Neurolaw 2.0 “Law-Relevant Expert Knowledge Objectively Measured with Brain Imaging: An Event-Related Potential (ERP) Study”
Mental Health and Autism
Driving Abilities and Wearing-Off in Parkinson’s Disease: A Driving Simulation Study
Boosting Resilience Attentional Bias in Previously Bullied University Students with Low Post-Traumatic Growth: A Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Study

Journal Description

Brain Sciences

Brain Sciences is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on neuroscience published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, Embase, PSYNDEX, PsycInfo, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 12.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Journal Clusters-Neurosciences: Brain Sciences, Neurology International, NeuroSci, Clinical and Translational Neuroscience, Neuroglia, Psychiatry International, Clocks & Sleep and Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease.

Impact Factor: 2.7 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.0 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2076-3425

Latest Articles

12 pages, 10724 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Hebbian Optocontrol of Cross-Modal Disruptive Reading in Increasing Acoustic Noise in an Adult with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Case Report

by Albert Le Floch and Guy Ropars

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121208 (registering DOI) - 29 Nov 2024

Abstract

Acoustic noise is known to perturb reading for good readers, including children and adults. This external acoustic noise interfering at the multimodal areas in the brain causes difficulties reducing reading and writing performances. Moreover, it is known that people with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and dyslexia have reading deficits even in the absence of acoustic noise. The goal of this study is to investigate the effects of additional acoustic noise on an adult with DCD and dyslexia. Indeed, as vision is the main source of information for the brain during reading, a noisy internal visual crowding has been observed in many cases of readers with dyslexia, as additional mirror or duplicated images of words are perceived by these observers, simultaneously with the primary images. Here, we show that when the noisy internal visual crowding and an increasing external acoustic noise are superimposed, a reading disruptive threshold at about 50 to 60 dBa of noise is reached, depending on the type of acoustic noise for a young adult with DCD and dyslexia but not for a control. More interestingly, we report that this disruptive noise threshold can be controlled by Hebbian mechanisms linked to a pulse-modulated lighting that erases the confusing internal crowding images. An improvement of 12 dBa in the disruptive threshold is then observed with two types of acoustic noises, showing the potential utility of Hebbian optocontrol in managing reading difficulties in adults with DCD and dyslexia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Behavioral Neuroscience)

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17 pages, 708 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

”I Am Longing and Afraid to Depend on You”: A Case Report on Breakdowns of Therapeutic Alliance and Interpersonal Cycles in Complex Trauma

by Carolina Papa, Erica Pugliese, Claudia Perdighe, Ramona Fimiani and Francesco Mancini

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1207; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121207 (registering DOI) - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Background: Patients with Complex Trauma (CT) may have an impaired ability to trust others and build intimate relationships due to non-integrated representations of self and others. This sometimes leads to an oscillation between needing and fearing intimacy in their adult relationships. This dynamic can occur in the therapeutic relationship, undermining the effectiveness of therapy and affecting the mental health of both the patient and the therapist. To date, no study has analyzed interpersonal patient–therapist dynamics in cases of CT. The present case aims to fill this gap by exploring relational cycles between the therapist and the patient during the therapeutic process in terms of goals and self–other beliefs. Methods: The methodology consisted of a shared and integrated reconstruction by the patient and therapist, both with clinical expertise in psychology, of the impasse in their therapeutic relationship. The reading was done through the lens of the cognitive model of Pathological Affective Dependence, a theory of traumatic relationships, by describing the primary interpersonal cycles occurring in the therapeutic relationship (altruistic, deontological, and vulnerable). Results: The condition of CT leads to several alliance breakdowns and specific interpersonal cycles, leading to new healing meanings for the patient and the relationship itself. Limitations: The study’s main limitation is that it consists of a qualitative analysis of the therapeutic relationship without data that can quantify the clinically observed changes. Conclusions: This case report demonstrates how CT, PAD and the fear of intimacy can be risk factors for the therapeutic alliance and how the therapeutic relationship constitutes a fundamental tool for intervention effectiveness in patients who experience unmet primary needs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Traumatic Stress and Dissociative Disorder)

17 pages, 3152 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Connectivity in the Dorsal Visual Stream Is Enhanced in Action Video Game Players

by Kyle Cahill, Timothy Jordan and Mukesh Dhamala

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1206; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121206 (registering DOI) - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Action video games foster competitive environments that demand rapid spatial navigation and decision-making. Action video gamers often exhibit faster response times and slightly improved accuracy in vision-based sensorimotor tasks. Background/Objectives: However, the underlying functional and structural changes in the two visual streams of the brain that may be contributing to these cognitive improvements have been unclear. Methods: Using functional and diffusion MRI data, this study investigated the differences in connectivity between gamers who play action video games and nongamers in the dorsal and ventral visual streams. Results: We found that action video gamers have enhanced functional and structural connectivity, especially in the dorsal visual stream. Specifically, there is heightened functional connectivity—both undirected and directed—between the left superior occipital gyrus and the left superior parietal lobule during a moving-dot discrimination decision-making task. This increased connectivity correlates with response time in gamers. The structural connectivity in the dorsal stream, as quantified by diffusion fractional anisotropy and quantitative anisotropy measures of the axonal fiber pathways, was also enhanced for gamers compared to nongamers. Conclusions: These findings provide valuable insights into how action video gaming can induce targeted improvements in structural and functional connectivity between specific brain regions in the visual processing pathways. These connectivity changes in the dorsal visual stream underpin the superior performance of action video gamers compared to nongamers in tasks requiring rapid and accurate vision-based decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modulating Brain Network Dynamics Through Training: Impacts on Perception, Cognition, and Action in Health and Disorder)

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27 pages, 2141 KiB

Open AccessArticle

What Factors Affect Binocular Summation?

by Marzouk Yassin, Maria Lev and Uri Polat

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1205; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121205 (registering DOI) - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Binocular vision may serve as a good model for research on awareness. Binocular summation (BS) can be defined as the superiority of binocular over monocular visual performance. Early studies of BS found an improvement of a factor of about 1.4 (empirically), leading to models suggesting a quadratic summation of the two monocular inputs (√2). Neural interaction modulates a target’s visibility within the same eye or between eyes (facilitation or suppression). Recent results indicated that at a closely flanked stimulus, BS is characterized by instability; it relies on the specific order in which the stimulus condition is displayed. Otherwise, BS is stable. These results were revealed in experiments where the tested eye was open, whereas the other eye was occluded (mono-optic glasses, blocked presentation); thus, the participants were aware of the tested eye. Therefore, in this study, we repeated the same experiments but utilized stereoscopic glasses (intermixed at random presentation) to control the monocular and binocular vision, thus potentially eliminating awareness of the tested condition. The stimuli consisted of a central vertically oriented Gabor target and high-contrast Gabor flankers positioned in two configurations (orthogonal or collinear) with target–flanker separations of either two or three wavelengths (λ), presented at four different presentation times (40, 80, 120, and 200 ms). The results indicate that when utilizing stereoscopic glasses and mixing the testing conditions, the BS is normal, raising the possibility that awareness may be involved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Visual Perception to Consciousness)

24 pages, 2553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Language Proficiency on Selective Attention Patterns at Segmenting Boundaries in English Audio Sentences

by Yunhao Mei, Fei Chen and Xiaoxiang Chen

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1204; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121204 - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Normative perceptual segmentation facilitates event perception, comprehension, and memory. Given that native English listeners’ normative perceptual segmentation of English speech streams coexists with a highly selective attention pattern at segmentation boundaries, it is significant to test whether Chinese learners of English have a different attention pattern at boundaries, thereby checking whether they perform a normative segmentation. Methods: Thirty Chinese learners of English with relatively higher language proficiency (CLH) and 26 with relatively lower language proficiency (CLL) listened to a series of English audio sentences. Meanwhile, they were asked to press the key whenever a phonetic probe “ba” occurred. Response time to “ba” reflects the attention where “ba” is located at segmentation boundaries. Results: The results revealed that, (1) relative to native English listeners’ highly selective attention pattern, the CLH group showed a relatively selective attention pattern, while the CLL group displayed a non-selective attention pattern. (2) Both the CLH group and natives had better recognition memory than the CLL group. (3) Both the CLH group and natives’ attention at segmentation boundaries was not correlated with their memory for sentences, while the CLL group’s attention at boundaries was correlated with memory. Conclusions: These findings suggest that (1) Chinese learners of English did not perform a normative segmentation, which shows the effect of English proficiency on perceptual segmentation; (2) English proficiency has a superior effect on memory for sentences, while perceptual segmentation would come next to support memory by providing structure for memory construction if English proficiency is not high; (3) a comparison of attention patterns between Chinese learners and natives can provide a reference for potential intervention to rectify non-natives, thereby improving their perception of English speech streams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Behavioral Neuroscience)

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14 pages, 3997 KiB

Open AccessReview

Peripheral Mechanisms Underlying Bacillus Calmette–Guerin-Induced Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS)

by Meera Elmasri, Aaron Clark and Luke Grundy

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121203 - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) accounts for approximately 70–75% of all bladder cancer cases. The standard treatment for high-risk NMIBC involves transurethral tumour resection followed by intravesical Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) immunotherapy. While BCG immunotherapy is both safe and effective, it frequently leads to the development of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) such as urinary urgency, frequency, dysuria, and pelvic discomfort. These symptoms can significantly diminish patients’ quality of life and may result in the discontinuation of BCG treatment, adversely affecting oncological outcomes. Despite the considerable clinical impact of BCG-induced LUTS, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear, hindering the implementation or development of effective treatments. This review provides novel insights into the potential mechanisms underlying BCG-induced LUTS, focusing on the integrated roles of afferent and efferent nerves in both normal and pathological bladder sensation and function. Specifically, this review examines how the body’s response to BCG—through the development of inflammation, increased urothelial permeability, and altered urothelial signalling—might contribute to LUTS development. Drawing from known mechanisms in other common urological disorders and data from successful clinical trials involving NMIBC patients, this review summarises evidence supporting the likely changes in both sensory nerve signalling and bladder muscle function in the development of BCG-induced LUTS. However, further research is required to understand the intricate mechanisms underlying the development of BCG-induced LUTS and identify why some patients are more likely to experience BCG intolerance. Addressing these knowledge gaps could have profound implications for patients’ quality of life, treatment adherence, and overall outcomes in NMIBC care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews in Neural Control of Peripheral Function)

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16 pages, 288 KiB

Open AccessReview

Gender Dysphoria and Related Symptoms in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Bilingual Review of the Literature

by Masaru Tateno, Ryotaro Shimomura, Eri Shiraishi, Kotaro Nanba and Yukie Tateno

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121202 - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

The association between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and gender dysphoria (GD) has attracted a great deal of interest among child and adolescent psychiatrists in Japan. In clinical settings, it is common to hear complaints or concerns related to GD from adolescents with ASD. In the past few years, several review articles have been published on ASD and GD. The Initial Clinical Guidelines for co-occurring ASD and GD in adolescents were published in 2018, suggesting the increasing need of intervention for these conditions worldwide. Although a large amount of evidence has been accumulated regarding the co-occurrence of ASD and GD, all review articles were based solely on case reports and articles published in English. In this article, we performed a bilingual literature review using English- and Japanese-language literature databases. We found 13 case reports in English and 11 case reports in Japanese. The Japanese literature included articles on gender-related symptoms in ASD, but not limited to ASD with comorbid GD. Wattel and her colleagues proposed 15 theories on the link between ASD and GD. We classified the reported cases into one or more of the fifteen theories proposed by Wattel. These theories seemed useful in understanding the co-occurrence of ASD and GD, especially in AMAB cases. Wattel’s 15 theories are categorized into biological, psychological, and social factors, respectively. With regard to the social factors, we discussed Japanese school culture and psychological burden among gender-dysphoric students. Further studies are awaited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Mental Health of People with Autism)

21 pages, 5611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Single-Channel and Multi-Channel Classification of Sleep Stages Across Four Different Data Sets

by Xingjian Zhang, Gewen He, Tingyu Shang and Fangfang Fan

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1201; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121201 - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Background: Manually labeling sleep stages is time-consuming and labor-intensive, making automatic sleep staging methods crucial for practical sleep monitoring. While both single- and multi-channel data are commonly used in automatic sleep staging, limited research has adequately investigated the differences in their effectiveness. Methods: In this study, four public data sets—Sleep-SC, APPLES, SHHS1, and MrOS1—are utilized, and an advanced hybrid attention neural network composed of a multi-branch convolutional neural network and the multi-head attention mechanism is employed for automatic sleep staging. Results: The experimental results show that, for sleep staging using 2–5 classes, a combination of single-channel electroencephalography (EEG) and dual-channel electrooculography (EOG) consistently outperforms single-channel EEG with single-channel EOG, which in turn outperforms single-channel EEG or single-channel EOG alone. For instance, for five-class sleep staging using the MrOS1 data set, the combination of single-channel EEG and dual-channel EOG resulted in an accuracy of 87.18%, whereas the combination of single-channel EEG and single-channel EOG yielded an accuracy of 85.77%. In comparison, single-channel EEG alone achieved an accuracy of 85.25% and single-channel EOG alone achieved an accuracy of 83.66%. Conclusions: This study highlights the significance of combining EEG and EOG signals in automatic sleep staging, while also providing valuable insights for the channel design of portable sleep monitoring devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sleep and Circadian Neuroscience)

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11 pages, 222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Obesity Paradox in All Subtypes of Intracranial Hemorrhage: A Retrospective Cohort Analysis of 13,000 Patients

by Helen Ng, Ellen N. Huhulea, Ankita Jain, Michael Fortunato, Galadu Subah, Ariel Sacknovitz, Eris Spirollari, Jon B. Rosenberg, Andrew Bauerschmidt, Stephan A. Mayer, Chirag D. Gandhi and Fawaz Al-Mufti

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1200; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121200 - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Recent studies reveal an “obesity paradox”, suggesting better clinical outcomes after intracranial hemorrhage for obese patients compared to patients with a healthy BMI. While this paradox indicates improved survival rates for obese individuals in stroke cases, it is unknown whether this trend remains true across all forms of intracranial hemorrhage. Therefore, the objective of our study was to investigate the incidence, characteristics, and outcomes of hospitalized obese patients with intracranial hemorrhage. Methods: The National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database was queried for data from 2015 to 2019 to identify adult patients aged 18 years and older with a primary diagnosis of non-traumatic intracranial hemorrhage. Using International Classification of Disease 10th Edition codes, patients were stratified by BMI categories: healthy weight, overweight, class I–II obesity, and class III obesity. The cohorts were examined for demographic characteristics, comorbidities, stroke severity, inpatient complications, interventions, and clinical outcomes, including length of stay (LOS), discharge disposition, and inpatient mortality. Results: Of 41,960 intracranial hemorrhage patients identified, 13,380 (33.0%) also had an obese BMI. Class I–II obese intracranial hemorrhage patients were more likely to be of white race (OR: 1.101, 95% CI: 1.052, 1.152, p < 0.001), less likely to be female (OR: 0.773, 95% CI: 0.740, 0.808, p < 0.001), and more likely to have diabetes mellitus (OR: 1.545, 95% CI: 1.477, 1.616, p < 0.001) and hypertension (OR: 1.828, 95% CI: 1.721, 1.943, p < 0.001) in comparison to healthy-weight patients. In a matched cohort analysis adjusting for demographics and severity, intracranial hemorrhage patients with class I–II obesity had a shorter length of stay (LOS) (OR 0.402, 95% CI: 0.118, 0.705, p < 0.001), reduced inpatient mortality (OR 0.847, 95% CI: 0.798, 0.898, p < 0.001), and more favorable discharge disposition (OR 1.395, 95% CI: 1.321, 1.474, p < 0.001) compared to their healthy-weight counterparts. Furthermore, these patients were less likely to require decompressive hemicraniectomy (OR 0.697, 95% CI: 0.593, 0.820, p < 0.001). Following an analysis of individual ICH subtypes, obese subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) patients demonstrated reduced mortality (OR: 0.692, 95% CI: 0.577–0.831, p < 0.001) and LOS (OR: 0.070, 95% CI: 0.466–0.660, p = 0.039), with no differences in discharge disposition. Similarly, intracerebral hemorrhage patients demonstrated reduced mortality (OR: 0.891, 95% CI: 0.827–0.959, p = 0.002) and LOS (OR: 0.480, 95% CI: 0.216–0.743, p < 0.001). Other ICH subtypes showed improved discharge outcomes (OR: 1.504, 95% CI: 1.368–1.654, p < 0.001), along with decreased mortality (OR: 0.805, 95% CI: 0.715–0.907, p < 0.001) and LOS (OR: −10.313, 95% CI: −3.599 to −2.449, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Intracranial hemorrhage patients with class I–II obesity exhibited more favorable clinical outcomes than those who were of a healthy weight or overweight. Despite its association with risk factors contributing to intracranial hemorrhage, class I–II obesity was associated with improved outcomes, lending support to the existence of the obesity paradox in stroke. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Diagnosis and Treatment of Stroke and Cerebral Aneurysms: A Call for Innovative Research Submissions)

19 pages, 811 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mitochondrial Dysfunction as a Biomarker of Illness State in Bipolar Disorder: A Critical Review

by Anna Giménez-Palomo, Helena Andreu, Oscar de Juan, Luis Olivier, Iñaki Ochandiano, Lidia Ilzarbe, Marc Valentí, Aldo Stoppa, Cristian-Daniel Llach, Giulio Pacenza, Ana Cristina Andreazza, Michael Berk, Eduard Vieta and Isabella Pacchiarotti

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1199; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121199 - 28 Nov 2024

Abstract

Mitochondria are organelles involved in different cellular functions, especially energy production. A relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction and mood disorders, especially bipolar disorder (BD), has been reported in the scientific literature, which suggests altered energy production and higher levels of oxidative stress compared to healthy controls. Specifically, in BD, the hypothesis of a biphasic pattern of energy availability has been postulated according to mood states. Current evidence highlights the presence of mitochondrial dysfunction in BD and variations between the manic, depressive, and euthymic phases. These findings need to be confirmed in future studies to identify biomarkers that may lead to individualized management of patients with BD and also to identify profiles with a higher risk of presenting an unfavorable course of illness, which would enable the design of preventive and therapeutic strategies in determined subpopulations of patients with BD. The limitations of this review include the non-systematic methodology, variety of mitochondrial-related functions associated with BD, heterogeneous study designs, preliminary evidence for specific findings, and limited recommendations regarding the use of mitochondrial modulators in BD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personalized Approach to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Bipolar Disorder)

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Abstract

Background/Objectives: Bradykinesia is considered one of the most disabling motor symptoms in individuals with Parkinson’s disease (PD). Speed-based interventions are promising for reducing bradykinesia in this population. This systematic review aims to describe speed-based interventions that have been employed for reducing bradykinesia in individuals with PD and verify their effects. Methods: This systematic review protocol was carried out in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P). Electronic searches were performed in MEDLINE, EMBASE, PEDro, LILACS and SciELO databases and gray literature sources. Experimental studies that investigated the effects of speed-based interventions on bradykinesia in individuals with PD will be considered. Two independent reviewers will screen the studies, extract data and assess risk of bias using Revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2) and ROBINS-I (“Risk Of Bias In Non-randomised Studies—of Interventions”). Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) will be used to assed the quality of evidence. Conclusions: This systematic review will offer information regarding which types of speed-based interventions have been investigated for reducing bradykinesia in individuals with PD. This information may be important for clinical decision making and will help identify gaps in the literature that may be useful for the definition of future research objectives and the planning of new trials. Ethical permission is not required for this study. Systematic review registration: this systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; registration number: CRD42024543673). Full article

20 pages, 4640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vivo and Computational Studies on Sitagliptin’s Neuroprotective Role in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Implications for Alzheimer’s Disease

by Vasudevan Mani and Minhajul Arfeen

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1191; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14121191 - 26 Nov 2024

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Diabetes mellitus (DM), a widespread endocrine disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycemia, can cause nerve damage and increase the risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Effective blood glucose management is essential, and sitagliptin (SITG), a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, may offer neuroprotective benefits in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods: T2DM was induced in rats using nicotinamide (NICO) and streptozotocin (STZ), and biomarkers of AD and DM-linked enzymes, inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis were evaluated in the brain. Computational studies supported the in vivo findings. Results: SITG significantly reduced the brain enzyme levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), beta-secretase-1 (BACE-1), DPP-4, and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) in T2DM-induced rats. It also reduced inflammation by lowering cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Additionally, SITG improved oxidative stress markers by reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) and enhancing glutathione (GSH). It increased anti-apoptotic B-cell lymphoma protein-2 (Bcl-2) while reducing pro-apoptotic markers such as Bcl-2-associated X (BAX) and Caspace-3. SITG also lowered blood glucose levels and improved plasma insulin levels. To explore potential molecular level mechanisms, docking was performed on AChE, COX-2, GSK-3β, BACE-1, and Caspace-3. The potential binding affinity of SITG for the above-mentioned target enzymes were 10.8, 8.0, 9.7, 7.7, and 7.9 kcal/mol, respectively, comparable to co-crystallized ligands. Further binding mode analysis of the lowest energy conformation revealed interactions with the critical residues. Conclusions: These findings highlight SITG’s neuroprotective molecular targets in T2DM-associated neurodegeneration and its potential as a therapeutic approach for AD, warranting further clinical investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Metabolic Dysfunction in Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Pharmacological Targets and Therapeutic Interventions)

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