Tsunami Project

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The document discusses tsunamis, their generation mechanisms, impacts in India, safety measures, and warning systems.

Some major tsunami sources in India discussed are the Andaman-Sumatra subduction zone and the Makran subduction zone.

Safety measures discussed include using retaining walls, changing building orientations, limiting openings, and following evacuation plans.

TSUNAMI AND ITS SAFETY MEASURES

INDEX
DESCRIPTION Page no

Section -1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction to tsunami 1.2 Generation mechanisms 1.2.1 Seismicity generated tsunamis 1.2.2 Land Slides 1.2.3 Volcanic eruptions 1.2.4 Meteor impacts 1.3 Cause dependent overview of past tsunamis 1.4 Tsunami characteristics 1.4.1 Tsunami velocity characteristics 1.4.2 How big is a tsunami 1.4.3 Tsunami train Section-2 Tsunami risk in India and its assessment 2.1 Historical tsunami 2.2 Tsunamis in India 2.3 Tsunami genic sources in India 2.3.1 Andaman-Sumatra tsunami source 2.3.2 Makran Tsunami Source 2.3.2.1 The Makran Costal Region 2.3.2.2 The Makran subduction zone (msz) 2.4 Thoku earthquake and tsunami 2.5 Tsunami risk 2.5.1 Tsunami parameter 2.5.2 Tsunami hazard map 2.5.3 Tsunami vulnerability assessment 2.5.4 Tsunami risk assessment 2.6 Practical applications Section-3 Safety measures for tsunami 3.1 If you are in an area at risk from tsunamis 3.2 If you are visiting an area at risk from tsunamis 3.3 Protect your property 3.4 What to do if you feel a strong coastal earthquake 3.5 If you are on land 3.6 If you are on boat 3.7 What to do after tsunami 3.8 General measures 3.9 Specific measures for safety from tsunamis / storm surges

1 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 14 15 16 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 20 20 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 25 27 28

3.9.1 Structure measures 3.9.2 Non Structural measures 3.10 Actions required in coastal areas for protection against tsunami / cyclone mitigation
3.11 Tsunami effects and design solutions 3.12 Specific Design Principles for Tsunamis 3.12.1 Know the Tsunami Risk at the site 3.12.2 Avoid new developments in Tsunami Run-up Areas 3.12.3 Site Planning Strategies to reduce Tsunami Risk 3.12.4 Tsunami Resistant Buildings New Developments 3.12.5 Protection of existing buildings and infrastructure assessment, Retrofit, Protection measures 3.12.6 Special Precautions in locating and designing infrastructure and critical facilities 3.12.7 Planning for Evacuation Section-4 Tsunami warning and communication system 4.1 The present status of tsunami warnings in India 4.2 International status of tsunami warning and communication system 4.2.1 Tsunami warning system 4.2.2 The tsunami warning system 4.2.3 Instrumentation 4.2.4 Tsunami warning centers 4.2.5 Tsunami watch and warning dissemination 4.2.6 Tsunami warning dissemination 4.3 Some concepts of work plan for the tsunami warning system In India Section-5 Preparation of model 5.1 Raw materials used for preparation of model 5.2 Method of preparation of model Section-6 Model Description 6.1 Square (Model no. 1A, 1B) 6.2 Polygon (Model no. 2A, 2B) 6.3 Double storey rectangle (MODEL NO. 3A, 3B) 6.4 L Shape (Model no. 4A, 4B) Section-7 Result and testing 7.1 Models Without retaining wall 7.1.1 Conclusion of models without retaining wall 7.2 Models With retaining wall 7.2.2 Conclusion of models with retaining wall

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31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 35 35 36 36 37

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SECTION-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO TSUNAMI

Tsunami or tidal wave is a series of water waves (called a tsunami wave train) caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean, but can occur in large lakes. Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in Japan; approximately 195 events have been recorded. Due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved, tsunamis can devastate coastal regions. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides and other mass movements, meteorite ocean impacts or similar impact events, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The Greek historian Thucydides was the first to relate tsunami to submarine earthquakes, but understanding of tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research. Many early geological, geographical, and oceanographic texts refer to tsunamis as "seismic sea waves."

Fig-1.1 Tsunami wave entering the city The term tsunami comes from the Japanese, meaning "harbor" (tsu, ) and "wave" (nami, ). (For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese.)

1.2

GENERATION MECHANISMS

The principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually attributed to earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, or more rarely by 1

meteorites and nuclear tests. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity. It is important to note that tides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis; hence referring to tsunamis as 'tidal waves' is inaccurate.

1.2.1

SEISMICITY GENERATED TSUNAMIS

Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the earth's crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. More specifically, a tsunami can be generated when thrust faults associated with convergent or destructive plate boundaries move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, due to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on normal faults will also cause displacement of the seabed, but the size of the largest of such events is normally too small to give rise to a significant tsunami.

Fig-1.2 Impression of a thrust fault and associated water levels. Tsunamis have a small amplitude (wave height) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometers long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 millimeters (12 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas.

Fig-1.3 Wave train of tsunami

1.2.2

LAND SLIDES

Fig-1.4: Comparison of sub-aerial and submarine landslides as tsunami wave sources The characteristics of tsunamis generated by landslides are different from those generated by earthquakes. One of the more important differences is the fact that the direction of propagation of tsunamis generated by landslides is more focused. The slide moves in a down-slope direction and the wave propagates both upslope and parallel to the slide. Two mechanisms can be distinguished, submarine and sub-aerial landslides. See Fig 1.4. As explained in the figure, sub-aerial landslides are more effective in generating waves, since it yields a net addition of volume to the sea floor. Wave generation by landslides depends primarily upon the volume of the material moved and submerged, the speed of the landslide and the mechanism of movement. Generally, the wavelengths and periods of landslide-generated tsunami range between 1 and 10km and 1 and 5 minutes respectively. These values are much shorter than those produced by earthquakes (Bryant, 2001).

1.2.3

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Volcanic eruptions can generate tsunami in many different ways. The majority of eruptions are accompanied by seismic tremors, which can trigger tsunami if they are big enough and lie in or near the ocean. Volcanic activity can also induce submarine landslides and submarine eruptions/explosions. The latter can cause violent tsunami, when ocean water comes in contact with the magma chamber. This water is converted instantly into steam, causing an explosion, which can generate large ocean waves. It is believed that the August 1883 Krakatau eruption produced a 40m tsunami by this mechanism.

1.2.4

METEOR IMPACTS

Unlike earthquakes, which cause most tsunami but have a well-defined upper limit, the potential tsunami height caused by meteor-impact is almost unlimited. However, most objects smaller than 100 - 200 m in diameter explode in the atmosphere and will not produce significant waves.

1.3

CAUSE DEPENDENT OVERVIEW OF PAST TSUNAMIS

Although a distinction has been made among different causes for tsunami, it is most likely that a lot of tsunamis are caused by a combination of these mechanisms. In Table 1.1 the percentage distribution of events and deaths are presented for tsunami-events over the past 2000 year. Also joint occurrences are listed. From this table it becomes clear that earthquake-induced tsunami form the biggest threat as they are responsible for over 80% of all tsunami events and deaths. Table 1.1: Causes of tsunami for all listed events up to 2005

Note: The listed events are only most-probable and definite tsunami events (Source: Tsunami Event Database of the National Geophysical Data Centre)

1.4 1.4.1

TSUNAMI CHARACTERISTICS TSUNAMI VELOCITY CHARACTERSTICS

1. Tsunami velocity is dependent on the depth of water through which it travels (Velocity equals the square root of water depth h times the gravitational acceleration g, V =g h). 2. Tsunamis travel approximately 700 kmph in 4000 m depth of sea water. In 10 m of water depth the velocity drops to about 36 kmph.

Fig-1.5 Tsunami Wave

Fig 1.6 Tsunami Affected Areas For example, the tsunami from Sumatra coastal earthquake traveled to Tamil Nadu coast in about two hours. Even on shore tsunamis can faster than a person can run.

1.4.2

HOW BIG IS A TSUNAMI?

1. Tsunamis range in size from centimeters to over 30 m height. Most tsunamis are less than 3 m in height.

2. In deep water (greater than 200 m), tsunamis are rarely over 1m high and will not be noticed by ships due to their long period (time between crests). 3. As tsunamis propagate into shallow water, the wave height can increase by over 10 times. 4. Tsunami heights can vary greatly along a coast. The waves are amplified by certain shoreline and bathymetric (sea floor) features. 5. A large tsunami can flood land up to more than 1.5 km from the coast. 6. The force of some tsunamis is enormous. Large rocks weighing several tons along with boats and other debris can be moved inland hundreds of feet by tsunami wave activity. Homes and other buildings are destroyed. All this material and water move with great force and can kill or injure people.

1.4.3

TSUNAMI TRAIN

1. Wind-generated waves usually have periods (time between crests) of 5 to 20 seconds. Tsunami periods are usually between 5 minutes and an hour. 2. Wind-generated waves break as they shoal and lose energy offshore. Tsunamis act more like a flooding wave. A 6 m tsunami is a 6 m rise in sea level.

SECTION-2 TSUNAMI RISK IN INDIA AND ITS ASSESSMENT


2.1 HISTORICAL TSUNAMIS

Prior to the Tsunami of 26 December 2004, the most destructive Pacific-wide Tsunami of recent history was generated along the coast of Chile on May 22, 1960. No accurate assessment of the damage and deaths attributable to this Tsunami along the coast of Chile can be given; however, all coastal towns between the 36th and 44th (latitude) parallels either were destroyed or heavily damaged by the action of the waves and the quake. The combined Tsunami and earthquake toll included 2,000 killed, 3000 injured 2,000,000 homeless and $550 million damages. Off Corral, the waves were estimated to be 20.4 meters (67 feet) high. The Tsunami caused 61 deaths in Hawaii, 20 in the Philippines, and 100 or more in Japan. Estimated damages were $50 million in Japan, $24 million Hawaii and several millions along the west coast of the United States and Canada. Wave heights varied from slight oscillations in some areas to range of 12.2 meters (40 feet) at Pitcairn Islands; 10.7 meters (35 feet) at Hilo, Hawaii and 6.1 meters (20 feet) at various places in Japan.

Fig 2.1 Tsunami Entered Into the City The hydrographic survey in Japan after the great Kwato earthquake of September 1, 1923 showed that vertical displacements of the order of 100 meters had occurred over a large area of sea floor. Tsunamis are very common over the Pacific Ocean because it is surrounded on all sides by a seismically active belt. In the Hawaii Islands, Tsunamis approach from all directions, namely, from Japan, the Aleutian Islands and from South America.

2.2

TSUNAMIS IN INDIA

The Indian coastal belt has not recorded many Tsunamis in the past. Waves accompanying earthquake activity have been reported over the North Bay of Bengal. During an earthquake in 1881 which had its epicenter near the center of the Bay of Bengal, Tsunamis were reported. The earthquake of 1941 in Bay of Bengal caused some damage in Andaman region. This was unusual because most Tsunamis are generated by shocks which occur at or near the flanks of continental slopes. During the earthquakes of 1819 and 1845 near the Rann of Kutch, there were rapid movements of water into the sea. There is no mention of waves resulting from these earthquakes along the coast adjacent to the Arabian sea, and it is unlikely that Tsunamis were generated. Further west, in the Persian Gulf, the 1945 Makran earthquake (magnitude 8.1) generated Tsunami of 12 to 15 meters height. This caused a huge deluge, with considerable loss of life and property at Ormara and Pasi. The estimated height of Tsunami at Gulf of Combay was 15m but no report of damage is available. The estimated height of waves was about 2 meters at Mumbai, where boats were taken away from their moorings and casualties occurred. The information given in the Table is sketchy and authenticity cannot be confirmed except the Tsunami of 26th December 2004. Above facts indicate the coastal region of Gujarat is vulnerable to Tsunamis from great earthquakes in Makran coast. Earthquake of magnitude 7 or more may be dangerous. It may be noted that all earthquake do not generate Tsunami. Research is still being undertaken in this field. For the Indian region, two potential sources have been identified, namely Makran coast and Andaman to Sumatra region. Table 2.1: Photo Gallery of Tsunami Run-Up Heights and Damages during Sumatra Earthquake Tsunami Run-Up Height in Banda Aceh

Tsunami Run-up Height in Lhok Nga

Tsunami Run-up Height in Meulaboh

Damage of Buildings in Banda Aceh (Coastal Zone)

Damage of Buildings in Banda Aceh (Inner Zone)

Damage of Buildings in Lhok Nga

Damage of Buildings in Ulhue Lhe

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Damage of Buildings in Krueng Raya

Damage of Buildings in Meulaboh

Damage of Buildings in Andaman Nicobar Islands

Damage of Buildings in India

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Damage of Roads and Bridges

Damage of telecommunication

Source: Ghobarah et al., 2006; Lukkunaprasit et al., 2008; EERI, 2005-1

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Table-2.2 A Global List of Some Historical Tsunami Deaths Year 1692 1703 1707 1741 1753 1783 1868 1883 1896 1933 1946 May 22, 1960 1946 1964 17 August 1976 19 August 1977 18 July 1979 12 September 1979 12 December 1979 26 May 1983 1998 26 December 2004 Place Port Royal, Jamaica Tsunamis in Honshu, Japan following a large earthquake 38 foot Tsunami, Japan Following Volcanic eruptions 30 feet wave in Japan Combine effect of an earthquake and Tsunami in Lisbon, Portugal A Tsunami in Italy Tsunami Chile and Hawaii Krakatoa Volcanic explosion and Tsunami in Indonesia Tsunami Sanrika , Japan Tsunami, Sanrika Japan 32 foot high waves in Hilo, Hawaii Along the coast of Chille Number of Lives lost 3000 5000 30,000 1400 50,000 30,000 More than 25000 36,000 27,000 3000 159 Approx. 2000 (+ 3000 person missing) rendered homeless. 2000 131 8000 189 540 100

Honsu, Japan Earthquake Spawan Tsunami 195 foot waves engulf Kodiak, Alaska after the Good Friday Earthquake Philippines Indonesia Indonesia New Guinea

Columbia

500

Sea of Japan Papua New Guinea Earthquake 9.1 in Richter Scale. The Bay of Bengal. Powerful Tsunami which swept several coastal areas of South East Asia (Indonesia, India, Srilanka, Maldives etc.)

Approx. 100

Approx. 170000 (+ 130000 missing)

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Table 2.3 List of Tsunami that Affected India Date 326 B.C. Between 1st April and 9th May 1008 August 27th 1883 Remarks Alexander the Great Tsunami on the Iranian coast from a local earthquake Karatoa 1.5 m Tsunami at Madras, 06 am at Nagapattainam, 0.2 m at Arden Earthquake in the western part of the Bay of Bengal Tsnamis at Port Blair, Doublet (mouth of Hoogly River) 8.1 quake in the Andaman Sea at 12.90 N,92.5o E Tsunamis on the east coast of India with amplitudes from 0.75 to 1.25 m. Some damage from East Coast was reported. Mekran Earthquake (Magnitude 8.1 ). 12 to 15 M wave height in Ormara in Pasi (Mekran coast) Considerable damage in Mekran coast. In Gulf of Cambay of Gujarat wave heights of 15 meter was estimated. Damage report from Gujarat coast was not available. The estimated height of waves at Mumbai was about 2 meters, boats were taken away from their moorings and causality occurred. 8.25 quake 70 km south of Karachi at 24.5o N, 63.0o E Tsunami amplitude at Kutch was 11.0 to 11.5m ? Earthquake of magnitude 9.1 off north Sumatra coast generated devastated Tsunami waves affecting several countries in South East Asia. In India Andaman & Nicobar Island, Tamil Nadu, Pondichery, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Lakshdweep have been affected about 9700 people lose their lives and about 6000 more reported missing. (Till end January 2005.)

1884 26th June 1941

1945

27th November 1945 26th December 2004

2.3

TSUNAMI GENIC SOURCES FOR INDIA

Based on an assessment of the repeat periods of great earthquakes from past seismicity, convergence rates and seismological results, possible future source zones of tsunami generating earthquakes in the Indian Ocean are identified along subduction zones and zones of compression. Due to the movement of the Indian plate in north northeast direction, the subduction zones are confined in the north along the Himalayan region due to the continent continent collision between Indian and Eurasian plates, in the east along the Andaman-Sumatra Sunda trench where the Indian plate is subducting below the Burmese plate, and a subduction zone in the west along Makran coast, near Karachi, Pakistan. Thus, the Andaman-Sumatra and Makran Subduction zones are the two main sources in the Indian Ocean where earthquakes of magnitudes 7.9 and above can

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occur giving rise to tsunamis, which can affect the east and the west coasts of India. (Chadha, 2006).

Iran

Pakistan

Oman

Makran
India Srilanka

INDIAN OCEAN

Sumatra

Fig 2.3 Major Tsunamigenic Earthquake Sources in Indian Ocean Furthermore, Bangladesh-Myanmar coast has produced some well documented tsunamis. Karachi-Kutch coast region has also produced some possible tsunamis. The Carlsberg spreading ridge or old oceanic ridges like Chagos Ridge and Ninety East Ridge with normal faulting can give rise to local tsunamis. (Rastogi and Jaiswal, 2006). Thrust type earthquakes along subduction zones that cause vertical movement of the ocean floor are usually tsunami genic (Jaiswal et al., 2008-2). Minor tsunamis can be generated due to dip-slip faulting along oceanic ridges. Far-field tsunami hazard in an ocean basin is a direct function of the seismic potential for the extremely large events required to generate tsunamis capable of exporting death and destruction to distant shores. Research indicates that a seismic moment in excess of 7 x 1028 dyn.cm is required in this respect (Okal and Synolakis, 2008).

2.3.1 ANDAMAN-SUMATRA TSUNAMI SOURCE


The M 9.3 earthquake of the coast of Sumatra triggered the tsunami. The earthquake occurred due to the thrusting of the Burmese plate over the Indian plate. The fracture propagated unidirectionally from Sumatra, toward north along the plate boundary paralleling the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, at a velocity of about 2.4 m/s for the first 600 km and then it slowed down to about 1.5 km/s (Jaiswal et al., 2008-2). The total length of the fracture as seen from the aftershocks distribution is about 1250 km. McCloskey et al. (2005) estimated a maximum displacement of the order of about 20m with most of the slip being concentrated in the first 500 km from the epicenter.

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On March 28, 2005, another great earthquake of M 8.7 occurred 150 km further southeast of the December 26, 2004 event. This event also occurred on a thrust fault in Sunda trench at a depth of 30 km.

2.3.2

MAKRAN TSUNAMI SOURCE

The convergence of the Indian plate with the Arabian plate, with the Arabian and Iranian micro plates of the Eurasian tectonic blocks has created an active east-west subduction zone along the Makran coast in southern Pakistan.

2.3.2.1

THE MAKRAN COASTAL REGION

The Makran coast is rugged and tectonic in origin with uplifted terraces, cliffs and headlands. The entire coastline is characterized by extreme sediment accretion (Jaiswal et al., 2008-2; Byrne, 1992; Singh et al., 2008; Mohammad et al., 2009). It is one of largest sediment accretionary wedges on earth, with up to 7 km of sediments deposited in the Gulf of Oman to the west and major rivers contributing vast amount of sediment to the offshore region in the east. The accretionary complex is more than 900 km long and there is no evidence of very active volcanism. The complex has an east-west orientation and is bounded on both sides by large transform faults associated with tectonic plate boundaries.

Fig 2.4 NASA Satellite photo of Makran Source: (George, 2006) The Baluchistan section of the Makran coast of Pakistan has several small river deltas. In the eastern Sindh region of Pakistan the Indus River has formed one of the largest deltas in the world. Past meandering of Indus has formed extensive deltas east of 16

Karachi. Extensive sedimentation from the erosion in the Himalayas has widened the continental shelf of the Sindh coast to about 150 km. Along the Baluchistan region where there is less sedimentation; the continental shelf measures only 15-40 km (George, 2006).

2.3.2.2

THE MAKRAN SUBDUCTION ZONE (MSZ)

The MSZ extends east from the strait of Hormoz in Iran to near Karachi in Pakistan with the length of about 900 km. Stonely (1974) first proposed that a subduction zone off the Makran coast forms the boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian Plates. Quittmeyer and Jacob (1979) stated that the seismicity in the Makran region is consistent with the interpretation of this area as an active subduction zone. According to Page et al. (1979), the raised beaches along the Makran coast confirm the tectonic model of subduction zone along this region. Recently, a comprehensive study on the tectonic and climatic evolution of the Makran region was conducted by Clift et al. (2002). Offshore, the active tectonic convergence of the India plate with the Arabian and Iranian micro plates of the Eurasian tectonic block has created a tectonic plate margin and is an active subduction zone along the boundary of the Arabian plate on the Makran coast. The tectonic plates there converge at an estimated rate of about 30 to 50 mm/y (George, 2006). The level of seismicity in Makran is quite low. Those earthquakes that do occur are generally small, with few tele seismic events larger than magnitude 5, and large of great earthquakes are uncommon. A number of focal mechanisms have been determined for events with magnitudes around 6 (Quittmeyer and Jacob 1979).

2.4

THOKU EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI

The 2011 Thoku earthquake, officially named the Great East Japan Earthquake, Japanese: "Eastern Japan Great Earthquake Disaster" ( Higashi Nihon Daishinsai) was a magnitude 9.0 (Mw) undersea mega thrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on Friday, 11 March 2011, with the epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Thoku and the hypocenter at an underwater depth of approximately 32 km (20 mi). It was the most powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900. The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 38 meters (124 ft.) that struck Japan, in some cases traveling up to 10 km (6 mi) inland. In addition to loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami caused a number of nuclear accidents, of which by far the most serious was an ongoing level 7 event and 20 km (12 mi) evacuation zone around the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant (see Fukushima I nuclear accidents). In Japan, the overall event is known as the "Eastern Japan Great

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Earthquake Disaster" ( Higashi Nihon Daishinsai). The overall cost could exceed $300 billion, making it the most expensive natural disaster on record. The Japanese National Police Agency has confirmed 14,755 deaths, 5,279 injured and 10,706 people missing across eighteen prefectures, as well as over 125,000 buildings damaged or destroyed. The earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and severe structural damage in Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse. Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water. Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors suffered explosions due to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings after cooling system failure. Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6 mi) radius of the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. In addition, the U.S. recommended that its citizens evacuate up to 80 km (50 mi) of the plant.

2.5

TSUNAMI RISK

It will be assessed by a deterministic approach according to the following: TSUNAMI RISK = TSUNAMI HAZARD+EXPOSURE+VULNERABILITY. (a) For the Tsunami Hazard assessment: Preparation of data-base of historical and archival information (newspapers, archives, anecdotal information, literature survey) of relevant Indian Tsunamis, with the emphasis clearly on the December 26, 2004 event. Analyses of these data, to -define the scenario Tsunamis from various earthquake sources -prepare the Tsunami hazard map.

(b)

For the Exposure List all habitations below 15 m contour level and locate on a map. List and locate all vital installations below 15 m contour level (Ports, Harbours, Schools, Hospitals, Power Plants, Bridges, etc.)

(c)

For the VULNERABILITY assessment: Based on the earthquake vulnerability assessment, define the vulnerability of various exposed elements on the coastal, island and reef environments and in the Ports and Harbors. Prepare vulnerability charts and matrices.

(d)

For the RISK assessment:

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Integrate these hazard and exposure data with vulnerability assessments to obtain the risk assessment.

2.5.1

TSUNAMI PARAMETERS
The following parameters will need to be defined: Tsunami source region. Mode of generation Potential wave heights Maximum Run-up (maximum height of the water onshore observed/inferred above the mean sea level. Usually measured at the horizontal inundation limit) Tsunami intensity I = 0.5 log 2H (Pelinovsky, 1996) with H = average maximum run-up height >3 m. Imax = 2.5

2.5.2

TSUNAMI HAZARD MAP

The Tsunami hazard map may be empirically defined using a deterministic approach, based upon potential maximum wave heights for the scenario tsunamis. The definition of the tsunami hazard zones, as preliminary estimates, is given in Table 3.3. For the terrestrial environment the hazard may be presented as inundation levels, in terms of run-up heights at specified land contours. For the marine environment (ON WATER) Harbour, Bay and Reefs hazard may be given in terms of potential maximum wave heights. Table 2.4: Tsunami Hazard Zones Definition (Preliminary) CHARACTERISTIC TSUNAMI HAZARD ZONE HI MED LO 5 INUNDATION LEVEL-MAXIMUM (m CONTOUR ) RUN-UP HEIGHT AVERAGE (m) TSUNAMI INTENSITY (I) LIKLIHOOD OF TSUNAMI DAMAGE OBSERVED IN EARLIER TSUNAMI COAST ADJACENT TO TSUNAMI GENIC SOURCE ON WATER WAVE HEIGHTS (m) REEF DAMAGE >3 >2 Yes Severe Yes >2 Severe 3 1-3 1-2 Yes Minor Yes 1-2 Minor 1 0-1 0 Possible None No <1 None

ON LAND

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2.5.3

TSUNAMI VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

The exposure inventory with vulnerability to tsunami impact for both the built and natural environments will need to be developed for shores and Harbours. Potential damage is related to the hydrological controls of wave action (surging), flooding and debris deposition, and consequent geotechnical controls to damage by liquefaction, cracking and slumping. These result in structural damage to buildings, water damage to contents, flooding damage to infrastructure (roads, bridges, water supply, sewerage, wharves, and sea-walls), damage to navigational aids and reef damage. There is the potential for seiching in the shallow harbour areas where, alternately (from the tsunami waves), water is drained from the harbour and then flooded to depths greater than high tide levels. This has the potential for threat to human life (death and injury) from people collecting fish from the harbour seafloor. In the Harbour, waves are a threat to shipping (sinking, striking wharves) and fishermen (drowning). The vulnerability assessment is expressed as details of elements of the built, natural and human environments vulnerable to potential tsunami-related damage. These need to be considered in terms of the Tsunami Hazard Zones for the terrestrial environments around the shores and the marine environments.

2.5.4

TSUNAMI RISK ASSESSMENT

By integrating the hazard and vulnerability assessments, the tsunami risk assessment is to be developed in terms of zonation and inundation maps and associated affects.

2.6

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The key factors to reduce potential losses due to tsunami are AWARENESS and PREPAREDNESS. The practical applications of this tsunami risk assessment, in both quantitative and qualitative terms, for implementation into mitigation strategies for the terrestrial and marine environments include: 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Building Codes GIS Mapping Land-Use Planning Disaster Planning Emergency Management Emergency personnel Training Rescue and Response (marine situations (necessary situations) aspects relevant to marine fishing (taking note of wave action & flooding) (in identified hazard zones) (potential damage due to wave action and flooding)

(cargo, tourist, inter-islands community, recreational boating)

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related to shipping) 8. 9. Insurance Needs Community Education

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SECTION - 3 SAFETY MEASURES FOR TSUNAMI


3.1 IF YOU ARE IN AN AREA AT RISK FROM TSUNAMIS

1. You should find out if your home, school, workplace, or other frequently visited locations are in tsunami hazard areas. 2. Know the height of your street above sea level and the distance of your street from the coast or other high-risk waters. Evacuation orders may be based on these numbers. Also find out the height above sea level and the distance from the coast of outbuildings that house animals, as well as pastures or corrals. 3. Plan evacuation routes from your home, school, workplace, or any other place you could be where tsunamis present a risk. If possible, pick areas (30 meters) above sea level or go as far as 3 kilometers inland, away from the coastline. If you cannot get this high or far, go as high or far as you can. Every meter inland or upward may make a difference. You should be able to reach your safe location on foot within 15 minutes. After a disaster, roads may become impassible or blocked. Be prepared to evacuate by foot if necessary. Footpaths normally lead uphill and inland, while many roads parallel coastlines. Follow posted tsunami evacuation routes; these will lead to safety. Local emergency management officials can advise you on the best route to safety and likely shelter locations. 4. If your children's school is in an identified inundation zone, find out what the school evacuation plan is. Find out if the plan requires you to pick your children up from school or from another location. Telephone lines during a tsunami watch or warning may be overloaded and routes to and from schools may be jammed. 5. Practice your evacuation routes. Familiarity may save your life. Be able to follow your escape route at night and during inclement weather. Practicing your plan makes the appropriate response more of a reaction, requiring less thinking during an actual emergency situation. 6. Use a Weather Radio or stay tuned to a local radio or television station to keep informed of local watches and warnings. 7. Talk to your insurance agent. Homeowners' policies may not cover flooding from a tsunami. Ask about the Flood Insurance Program. 8. Discuss tsunamis with your family. Everyone should know what to do in a tsunami situation. Discussing tsunamis ahead of time will help reduce fear and save precious time in an emergency. Review flood safety and preparedness measures with your family.

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3.2

IF YOU ARE VISITING AN AREA AT RISK FROM TSUNAMIS

Check with the hotel, motel, or campground operators for tsunami evacuation information and find out what the warning system is for tsunamis. It is important to know designated escape routes before a warning is issued.

3.3

PROTECT YOUR PROPERTY

You should avoid building or living in buildings within 200 meters of the high tide coastline. these areas are more likely to experience damage from tsunamis, strong winds, or coastal storms. 1. Make a list of items to bring inside in the event of a tsunami. A list will help you remember anything that can be swept away by tsunami water. 2. Elevate coastal homes. Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters. Elevating your house will help reduce damage to your property from most tsunamis. 3. Take precautions to prevent flooding. 4. Have an engineer check your home and advise about ways to make it more resistant to tsunami water. There may be ways to divert waves away from your property. Improperly built walls could make your situation worse. Consult with a professional for advice. 5. Ensure that any outbuildings, pastures, or corrals are protected in the same way as your home. When installing or changing fence lines, consider placing them in such a way that your animals are able to move to higher ground in the event of a tsunami.

3.4

WHAT TO DO IF YOU FEEL A STRONG COASTAL EARTHQUAKE

If you feel an earthquake that lasts 20 seconds or longer when you are in a coastal area, you should: 1. Drop, cover, and hold on. You should first protect yourself from the earthquake damages. 2. When the shaking stops. Gather members of your household and move quickly to higher ground away from the coast. A tsunami may be coming within minutes. 3. Avoid downed power lines and stay away from buildings and bridges, from which Heavy objects might fall during an aftershock.

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3.5

IF YOU ARE ON LAND:

1. Be aware of tsunami facts. This knowledge could save your life! Share this knowledge with your relatives and friends. It could save their lives! 2. If you are in school and you hear there is a tsunami warning, you should follow the advice of teachers and other school personnel. 3. If you are at home and hear there is a tsunami warning, you should make sure your entire family is aware of the warning. Your family should evacuate your house if you live in a tsunami evacuation zone. Move in an orderly, calm and safe manner to the evacuation site or to any safe place outside your evacuation zone. Follow the advice of local emergency and law enforcement authorities. 4. If you are at the beach or near the ocean and you feel the earth shake, move immediately to higher ground, and DO NOT wait for a tsunami warning to be announced. Stay away from rivers and streams that lead to the ocean as you would stay away from the beach and ocean if there is a tsunami. A regional tsunami from a local earthquake could strike some areas before a tsunami warning could be announced. 5. Tsunamis generated in distant locations will generally give people enough time to move to higher ground. For locally-generated tsunamis, where you might feel the ground shake, you may only have a few minutes to move to higher ground. 6. High, multi-story, reinforced concrete hotels are located in many low-lying coastal areas. The upper floors of these hotels can provide a safe place to find refuge should there be a tsunami warning and you cannot move quickly inland to higher ground. 7. Homes and small buildings located in low-lying coastal areas are not designed to withstand tsunami impacts. Do not stay in these structures should there be a tsunami warning. 8. Offshore reefs and shallow areas may help break the force of tsunami waves, but large and dangerous wave can still be a threat to coastal residents in these areas. 9. Staying away from all low-lying areas is the safest advice when there is a tsunami warning.

3.6

IF YOU ARE ON A BOAT:

Since tsunami wave activity is imperceptible in the open ocean, do not return to port if you are at sea and a tsunami warning has been issued for your area. Tsunamis can cause rapid changes in water level and unpredictable dangerous currents in harbors and ports. If there is time to move your boat or ship from port to deep water (after a tsunami warning has been issued), you should weigh the following considerations:

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1. Most large harbors and ports are under the control of a harbor authority and/or a vessel traffic system. These authorities direct operations during periods of increased readiness (should a tsunami be expected), including the forced movement of vessels if deemed necessary. Keep in contact with the authorities should a forced movement of vessel be directed. 2. Smaller ports may not be under the control of a harbor authority. If you are aware there is a tsunami warning and you have time to move your vessel to deep water, then you may want to do so in an orderly manner, in consideration of other vessels. 3. Owners of small boats may find it safest to leave their boat at the pier and physically move to higher ground, particularly in the event of a locallygenerated tsunami. 4. Concurrent severe weather conditions (rough seas outside of safe harbor) could present a greater hazardous situation to small boats, so physically moving yourself to higher ground may be the only option. 5. Damaging wave activity and unpredictable currents can affect harbors for a period of time following the initial tsunami impact on the coast. Contact the harbor authority before returning to port making sure to verify that conditions in the harbor are safe for navigation and berthing.

3.7

WHAT TO DO AFTER A TSUNAMI

1. You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated emergency information. The Tsunami may have damaged roads, bridges, or other places that may be unsafe. 2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping injured or trapped persons. 3. If someone needs to be rescued, call professionals with the right equipment to help. Many people have been killed or injured trying to rescue others in flooded areas. 4. Help people who require special assistance. Infants, elderly people, those without transportation, large families who may need additional help in an emergency situation, people with disabilities, and the people who care for them. 5. Avoid disaster areas. Your presence might hamper rescue and other emergency operations and put you at further risk from the residual effects of floods, such as contaminated water, crumbled roads, landslides, mudflows, and other hazards. 6. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get through.

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7. Stay out of a building if water remains around it. Tsunami water, like floodwater, can undermine foundations, causing buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls to collapse. 8. When re-entering buildings or homes, use extreme caution. Tsunami-driven floodwater may have damaged buildings where you least expect it. Carefully watch every step you take. 9. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury following a disaster is cut feet. 10. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings. Batterypowered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES. 11. Examine walls, floors, doors, staircases, and windows to make sure that the building is not in danger of collapsing. 12. Inspect foundations for cracks or other damage. Cracks and damage to a foundation can render a building uninhabitable. 13. Look for fire hazards. There may be broken or leaking gas lines, flooded electrical circuits, or submerged furnaces or electrical appliances. Flammable or explosive materials may have come from upstream. Fire is the most frequent hazard following floods. 14. Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear a blowing or hissing noise, open a window and get everyone outside quickly. Turn off the gas using the outside main valve if you can, and call the gas company from a neighbor's home. If you turn off the gas for any reason, it must be turned back on by a professional. 15. Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed wires, or if you smell burning insulation, turn off the electricity at the main fuse box or circuit breaker. If you have to step in water to get to the fuse box or circuit breaker, call an electrician first for advice. Electrical equipment should be checked and dried before being returned to service. 16. Check for damage to sewage and water lines. If you suspect sewage lines are damaged, avoid using the toilets and call a plumber. If water pipes are damaged, contact the water company and avoid using water from the tap. You can obtain safe water from undamaged water heaters or by melting ice cubes that were made before the tsunami hit. Turn off the main water valve before draining water from these sources. Use tap water only if local health officials advise it is safe. 17. Watch out for wild animals. Especially poisonous snakes that may have come into buildings with the water. Use a stick to poke through debris. Tsunami floodwater flushes snakes and animals out of their homes. 18. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.

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19. Take pictures of the damage. Both of the building and its contents, for insurance claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building. 20. Shovel mud before it solidifies. 21. Check food supplies. Any food that has come in contact with floodwater may be contaminated and should be thrown out. 22. Expect aftershocks. If the earthquake was very large (magnitude 8 to 9+ on the Richter scale) and located nearby. Some aftershocks could be as large as magnitude 7+ and capable of generating another tsunami. The number of aftershocks will decrease over the course of several days, weeks, or months depending on how large the main shock was. 23. Watch your animals closely. Keep all your animals under your direct control. Hazardous materials abound in flooded areas. Your pets may be able to escape from your home or through a broken fence. Pets may become disoriented, particularly because flooding usually affects scent markers that normally allow them to find their homes. The behavior of pets may change dramatically after any disruption, becoming aggressive or defensive, so be aware of their wellbeing and take measures to protect them from hazards, including displaced wild animals, and to ensure the safety of other people and animals.

3.8

GENERAL MEASURES

1. Adopting integrated multi-hazard approach with emphasis on cyclone and tsunami risk mitigation in coastal areas. 2. Implementation of early warning system for cyclones and tsunamis. 3. Streamlining the relief distribution system in disaster affected areas. 4. Design, practice and implementation of evacuation plans with emphasis on selfreliance for sustenance with the locals (coastal community). 5. Component on planning for reconstruction and rehabilitation should be added in disaster management plans at all levels. 6. Emphasis on mental health and to socio-psychological issues should be accorded in every plan. 7. Identification and strengthening of existing academic centers in order to improve disaster prevention, reduction and mitigation capabilities. 8. Capacity building programmes to be taken up on priority basis o Training of all concerned including community o Public awareness programmes o Enhancing capabilities of the Institutes working in field of disaster mitigation and management

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3.9

SPECIFIC MEASURES FOR SAFETY FROM TSUNAMIS / STORM SURGES Structural Measures:

3.9.1

1. Construction of cyclone shelters. 2. Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line. 3. Development of a network of local knowledge centers (rural/urban) along the coast lines to provide necessary training and emergency communication during crisis time (e.g. centers developed by M.S. Swami Nathan Foundation in Pondicherry) 4. Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with experts. 5. Development of break waters along the coast to provide necessary cushion against cyclone and tsunami hazards 6. Development of tsunami detection, forecasting and warning dissemination centers. 7. Development of a Bio-Shield - a narrow strip of land along coastline. Permanent structures should come up in this zone with strict implementation of suggested norms. Bio-Shield can be developed as coastal zone disaster management sanctuary, which must have thick plantation and public spaces for public awareness, dissemination and demonstration. 8. Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami/cyclone resistance of all such buildings as well as appropriate planning, designing, construction of new facilities like: o Critical infrastructures e.g. power stations, warehouses, oil and other storage tanks etc. located along the coastline. o All other infrastructure facilities located in the coastal areas. o Public buildings and private houses. o All marine structures. o Construction and maintenance of national and state highways and other coastal roads.

3.9.2

Non-Structural Measures:

1. Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m of the high tide line with elevation of less than 15 m above m.s.l. 2. Mapping the coastal area for multiple hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis up to taluka /village level. Development of Disaster Information Management System (DIMS) in all the coastal states.

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3. Aggressive capacity building requirements for the local people and the administration for facing the disasters in wake of tsunami and cyclone, based on cutting edge level. 4. Developing tools and techniques for risk transfer in highly vulnerable areas. 5. Launching a series of public awareness campaign throughout the coastal area. 6. Training of local administration in forecasting warning dissemination and evacuation techniques 7. Awareness generation and training among the fishermen, coast guards, officials from fisheries department and port authorities and local district officials etc., in connection with evacuation and post tsunami storm surge management activities. Regular drills should be conducted to test the efficacy of the DM plans. 8. Studies focusing on the tsunami risk in India may be taken under NCRM project.

3.10 ACTIONS REQUIRED IN COASTAL AREAS FOR PROTECTION AGAINST TSUNAMI / CYCLONE MITIGATION
To achieve the satisfactory level of disaster mitigation in coastal areas, following activities need to be carried out. 1. Revision of Coastal Zone Regulation Act in wake of tsunami storm surge hazards and strict implementation of the same. The current Coastal Regulations Zone (extract) is attached as Appendix A to this chapter. This responsibility may be given to respective state disaster management authorities. A special task force for this purpose may be constitutes comprising the representatives from various departments of the government and other relevant organizations (e.g. Departments of Forestry, Fisheries, Soil Conservation, Town and Country Planning Organization, Navy, Coast Guard and IMD etc.). 2. A state of the art EOC may be established with in the authority for monitoring purpose. 3. Initiating disaster watch (bay watch) safety measures along important beaches in the country, providing round the clock monitoring, warning and lifeguard facilities etc. 4. Organization of sensitization workshops on cyclone/tsunami risk mitigation in various states for senior bureaucrats / politicians for these states 5. Organizing drills on regular basis to check the viability of all plans and to check the readiness of all concerned.

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6. Training of professionals, policy planners and others involved with disaster mitigation and management programmes in the states. 7. Retrofitting of important buildings. I. II. III. IV. V. Fire stations / police stations/ army structures/ hospitals VIP residences / offices/ railways, airport, etc. Schools/colleges Hazardous industries Other critical structures (i.e. power stations, warehouses, oil and other storage tanks etc)

8. Designing incentives: Providing legislative back up to encourage people to adopt cyclone, tsunami resistant features in their homes e.g. tax rebate in terms of house tax and/or income tax. 9. Developing public private partnerships.

3.11 TSUNAMI EFFECTS AND DESIGN SOLUTIONS


The important observed effects of Tsunamis and possible preventive design solutions are listed in Table 3.1 to 3.4 Table 3.1 Phenomenon of Inundation EFFECT Flooded basement Flooding of lower floors Flooding of mechanical electrical & communication system & equipment Damage to building materials & contents Contamination of affected areas with water borne pollutants DESIGN SOLUTION Choose sites at higher elevations Raise the buildings above flood elevation

Do not stack or install vital material or equipments on floors or basement lying below tsunami inundation level Protect hazardous material storage facility located in tsunami prone area. Locate mechanical systems & equipments at higher location in the building Use corrosion resistant concrete & steel for the portions of the building Hydrostatic forces (Pressure Elevate building above flood level. on walls by variation in water Provide adequate openings to allow water to depth on opposite sides reach equal heights inside & outside of buildings. Design for static water pressure on walls. Buoyancy floatation or uplift Elevate building to avoid flooding. forces caused by buoyancy Anchor building to foundation to prevent floatation Saturation of soil causing Avoid slopes or setbacks from slope that may slope instability and/or loss of be destabilized when inundated. bearing capacity

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Table 3.2 Phenomenon of Currents, (wave break & bore) EFFECT Hydrodynamic forces (pushing forces on the front face of the building and drag caused by flow around the building Debris Impact Scour DESIGN SOLUTION Elevate building to avoid Design for dynamic water forces on walls & building elements. Anchor building to foundation.

Elevate building to avoid. Design for Impact loads. Use deeper foundation (piles or piers). Protect against scour and erosion around foundation.

Table 3.3 Phenomenon of Drawdown EFFECT Embankment instability DESIGN SOLUTION Design water front slopes, walls & buttresses to resist saturated soils without water in front Provide adequate drainage. Design for scour & erosion of soil around foundation & piles.

Scour

Table 3.4 Phenomenon of Fire EFFECT Waterborne flammable materials and ignition increase in buildings DESIGN SOLUTION Use fire resistant materials Locate flammable materials storage outside of high - hazard areas.

3.12 Specific Design Principles for Tsunamis 3.12.1 Know the Tsunami Risk at the site
Distance from the sea Elevation above mean sea level Height of high tide above m. s. l. Maximum run-up of the tsunami above the site elevation Depth and speed of the tsunami wave for design purposes.

3.12.2 Avoid new developments in Tsunami Run-up Areas


Role of land Use Planning Local Context Understanding Trade offs

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- Review and update existing Safety elements - Review and update existing Land Use Elements - Review and update existing Zoning, and other regulations Land Use Planning Strategies Avoiding by building on high ground necessary for vital installations Slowing the tsunami wave by frictional techniques forests, ditches, slopes and berms Deflecting the tsunami away by using angled walls suitable for important installations Brute resistance through stiffened strong structural design costly buildings High rise buildings with open ground storey, designed for wave forces Hotels, offices etc Stilted buildings for various uses.

3.12.3 Site Planning Strategies to reduce Tsunami Risk

3.12.4 Tsunami Resistant Buildings New Developments


Locally applicable Tsunami Hazard Information on Design Intensities Performance Objectives Mandatory use of building Codes Design Criteria Safety under Multi-hazard environment Qualified Engineers and Architects - knowledge about Earthquake, Wind and Tsunami resistant planning and design Ensure quality construction

3.12.5 Protection of existing buildings and infrastructure Assessment, Retrofit, Protection measures
Inventory of existing assets Assessment of Vulnerability and deficiencies to be taken care of through retrofitting Methods of retrofitting and use in design External protection methods from the onslaught of tsunami

3.12.6 Special Precautions in locating and designing infrastructure and critical facilities
Considerations in relocating and redevelopment of infrastructure Considerations in relocating and redevelopment of critical facilities Vertical evacuation High rise buildings, special shelters Horizontal evacuation Locating high grounds, building high enough mounds Awareness about evacuation areas and routes

3.12.7 Planning for Evacuation

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SECTION-4 TSUNAMI WARNING AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Fig 4.1 Tsunami Mooring System

4.1

THE PRESENT STATUS OF TSUNAMI WARNINGS IN INDIA.

Tsunami is least probability event in India. As such, there are no codal provisions of Tsunami warnings in India as yet though; there is a good seismological network in India to record any earthquake within the country and its neighborhood. The need of

33

a Tsunami Warning Centre (TWC) in India is now being conceptualized at the Government of India level. The Department of Ocean Development in Cooperation with Departments of Space and Science and Technology is evolving a plan of tsunami warning system in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The data from observing points to Warning Centre(s) will be sent through satellite links, Specific systems called Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) using Bottom Pressure Recorder, acoustic modem, acoustic release system, and battery pack bolted to platform and float action and recovery aids will be deployed.

4.2

INTERNATIONAL STATUS OF TSUNAMI WARNING AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Present techniques of Tsunami prediction are severely limited. The only way to determine, with certainty, if an earthquake is accompanies by a Tsunami, is to note the occurrence and epicenter of the earthquake and then detect the arrival of the Tsunami at a network of tide stations. While it is possible to predict when a Tsunami will arrive at coastal locations, it is not yet possible to predict the wave height, number of waves, duration of hazard, or the forces to be expected from such waves at specific locations. Tsunami Warning System is based on the concept that Tsunamis travel at much slower velocity (500 to 700 km per hour or 0.20 km/sec) as compared to seismic waves (6 to 8 km per second). That is seismic waves move 30 to 40 times faster than Tsunami waves. Thus, after the occurrence of a damaging earthquake and quick determination of epicenter, warning time of a few minutes to 2 to 3 hours is available depending upon the distance from the epicenter to the coast line. This time can be utilized for warning the coastal community if quick detection and rapid communication systems are established.

4.2.1

TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM

Following most common methods of detection is in use:1. Japan has a network of land/sea sensors that records seismic activity and feeds information to a national agency able to issue evacuation warnings within a minute of occurrence of any earthquake. Earthquake warning issued by Japan Meteorological Agency are relayed via satellite to the Municipal offices and automatically broadcast from several sets of loudspeakers. 2. Pacific Ocean issues warnings of tidal waves heading in a particular direction. 3. Presently land and sea based sensors connected to satellite based link are available. 4. Satellite telemetry is used for data collection and dissemination; receive and display of Tsunami warning utilizing existing Geostationary operational

34

Environmental Satellite (GOES) and Data Collection Interrogation System (DCIS). An earthquake activates seismic instrument, which transmits signal to the GOES platform which responds automatically transmitting an alert code to an active device at warning site. 5. Developing Tsunami and earthquake data base verification, Tsunami model preparation of hazard assessment maps for the coast line combing historical and modeling result, establishment of seismic and tidal sensors using satellite telemetry to provide early warning information. 6. Extensive network of seismic and tidal station, as well as communication systems, to ensure that the warning information is prompt and accurate.

7. System performs with detection of an earthquake, which has required magnitude to trigger the alarm attached to the seismograph. The alarm thresholds are set so that ground vibrations of the amplitude and duration associated with an earthquake of approximate amplitude 6.5 or greater or Richter scale anywhere in Pacific will cause them to sound.

4.2.2

THE TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM

Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the Pacific, comprised of 28 participating international Member States, has the functions of monitoring seismological and tidal stations throughout the Pacific Basin to evaluate potentially Tsunami genic earthquake and disseminating Tsunami warning information. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) is the operational center of the Pacific TWS. Located near Honolulu, Hawaii, PTWC provides Tsunami warning information to national authorities in the Pacific Basin.

4.2.3

INSTRUMENTATION

PTWS has the following components: 1. Seismometers including ocean bottom seismometers 2. Tide gauge stations/Seal level recorder. 3. Pressure recorder in the ocean bottom by moored systems 4. Satellite based communication links.

4.2.4

TSUNAMI WARNING CENTERS

As part of an international cooperative effort to save lives and protect property, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations (NOAA) National Weather Service operates the two Tsunami warning centers. The Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (ATWC) IN Palmer, Alaska, serves as the regional Tsunami Warning Center for Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Ewa Beach, Hawaii, serves as the regional Tsunami Warning Centre for Hawaii and as a national/international warning center for Tsunamis that pose a Pacific-wide threat. This international warning effort

35

becomes a formal arrangement in 1965 when PTWC assumed the international warning responsibilities of the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS). The PTWS is composed of 26 international Member States that are organized as the International Coordination Group for the Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific.

4.2.5

TSUNAMI WATCH AND WARNING DISSEMINATION

The objective of the PTWS is to detect, locate, and determine the magnitude of potentially Tsunami genic earthquake occurring in the Pacific Basin or its immediate margins. Earthquake information is provided by seismic stations operated by PTWC, ATWC, the U.S. Geological Surveys National Earthquake Information Centre and international sources. If the location and magnitude of an earthquake meet the known criteria for generation of a Tsunami, a Tsunami warning is issued to warm of an imminent Tsunami hazard. The warning includes predicted Tsunami arrival times at selected coastal communities within the geographic area defined by the maximum distance the Tsunami could travel in a few hours. A Tsunami watch with additional predicted Tsunami arrival times is issued for a geographic area defined by the distance the Tsunami could travel in a subsequent time period. If a significant Tsunami is detected by sea-level monitoring instrumentation, the Tsunami warning is extended to the entire Pacific Basin. Seal level (or tidal) information is provided by NOAAs National Ocean Service, PTWC, ATWC, university monitoring networks and other participating nations of the PTWS. The International Tsunami Information Center, part of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, monitors and evaluates the performance and effectiveness of the Pacific Tsunami Warning System. This effort encourages the most effective data collection, data analysis, Tsunami impact assessment and warning dissemination to all TWS participants.

4.2.6

TSUNAMI WARNING DISSEMINATION

1. Tsunami watch, warning and information bulletins are disseminated to appropriate emergency officials and the general public by a variety of communication methods. 2. Tsunami watch, warning and information bulletins issued by PTWC and Atlantic Tsunami Warning Centre (ATWC) are disseminated to local, state, national and international users as well as the media. These users, in turns, disseminate the Tsunami information to the public, generally over commercial radio and television channels. 3. The NOAA Weather Radio System, based on a large number of VHF transmitter sites, provides direct broadcast of Tsunami information to the public. 4. The US Coast Guard also broadcasts urgent marine warnings and related Tsunami information to coastal users equipped with medium frequency (MF) and very high frequency (VHF) marine radios. 5. Local authorities and emergency managers are responsible for formulating and executing evacuation plans for areas under a Tsunami warning. The public is advised to stay-turned to the local media for evacuation orders and latest 36

Tsunami warnings. People are advised not to return to low lying coastal areas until all clear signals are issued from the Warning Centre.

4.3

SOME CONCEPTS OF WORK PLAN FOR THE TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM IN INDIA

1. Assumption: Least probability event. Return period once after several hundred years. No parallel in recorded history like Tsunami of 26 December 2004. Proposed system should be sustainable and cost - effective. 2. Observational system should be of multi-use type (Oceanography, Meteorology, Geophysics) 3. Policy decision: Codal Provision to issue Tsunami warning. 4. Identification/Establishment of Nodal Department 5. Identification of Vulnerable area 6. Fixation of critical value for the issuance of Tsunami warnings (Magnitude 7.0 or above in Richter Scale ) 7. Assessment of Present Capacity: (observation network and communication of data & warnings, gap areas and needs) 8. Cost effective and sustainable communication system (Radio and Satellite base communication) 9. Awareness Programme Targets (i) For Scientific communities (ii) Coordinators and Operators of Warning System (iii) Disaster Managers (iv) General Public 10. Research (i) Compilation of historical records (ii) Development of model to predict probable maximum Tsunami heights along different coastal locations in India. (iii) Propagation time charts 11. Mitigation measures Since the return period of destructive Tsunami are very large , Tsunami mitigation measure should be considered along with mitigation measure of other natural hazards like tropical cyclone, coastal flooding, coastal erosion (due strong monsoon and other natural hazards) etc. However, specific Tsunami protective measures may be undertaken for the vital coastal installations like important ports, nuclear plants along the coast high value coastal installation properties.

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SECTION 5

PREPARATION OF MODEL
5.1 RAW MATERIALS USED FOR PREPARATION OF MODEL
Sr.no. 1. 2. ITEM 10 X 3 iron sheet Angle sections 33 3 10 Fibre sheet 10 X 1 3 X 1 Nos 1 Nos 6 Nos 2 Nos 2 Nos 2 Nos 2 Nos

3.

5.2 METHOD OF PREPARATION OF MODEL


1. The Preparation of the model is started by the welding process. 2. All the angels are welded and a box type structure is made. 3. The iron sheet is kept horizontally keeping its face on upside, thus acts as the bed of sea. 4. The iron sheet is welded to avoid its displacement. 5. Fibre sheets are joined by screw vertically on the angles serving as walls.

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Fig 5.1 Painting of the iron surfaces We have painted all the iron surfaces with paint to avoid the corrosion effect on the iron. For the leakage of water from the angles and corners first we used M-Seal as water proofing material.

Fig 5.2 Applying M-Seal It works but does not give us complete success. It was unable to water proof each and every corners of model by M-Seal, Keeping in mind the economy of the project.

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Then we used silicon as a water proofing agent on the outer corners of the model.

Fig 5.3 Applying Silicone gel

It worked better than the M-Seal.

Fig 5.4 Applying of Cement mortar Application of cement mortar on the inner corners of the model as a water proofing material.

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Fig 5.5 Applying sand mix with fevicol Applying sand mixed with fevicol on inner bed to create an aesthetic look of sea bed. But this was not much better, as the sand particles get removed from the surface as the wave passes from the surface.

Fig 5.6 Mixing of cement mortar and coarse aggregate Preparation of final bed by use coarse aggregate by mixing it with the cement mortar

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SECTION 6 MODEL DESCRIPTION


6.1 SQUARE (Model no. 1A, 1B)

Dimensions Length Breadth Height Doors Windows 15 cm 15 cm 10 cm 7 cm X 2 cm 2 cm X 2 cm

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6.2

POLYGON (Model no. 2A, 2B) Dimensions


Length Breadth Height Doors Windows 18 cm 10 cm 20 cm 7 cm X 2 cm 2 cm X 2 cm

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6.3

DOUBLE STOREY RECTANGLE (Model NO. 3A, 3B)

Dimensions Length Breadth Height Doors Windows 16 cm 8.0 cm 20 cm 7 cm X 2 cm 2 cm X 2 cm

44

6.4

L SHAPE (Model no. 4A, 4B)

Dimensions Length Breadth Height Doors Windows 15 cm 5 cm , 10 cm 10 cm 7 cm X 2 cm 2 cm X 2 cm

45

SECTION 7 RESULT AND TESTING


7.1 MODELS WITHOUT RETAINING WALL

Practical Wave Wave Building Building Building Building No. No. Height No.1 No.1 No.2 No.2 (mm) description Status description Status 1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 15 17 19 20 22 25 28 (without retaining wall) Square 1A No Failure Failure Polygon 2A (without retaining wall) No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure Failure

Observation:
In this practical square (1A) type building fails at 15 mm height of wave whereas Polygon (2A) type building fails at 28 mm height of wave. Hence Polygon type building proves to be stronger than square type building. So sloped from front side like shape of structure proves to be more effective from waves than flat like shape from front side

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2.

12

Square 1A (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure Failure

13

Double Storey Rectangle 3A (without retaining wall)

No Failure Failure

15

17

Observation:
Square (1A) type building fails at 15 mm wave height and double storey rectangle (3A) fails at 13 mm wave height. The shape of both buildings was same but in square type there were more windows and doors in it which let goes water through it. In the double storey rectangle (3A) type on the front face there was only window on front face which gives water more surface area to strike. So it concludes that keeping more doors and windows in the structure offers minimum damage to the structure.

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3.

10

Square 1A (without retaining wall)

No Failure

L Shape 4B (without retaining wall)

No Failure

16

Failure

Failure

18

Observation:
Both the type of buildings get fails at 16mm wave height. This concludes that more the flat face on wave side more the damage occurs to the structure.

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4.

11

Polygon 2A (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure Failure

12

Double Storey Rectangle 3A (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure Failure

14

15

18

23

26

28

Observation:
The polygon (2A) type building fails at 28 mm wave height whereas double storey rectangle (3A) fails at 14 mm wave height. This gives the conclusion about the shape of structure. Slope from front face offers minimum striking force from water as water flows by the slope side of the wall.

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5.

Polygon 2A (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure Failure

L Shape 4B (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure Failure

10

15

18

22

24

25

28

Observation:
The polygon (2A) type building fails at 28 mm wave height whereas L shape (4B) fails at 15 mm wave height. Thus more the slant area on the wave side face less will the damage occurs to structure.

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6.

11

12

Double Storey Rectangle 3A (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure Failure

L shape 4A (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure Failure

17

18

Observation:
The Double Storey Rectangle (3A) type building fails at 17 mm wave height and L shape (4A) fails at 17 mm wave height. Thus more the holes in outer walls like doors and windows for letting the water flow through, that much less damage will incure.

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7.

10

Double Storey Rectangle 3B (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure Failure

Double Storey Rectangle 3A (without retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure

10

11

13

15

18

21

24

10

27

11

30

Observation:
Double storey residential (3B) has more surface area in contact to direct wave which fails at a 15 mm wave height. But another same shape structure having less surface area side in direct contact to wave does not fails.

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7.1.1 CONCLUSION OF MODELS WITHOUT RETAINING WALL


From the practicals of without retaining wall we have concluded that: The model prepared for the tsunami wave testing is working properly and it gives prototype effect of original scenarios. But in this model there is a limitation of tsunami wave height. So for better results with higher run-up heights wave tank testing should be done. If the building front wall is perpendicular to the wave direction than it offers major damage to the structure in comparison of building front face inclined or curved. If there are more openings in the form of doors and windows provided in the building located on sea shore than water pressure will release through those openings and reducing the risk of damage to the structure. If the sea face wall of building is having lessor width and height it will resist higher depth of run-up waves. Ground wall parking concept will serve better in this locations, but at the same time differential stiffness should be checked. Irregular shape building will observed torsional effects also under the action of tsunami waves.

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7.2

MODELS WITH RETAINING WALL

Observation: Practical Wave Wave Building Building Building Building No. No. Height No.1 No.1 No.2 No.2 (mm) description Status description Status 1 1 2 15 20 Square 1A (with retaining wall) No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure Square 1B (without retaining wall) Failure -

20

.24

There is no damage to the structure behind retaining wall till first storey height in our case, but wave height beyond first storey height may damage the structure.

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2.

15

Polygon 2A (with retaining wall)

No failure No failure No failure No failure No failure No failure No failure No failure

Polygon 2B (without retaining wall)

No failure No failure No failure No failure No failure No failure No failure Failure

20

20

27

27

28

28

28

Observation:
There is no damage to the structure behind retaining wall till first storey height in our case, but wave height beyond first storey height may damage the structure.

55

3.

18

25

Double Storey Rectangular 3A (with retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure

Double Storey Rectangular 3B (without retaining wall)

Failure

25

27

Observation:
There is no damage to the structure behind retaining wall till first storey height in our case, but wave height beyond first store height may damage the structure.

56

4.

12

L Shape 4A (with retaining wall)

No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure No Failure

L Shape 4B (without retaining wall)

Failure

19

21

21

22

27

Observation:
There is no damage to the structure behind retaining wall till first storey height in our case, but wave height beyond first storey height may damage the structure.

57

7.2.2 CONCLUSION OF MODELS WITH RETAING WALL


From the practical of with retaining wall we have concluded that: The model prepared for the tsunami wave testing is working properly and it gives prototype effect of original scenarios. But in this model there is a limitation of tsunami wave height. So for better results with higher run-up heights wave tank testing should be done. Any obstruction to the tsunami waves will dissipate the energy of waves. So, it reduces the risk of damage.

Inclined retaining walls before building can change the direction of tsunami waves. This may be helpful to protect the historical buildings like Dwarka. Sand dunes, RCC walls, tree plantation, fenders etc. can be used as a obstruction for safety of buildings according to probability of tsunami run-up height. There will be no damage to the structure if the wave heights are below the height of retaining wall, but if wave heights are beyond the limit of retaining wall than there may cause damage to the structure. If the building front wall is perpendicular to the wave direction than it offers major damage to the structure in comparison of building front face inclined or curved. If there are more openings in the form of doors and windows provided in the building located on sea shore than water pressure will release through those openings and reducing the risk of damage to the structure. If the sea face wall of building is having lessor width and height it will resist higher depth of run-up waves. Ground wall parking concept will serve better in this locations, but at the same time differential stiffness should be checked. Irregular shape building will observed torsional effects also under the action of tsunami waves.

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