YORUBA NINE CENTURIES OF AFRICAN ART AND THOUGHT Henry John Drewal and John Pemberton III with Rowland Abiodun Edited by Allen Wardwell ‘The Center for African Art in association with Harry N. Abrams Inc., Publishers, New YorkFoluso Longe Sin Re O 1940 — 1987 Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought is published in conjunction with ao exhibition of the same tile organized and presented by ‘The Center for African Art, New York. Atthe time Of publication additional presentations of the exhibition are scheduled at: The Art Institute of Chicago; The National Museum, of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; The Cleveland Museum of Art; The New Orleans Museum of Art; and. the High Museum of Art, Atlanta ‘The exhibition is supported hy grants [rom the National Endow- ment for the Humanities; The National Endowment for the Arts; New York State Council on the Ants, and the Anne S. Richardson Pund. Design: Linda Florio Production: Red Ink, Copyright 1989 @ The Center for African Art. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced without writen permission from ‘The Center for African Art 54 Kast 68th Street New York City 10021 Trade edition is distributed by Harry N. Abrams Inc., 100 Fifth. Avenue, New York City 10011 Library of Congress catalogue card no, 89-2182 Clothiound ISBN 0-8109-17947 Paperbound) 0-945802-04-8 Prinved in Japan1/The Yoruba World REPUBLIC NIG OF BENIN ‘ BORGL Ubarihay kisi eluboho c Oke tho Hanae seyine dain Haye KETU * Kew Meko. Ithadan~, EGBA Abeokuca OHORI Ayetord thara-Orile ila ® < Joge-Orile GBADO lato. Isagba twoye# gs Hebu-Ode « 1JEBU Ikorodu Togho, Of ‘Ado Gdo awor® Lagos Map of YORUBALAND 020 6 _% 100 Kilometers a aaa TT © 0 100 12 slgberd Terme Imosan—“s\tmmewuro JjebuiMusin mes oldovo Ogbomoso . Offa Hlobu Etim Kuta” Osogbo, ° Bdee * Tjpsh, ties lest elke 1 FE = Aporme lebbas ONDO slic YAGBA Oro OmuAran 2 gtloft Osi lorin tla-Orangun eToure ebajo BS eT Elon Alaise 1GBIRA Bifon kere» hye . AKOKO Akure 9 Owo awo Benin SOKOHenry John Drewal Jobn Pemberton Il Rowland Abiodun ‘The Yoruba-speaking peoples of Nigeria and the Popular Republic of Benin, together with their count- less descendants in other parts of Africa and the Americas, have made remarkable contributions to world ancient and legendary, probably dating to 41. 800-1000, according to the results of archeological excavations at two ancient city sites, Oyo and Ife. These were only two of numerous complex city-states headed by sacred rulers (both women and men) and councils of elders and chiefs. Many have flourished up to our own time. The dynasty of kings at Ife, for example, regarded by the Yoruba as the plice of origin of life itself and of human civiliza- tion, remains unbroken to the present day. In the arts, the Yoruba are heirs to one of the oldest and finest artistic traditions in Africa, a tradition that remains vital and influential today. By A.D. 1100 the artists at Ife had already developed an exquisitely refined and highly naturalistic sculptural tradition in terracotta and stone that was soon followed by works in copper, brass and bronze (Figure 10). Large figures portraying an array of social roles have been found in the region of Esie Of the series of remarkable Yoruba kingdoms over the last nine centuries, one of the earliest was Oyo, sited near the Niger River, the “Nile” of West Africa Straddling this important trading corridor Oyo and its feared cavalry flourished between 1600 and 1830 and came to dominate a vast territory that extended northward to Borgu country, eastward to the Edo, civilization." Their urbanism is The Yoruba World westward to the Fon, and southward to the coast at Whydah, Ajase, and Allada. In Allada the presence of the Yoruba divination system known as If was docu- mented in an early divining way (Figure 11) Another Yoruba kingdom in the southeast, Owo, main- tained close ties to Ife and also experienced the power- ful artistic and cultural influences of Benin between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. Both were changed in the process—Owo anists supplying fine ivory work to the court at Benin, and Owo royalty adapting and trans- forming many Benin titles, institutions, and the regalia of leadership in the process(Figure 4) The Ijebu Yoruba kingdoms (1400-1900) of the coas- tal plain were shaped by many of these same factors These Yoruba became masters of trade along the lagoons, creeks, and rivers as well as ma casting and cloth weaving (Figure 5). They were the first Yoruba to establish trading ties with Europeans in the late fifteenth century. Over the next four centuries, the Yoruba kingdoms prospered and then declined as the devastating effects of the slave trade and inter- necine warfare of the nineteenth century took their toll. ‘The stage was set for the ascendancy of the British and the advent of colonial rule at the end of the nineteenth century One of the effects of eighteenth- and nineteenth-cen- tury disruptions was the dispersal of millions of Yoruba peoples over the globe, primarily to the Americas— Haiti, Cuba, Trinidad, and Brazil—where their late arrival and enormous numbers ensured a strong Yoruba character in the artistic, religious, and social lives of Africans in the New World, That imprint persists today in many arts and in a variety of African-American faiths that have arisen not only in the Caribbean and South ters of bronze America, but also in urban centers across the United1/The Yoruba World nd artistic States.4 Yoruba philosophical, religious, tenets, ideas, and icons have transformed and continue to transform religious beliefs and practices and the aris of persons far beyond Africa's shores. There are several fundamental concepts that are dis tinetive to a Yoruba world view, They provide a founda- tion for comprehending the dynamics of Yoruba ait and culture through time and space, Furthermore, these con- cepts are expressed in words, images, and actions. All three modes of expression contribute to the shaping of Yonuba culture and our understanding of it. Here, we concentrate on concepts conveyed in words and im- ages that seem to permeate a wide variety of forms, media, and contexts. In the Yoruba view, all the arts are closely rekated and are often meant to be understood and seen as images in the mind's eye, Such mental im ages (iran) are related to ojit fnu (literally “inner eye or “insight”).4 Thus, both the words and the forms con sidered in this chapter embody concepts that are per vasive and enduring markers of Yorulya 3 civiliza Lion. The Yoruba Cosmos The Yoruba conceive of the cosmos as consisting of two distinct yet inseparable realms—aye (the visible, tangible world of the living) and orwn (the invisible, spiritual realm of the ancestors, gods, and spirits) (Figures 2 and 3). Such a cosmic conception is often visualized as either a spherical gourd, whose upper and lower hemispheres fit tightly together, or as a divination tray with a raised figurated border enclosing, a flat central surface (Pigure 14). The images clustered around the perimeter of the tay refer to mythic events and persons as well as everyday concems. ‘They depict competing forces. ‘The intersecting lines inscribed on the surface by a a universe populated by countle: diviner at the outset of divination symbolize metaphoric crossroads, orita: meta (the point of intersection be- tween the cosmic realms).6The manner in which they are drawn (vertical from bottom to top, center to right, center t lef) shows them to be dhree paths—a symboli- cally significant number. ‘These lines are always drawn by Yoruba priests at the outset of divination to “open! channels of communication before beginning to reveal nificance for a particular individual, family, group, or community Thus the Yoruba world view is a circle with intersecting lines. the forces at work and to interpret their uch an image also has temporal implications since the Yoruba conceive of the past tial as a model for the present.” They believe that per- sons live, depart, and are reborn and that every individual comes from either the gods or one’s ances: tors on the mother's or the father's side. In addition accessible and essen- 4 YORUBA COSMOS ‘nun orbervett iadonare Creat somes ‘sa cons: a ee $e, Ow, tin ‘enmpesmentald (Coan) ‘Ogun, Sarg, Obst Orala AnceworsOsiArsOrun uit ete | : ' swe and Oru = meet = THe Tue Lnase ANOMLEDGKARLE | aio +1 kingwqueens, Osusho, Fes, NES Ala. ALiSe)] Prjesg Diners. Herbals Innes. Sse. oH Singer, Utes UNKNOWING Children (Oleghen) tbe World 2. A diagram of some of the key elements of the Yoruba cosmos. tt consists of owo distinet yer interactive reaimis—aye, the tangible world of the living and orun, the invisible realm of spiritual forces such ats the gous, ancestors, and spirits, All beings, whether living or spiritual poxsess life force, ase, Those wise indivicduals such ss priests, in inites, cliviners, rulers and elders who learn 10 use it for the benefit of themselves and those around diem are known as alase or aan, Drawing by H. J. Drewal, rituals are efficacious only when they are performed regukuly according to tenets from the past and creative- ly re-presented to suit the present. Orun: The Otherworld Olodumare (also known as Odumare, Olorun, Eleda Eleemi) is conceived as the creator of existence without sexual identity and generally distant, removed from the affairs of both divine and worldly beings, Olodumare is the source of ase, the life force possessed by everything that exists, Orun (the otherworld), the abode of the sacred, is populated by countless forces such as orisa (gods), ara ortin (ancestors) and oro, twin, ajogun, and eghe (various spirits), who are close to the living and frequently involved in human affairs The orisa are deified ancestors and/or personified natural forces. They are grouped broadly into wo categories depending upon their personalities and modes of action—the “cool, temperate, symbolically white gods,” (orisa fieifiur), and the “hot, temperamen- tal gods” (orisa ghighona). The former tend to be gentle, soothing, calm, and reflective and include: Obatala/Orisanka, the divine sculptor; Osoosi/Eyinle, hunter and water lord, Osanyin, lord of leaves and medicines; Oduduwa, first monarch at Ile-Ife; Yemoja.Osun, Yewa, and Oba, queens of their respective rivers Olosa, ruler of the lagoon; and Olokun, goddess of the sea. Many of the “hot gods” are male, although some are female. They include: Ogun, god of Iron; Sango. former king of Oyo and lord of thunder; Obaluaye, lord of pestilence; and Oya, Sango’s wife and queen of the whirlwind. The latter tend to be harsh, demanding, aggressive and quick-tempered ‘This characterization of the oF jt has nothing to do with issues of good and evil. All gods, like humans, pos- sess both positive and negative values—strengths as well as foibles. Only their modes of action differ, which is the actualization of their distinetive ase (life force), as expressed by their natures or personalities Cited), Eur- thermore, the gods are not ranked in any hierarchy, Their relative importance in any given part of the Yoruba world reflects their relative local popularity, reputation, and influence, and the order in which they are invoked in ceremonies has to do with their roles in the ritual and their relationships to each other.? ‘The gods regularly enter the world through their mediums—worshippers who have been trained and prepared to receive the spirit of their divinities during possession trances in the course of religious ceremonies (Figure 6). When the gods are mace manifest in this way, they speak through their devotees, praying and giving guidance. While all the gocls periodically journey to the world, two sacred powers, Ifa and Esu/Blegba, stand at the threshold between the realms of orun and ape, assisting in communication between the divine and human realms, Ifa, actually a Yoruba system of divination, is presided over by Orunmila, its deified mythie founder, who is also sometimes called Ma. Esu/Elegba is the 10 divine messenger and activator, Ifa offers humans the possibility of knowing the for- ces at work in specific situations in their lives and of in- fuencing the course of events through prayer and ctifice, The diviner, or babalatwo Cfather o wisdom’) uses the rituals and poetry of Ifa to identity cosmic forces: the god machinations of the enemies of humankind personified as Death, Disease, Infirmity, and Loss; certain troublesome entities such as eghe abilu (spirit children), who may cause newborn children to die and be reborn frequently thus plaguing their parents until rituals and offerings can set matters tight; and the some- times evil-intentioned persons known collectively as ye “people-of-the-world") who include aje (witches), aso (wizards), and others While Ifa symbolizes the revealable, Esu/Elegba is, the agent of effective action, who also reminds one of the unpredictable nature of human experience. Esu’s sa ancient ncestors, and spirits, and the are 1/The Yoruba World constant and often unsettling activity reminds bumans of the need for guidance in lives of engaged action. Esu, who bears the sacrifices of humans to the orisa and other spirits, is the guardian of the ritual process A verse from Ifa warns that if Esu is not acknowledged, life is the bailing of waters with a sieve."!! ‘The ancestors (oku orun, ost, babanta, iyanta), con- stitute another major category of beings in orm. They are departed but not deceased. ‘They can be contacted hy their descendants for support and guidance and can return to the world either for short stays in the form of maskers called egwgun (Figure 17), or as part of new persons in their lineages who are partially their reincar- nation. A young female child revealed to be the incarna- tion of her grandmother, for example, will be named Yetunde (Mother: -returned”), The grandmother con tinues to exist in orun, but past of her spirit, or breath, emu, is a constituent element of the new child. Aye: The World of the Living Aye, the world, is the visible, tangible realm of the living, including those invisible otherworldly forces that visit frequently and strongly influence human affairs, ‘The importance and omnipresence of the otherworld in this world is expressed in a Yoruba saying: “The world is a marketplace [we visit), the otherworld is home (Aye Loja, orun nile). \ variant of this phrase, Aye 3. Calubash. Oyo, 19th century. The Yoruba conceive of the cosmos as consisting of «wo distinct yet inseparable realms, ayeand orun, Such a cosmic view is often visualized as a spherical gourd, whos upper and lower hemispheres fit tightly together. Carved gourd, Diam, 9% in, Stastliches Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Munich,1/The Yoruba World Fajo, orun nile (“The world [life] is « journey, the other world [afterlife] is home”), contrasts the movement and unpredictability of life with the haven of the afterword that promises spiritual existence for eternity.!? In- dividual goals and aspirations in the world include long life, peace, prosperity, progeny, and good reputation, Ideally, these can be achieved through the constant rch for oghon Gvisdom), imo (knowledge), and ove (understanding) Yoruba society is traditionally open, but with « long history of monarchial and hierarchical organization, Nevertheless, clecision making is shared widely—con- sensual rather than autocratic or dictatorial—and an. elaborate series of checks and balances ensures an es- sentially egalitarian system. Just as all the gods are equal in relation to Olodumare, so too all lineages are structurally equal in their relation to the sacred king. AU the same time, the possibility of mobility is fundamen- tal, depending on how one marshals the forces in the environment, The situation is remarkably fluid and dynamic, Within this context, there is some recognition of rank, yet distribution of responsibilities and authority are given more importance than hierarchy. Seniority is based on the age of the person, the antiquity of the title, and the person’s tenure in office, Such an ideal for social interaction is rooted in the concept of ase, the life force possessed by all individuals and unique to each one. Thus ase must be acknowledge and used in all social matters and in dealings with divine forces as well Ase: Life Force Ase is given by Olodumare to everything—gods, tors, spirits, humans, animals, plants, rocks, rivers, and voived words such as songs, prayers, praises, curses, or even everyday conversation. Existence, according to Yoruba thought, is dependent upon it; it is the power to make things happen and change." In addition to its sacred characteristics, ase also has important social ramifications, reflected in its translation as “power, authority, command.” 4 person who, through training, experience, and initiation, learns how to use the essen- tial life force of things is called an alaase. Theoretically, e tive power and knowledge—the potential for certain achievements. Yet because no one can know with cer ‘0 (caution), ifarabale (composure), owo Gespect), and stuuru (patience) are highly valued in Yoruba society and shape all social in- teractions and organization Social processes encourage the patticipation of all and the contribution of the ase of every person, For s of the council of elder men and sy individual possesses a unique blend of periorma- tainty the potential of others, example, member 16 women, known as Osugbo among the Ijebu Yoruba and Ogboni in the Oyo area, have hereditary titles that rotate among mxtny lineages, and there are other posi tions that are @pen to all in the society, as well as honorary titles bestowed on those who have made spe- cial contributions to the community (Figure 19). Mem- bers stress the equality of such positions in emphasiz- ing their distinctive rights and responsibilities. All are seen as crucial to the successful functioning of the society as evident in Osugbo rituals, The members share kola nut, the drummers play the praises of titles, individuals take turns hosting a series of celebrations each person has the opportunity to state opinions during debates, and all decisions are consensual. Osug- bo members stress the autonomy of their individual roles while at the same time asserting their equality in decision making, At various times some will dominate while others acquiesce, which is entirely in keeping with Yoruba notions of the distinctive ase of indivich and the fluid social reality of competing powers that 6 als continually shape society. Ritua cern for the autonomous ase of particular entities. ‘Those invoked first are not more important or higher in s to invoke divine forces reflect this same con- rank, rather they are called first in order to perform specific tasks—such as the divine mediator Esu/Elegha who “opens the way” for communication between humans and gods. The recognition of the uniqueness and autonomy of the ase of persons and gods is what structures society and its relationship with the other- world Ase and Composition in Art for Ifa and Esu The concept of ase seems also to influence how many of the verbal and visual ants are composed. In the visual arts, for example, a design may be segmented or seriate—a dis- continuous aggregate in which the units of the whole are discrete and share equal value with the other units." The units often have no prescribed order and are interchange- able. Atention to the discrete units of the whole produces a form which is multifocal, with shifts in perspective and proportion. Such elements can be seen in Ifa tays and lidded bowls (Figure 8), veranda posts (Figure 9), carved doors (Figure 20), and ancestral maskers (Figure 18).!7 Such compositions (whether representational or not) mir ror a world order of structurally equal yet autonomous ele- ments. It is formal means of organizing diverse powers, not only to acknowledge theif autonomy but, more impor- tantly, to evoke, invoke, and activate diverse forces, to marshal and bring them into the phenomenal world. The significance of segmented composition in Yoruba art can, be appreciated if one understands that art and ritual are integral to each otherThe design of Ifa sacred ant forms both expresses the presence of a host of cosmic forces and recalls valuable precedents from the mythic past.!* Ifa divination trays, opon, by their composition, articulate a cosmos of com- peting, autonomous forces, The etymology of the tem, opon means “to flatter,”!? tistry of its embellishments, is meant to praise the momentous work of diviners as they seek to disclose and the tray, through the ar the forces active in # situation. The tay’s iconography is often documented in myth, which preserves the les: sons of the past, More importantly, the arrangement of motifs in an object, together with et vocations and actions enacted in its presence, not only acknowledge supernatural forces and events, but bring them into the present world from the other- world and the past for the benefit of devout Yoruba (Figures 12, 13) One opon from the Ulm Museum, West Germany, col- lected at Allada during the first half of the seventeenth icacious in- 4, The Oba Ogunoye Il, Olowo of Owo, wearing his ceremonial cos- tume during the Igogo festival. Stuck in his plaited hair are two white egret tal feathers, Tle wears a shor-sleeve blouse made up of red ibular coral beads. On either side of his white skirt (bolukun) are suspended several rows of stringed red coral beads and a small ceremonial knife hanging down the center from beneath the beaded Photograph by H. J. Drewal blouse. Igogo, Owo, Nigeria, 197 1/The Yoruba World 5. The Olowa, an fjebu priest, wears an aso olona, “the artiul cloth, named for the richness and complexity of its woven designs. These and other woven cloths irom ljebu were traded widely in the Niger Delta, After the Portuguese established trading links with Febu in the late 15th century, Hiebu eloth was also traded (© Brazil where it be came known as pano da costa, “cloth [rom the [West Afticun] coast Fiebu-Ode, Nigeria, 1982. Photograph by H. J. Drewal century, documents the antiquity of segmented com- position (see Figure 11).2? A large frontal face centered at the top has been identified by some as Esu/Elegba, ‘or, although others identify this face h medicine gourds crown the brow, and two profile figures, one with a gourd at the end of a tailed coiffure, may be Esu/Eleg- ba references. Arranged around the border are a myriad the divine media with other forces, Three calaba of images: quadrupeds, cowrie shells, birds, reptiles, women, men, and cultural items such as pipes, tools, swords, sheaths, axes, cups, brooms, shackles(?), drums, gourds, guns, market goods, and divination tappers. Things present in the world crowd the space and ex- press a wide variety of themes: leadership, warfare, sur vival, fertility, protection, and sacrifice, among others There is no unifying narrative; instead these diverse depictions convey the autonomous forces in the Yoruba cosmos that affect and concern the diviner and his clients, Each is given approximately equal visual impor-1/The Yoruba World, 18 6. Initiates of the god Omolu in possesion chnce during a ceremony They wear the besels of their divinity as well as ritual fringed gar ments and carved wooden imitations of guns, symbolic of the general ly aggressive nature of the god. During such spitit possessions, the gods assert their omnipresence and, speaking throuigh their devotees, bless and guide the living, Egua, Egbada area, Nigeria, 1977 Photograph by M. T. Drewal. 7. Two animal maskers or “miracles” (idan) performing during an an- nual Egungun festival. Imasai, Egbado, 1978. Photograph by HJ Drewal tance, thus evoking a dynamic and fluid cosmos of the same forces that “speak” through the verses (ese) recited by the diviner. The composition is segmented and egalitarian, with the marked shifts in perspective and proportion throughout the figurated border.2} In keeping with seriate design and the autonomy of motifs, any visual element may be enlarged or reduced at the discretion of the artist A segmented composition and multiple proportions and perspectives are not the only features of composi- tion in [fa divination trays, There is also an explicit orientation and emphasis on four directions, the four quadrants between these, and the center of the tray The four directions refer to the cardinal points, The orientation of a diviner’s shrine should be eastward, so that morning light enters the room, Frobenius, citing in- formation received early in this century from diviners in8. Ifa bowl, Osi-florin, 19th-2oth century. This splendid figurated bowl was carved by Areogun (c. 1880-1954) of Osi-llorin to hold the materials of divination used by a priest of Ifa. A master of composi arranged the figures in the low-relief carving to sym- the Yoruba experience of the universe as one of continuous and transformation, and interdependence and interaction, of life is shown as the appropriate response for propitiously through this world. Wood. H. 23% in. the human figure in terms of fundame veranda posts that he carved for th another at Fiero, whieh depict the more severe than this veranc tone in the collection of the Staatliches Museum fur Volkerkunde, Munich, res behind cach of the principal figures, conveying a sense of the larger social world in which every in- dividual exists, Wood, pigment, H. 58 in. Cynthia and Cecil A. Ray Jr are conceptually ving, and in a similar lusters fi 1/The Yoruba World10. Head of a Figure, Ife, 1th-12th century. One of the best preserved Ife terra cas. Its cefined, idealized naturalism andl ‘modeling suggest its origins in The Early Paver ta. H_6Y% in. National Commission for Museums ancl Moau- 11. a Divination Tray, Aja Fon, 16th/17th century. Collected at Allada in the early 17h century a rents of its i¢ono- ‘graphy suggest it was probably carved by an Aja or Fon artist who was familiar with Yoruba sacred aft. L, 11 in. Ulmer Museum, Ulm. 12, Babalawo Kolawole Ositola beginning the rite of divination. He marks the crossroads pattern in the iroswn powder on the surface of the opon Ifa and shythmically taps the tray with an éroke Ifa while in- woking the presence of ancient If priests. Porogun Quarter, jebu-Ode Nigeria, 1982, Photograph by J, Pemberton It.4/The Yoruba World 13. Ifa Tray, Ijebu, 19th-20th ceatury. The hold composition of this divination tray is noteworthy. The fice of Esu, guardian of the ritual process, appears at the top. It is unusually large, the lower portion is framed by a curve that sweeps into the central section of the tray where the priest would trace the marks of the Odu that would be revealed during the divination rite, Opposite the face of Eu, 10 knecling figures grasp either end of the intertwined pattern. On either y are coiled snakes. Above them are paits of inierwined fish. A simple design of juxtaposed triangles and circles completes the ‘able interplay of formal and geomettic patterns ancl images of harmony and tension. The carving is a succinct expression of the dynamic at the heart of the Yoruba universe. Wood, Diam. 14 in, Barry D. Maurer side of the 4 imagery. The to1al effect is a 14, Ifa Tray, Oyo, 19th-20th century. "Thiny-one birds gather around the edge of this beautifully carved clivination tay t© witness the con- sultation with Orunmila, the orisa of wisdom, In the poetry of If birds are often associated with female power, (Some priests of Ifa as sert that it was Odu, Orunmila’s wife, who disclosed the secret of Ifa to him.) The iconography of the inner circle depicts two figures smok- ing pipes und the face of Esu, the orisa who transforms the sacrifices ‘of men into food! for the gods. Ac the bottom of the iam carver depicts 4 erab and two mucliish, cre in their ability ( move in marginal realms, On either side of the face of Fsu there is a motif often found in southern Yoruba carvings. [is a visual pun. On the one hand, it shows a face from which arms es: tend from the nostils to frame the face, and three parallel lines which radiate fom a conical crown, Ie also has the structural appearance of 4 mudfish, On the other, tis an image of kingship, for kings are mar xinal beings in whose saeved persons are combined the powers of men and gods. They thus become mediators between the realms of the human and the divine. Wood. Diam. 1794 in. Peter Schnell circle the tures which are like Es15. ia Tray, Ekiti, 20th century. The three faces on this beautifully carved tray are similar those found on carvings by Olowe of Ise {sce Chapter 7), although itis doubrful that Olowe vas the carver. (On divination trays there may be from one to four faces representing. the ever-abservant Eu, In addition to the three faces, the earver has depicwed Fsu in action, The ligure with the phallic hairstyle, an iconographic reference to Esu, Forces a supplicant 10 her knees, 16. Divination way inherited by habilawo Kokiwole Ositola with humbers indicating the order ancl position af invocations, Keb, Nigeria. Drawing afer a photograph by H. J. Drewal Ibadan, Ife, and Lokoja (Lokoya) recorded a myth ex- plaining the origins of this practice: “Long, long ago, when everything was in confusion and young and old died, Oledu-mare (God) summoned Edshu-ogbe and said: ‘Create order in the region of the sunrise.’ To Oyako-Medyi: ‘Create order in the region of he sunset 1/The Yoruba World Next morning Edshu-ogbe created order in the east and in the evening Oyako-Medyi created order in the west.'?? In divination trays, then, the compositional in- terplay of a circle and lines reflects the unity of the Yoruba cosmos populated by diverse, autonomous forces. It represents the intersection of cosmic realms metaphoric crossroads, and the cardinal din mythic personages associated with them, so speaks of legendary diviners and their exploits, which provide precedents for actions and remedies in the present. One old tray, discussed by its owner, the diviner Kolawole Ositola, has eight sec- tions plus one said to represent ancient diviners (Figure 16). The diviner invokes each section as he “opens” the tray by inscrbing lines on it at the beginning of a con- sultation, The main, often the gest, section is called! Oju Opon (“Face of the Tray’; no. 1)23 oriented op- posite the diviner. The part nearest the diviner is the FE: sno. 2). At the right-hand side is Ona Oganran (Straight Path"; no. 3), while the left is Ona Munu, Direct Path"; no. 4). As Ositola explained: “These are ancient forefathers, When you work, work, work, your name will remain in history. ‘That Ona Munu is one of the hard-working, ancient » Opon (“Foot of the Tray diviners, «nd he became so famous that we shall remember his name forever”?! Ona Oganran (Straight Path”) was also famous, His way was straight, meaning straightforward person. . . a good man Straightness is a metaphor for openness, honesty, and trustworthiness. The upper right quadrant of the tray is Alabalotun One-who-proposes-avith-the-right”; no. 5); the upper left is Alaselosi COne-who-implements-with. the-left”; no, 6), On the lower right is Aliletepowo Early-riser-who-sits-down-and-prospers”; no. 7) on the lower left is Afurukeresayo (One-who-ha diviner’s-flywhisk-and-is-happy”; no. 8). The centes, designated the “leader,” of the tray, where the verses of Ifa are marked, is the he was ° and ade Opon (“Center-of-the-tray- has-the-crown’; no, 9). This point of intersection of paths and realms is thus seen and explained as a town,” ade, « conical form with profound symbolic significance in Yoruba thought as we shall see. Afier the diviner “greets” thes then pay homnige to his forefathers, the deities, and certain birds. These birds symbolize the diviner’s ability to chant and also, according to Tfa lore, represent an: cient diviners, As Ositola explained, “all the birds and animals have the knowledge of Ifa in the ancient times.” Many stories in the Lf corpus recount the tials and uibulations of these bird diviners, Their victories nine ancients, he may presage the success of the diviner who invokes their memory. In praising all the sections of the tray, the diviner alents its spiritual powers, readies it for action, 9xmaskers of the ype known as alabula. The distinc ir costume is a brighth ike 19. Titled male ele known as Osugt others. They are Os edi. These, Nigeria, 1 the couneil of ng the Tiebu Yeand, at the same time, focuses the attention of all those present on the divining process. It is also a means by which the diviner establishes his own powers of con- centration. Even more important, the diviner, by invoking, famous past diviners, brings them to the consultation in the world from the otherworld. The divination session is similar (0 all Yoruba spectacles in that the invocation temporarily makes manifest an otherworldly reality.?> Each section of the tray is a path and simultaneously personified entity. All ways are recognized and invoked separately, some with attributes that distinguish their roles. For example, the diviners whose praise names are “The-one-who-proposes-with-the-right” and “The- ‘one-who-implements-with-the-left” refer to the Yoruba belief about the use of the right hand in social/secular matters and of the left in sacred/mystical affairs. The diviner orients himself facing toward an open doorway or path. This direction must be kept clear during invoca- tions to give free access to the forces called upon. The inv cess, their neglect cours disaster. Just as guidance from Ifa mediates the interactions of spiritual forces and humans, so too does Esu/Elegba, a divine messenger, facilitator, transformer, and provo- cateur. Esu/Elegba, the embodiment of the principles of life force, action, and individuality, epitomizes much of the dynamism and vitality in the Yoruba world, He intercedes on behalf of humans in their appeals to spiritual beings, if appropriately treated and honored, but garbles messages and wreaks havoc if angered. Since Esu is crucial to persons’ positive relations with ctions, every individual has a personal Esu who assists in interpretations and actions in specific situations. Esu is also essential to the gods. His ritual objects often have faces pointing in ‘opposite directions and/or figures playing flutes (Figure 24), references to his mediating and messenger roles. He plays the praises of the gods, encouraging them to enter the heads of worshippers during posses- sion trance dances, as is done at Igbogila among the Egbado and Ohori Yoruba (igure 22). Probably the most dramatic icon in Esu arts depi projections bursting from heads (Figure 23). Such projections, in the form of long-tailed coiffures or peak- ed caps, blades, or phalluses surprise and amaze the viewer, At the same time, they evoke the union and passage between this world and the realm of divine for es, this life and the next, Both visibly and metaphori- cally they command, for they refer to potent medicines Coogun ase) that are embedded in the head and allow things to happea, life to be lived. The image of a projecting form is a fundamental motif in many Yoruba ation and the presence of these forces assure uc 4/The Yoruba World art forms and in’ many spheres of Yoruba life.2° It’ is particularly prevalent in Esu imagery because it an- nounces the themes of existence and individuality. In the broadest sense, Esu/Elegba personifies action, generative power, and command—the ase that animates the Yoruba world?’ (Figures 25 and 26), Because interpretations in matters involving super- natural forces can be personal, and because there are regional variations of practice, generalizations about Yoruba religious beliefs and practices are risky. ‘The practice of Yoruba religion is dynamic, not rigidly proscribed. At its center is the use of ase, upon which one's strength and effectiveness are dependent. Because it is essentially performative power, ase diminishes with inaction and strengthens with activity 20. The door and panels on the palace veranda in lla-Orangun were carved in 1927 under the supervision of Ogundeji(c. 1870-1962), the Ccler and head of I's carvers. Akobiogun Fakeye of Inurin’s com= pound carved the door leacing to the room where the King’s crowns dre kept on ritual occasions. His son, Adeosun, carved the panel above the door. The panel on the left was carved by Oje and other careers from Aga’s compound and that on the right by carvers from ‘Ore’s and Obajisun's compounds, The frame for the panels was carved by Ogunwuyi of Ore’s compound. lla Orangun, Nigeria, 1984, Photograph by Joba Pemberton 31/The Yoruba World As the diviner Ositola explained: “IF a person neglects his or her shrine [by not offering prayers or gifts] the spirits will leave....ll you are seeing are the images, The person has relegated the deities to mere idols, ordi- nary images.” Or as another priest deckared, “If you don't feed it, it will die.’28 Ant is important, therefore, in wor- shipping the orisa. The creation of artifacts for shrines and their placement is an act of devotion that equals the ritual significance of prayer or sacrifice. The Yoruba say that a shrine is the “face” (oft) of the divinity or the “face of worship” (gjubo).?? The shrine is the place of meeting, of facing the gods and locating oneself relative to the gods. The objects on a shrine, in particular carved figures, are not images of the deity but of the worshippers of the gods, ‘They provide images of devo- tion and represent the empowerment by the god of those who kneel and present sacrifices and offerings Hence, ritual art both shapes and is shaped by the im- agination of the artist who seeks to reveal the interre- Jatedness of the divine and the human through sculpted image, song and dance Within this dynamie ethos of constant flux, creation, re , and action in a cosmos of ase, cer- rain core principles can still be identified, These define and distinguish Yoruba religious thought and the arts that both shape and express it reation, renew: Ori Inu: loner Head and the Concept of Individuality ‘The head, ori, is of immense importance in Yoruba art and thought. In sculpture its size is often enkurged in rela- tion to the body (1:4 or 1:5) in order to convey its posi- tion as the site of a person's essential nature (wa), and 2 (see Figure 24), More precisely, this spiritual sited in the inner head, (ori int), 2 reflection of her or his as essence is the Yoruba conception of self as having exterior (ode) and interior Gnu) aspects. Inner qualities should rule outer ones, especially such qualities of mind as inner calm, self- control, and patience. A prayer: “May my inner head not spoil my outer one” (ori inte mi ko ma ba t ode je), ex- es this concem. Ode denotes the visible, physical ap pres pearance of a person. It may mask one's inner essence, but it can also reveal it. Ideally it should express a confi dent nobility of mind and dignity (iy, as exemplified in. the unruffled facial expressions of sculptures (see Figure 9) especially exquisite Ife terracottas (see Figure 10), This eleventhytwelfih-century terracotta documents not only the antiquity of Yorubu civilization, but also a refined, idealized naturalism suggestive of a tradition of portraiture which celebrates individuals by means of likenesses. ‘Almost from birth, the Yoruba perform elaborate rituals that reveal both the uniqueness of individuals and their inherent relationship to others. Newborns are ah given special names, known as orwko amutorunwa names brought from the otherworld”) that reflect their spiritual nature as revealed by the ways in which they antived, their origins and their special qualities and, potential. For example, children bosn with their head inside the caul are called amusan if male, or ato if female. They are thought to have a special affinity with their ancestors and are destined to become active mem bers in the egungun or ancestral masking society (see Figure 17), Those born with « head of thick, curly hair are called Dada, while those with soft, slightly curled air that looks like sea shells are called ekine or omolokun ancl are associated with water spirits (Figure 21). Names known as oruko abiso are given alter birth and provide other clues to the nature of the person Oruko abiku, for example, are names given to those who are reincarnations of themselves, that is, they are “children-born-to-die,” meaning to be reborn frequent- ly. Oruko eya names are those given to partial reinear- nations of an ancestor, such as. grandmother or grandfather. The reincarnation is partial because the emi (spirit/breath) of the ancestors continues to exist in orun, but part of it dwells in the newborn and may appear in several children in the same lineage at the same time, These names indicate the spiritual eve qualities and propensities of the person, stressing their uniqueness and their connection to the past, the ances- tors, and the spiritual forces in the universe Names such as oruko abiso or onuko eyo become the central focus in the verbal arts of oriki (praise poems) and orin (songs). These arts embellish the imagery associated with names. They serve to integrate their owne unbroken chain of relations from departed ancestors 10 and into an living relatives, to celebrate the distinctive quali uniqueness of the individual, to invoke the spiritual e sence of the person, and to elevate the person by en- couraging perfection and “faultless performance."? When, such praises are voiced, the head becomes wre inspired or energized”) with the spirit of one’s noble ancestry, which is calculated to encourage high achievement Naming is important because the Yoruba say, oruko nro ni Ca person’s name directs actions and behavior")41 It also encapsulates the pers names are used to reconstruct historical circumstances. The enlarged head in Yoruba sculpture, therefore, plays several roles, It is the site of one’s spiritual essence, the place through which divine forces enter during posses- sion trance, and a kind of visible oribé conveying a chievement on's and the family's history, for person’s dignity and pride in. pc Much of this personal information is often kept private, to be shared only among family members or very close, life-long friends. It is believed that enemies might use such knowledge to one’s detriment. In some21, Children born with soft, curly hair are called momookuen, “children of the sea," because of their spiritual affinity with water spirits. Their curly Nair is allowed to grow long and is likened to sea shells. This omolukun is being, carried by a woman who wears aT: shirt commemorating the annual water spirit festival. t pictures one of the maskers that appears during the occasion. Akio, Febu, Niger: 1982. Photograph by H. J. Drewal areas, for example, it is forbidden to call out a person's name at night in order to avoid attacks by evil-inten- tioned persons or spirits. Protecting the privacy of the being, wholeness, and inner being ensures its we vitality. The privacy and uniqueness of a person are the theme of the ile ori (“house of the head”) in Figure 30, and the abject it holds is the symbol, called the ibori of a person’s inner, spiritual essence or individuality known as iponni (Figure 32). This potent symbol contains clements of egun iponrt (ancestors), orisa, and ewo (potentials, restrictions) everything that plays a significant role in the life of the person. The ile oriis a cloth and leather cylinder elaborately cloaked in cowrie shells, a primary sign of prosperity and good fortune, It is sur- mounted by a projecting stem, sometimes figurated as, for example, an equestrian figure in leather on top of a coni- cal, open-work crown, In striking contrast to the stylized humanism of most Yoruba sculpture, the ide ori, with its ibori, is an abstract conical form, even though the objects are sym- 1/The Yoruba World bols of individuality. These visual contrasts demonstrate how Yoruba artists convey ideas about the inner or spiritual life of persons through abstract forms while depicting the physical exterior of persons in realistic or figurative ways. At the top of the ibort is a stem. It visually and actual- ly commands the cone; it refers to the spiritual head's link with orwn and contains power substances that are intended to actualize this relationship. The cone, with or without stem, is a symbol of the oni inw (inner head), as are: the asw and. sonso ori (projections) on the heads of orisa initiates; the headdresses of ancestral maskers; the crowns of priests, chiefs, and kings; and the sculptures in honor of Esu/Elegba.>* The cone is also an ancient Yoruba symbol of persons and their place in the universe. This is evident in the headgear of prominent persons represented in bronze and terracot- ta, and in the cone-shaped terracotta heads unearthed at Tfe. The cone-shaped #bori is a fundamental image that resonates throughout Yoruba culture. The form of an ibori and its oke iponri (summit), are made of the 22. Man playing a Mute, assisting the drummers in calling down the risa to enter the spiritual heads of their devotees during a ritual. Hg bado, Nigeria, 1978. Photograph by M.T. Dre23, Bou Dance Staff, Osogho, 19th century. Psu, the guardian of the ritual way, bestows riches upon those who follow the sacrificial way of life and steals from those who do not acknowledge his authority, ase. Hence, Psu figures are often laden with beads and cowries, signs of wealth and power. The sexual symbolism in the myths anc! iconog- raphy associated with Esu is emphasized in this figure. Iis owner en- cased the long phallic hair shape, a hallmark of Esu, in an elaborately decorated beaded! sheath, Wood, heads, coweies, H. 18¥s in, De. and Mrs. Robert Kuhn a] Ww tt wy eee) Ri 24. Hsu Dance Staff, Ekiti, 19h century. Bsu/Blegba, the divine mes serge, facilitator, transformer and provocateur mediates berween the interactions of spiritual forces and humans. He interceces on behalf of humans in their appeals to spiritual beings, ifppropriately treated and honored, but garbles messages and wreaks havoc if angered. Since Fsu is crucial to peoples’ positive relaionship with their divine origins and interactions, each individual has a personal Esu who assists in interpretations and actions in specific situations, His ritual objects often have faces pointing in opposite directions and/or figures play- ing Mutes, ceerences to roles as mediator ane messenger. Wood, in- digo dye, beads, H. 167 in. The University of lowa Muscum of Art; ‘The Stanley Collection 25, Bsu Figures, Ighomina, 19th-20kh century. The [gbomina Yoruba employ a distinctive ritual object for Esu, the messenger of the gods. Ic consists of a group of carvings, usually two pairs of male and Female figures, to which long strands of cowrie shells, symbols of wealth, are attached. A third female figure, probably Once part of a similar grouping which as been damaged, has heen adele, It is Es who possesses the power to bring opposites together in fruitful rela- tionships. Wood, cowrie shells, H. 1372 in Sol and Josephine Levitt 26, At the time of the annual festival for Esu in the [gbomina town of Jla-Orangun, an Esu devotee from Olajoko's compound caries her su shrine t0 the market to dance in honor of her lord. ‘The grouping consists of paired male and female figures. Beneath the cownee shells black seed pods eascade from the figures, suggestive of the wealth and fecundity that Esu can shower upon those who acknowledge his power lla-Oringun, Nigeria, 1977. Photograph by Jahn Pemberton rt 1/The Yoruba World UT | NLA1/The Yoruba World 29. The palace at Oyo With the Aremo, the son of the Alafin, and palace officials taken in the early twentieth century, "Photographs of Nigeria c. 1907-1912." Vol. 16. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Library and Records Department, London, Enghand. 30. House of the Head Shrine, Oyo, 19th~20th century. The *house Of the head,” fle orf, made of cloth and leather and covered with cowrie shells, holds the symbol of a person's spiritual essence and individuality, bor The shells are signs of wealth and well-being. The equestrian serves as an image of prestige. Together they proclaim the prosperity and good fortune resulting from a life well lived. Cloth, cowries, fiber. H. 21 in, The Seattle Art Muscum, Katherine White Collection. 5 eI e TNA a0, 27. The Ataoja, Oba of Osog- bo, wearing the great crown, at the concluding rite of the (Osun estival. Osogbo, Nigeria, 1965, Archives of the Institute of Alfiean Stuclies, University of Ibadan, Photograph by D. Simmonds. 28. The Ore of Otun with his wives. The King’s face is not only covered by a veil of beads but is concealed by a beaded shield held over his mouth, In the past the faces of kings were not to be seen, for itis in the crown, not the face that royal power resides. ‘The photograph was taken in the first decade of the twen: tieth century by an unknown photographer whose caption reads: “Ore of Awton.’ Tribal Photographs’, Vol. 9, Foreign | and Commonwealth Office © Library and Recorcls Depant- | ment, London, England,person's placenta and materials that represent deities ot others, for example water (if river deities are present), stone (for Ogun), palm. nut (for Ifa), mud Gor Ogboni, mothers, ancestors), and wind (ior Oya, Sango, Oranfe). Other conical forms also refer to the fghori: various types of Esu/Elegba forms; sigidi (clay sculp- tures) for various purposes; face bells of the Ijebu; the orun oba of Ekiti; the concept of ofiti ‘mounds of agreement”) establishing boundaries and marking momentous pacts; the ehe or conical earthen mounds holding the symbols of cach of the sixteen major verses of Ifa in addition to one for Esu for certain Ifa ceremonies. In addition, umbrellas and peaked roofs seem to be part of this complex of ibori symbols.23 The cloth cone of umbrellas, primary symbols of kings and their sacred heads, and the conical form of roofs can be seen in an carly photograph of the Aremo, son of the Alafin, and other palace officials in front of the palace at Oyo (Figure 29). The pointed spires mark the loca- tion of the Robt (verandas) where the king sits for im- portant meetings and during public rituals, making them the architectural equivalent to the conical crowns that cover and protect the king's sacred head during once-rare public appearances. The cone is also part of every version of the Yoruba creation myth: 2 creature descends and spreads earth on the surface of water to create a cone of land—the origin of the name Ile-lIfe (Home-Spread), This cone is a primal image for ase in the world. Rendered two-dimensionally, the cone is a tiangle. It can be found in the triangles of cowries and leather panels on ibori, in the red, serrated border enclosing the ancestral spirit in egungun maskers (see Figure 17), and in amulets containing power substances (Figure 33). Furthermore, Yoruba artists often render the pubic area of both women and men as triangles, representing centers of great generative power, and given praise names such as “path to the otherworld, “power concealed,” egun, or oba ninu aye (“the ruler of the world’).35 pointed downward, the tr iangle be- comes the symbol of the heart, an organ that figures prominently in certain rites as in the enthronement of kings. Itis the head that also links the person with the otherworld. When a child comes into the world, one of the first rites to be performed is imort (Knowing-the- Head”) ceremony during which a diviner determines from where the child comes—from the father’s ot mother’s lineages, or from a particular orisa3 If the child comes from an orisa, it means the person should become a follower of that god. At the time of orisa in- itiation (which usually occurs during adulthood), the person undergoes elaborate instruction and prepara- tions in order to be able to receive, that is, become a 32 31. Crown, Ekiti, 19th~20th century, The conical beaded crown with veil symibolizes the inner spiritual head of the king and Knks hin with all his royal ancestors who have joined the pantheon of pods: Cloth, Yenetian glass beads, fiber. H, 30 in, The Milton D. Ratner Family Collection, 32, Ori Container, western Yoruba, 19th-20th century. The ibort is made of various ingredients associated with one’s ancestors, gods, and the restrictions or taboos (exo) one must abide by. It thus con tains everything essential to a person's life. All of these substances are tightly packed and covered in beads in an abstractect human Form with a stylized head or conical form to convey something of the inner or spiritual life of individuals. Glass beads, cowie shells, leather. H. 6¥ in, Lent from the Alexandra Collection by Balint B, Denes.vessel for, the spiritual presence or ase of her/his divinity during the tances that are an essential part of Yoruba worship. In prepa cause it is the ori ize that receives the spirit (Figure 34), a person’s head is shaved, bathed, anointed, inoculated, and painted with spiritually potent substances and sym- bolic colors possessing the ase to attract and direct spiritual forces in particular ways. When possession ration for such occasions, be- oceurs, the Yoruba say that the gods have ge mounted”) their worshippers. They are known as elegun orisa ¢gods’ mounts”) or esin arisa horses of the gods”), Such a metaphor is remarkably similar to another used in relation to art. The Yoruba say that “proverbs are the horses of sp words, proverbs are succinct verbal evocations and em- ch” (owe, Fesin oro). In other bellishments of conversation that support, carry, and elevate speech, and intensify the expressiveness of ideas, Proverbs are verbal art, not simply verbal com- munication.>* Thus we may understand Yoruba arts lly uplift and move their viewers by the beauty and power of their expressiveness. embellishments that lite ‘The Oba’s Crown: Symbol of Authority Among all Yoruba peoples, the ade (crown) is the prin cipal symbol of « king’s authority. According to the Orangun-Ila, the crown is an orisa (Figure 31.3? When the ade is placed upon the king's head, his ori inu inner head) hecomes one with all those who have reigned before him, who are now orisa. There is an ancient story that says that before he died, Oduduwa, the founder and first king of the Yoruba people, gave a beaded ade to each of his sons and sent them forth to establish their own kingdoms. Another version, with many variations, states that when Oduduwa was old and almost blind, his sons stole their father’s ades and with the authority of the ade estab- lished their own kingdoms. Taken together, as they should be, the stories acknowledge the primacy of Tle- Ife as the earliest “crowned town” from which all Yoruba kings must trace their descent, and they reflect the tension that has existed over the centuries between le-ife and other Yoruba kingdoms Certain local oral histories of some Yoruba sub- groups (for example, towns and villages among the southern Ekiti, Igbomina, Ondo and Ijebu peoples) fre- quently suggest an origin other than Ile-Ife, a claim often supported by evidence derived from a people's material culture and religious practices. Nevertheless, since the mid-nineteenth century there has been widespread concer to establish the authority of the oba (king) through an identification with Oduduwa and Tle-Ife. Over the centuries, and ever since the civil wars The Yoruba World 33. Pair of Ibeji figures, Ighomiina, 19th century. Pair of ere shes with carved Islamic amulets (stra) suspended from their necks, The carv- ings are in the style of Bogunjoko, master curver from Inurin’s com pound, Ilt-Orangun, who died about 1870, Wood, beads, cowries Countesy af Sotheby's 34. Those who receive the spirit of their divinity curing possession trance are required to unclergo extensive training. In preparing for such occasions, the heads of initiates are shaved, bathed, anointed, and painted with substances, colors, and patterns to attract ane! direct the spirits that will be imporant in the life of the person, Iparinla, Ijebu, 1986, Photograph by M. T, Drewal