration with Flexible Base Machinery located on basement floors that are conerete and poured directly on earth or on latge concrete in the earth behave much more like the ese ofa aoe degree of freedom, However, equipment located on flexible bases such as a floor may exhibit significantly dif ferent behavior, particularly when the floor is “springy.” ‘Asimple model ofthe system is represented in Fig- ture 18-19(c) and (d). This model has two degrees of freedom—motion of the machinery and motion of theoes bi ag FIGURE 17-11 LUplighting of a ceiling can both en! Bhitecture and make it appear More sPacOws Decorative architectural luminaires CaN Serve ajorfocal points For interior spaces and ‘enhance the intended theme. (Courtesy: Randy BUTKE™ Lighting Design, st touls, MO, and communtca Boulder, Co.) 174 LIGHTING DESIGN jon Arts, DOCUMENTATION Comprehensive documentation of 4) required iFit is to be successfully 19 project’s overall design. The #° concise, and unambiguous comma ing concept to those who will const™ue ight por jal of this phas design is ‘ng design but also present a coordinated ef project's other disciplines, Akhoug he gineering project manager usually takes i effort, it is essential thar the lighting designer feedback to the process. 17.41 Construction Drawings Scaled construction drawings are used to describe the lighting design and its various systems and configura: tions. Typically, the luminaires are indicated on both an clectrical lighting plan and an architectural reflected ceiling plan. The electrical drawings will show luminaire «quantities and their approximate location and will des- ignate exch with a reference tag or “type.” This type is ‘cross-referenced to a luminaire schedule and specifica- tion, The electrical plan will also include the circuiting ‘and control wiring for the lighting equipment. Figure 17-12 is a sample arca from 2 typical electrical ighting. plan for a shopping mall “The architectural reflected ceiling plan shows the luminaire layouts more accurately, including key di- mensions and notes to assist the contractor in installa- tion. Figure 17-13 shows a sample area from an 26 enitectaral reflected ceiling and lighting plan for « typical office lobby, [ts sometimes necessary t0 ind Sypictertain luminaires on other architectural drawt- ings, such as sconces on interior elevations, chande- ine en building secrions, and ground-mounted sere lights on landscape plans. This clarifies their] tation and mounting height. 17.4.2 Specifications and Luminaire Schedule -the written description of the lighting concept takes onan in the specifications. This document outlines the Tguing joer in deta i expicix netcuons