University of Development Alternative (UODA)

Advertising and Promotion Management

Reza Fakhruzzaman, Course Teacher

Table of contents

1. INTRODUCTION: INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION..................................................................................................2

2. PROMOTIONAL MIX: THE TOOLS FOR IMC..........................................................................................................................4
3. PROMOTION - ADVERTISING: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................9
4. SOURCE, MESSAGE, AND CHANNEL FACTORS:...................................................................................................................13
5. ADVERTISING - SETTING THE ADVERTISING BUDGET..........................................................................................................19
6. ADVERTISING - EFFECTIVENESS?......................................................................................................................................21
7. ADVERTISING- MEDIA....................................................................................................................................................22
8. ADVERTISING- WHY AND WHAT?...................................................................................................................................23
9. PROMOTION - DIRECT MARKETING..................................................................................................................................25
11. PROMOTION - PERSONAL SELLING..................................................................................................................................29
12. PROMOTION - PUBLIC RELATIONS..................................................................................................................................31
13. PROMOTION- PUSH AND PULL STRATEGIES......................................................................................................................34
14. PROMOTION - SALES PROMOTION...................................................................................................................................36
15. PROMOTION - SPONSORSHIP...........................................................................................................................................38

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1. Introduction: Integrated Marketing Communication

The global market place consists of an increasingly complex arena of competitors within a rapidly
changing environment. New companies are formed on a daily basis, from small business to
internet-based operations, to expanding global conglomerates originating from major takeovers and
mergers. At the same time big market leaders invest a lot in marketing activities. From approaches
as simple as using billboards to methods as complex as established global websites, the number and
ways to reach out to customers continually increases.

In the face of these sophisticated and cluttered market conditions, firms try to be heard. They
attempt to speak with clear voice about the natures of their operations and the benefits associated
with the firm’s goods and services. With so many choices available, and so many media
bombarding potentials customers with messages, it is vital that what should be communicated is
reaching buyers in a clear and consistent manner.

Integrated Marketing Communications

An Integrated Marketing Communications program is based on the foundation provided by the
communication model. IMC programs have been described in several ways; the consensus is to
define them as follows: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) is the coordination and
integration of all marketing communication tools, avenues, and sources within a company into a
seamless program that maximizes the impact on consumers and other end users at a minimal cost.
This integration affects all firm’s business-to-business, marketing channel, customer-focused,
internally directed communications.

Another definition from the American Association and of Advertising Agencies (4As) ; “ a
concepts of marketing communications planning that recognizes the added value of a
comprehensive plan that evaluates the strategic roles of a variety of communication disciplines—
for example, general advertising, direct response, sales promotion, and public relations—and
combines these disciplines to provide clarity, consistency, and maximum communications impact.”

Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) is the coordination and integration of all marketing
communication tools, avenues, and sources within a company into a seamless program that
maximizes the impact on consumers and other end users at a minimal cost.

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Reasons for the Growing Importance of IMC,

The move towards integrated marketing communications is one of the most significant marketing
developments that occurred during the 1990s, and the shift toward this approach is continuing as
we begin the new country. The IMC approach to marketing communications planning and strategy
is being adopted by both large and small companies as business-to-business marketers. There are a
number of reasons why marketers are adopting IMC approach.

The IMC approach to marketing communications planning and strategy is being adopted by both
large and small companies as business-to-business marketers. There are a number of reasons why
marketers are adopting IMC approach.

A fundamental reason is that they understand the value of strategically integrating the various
communications functions rather than having them operates autonomously.
The move to integrated marketing communications also reflects an adaptation by marketers to a
changing environment, particularly with respect to consumers, technology, and media.

Major characteristics of this marketing revolution include:

 A shifting of marketing dollars from media advertising to other forms of promotions.
 A movement away from relying on advertising-focused approaches, which emphasize mass
media such as network television and national magazines, to solve communication problem.
 The Web alone cannot be used to build brands; brand awareness potential is limited
 Best bet is to wed traditional branding efforts with the interactivity and service capabilities of
online communications
 Web efforts can enhance relationships

Using IMC, the company carefully integrates and coordinates its many communication channels to
deliver a clear, consistent, and compelling message about the organization and its brands

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2. Promotional Mix: the tools for IMC

It is not enough to have good products sold at attractive prices. To generate sales and profits, the
benefits of products have to be communicated to customers.

Promotion is all about companies communicating with customers.

A business' total marketing communications program is called the "promotional mix" and consists
of a blend of advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and public relations tools. In this
revision note, we describe the four key elements of the promotional mix in more detail.
It is helpful to define the four main elements of the promotional mix before considering their
strengths and limitations.

A business' total marketing communications program is called the promotional mix and consists of
a blend of:
• Advertising
• Direct marketing
• Internet/interactive marketing
• Personal selling
• Sales promotion
• Public relations tools
Promotion has several possible objectives and many pieces of marketing promotion aim to achieve
several of the following objectives at the same time:

Inform
Management may need to make their audience aware that their product exists, and to explain
exactly what it does. This is a particularly important objective for new products

Persuade
An important stage in creating favorable attitudes towards the business and its brands. Through
persuasive promotion, management will seek to persuade customers and the trade that their brand
has benefits that are superior to competitors

Image creation
Sometimes, promoting a brand image is the only way to create differentiation in the mind of the
consumer (e.g. lager advertising)

Reassurance
Much promotion (particularly advertising) is about reassuring customers that they have made the
right choice and encouraging them to stay loyal to a brand.

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There are a large and growing number of promotional methods that businesses can use. The main
instruments - advertising, direct response mailing, sales promotion, public relations and direct
selling, are often mixed together as part of the promotional mix. Each has different strengths.
What is important is that the promotional mix is carefully planned and the results monitored to
ensure that the total promotional cost is controlled.

Advertising
Any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an
identified sponsor.
 Can reach masses of geographically dispersed buyers.
 Can repeat a message many times.
 Is impersonal, one-way communication.
 Can be very costly for some media types.
 Reaches large, geographically dispersed audiences, often with high frequency
 Low cost per exposure, though overall costs are high
 Consumers perceive advertised goods as more legitimate
 Dramatizes company/brand
 Builds brand image; may stimulate short-term sales
 Impersonal; one-way communication

Direct Marketing-DM
In direct marketing organizations communicate directly with target customers to generate a
response and/or a transaction.
 One of the major tools of DM is direct response advertising, whereby a product is
promoted through an ad that encourages the consumer to purchase directly from the
manufacturer.
 DM tools and techniques are also being used by companies that distribute their
products through traditional distribution channels or have their own sales force.
 Many forms: Telephone marketing, direct mail, online marketing, etc.
 Four characteristics:
o Nonpublic
o Immediate
o Customized

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o Interactive
 Well-suited to highly targeted marketing efforts

Interactive/Internet Marketing
Interactive media allow for a back-and-forth flow of information whereby users can participate in
and modify the form and content of the information they receive in real time. Unlike traditional
forms of marketing communications such as advertising, which are one-way in nature, the new
media allow users to perform a variety of functions such as receive and alter information and
images, make inquires, respond to questions, and, of course, make purchase.

Sales Promotion
Sales promotion consists of short-term incentives to encourage the purchase or sales of a product or
service. The idea behind sales promotion is to generate immediate sales.

Sales Promotions are defined as those marketing activities that provide extra value to the sales
force, the distributors, or the ultimate consumers and can stimulate immediate sales.
 May be targeted at the trade or ultimate consumer
 Makes use of a variety of formats: premiums, coupons, contests, etc.
 Attracts attention, offers strong purchase incentives, dramatizes offers, boosts sagging
sales
 Stimulates quick response
 Short-lived
 Not effective at building long-term brand preferences

Sales Promotion Sales promotion is generally broken into two major categories:
 Consumer-oriented sales promotion:
 Trade-oriented sales promotion:
 Sales Force promotion:

Important note: Promotion and sales promotion are two terms that often create confusion in the
advertising and marketing fields. Promotion is an element of marketing by which firms
communicate with their customers; it includes all the promotional-mix elements. In this course
PROMOTION is used in broader sense to refer the various marketing communications activities.

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Publicity/Public Relations
Publicity refers to nonpersonal communications regarding an organization, product, service, or idea
not directly paid for or run under identified sponsorship.

Public relation is building good relations with the company’s various publics by obtaining
favorable publicity, building up a good corporate image, and handling or heading off unfavorable
rumors, stories, and events.
 Highly credible
 Many forms: news stories, news features, events and sponsorships, etc.
 Reaches many prospects missed via other forms of promotion
 Dramatizes company or benefits
 Often the most underused element in the promotional mix

Personal selling
Personal selling defines as the form of person-to-person communication in which a seller attempts
to assist and/or persuade prospective buyers to purchase the company’s product or service or to act
on an idea. This face to face interaction gives the marketer communication flexibility; the seller can
see or hear the potential buyer’s reactions and modify message accordingly.
 Most effective tool for building buyers’ preferences, convictions, and actions
 Personal interaction allows for feedback and adjustments
 Relationship-oriented
 Buyers are more attentive
 Sales force represents a long-term commitment
 Most expensive of the promotional tools

Promotional Management
In developing an integrated marketing communications strategy, a company combines the
promotional-mix elements, balancing the strengths and weaknesses of each, to produce an effective
promotional campaign. Promotional Management involves coordinating the promotional-mix
elements to develop a controlled, integrated program of effective marketing communications.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Element of the Promotional Mix

Mix Element Advantages Disadvantages
Advertising Good for building • Impersonal - cannot
awareness answer all a
Effective at reaching a customer's questions
wide audience • Not good at getting
Repetition of main customers to make a
brand and product positioning helps final purchasing
build customer trust decision
Personal Selling Highly interactive - • Costly - employing
lots of communication between the buyer a sales force has
and seller many hidden costs
Excellent for in addition to wages
communicating complex / detailed • Not suitable if there
product information and features are thousands of
Relationships can be important buyers
built up - important if closing the sale
make take a long time
Sales Promotion Can stimulate quick • If used over the
increases in sales by targeting long-term,
promotional incentives on particular customers may get
products used to the effect
Good short term • Too much
tactical tool promotion may
damage the brand
image
Public Relations Often seen as more • Risk of losing
"credible" - since the message seems to control - cannot
be coming from a third party (e.g. always control what
magazine, newspaper) other people write
Cheap way of or say about your
reaching many customers - if the product
publicity is achieved through the right
media

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3. Promotion - Advertising: Introduction

The Institute of Practitioners in Advertising (IPA), the body which represents advertising agencies,
defines advertising as:
"The means of providing the most persuasive possible selling message to the right prospects
at the lowest possible cost".

Kotler and Armstrong provide an alternative definition:

"Advertising is any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods
and services through mass media such as newspapers, magazines, television or radio by an
identified sponsor".

The Five Ms of Advertising

or Major Decisions in Advertising

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There are five main stages in a well-managed advertising campaign:

Stage 1: Set Advertising Objectives

An advertising objective is a specific communication task to be achieved with a specific target

audience during a specified period of time. Advertising objectives fall into three main categories:
(a) To inform - e.g. tell customers about a new product
(b) To persuade - e.g. encourage customers to switch to a different brand
(c) To remind - e.g. remind buyers where to find a product

Stage 2: Set the Advertising Budget

Marketers should remember that the role of advertising is to create demand for a product. The
amount spent on advertising should be relevant to the potential sales impact of the campaign. This,
in turn will reflect the characteristics of the product being advertised.
Factors considered when budget-setting:
 Stage of product life cycle
 Market share and consumer base
 Competition and clutter
 Advertising frequency
 Product substitutability
For example, new products tend to need a larger advertising budget to help build awareness and to
encourage consumers to trial the product. A product that is highly differentiated may also need
more advertising to help set it apart from the competition - emphasizing the points of difference.
Setting the advertising budget is not easy - how can a business predict the right amount to spend.
Which parts of the advertising campaign will work best and which will have relatively little effect?
Often businesses use "rules-of-thumb" (e.g. advertising/sales ratio) as a guide to set the budget.

Stage 3: Determine the key Advertising Messages

Spending a lot on advertising does not guarantee success (witness the infamous John Cleese
campaign for Sainsbury). Research suggests that the clarity of the advertising message is often
more important than the amount spent.
Factors considered when choosing the advertising message:
 Message generation
 Message evaluation and selection
 Message execution
 Social responsibility review

The advertising message must be carefully targeted to impact the target customer audience. A
successful advertising message should have the following characteristics:

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(a) Meaningful - customers should find the message relevant

(b) Distinctive - capture the customer's attention
(c) Believable - a difficult task, since research suggests most consumers doubt the truth of
advertising in general

Stage 4: Decide which Advertising Media to Use

There are a variety of advertising media from which to choose. A campaign may use one or more
of the media alternatives. The key factors in choosing the right media include:
(a) Reach - what proportion of the target customers will be exposed to the advertising?
(b) Frequency - how many times will the target customer be exposed to the advertising message?
(c) Media Impact - where, if the target customer sees the message - will it have most impact?
(d) Choosing Media Type; Factors to consider:
• Media habits of target consumers
• Nature of the product
• Type of message
• Cost
• Media vehicles
 Specific media within each general media type
(e) Determining media timing: Must decide how to schedule the advertising over the course of a year.
• Follow seasonal pattern
• Oppose seasonal pattern
• Same coverage all year
• Choose the pattern of the ads
• Continuity
• Pulsing
(f) Deciding on geographical media allocation
For example does an advert promoting holidays for elderly people have more impact on Television
(if so, when and which channels) or in a national newspaper or perhaps a magazine focused on this
segment of the population?

Another key decision in relation to advertising media relates to the timing of the campaign. Some
products are particularly suited to seasonal campaigns on television (e.g. Christmas hampers)
whereas for other products, a regular advertising campaign throughout the year in media such as
newspapers and specialist magazines (e.g. cottage holidays in the Lake District) is more
appropriate.

Stage 5: Evaluate the results of the Advertising Campaign

The evaluation of an advertising campaign should focus on two key areas:
(1) The Communication Effects - is the intended message being communicated effectively
and to the intended audience?

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(2) The Sales Effects - has the campaign generated the intended sales growth. This second
area is much more difficult to measure.

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4. Source, Message, and Channel Factors:

To develop an effective advertisement and promotion campaign, a firm must select the right
spokesperson to deliver a compelling message through appropriate channels or media. Source,
message, and channels factors are controllable elements in the communication model. The
persuasion matrix helps marketer to see how each controllable elements interacts with the
consumer’s response process. Dependent variables are the steps a receiver goes through in being
persuaded. Marketers can choose the person or source who delivers the message, the type of
message appeal used, and the channel medium.

Promotional planners need to know how decisions about each independent variables influence the
stage of the response hierarchy so that they don’t enhance one stage at the expense of another. The
following examples, which correspond to the numbers in the figure, illustrate decisions that can be
evaluated with the persuasion

Independent Variables: The communication components

Dependent
Variables:
Source Message Channel Receiver Destination
Steps in being
persuaded
Message
2
Presentation
Attention 4
Comprehension 1
Yielding 3
Retention
Behavior

1. Receiver/comprehension: Can the receiver comprehend the ad? Marketers must know
their target market to make their message clear and understandable. A less educated person
may have more difficulty interpreting a complicated message.
2. Channel/presentation: Which media will increase presentation? Marketer should think
about the media where the advertisement will be presented.
3. Message yielding: What type of message will create favorable attitudes or feelings?
Marketers generally try to create agreeable message that lead to positive feelings toward the
product or service.
4. Source Attention: Who will be effective in getting consumers’ attention? The large
number of ads we are bombarded with everyday makes it difficult for advertisers to break
through the clutter. Marketers deals with this problem by using sources who will attract the
audience’s attention—actors, athletes, rock stars, or attractive models.

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Source Factor: Source Credibility, Source Attractiveness and Source Power,

 Personal source may be influential

 Word-of-mouth
 Direct source: is a spokesperson who delivers message or demonstrate a product or services.
 Indirect source: is a model who doesn’t actually the message but draws attention to enhance
the ad.
 Some ads use neither direct nor an indirect source; the source is the organization with the
message to communicate.
Herbert Kelman developed three basic categories of source attributes: credibility, attractiveness,
and power. Each influences the recipient’s attitude or behavior through a different process.

Source Attribute Process

Credibility Internationalization
Attractiveness Identification
Power Compliance

Source Credibility
Credibility is the extent to which the recipient sees the source as having relevant knowledge, skill,
or experience and trusts the source gives unbiased objective information.

Information from a credible source influences beliefs, opinions, attitudes, or behavior through a
process known as internalization, which occurs when a receiver adopts the opinion of the credible
source is accurate.

Two dimensions to credibility, expertise and trustworthiness.

Applying expertise
 Companies use a variety of techniques to convey source expertise.
 Sales personnel are trained in the product line, which increases customers’ perception.
 Marketers of highly technical products recruit sales rep with technical background.

Applying trustworthiness
 While expertise is important, the target audience must also find the source believable.
Finding celebrities with a trustworthy image is often difficult.

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 Many trustworthy public figures hesitate to endorse products because of the potential
impact on their reputation.
 Overheard-conversation technique to enhance trustworthiness.
 By using other IMC tools such as publicity, trustworthiness can be increased.
 Using corporate leaders as spokespeople

Limitations of credible source

 High and low-credibility sources are equally effective when they are arguing for a position
opposing their best interest.
 Very credible source is more effective when message recipients are not in favor of the
position advocated in the message.
 Very credible source is less effective when the audience has a neutral position.
 Another reason a low-credibility source may be as effective as a high-credibility source is
the sleeper effect, whereby the persuasiveness of a message increases with the passage of
time.

Source Attractiveness
 A source characteristics frequently used by advertisers is attractiveness, which encompasses
similarity, familiarity, and likability.
 Similarity is a supposed resemblance between the source and the receiver of the message, while
familiarity refers to knowledge of the source through exposure.
 Source attractiveness leads to persuasion through a process of identification, whereby the
receiver is motivated to seek some type of relationship with the source and thus adopts similar
beliefs, attitudes, preferences, or behavior.

Applying Similarity
Marketers recognize that people are more likely to be influenced by a message coming form
someone with whom they feel to have similarity.

Applying Likability: using celebrities

Advertisers recognize the value of using spokespeople who are admired: TV and movie stars,
athletes, musicians, and other popular public figures. They think celebrities have stopping
power that is; they draw attention to advertising message in a very cluttered media
environment.

A number of factors must be considered when a company decides to use a celebrity

spokesperson, including the dangers of –
 Overshadowing the product

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 Overexposure
 Target audiences’ receptivity

Risk to the advertisers

 Celebrities’ personal life problem…..

Applying Likability: decorative models

Advertisers often draw attention to their ads by featuring a physically attractive person who
serves as a passive or decorative model rather than as an active communicator. Research
suggests that physically attractive communicators generally have a positive impact and generate
more favorable evaluations of both ads and products than less attractive models.

Source Power
 The final characteristics in Kelman’s classification scheme is source power.
 A source has power when he or she can actually administer rewards and punishments to
the receiver.
 The power of source depends on several factors. The source must be perceived as being
able to administer positive or negative sanctions to the receiver (perceived control) and
the receiver must think the source cares about whether or not the receiver conforms
(perceived concern) the receiver’s estimate of the source’s ability to observe conformity
is also important ( perceived scrutiny).
 When a receiver perceives a source as having power, the influence process occurs
through a process known as compliance

Message Factors: Message Structure, and Message Appeals

The way marketing communications are presented is very important in determining their
effectiveness. Promotional managers must consider not only the content of their persuasive
message but also how this information will be structured for presentation and what type of message
appeal will be used.

Message Structure
 Marketing communications usually consists of number of message points that the
communicator wants to get across. An important aspect of message strategy is knowing the
best way to communicate these points and overcome any opposing viewpoints audience
members may hold.

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 Extensive research has been conducted on how the structure of a persuasive message
can influence its effectiveness, including order of presentation, conclusion drawing,
message sidedness, refutation, and verbal versus visual message characteristics.

Order presentation:
Research on learning and memory generally indicates that items presented first and last are
remembered better than those presented in the middle.
 Presenting the strongest arguments at the beginning of the message assume a primacy
effect is operating, whereby information presented first is most effective.
 Putting the strongest argument at the end assumes a recency effect, whereby the last
arguments presented are most persuasive.

Conclusion drawing:
Marketing communication must decide whether their message should explicitly draw a firm
conclusion or allow receivers to draw their own conclusions. Research suggests that, in general,
message with explicit conclusion are more easily understood and effective in influencing
attitudes. However, other studies have shown that the effectiveness of conclusion drawing may
depend on the target audience, the types of issue or topic, and nature of the situation.

Message Sidedness:
Another message structure decision facing the marketer involves message sidedness.
 A one-sided message mentions only positive attributes or benefits. One sided
message are most effective when the target audience are already got a favorable
opinion about the topic.
 Two sided message presents both good or bad points. It is more effective when the
target audience holds an opposing opinion or is highly educated. Two sided message
may enhance the credibility of the source.

Refutation:
In a special type of two sided message known as a refutational appeal, the communicator
presents both sides of an issue then refutes the opposing viewpoint.

Verbal versus visual message:

The nonverbal, visual elements of an ad are also very important. Both verbal and visual
portions of an ad influence the way the advertising message is processed. Consumers may
develop images or impressions based on visual elements.

Message Appeals

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One of the advertisers’ most important creative strategy decisions involves the choice of an
appropriate appeal. Some ads are designed to appeal to the rational, logical aspect of the
consumer’s decision making process; others appeal to feelings in an attempt to evoke some
emotional reaction. Many believe that effective advertising combines the practical reasons for
purchasing a product with emotional values.

Comparative advertising
It is the practice either directly or indirectly naming competitors in an ad and comparing one or
more specific attributes. This may be particularly useful for new brands, since it allows a new
market entrant to position itself directly against the more established brands and to promote its
distinctive advantages.

Fear Appeals:
Fear is an emotional response to a threat that expresses, or at least implies, some sort of danger.
Ads sometimes use fear appeals to evoke this emotional response and arouse individuals to take
steps to remove the threat. eg. Drug ads,

Humor Appeals:
Humorous ads are often the best known and best remembered of all advertising message.
Humorous is usually presented through radio and TV commercials as these media lend
themselves to the execution of humorous message.

Channel Factor: Personal Vs. Nonpersonal Channel, Channel Effectiveness.

The final controllable variable of the communication process is the channel, or medium, used to
deliver the message to the target audience.

Personal Vs. Nonpersonal Channel

There are a number of basic differences between personal and nonpersonal communications
channels. Information received from personal influence channel is generally more persuasive
than information received via mass media.

Effects of alternative mass media

 Differences of information processing

Effects of context and environment

Clutter

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5. Advertising - Setting the Advertising Budget

Introduction
A famous comment usually attributed to Lord Leverhulme goes:
“I know that half of my advertising budget is wasted, but I’m not sure which half”
It is notoriously difficult to measure the effect of advertising on a business’ sales. Advertising is
just one of the variables that might affect sales in a particular period. These include:
• • Consumer and business confidence
• • Levels of disposable income
• • Availability of product (e.g. does the retailer actually have stock to sell?)
• • Availability of competing products
• • The weather (often blamed by retailers for poor sales!)
How can a business know whether a specific advertising campaign was effective?
As a percentage of sales, advertising expenditure varies enormously from business to business,
from market to market. For example, the leading pharmaceutical companies spend around 20% of
sales on advertising, whilst business such as Ford and Toyota spend less than 1%. An average for
fast-moving consumer goods markets (“FMCG”) is around 8-10% of sales.
In practice, the following approaches are used for setting the advertising budget:

Approaches to setting the advertising budget

Method (1) Fixed percentage of sales
In markets with a stable, predictable sales pattern, some companies set their advertising spend
consistently at a fixed percentage of sales. This policy has the advantage of avoiding an
“advertising war” which could be bad news for profits.
However, there are some disadvantages with this approach. This approach assumes that sales are
directly related to advertising. Clearly this will not entirely be the case, since other elements of the
promotional mix will also affect sales. If the rule is applied when sales are declining, the result will
be a reduction in advertising just when greater sales promotion is required!

Method (2) Same level as competitors

This approach has widespread use when products are well-established with predictable sales
patterns. It is based on the assumption that there is an “industry average” spend that works well for
all major players in a market.
A major problem with this approach (in addition to the disadvantages set out for the example
above) is that it encourages businesses to ignore the effectiveness of their advertising spend – it
makes them “lazy”. It could also prevent a business with competitive advantages from increasing
market share by spending more than average.

Method (3) Task

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The task approach involves setting marketing objectives based on the “tasks” that the advertising
has to complete.
These tasks could be financial in nature (e.g. achieve a certain increase in sales, profits) or related
to the marketing activity that is generated by the campaigns. For example:
• Numbers of enquiries received quoting the source code on the advertisement
• Increase in customer recognition / awareness of the product or brand (which can be
measured)
• Number of viewers, listeners or readers reached by the campaign

Method (4) Residual

The residual approach, which is perhaps the worst of all, is to base the advertising budget on what
the business can afford – after all other expenditure. There is no attempt to associate marketing
objectives with levels of advertising. In a good year large amounts of money could be wasted; in a
bad year, the low advertising budget could guarantee a further low year for sales.

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6. Advertising - Effectiveness?

Judging the effectiveness of advertising

How can the effectiveness of an advert be judged?
The answer depends on what objectives or tasks were set for the advert.
The table below sets out some possible objectives/tasks and how the effectiveness of the advert
might be measured:
Advertising objective How success can be measured
- Number of enquiries from advert
Stimulate an increase in sales
- Number of enquiries converted into sales
- Test customer awareness both before and after
Remind customers of the existence of a the
product - advertising campaign
- - Number of enquiries
- Test customer awareness
Inform customers
- Number of requests for further information
-Sales
Build a brand image -Test customer awareness of brand recognition and
perceived values
- Levels of repeat purchase
Build customer loyalty and relationship
- Levels of customer retention
- Measure demographic profile of purchases
Change customer attitudes - Measure type of goods ordered by new purchasers
- Compare with previous data

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7. Advertising- Media

Advertising media
There is a huge variety of media available through which a business can conduct an advertising
campaign. What are the main types of media and what considerations should a business make in
choosing between them?
The starting point in the selection of appropriate advertising media is a “media analysis”. This can
be defined as:
"An investigation into the relative effectiveness and the relative costs of using the various
advertising media in an advertising campaign"
Before committing an advertising budget it is necessary to carry out marketing research on:
- Potential customers
- Their reading habits, television-watching habits
- How many times the advertisers wish the potential customers to see an advertisement
- How great a percentage of the market they wish to reach, etc.
These elements all need to be considered and balanced to plan a campaign that will effectively
reach its target audience at a reasonable cost.
A useful distinction can be made between “published media” and “visual/aural media”.

Published or print media include:

 • National daily newspapers
 • Sunday newspapers
 • Local and regional newspapers
 • Consumer magazines
 • Specialist magazines
 • Trade and professional press
 • Internet

Visual and aural media include:

 • Television (terrestrial and digital)
 • Radio
 • Cinema
 • Billboards
 • Transport
 • Direct mailing

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8. Advertising- Why and What?

Why and what should a business advertise?

Before undertaking an advertising campaign, marketers should be able to answer two key
questions:
(1) Why are we advertising?
(2) What are we advertising?
On the face of it these seem like two fairly obvious questions. But they are significant. Advertising
can be a very expensive promotional tool. It is widely believed that much advertising spend is
wasted. So careful consideration about “Why” and “What” can pay dividends.

Why advertise?
The following may be good reasons why a business is advertising:
 • To create awareness, customer interest or desire
 • To boost sales (moving the demand curve to the right)
 • To build brand loyalty (or to maintain it at the existing level)
 • To launch a new product
 • To change customer attitudes – perhaps trying to move a product more “upmarket” or to
dispel some widely held perceptions about the product
 • To support the activities of the distribution channel (e.g. supporting a “pull” strategy)
 • To build the company or brand image
 • To reminds and reassure customers
 • To offset competitor advertising – businesses may defend market share by responding to
competitors’ campaigns with their own advertising
 • To boost public standing: companies can boost their public standing with advertisements
that link them with generally approved campaigns such as care for the environment
 • To support the sales force – advertising can make the job of the sales force easier and
more effective by attracting leads from potential customers and perhaps motivate them by
boosting the profile of the business
Take a look through any magazine and select a sample of adverts. Which of the above reasons do
you think are behind the adverts you choose? Don’t forget that some adverts aim to achieve
multiple objectives.

What to advertise?
Factors that help answer the “what are we advertising”? focus on what the advertising message
should be. In general, there are really only two kinds of effective advertising message:
Firstly, does the business/product have a Unique Selling Proposition (“USP”)
A unique selling proposition is a customer benefit that no other product can claim

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In reality these are rare, although that does not stop marketers from claiming them for their
products.

Secondly, does the thing that is being advertised “add value” and if so, how?
For example, advertising for washing powders will focus on the “added value” created by
whitening agents or the fact that a particular formulation will last longer than the competition (take
a look at the Fairy web site to see if you can spot the other “added value” features claimed for its
products)
Whatever is advertised, it is important that the message is:
 • Seen
 • Read
 • Believed
 • Remembered
 • Action upon by target customers

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9. Promotion - Direct Marketing

Introduction
Direct marketing is concerned with establishing an individual relationship between the business
offering a product or service and the final customer.
Direct marketing has been defined by the Institute of Direct Marketing as:
The planned recording, analysis and tracking of customer behavior to develop a relational
marketing strategies
The process of direct marketing covers a wide range of promotional activities you may be familiar
with. These include:
 • Direct-response adverts on television and radio
 • Mail order catalogues
 • E-commerce (you bought this marketing companion following tutor2u’s direct marketing
campaign!)
 • Magazine inserts
 • Direct mail (sometimes also referred to as “junk mail”)
 • Telemarketing

Direct mail
Of the above direct marketing techniques, the one in most widespread use is direct mail.
Direct mail is widely thought of as the most effective medium to achieve a customer sales response.
Why?
 • The advertiser can target a promotional message down to an individual level, and where
possible personalize the message. There are a large number of mailing databases available
that allow businesses to send direct mailing to potential customers based on household
income, interests, occupation and other variables
 • Businesses can first test the responsiveness of direct mailing (by sending out a test mailing
to a small, representative sample) before committing to the more significant cost of a larger
campaign
 • Direct mailing campaigns are less visible to competitors – it is therefore possible to be
more creative, for longer
 However, direct mail has several weaknesses:
 • A piece of direct mail is less “interactive” than a television or radio advert, although
creative packaging can still stimulate customer response
 • Lead times to produce direct mailing campaigns can be quite long
 • There is increasing customer concern with “junk mail” – the receipt of unsolicited mail
which often suggests that the right to individual privacy has been breached.

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The Direct marketing database

Direct mailing is based on the “mailing list” – a critical part in the direct marketing process. The
mailing list is a database which collects together details of past, current and potential customers. A
properly managed mailing database enables a business to:
 • Focus on the best prospective customers
 • Cross-sell related products
 • Launch new products to existing customers
How is the mailing database compiled?
The starting point is the existing information the business keeps on its customers. All forms of
communication between a customer and the business need to be recorded so that a detailed, up-to-
date profile can be maintained.

It is also possible to “buy” mailing lists from elsewhere. There are numerous mailing list owners
and brokers who sell lists of names. The Internet, directories, associations and other sources are
good sources.

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10. Factors Influencing Choice of Promotional Tool

Promotional mix
It is helpful to define the five main elements of the promotional mix before considering their
strengths and limitations.

Advertising
Advertising is any paid form of non-personal communication of ideas or products in the "prime
media": i.e. television, newspapers, magazines, billboard posters, radio, cinema etc. Advertising is
intended to persuade and to inform.
The two basic aspects of advertising are the message (what you want your communication to say)
and the medium (how you get your message across)

Direct marketing
Direct marketing creates a direct relationship between the customer and the business on an
individual basis.

Personal Selling
Personal selling refers to oral communication with potential buyers of a product with the intention
of making a sale. The personal selling may focus initially on developing a relationship with the
potential buyer, but will always ultimately end with an attempt to "close the sale".

Sales Promotion
Sales promotion refers to the provision of incentives to customers or to the distribution channel to
stimulate demand for a product.

Public Relations
Public relations is the communication of a product, brand or business by placing information about
it in the media without paying for the time or media space directly

Factors that determine the type of promotional tools used

Each of the above components of the promotional mix has strengths and weaknesses. There are
several factors that should be taken into account in deciding which, and how much of each tool to
use in a promotional marketing campaign:
(1) Resource availability and the cost of each promotional tool
Advertising (particularly on television and in the national newspapers can be very expensive). The
overall resource budget for the promotional campaign will often determine which tools the business
can afford to use.
(2) Market size and concentration

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If a market size is small and the number of potential buyers is small, then personal selling may be
the most cost-effective promotional tool.
A good example of this would be businesses selling software systems designed for supermarket
retailers. On the other hand, where markets are geographically disperse or, where there are
substantial numbers of potential customers, advertising is usually the most effective.

(3) Customer information needs

Some potential customers need to be provided with detailed, complex information to help them
evaluate a purchase (e.g. buyers of equipment for nuclear power stations, or health service
managers investing in the latest medical technology). In this situation, personal selling is almost
always required - often using selling teams rather than just one individual.
By contrast, few consumers need much information about products such as baked beans or bread.
Promotional tools such as brand advertising and sales promotion are much more effective in this
case.

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11. Promotion - Personal Selling

Introduction
Personal selling can be defined as follows:
Personal selling is oral communication with potential buyers of a product with the intention of
making a sale. The personal selling may focus initially on developing a relationship with the
potential buyer, but will always ultimately end with an attempt to "close the sale"
Personal selling is one of the oldest forms of promotion. It involves the use of a sales force to
support a push strategy (encouraging intermediaries to buy the product) or a pull strategy (where
the role of the sales force may be limited to supporting retailers and providing after-sales service).

What are the main roles of the sales force?

Kotler describes six main activities of a sales force:
(1) Prospecting - trying to find new customers
(2) Communicating - with existing and potential customers about the product range
(3) Selling - contact with the customer, answering questions and trying to close the sale
(4) Servicing - providing support and service to the customer in the period up to delivery
and also post-sale
(5) Information gathering - obtaining information about the market to feedback into the
marketing planning process
(6) Allocating - in times of product shortage, the sales force may have the power to decide
how available stocks are allocated

What are the advantages of using personal selling as a means of promotion?

 • Personal selling is a face-to-face activity; customers therefore obtain a relatively high
degree of personal attention
 • The sales message can be customized to meet the needs of the customer
 • The two-way nature of the sales process allows the sales team to respond directly and
promptly to customer questions and concerns
 • Personal selling is a good way of getting across large amounts of technical or other
complex product information
 • The face-to-face sales meeting gives the sales force chance to demonstrate the product
 • Frequent meetings between sales force and customer provide an opportunity to build good
long-term relationships
Given that there are many advantages to personal selling, why do more businesses not maintain a
direct sales force?

Main disadvantages of using personal selling

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The main disadvantage of personal selling is the cost of employing a sales force. Sales people are
expensive. In addition to the basic pay package, a business needs to provide incentives to achieve
sales (typically this is based on commission and/or bonus arrangements) and the equipment to make
sales calls (car, travel and subsistence costs, mobile phone etc).
In addition, a sales person can only call on one customer at a time. This is not a cost-effective way
of reaching a large audience.

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12. Promotion - Public Relations

Introduction
The Institute of Public Relations defines public relations as follows:
“The planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding
between an organization and its publics”

What is meant by the term “publics” in the above definition?

A business may have many “publics” with which it needs to maintain good relations and build
goodwill. For example, consider the relevant “publics” for a publicly-quoted business engaged in
medical research:
 • Employees
 • Shareholders
 • Trade unions
 • Members of the “general public”
 • Customers (past and present)
 • Pressure groups
 • The medical profession
 • Charities funding medical research
 • Professional research bodies and policy-forming organizations
 • The media
 • Government and politicians
 The role of public relations is to:
 • Identify the relevant publics
 • Influence the opinions of those publics by:
o Reinforcing favorable opinions
o Transforming perhaps neutral opinions into positive ones
o Changing or neutralizing hostile opinions

Public relations techniques

There are many techniques available to influence public opinion, some of which are more
appropriate in certain circumstances than others:

Consumer communication
 Customer press releases
 Trade press releases
 Promotional videos
 Consumer exhibitions

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 Competitions and prizes

 Product launch events
 Celebrity endorsements
 Web sites

Business communication
 Corporate identity design
 Company and product videos
 Direct mailings
 Web site
 Trade exhibitions

Internal / employee communication

 In-house newsletters and magazines
 Intranet
 Notice boards
 Employee conferences
 Email

External corporate communication

 Company literature (brochures, videos etc.)
 Community involvement programs
 Trade, local, national and international media relations

Financial communication
 Financial media relations
 Annual report and accounts
 Meetings with stock market analysts, fund managers etc
 Shareholder meetings (including the annual general meeting)

Given the wide range of techniques used in public relations, how is it possible to measure the
effectiveness of public relations?
It is actually quite difficult to measure whether the key messages have been communicated to the
target public. In any event, this could be quite costly since it would involve a large amount of
regular research. Instead, the main measures of effectiveness concentrate on the process of public
relations, and include:

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 • Monitoring the amount of media coverage obtained (press cuttings agencies play a role in
keeping businesses informed of this)
 • Measuring attendance at meetings, conferences
 • Measuring the number of enquiries or orders received in response to specific public
relations efforts.

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13. Promotion- Push and Pull Strategies

"Push or Pull"?
Marketing theory distinguishes between two main kinds of promotional strategy - "push" and
"pull".

Push
A “push” promotional strategy makes use of a company's sales force and trade promotion activities
to create consumer demand for a product.
The producer promotes the product to wholesalers, the wholesalers promote it to retailers, and the
retailers promote it to consumers.

A good example of "push" selling is mobile phones, where the major handset manufacturers such
as Nokia promote their products via retailers such as Grameenphone. Personal selling and trade
promotions are often the most effective promotional tools for companies such as Nokia - for
example offering subsidies on the handsets to encourage retailers to sell higher volumes.
A "push" strategy tries to sell directly to the consumer, bypassing other distribution channels (e.g.
selling insurance or holidays directly). With this type of strategy, consumer promotions and
advertising are the most likely promotional tools.

Pull
A “pull” selling strategy is one that requires high spending on advertising and consumer promotion
to build up consumer demand for a product.
If the strategy is successful, consumers will ask their retailers for the product, the retailers will ask
the wholesalers, and the wholesalers will ask the producers.

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A good example of a pull is the heavy advertising and promotion of children's’ toys – mainly on
television. Consider the recent BBC promotional campaign for its new pre-school program – the
Fimbles. Aimed at two to four-year-olds, 130 episodes of Fimbles have been made and are featured
everyday on digital children's channel CBeebies and BBC2.
As part of the promotional campaign, the BBC has agreed a deal with toy maker Fisher-Price to
market products based on the show, which it hopes will emulate the popularity of the Tweenies.
Under the terms of the deal, Fisher-Price will develop, manufacture and distribute a range of
Fimbles products including soft, plastic and electronic learning toys for the UK and Ireland.
In 2001, BBC Worldwide (the commercial division of the BBC) achieved sales of £90m from its
children's brands and properties last year. The demand created from broadcasting of the Fimbles
and a major advertising campaign is likely to “pull” demand from children and encourage retailers
to stock Fimbles toys in the stores for Christmas 2002.

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14. Promotion - Sales Promotion

Introduction
A good definition of sales promotion would be as follows:
“An activity designed to boost the sales of a product or service. It may include an advertising
campaign, increased PR activity, a free-sample campaign, offering free gifts or trading stamps,
arranging demonstrations or exhibitions, setting up competitions with attractive prizes, temporary
price reductions, door-to-door calling, telemarketing, personal letters on other methods”.
More than any other element of the promotional mix, sales promotion is about “action”. It is about
stimulating customers to buy a product. It is not designed to be informative – a role which
advertising is much better suited to.
Sales promotion is commonly referred to as “Below the Line” promotion.
Sales promotion can be directed at:
 • The ultimate consumer (a “pull strategy” encouraging purchase)
 • The distribution channel (a “push strategy” encouraging the channels to stock the
product). This is usually known as “selling into the trade”
Methods of sales promotion
There are many consumer sales promotional techniques available, summarized in the table below:
Price promotions
Price promotions are also commonly known as” price discounting”
These offer either (1) a discount to the normal selling price of a product, or (2) more of the
product at the normal price.
Increased sales gained from price promotions are at the expense of a loss in profit – so these
promotions must be used with care.
A producer must also guard against the possible negative effect of discounting on a brand’s
reputation

Coupons
Coupons are another, very versatile, way of offering a discount. Consider the following
examples of the use of coupons:
- On a pack to encourage repeat purchase
- In coupon books sent out in newspapers allowing customers to redeem the coupon at a
retailer
- A cut-out coupon as part of an advert
- On the back of till receipts
The key objective with a coupon promotion is to maximize the redemption rate – this is the
proportion of customers actually using the coupon.

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One problem with coupons is that they may simply encourage customers to buy what they
would have bought anyway. Another problem occurs when retailers do not hold sufficient
stocks of the promoted product – causing customer disappointment.
Use of coupon promotions is, therefore, often best for new products or perhaps to encourage
sales of existing products that are slowing down.

Gift with purchase

The “gift with purchase” is a very common promotional technique. It is also known as a
“premium promotion” in that the customer gets something in addition to the main purchase.
This type of promotion is widely used for:
- Subscription-based products (e.g. magazines)
- Consumer luxuries (e.g. perfumes)

Competitions and prizes

Another popular promotion tool with many variants. Most competition and prize
promotions are subject to legal restrictions.

Money refunds
Here, a customer receives a money refund after submitting a proof of purchase to the
manufacturer.
These schemes are often viewed with some suspicion by customers – particularly if the
method of obtaining a refund looks unusual or onerous.

Frequent user / loyalty incentives

Repeat purchases may be stimulated by frequent user incentives. Perhaps the best examples
of this are the many frequent flyer or user schemes used by airlines, train companies, car
hire companies etc.

Point-of-sale displays
Research into customer buying behavior in retail stores suggests that a significant
proportion of purchases results from promotions that customers see in the store. Attractive,
informative and well-positioned point-of-sale displays are, therefore, very important part of
the sales promotional activity in retail outlets.

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15. Promotion - Sponsorship

Introduction
An increasingly common form of promotional activity is sponsorship. What is sponsorship?
Sponsorship can be defined as follows:
Supporting an event, activity or organization by providing money or other resources that is of
value to the sponsored event. This is usually in return for advertising space at the event or as
part of the publicity for the event.

There are many kinds of sponsorship:

 • Television and radio program sponsorship (e.g. Cadbury’s sponsor broadcasts of
Coronation Street). The increasing fragmentation of television in the UK through new
digital channels is providing many more opportunities for sponsorship of this kind
 • Sports sponsorship: major sporting events have the advantage of being attended and
(more importantly) watched by large numbers of people. They also attract significant media
coverage.
 • Arts sponsorship; arts events or organizations are not as well attended as sports events
but are often regarded as more “worthy” and more in keeping with the image of certain
businesses and brands.
 • Educational sponsorship; this can take several forms from the sponsoring of individual
students at college through to the provision of books and computers nationwide using the
redemption of product or store-related vouchers (e.g. Tesco’s Computers for Schools)

What is involved in developing a sponsorship promotion?

Smith suggests a six-stage process to decide what and how to sponsor:
(1) Analyze the current situation: look at which other businesses are sponsoring in the target area.
Are competitors already doing this and is it providing them with an advantage?
(2) Define the sponsorship objectives: e.g. raise awareness of the brand; build an image; promote a
new product
(3) Agree the strategy: how does the sponsorship fit in with any other promotional activity?
(4) Develop the tactics: agree the details of what to sponsor, price, timing etc
(5) Define the target audience
(6) Consider what resources are needed to make the sponsorship a success.

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