Ottoman Army in 20th Century

Öz
Yeniçeri Ocağı kaldırıldıktan sonra askeri alanda yaşanan bir dizi köklü değişim, askerliğin yapılma şeklini tamamen değiştirmiştir. Osmanlı Devleti'nde askere alma usulü daha önce ocağa dayalıydı ve profesyonel anlamda paralı askerlik mevcuttu. Oca-ğın kaldırılması ile birlikte askerlik vatan ödevi sayılmıştı. Bu değişimle birlikte Osmanlı tebaası olan her ferdin Tanzimat'ın getirmiş olduğu eşitlikçi anlayış içerisinde askerlik yapması zorunluluğu doğmuştu. Teoride durum böyle olmasına rağmen, II. Meşrutiyet dönemine kadar gayrimüslim tebaa çeşitli zorluklardan dolayı askere alınamamıştı. As-kerî alanda yaşanan köklü değişim, askerlik yapacak neferlerin nasıl askere alınacakları-na ve askerlik hizmet sürelerinin ne olacağına dair bir dizi düzenlemenin yapılmasını zorunlu kılmıştı. Tanzimat ile başlayan bu süreçte dört defa (1846, 1870, 1886 ve 1914 ta-rihlerinde) kura kanunu hazırlanmıştır. Hazırlanmış olan kanunlar askerliği tebaanın ödevlerinden biri olarak sayıp, zorunlu kılsa da fiili askerlik yerine bedelli askerlik ya-pabilmenin de yolunu açmıştır. Ancak bedel-i nakdi/şahsi özellikle ticaret ve ziraat ile uğraşan ve işleri yerine yürütecek kimsesi olmayanlar için çıkarılmıştır. Çünkü Osmanlı Devleti'nde bedelli askerlik yapabilmenin temel şartı servet sahibi olmaktı. Bedelli asker-lik yapacakların diğer tüm şartlardan önce geçim kaynaklarını satmadan bedel ödeyecek bir mali kuvvete sahip olmaları gerekiyordu. Hazırlanmış olan dört kanunda da bedelli askerliğe bir fasıl ayrılmış ve bedelli askerlik yapacakların uymaları gereken esaslar be-lirlenmiştir. Bu makalede; Osmanlı Devlet'inde çıkarılan askere alma kanunlarında ge-çen bedelli askerlik meselesi irdelenmiştir.

Makedonya Meselesi’nin Şark Meselesi’nin bir uzantısı olarak değerlendirildiği bu makalede Osmanlı askerî ve siyasî idaresinin Makedonya’daki iç güvenlik sorunlarıyla ilgili tespitleri ve çözüm önerileri incelenmektedir. III. Ordu’da görev yapan İbrahim Edhem Paşa’nın “Makedonya’nın Müessif Durumu”nu aktardığı layihası hem siyasî hem de asayiş açısından bölge hakkında önemli bilgiler aktarmaktadır. İngiliz Askerî Ataşelerinin Makedonya’daki farklı etnik unsurların çatışmaları ve siyasî cinayetler hakkındaki raporları da bu çalışma kapsamında incelenmiştir. 1908 İhtilâli sonrasında, “hürriyetin ilânı” ile gelen ancak kısa süreli olan barış ve huzur ortamının siyasî cinayet istatistikleri ile ifadesi ele alınmıştır.
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Bu makale, Marmara Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim ve Öğretim Yönetmeliği’nin 27/2. Maddesi kapsamında, Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, Türk Tarihi Ana Bilim Dalı, Yakınçağ Tarihi Bilim Dalı’nda Hakan Özdemir tarafından hazırlanmakta olan “Balkanların Şekillenme Sürecinde III. Ordu: Teşkilât, Toplum, Siyâset (1878-1912)” isimli doktora tez taslağından üretilmiştir.

Yanlış/Doğru cetveli:
Matternich > Metternich
Campo Formia>Campo Formio

The Caucasus Front was the area where combat operations between the Russian and Ottoman Empires were conducted from October 1914 until December 1917 as part of the Caucasus Campaign, one of the military campaigns in the Middle Eastern theatre of war and the front line where Russian advanced units were deployed to engage opposing Ottoman units.

Özet
Osmanlı Devleti’nin on yedinci yüzyıldan itibaren savaş alanlarında eski ihtişamını kaybetmesi devlet adamlarını ordu üzerinde düşünmeye sevk etmiştir. Askeri kurumların ihyası için 1600’lerden itibaren dönem dönem bazı yenilikler yapılmıştır. Yapılan ıslahatların en önemlilerinden biri askeri eğitim alanında yeni okulların açılmasıdır. 18. Yüzyıldan itibaren yeni okulları açılmaya başlanmış, ancak bazıları kısa ömürlü olmuştur. Batı tarzı eğitim vermek amacıyla kurulan ve ayakta kalan ilk mekteplerden biri Harbiye’dir. Mekteb-i Harbiye batı tarzı eğitimin uygulandığı ilk okullardan biri olduğu gibi, aynı zamanda yeni tarz eğitimin taşıyıcısı da olmuştur. Daha seküler tarzda bir eğitim programına sahip olan bu yeni okul yapısı, eğitim kadrosu ve eğitim programı itibari ile mevcut diğer okullardan farklıdır. Aynı zamanda buradan yetişen öğrenciler de zihinsel olarak klasik eğitim kurumlarında yetişen öğrencilerden farklı yapıya sahiptir. Bu açıdan Mekteb-i Harbiye yetiştirmiş olduğu yeni subay sınıfı ile yeni bir zihinsel dünyayı temsil etmiştir. Batılı eğitmenlerin tedrisatından geçen, batıya eğitimlerini tamamlamak için giden harbiye öğrencileri geçmişteki Osmanlı ordularında görev yapmaya başlayınca, gelenekçi düşüncenin temsilcisi olan alaylı subaylar ile çatışma içerisine girdiler. Osmanlı ordusundaki mektepli-alaylı çekişmesi sadece iki subay sınıfı arasındaki bir çekişme olmayıp, aynı zamanda mevcut düzen ile modernleşmeyi savunanların kavgası niteliğindedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler
Mekteb-i Harbiye, Subay, Modernleşme, Zihinsel Dönmüşüm, Mektepli, Alaylı.

Abstract
Loss of former glory of the Ottoman Empire on the battlefields since the seventeenth century had led statesmen to think about the army. For the revive of the military institutions some innovations had been made periodically since 1600s. One of the most important reforms is the opening of new schools in the field of military education. New schools had started to open, but some of them were short-lived. Ottoman Military College is one of the first school that established and preserved to provide western style education. As Ottoman Military College is one of the first school that implemented western style education, at the same time it is the bearer of new style education. This new school structure, which has a more secular educational program, is different from other schools in terms of teaching staff and training program. At the same time, the student who are studying at these institutions mentally have a different structure than the students who are studying at classical educational institutions. In this respect, Ottoman Military College represents a new mental world with a new class of officers. When Ottoman Military College students who are studied with western educators, and students who go to west to complete their education began to serve in the Ottoman Armies, they clash with regimental officers who are representatives of traditionalist thinking. the conflict between modernist-traditionalist officers were not only a conflict between two class of officers but also a quarrel between current order and advocate of modernization.

Keywords
Ottoman Military School, Officer, Modernization, Mental Revolution, Modernist, Traditionalist

The Great War proved to be a traumatic experience for many Greek Orthodox citizen soldiers called to fight under the Ottoman banner. Although many served dutifully in arms or otherwise, i.e., in manufacturing, in labor battalions, etc., few could reconcile their conscription with their communal identity and contemporary politics. As the Ottoman authorities increasingly demonized minority citizen soldiers, they were assigned to unarmed positions en masse, which could mean transfer to the labor battalions, and possibly death. Most Greek Orthodox were aware of the harsh conditions in labor battalions and their transformation into an instrument that facilitated the murder of their Armenian comrades. However, this discriminatory war policy was not absolute. Based on grassroots sources such as diaries, memoirs, and interviews, I demonstrate how a number of recruits were trained and armed during the war. In doing so, I argue that a new contractual relationship emerged for skilled and literate Greek Orthodox through which they could successfully negotiate their skills to avoid the labor battalions and, thus, improve their chances of surviving the war.

Birinci Dünya Savaşı başladığında Faik (Tonguç) Londra'da bir üniversite öğrencisiydi. Fransız ve Alman arkadaşlar gibi Faik çok geç olmadan İstanbul'u ulaşmak için elinden geleni yaptı. Ona oldukça çok uzak görünen kolordudaki dört aylık temel eğitimde yer almak için oldukça vatansever coşkulu ve * Doç. Dr.,

Balkan Harbi’nde Osmanlı Ordusu hiç kimsenin beklemediği, çok hazin bir yenilgi almıştır. Bu yenilginin askeri sebepleri arasında en önde gelenlerden birisi de Osmanlı Ordusu’nun lojistik sisteminin temelini oluşturan Menzil Teşkilatı’nın yetersizliği olmuştur.
Bu makalede Menzil Teşkilatı Nizamnamesi esasları ve bu esaslar doğrultusunda hazırlanan
sefer planlarındaki Menzil Teşkilatı ile Balkan Harbi’ndeki uygulamaları ele alınmıştır.

This paper presents the issue of conscription within the tribal societies of 19th and early 20th century Iraq as an indicator of failures and successes of centralization and nation state building attempts, highlighting the importance of tribal conscription for the state powers and the role it played in establishing the position of the military within modern Iraqi state.

During the Cold War, the Zagros Mountain range assumed new significance, both as potential bulwark to “communist expansion” (as when the U.S. Strategic Air Command relocated to the region) and as an index of governance.  Strategic concepts were built on the heritage of nineteenth century Ottoman adoption of the “total war” doctrine, which found new lease on life through a 1955 agreement between Turkey and Iraq.  Junior officers in Iraq’s Army, local internationalists and nationalists across the region resented its implications.  During Iraq’s 1958 revolution, documents relating to the Zagros defense line were released from Baghdad Pact offices, to be subsequently published in the Soviet Union.

בשנים האחרונות גברה ההתעניינות המחקרית באירועי מלחמת העולם הראשונה לרגל שנת המאה לפריצתה. מרבית המחקרים שנכתבים אודות המלחמה עוסקים בהיבטים צבאיים, חברתיים, טכנולוגיים ותרבותיים של המלחמה מנקודת מבט מערכתית-נושאית.  המאמר הנוכחי, לעומת זאת, עוסק באירועי מלחמת העולם הראשונה ערב 'מערכת מגידו' בדרום השרון מנקודת המבט של הזיכרון המקומי. 
    המאמר פותח בבחינת אירועי הקרבות במרחב כפר-סבא – ואדי פאליק )נחל פולג(, ובאופן ספציפי דן ב"קרב על הפאליק"- פריצת הקווים העות'מאנים באגפו המערבי של קו החזית. לאחר מכן, יעבור הדיון להתמקד בַּשאלות "כיצד תושבי האזור חוו את מלחמת העולם הראשונה"? ו"מה הם עקבותיה של המלחמה בנוף הפיזי ובזיכרון הקולקטיבי של תושבי האזור"? שאלות אלו קשורות יחדיו במישור ההיסטוריוגראפי וההיסטורי.
    המאמר מתבסס על ספרות זיכרונות ותיעוד של היסטוריה בעל-פה בערבית ובעברית, כמו גם על מקורות ארכיוניים מקומיים מתקופת המנדט, חומר קרטוגראפי-ויזואלי ומשארים בשטח. מקורות אלה לא זכו להתייחסות במחקר בחלקם מפאת פערי גישה לשוניים, נושאיים או פיזיים. נבקש להראות, כי נקודת מבט זו תורמת להשלמת התמונה הרחבה יותר של המלחמה באזור השרון, המצטיירת לנו במסגרת דיונים ברמה המערכתית-נושאית. ניווכח, כי למורשת המלחמה משמעויות אתנוגראפיות, כלכליות, חברתיות וביטחוניות החורגות מהמימד ההיסטורי גרידא. כמו כן, קיימים קווי דמיון מפתיעים בין החוויה היהודית והחוויה הערבית של המלחמה, באופן שיוצר שותפות גורל בין שתי הקהילות שחיו בשרון באותה העת.
    במאמר זה אין בכוונתי להציג סקירה שלמה של אירועי המלחמה להיבטיה השונים, אלא להתמקד באופן סלקטיבי במספר אירועים, מרחבים פיזיים ומרחבי זיכרון.  תיאור שלם יותר של ההיבטים ההיסטוריים של המלחמה קיים במקורות עליהם הסתמכנו.

The remembrances of an English intelligence officer, who served in the Caucasus and northern Iran during World War I, were published in an English magazine in 1925 and translated into Ottoman Turkish for inclusion in the November 1926 issue of the Turkish General Staff’s “Askeri Mecmuası” (Military Magazine).  The English officer’s name was written in Ottoman Turkish script as “Mars” or “Maresk” so it may actually be an English surname like “Morris” or “Marrask”.
In any case, this officer was posted in Meshed, Iran, at the time WWI broke out and he was ordered to go to Tbilisi to work with the Russian Army there.  He went on an inspection trip with Grand Duke Nicholas in July 1916 and before that he had gone to Iran with a Russian expeditionary force.  After returning from leave in England to post-Revolutionary Russia in 1917, the officer took note of the demise of order and morale in the Russian Army.  Nevertheless, he made another trip to Iran as part of an unsuccessful effort to coordinate Russian and English efforts against the Turks. 
This is the English translation of the Turkish “Askeri Mecmuası” article, which was translated from the original English.  (Part I of this paper)
Also included here is the English translation of a Turkish officer’s account of his capture by Russian forces at a location 100 kilometers northwest of  Erzincan in July 1916. (Part II of this paper).

Muhterâ’t-ı Cedîdeden 7,63 Millimetre Çapında Paket Hazineli Mavzer Mesleğinde Kendi Kendine Ser’i Ateşli Osmânlı Mavzer Tabancası /
The Recently Invented, 7.63 mm Diameter, Package Magazined, Working on Mauser Principle, Series Shooter Ottoman Mauser Pistol.

Short Book Review

Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Contributions in Military Studies) Hardcover – November 30, 2000
by Edward J. Erickson 

ALL BOOKS WILL BE PROMOTED AND CAN BE REVIEWED IN OUR JOURNAL OF BOOK REVIEWS  , IN OUR MILITARY AND SECURITY REVIEW AND IN INTELLIGENCE REVIEW
[email protected]

This is a very interesting view and a must read book.

The Ottoman Army was not logistically equipped to fight the huge battles that it was forced to fight in First World War.

The main culprit was Ottoman Defence Minister Enver Pasha a man of myopic vision and petty intellect.Normal problems in Muslim world.

The odds that Ottoman Army confronted were too heavy.

In Egypt the attack on Suez was a logistic miracle and Ottoman failure because of massive allied naval guns was a foregone conclusion.

In Caucasus Russian Army was vastly superior to Ottomans logistically and materially.

In Mesopotamia British numerical superiority was massive after 1916 and Ottoman failure was a foregone conclusion.

Despite all these huge odds Ottoman Army kept itself intact to finally save Turkey under Mustafa Kemal as nationalists army.

It fielded 2.8 Million troops and suffered 750,000 fatal casualties,proportionately one of the highest.

Like all third world armies it was outstanding in defence and weak in attack where greater military dynaism and superior numbers are required.

Background: The aim of this study, which evaluated historical data, was to delineate the probable impacts of infectious
diseases on human populations under extraordinary circumstances. The second goal was to disclose the mortality rates for
infectious diseases in the absence of antibiotics. Methods: The Third Ottoman Army records at the Turkish General Staff
Military History and Strategic Study Directorate were studied retrospectively for the period between March 1915 and
February 1916. Results: For the Third Ottoman Army, the number of infection-related deaths over the single-year period
was 23,601. Malaria, relapsing fever and dysentery were the most common infections. In that pre-antibiotic era, the highest
mortality rates were seen for cholera (80%), pulmonary tuberculosis (58%) and typhoid fever (51%). However, typhus
had the maximum share in soldier deaths (6053 soldiers). The rate of vector-borne infections peaked in the summer of
1915, while the frequency of respiratory tract infections was highest in the colder months. In contrast, gastrointestinal tract
infections appeared to maintain a steady state throughout the year. Conclusions: If the wartime data for 1915 are accepted
to provide a model for extraordinary circumstances in the 21 st century, vector-borne, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal
infections can be accepted as the challenging issues with signifi cant mortality.

The Battle of Sarikamish (Sarıkamış), which took place from 22 December 1914 to 17 January 1915, was a major engagement between the Ottoman and Russian armies on the Caucasus Front. The outcome of the battle resulted in a decisive Russian victory. The Ottoman army suffered heavy losses from which it would not fully recover during the remaining years of war.

Nikolaĭ Yudenich was one of the most successful Russian commanders of the First World War, who demonstrated admirable consistency in achieving victories on the Caucasus Front. During the Russian Civil War, Yudenich became a notable military leader of the White movement.

Το όνομα του Χασάν Ταχσίν πασά δεν είναι άγνωστο στους Έλληνες και ειδικά στους Θεσσαλονικείς. Οι περισσότεροι φιλίστορες αναγνωρίζουν τη σκυθρωπή αλλά συνάμα ήρεμη και σεβάσμια φυσιογνωμία του στο γνωστό πίνακα -και όχι φωτογραφία όπως μερικοί πιστεύουν-καθώς υπογράφει, άκραχτα μεσάνυχτα, το πρωτόκολλο παράδοσης της συμπρωτεύουσας. Παρευρίσκονται ένας ένστολος τούρκος αξιωματικός, στα δεξιά ο Μεταξάς και ο Δούσμανης και πίσω, κουστουμαρισμένος και διοπτροφόρος μάλλον ο Εμίν, ο Γενικός Γραμματέας της Διοικήσεως. Ελάχιστοι, όμως, γνωρίζουν ότι τη σκηνή απεικόνισε ζωγραφικά ο ίδιος ο γιος του Πασά, ο Κενάν Μεσσαρέ μπέης, τότε λοχαγός του τουρκικού στρατού, ένας πραγματικά πολύγλωσσος ευπατρίδης αλλά και ταλαντούχος καλλιτέχνης, πρόσωπο σεβαστό στους παλαιούς Θεσσαλονικείς, που παρευρέθηκε κι ο ίδιος στην υπογραφή -αυτός είναι ο δεύτερος τούρκος αξιωματικός του πίνακα (βλ. παράρτημα). Εξάλλου το ελληνικό ενδιαφέρον για τον Ταχσίν και την οικογένειά του, δικαιολογημένα άλλωστε, σταματά εκεί, το βράδυ της 26 ης Οκτωβρίου στο τέλος μιας θλιβερής πορείας από το Σαραντάπορο μέχρι τη Θεσσαλονίκη. Η αμαχητί παράδοση της Θεσσαλονίκης και η άρνησή του να υπογράψει δεύτερο πρωτόκολλο με τους Βούλγαρους εξασφάλισε την υστεροφημία του στην Ελλάδα, μολονότι ο ίδιος διηύθυνε τις επιχειρήσεις και εμμέσως προκάλεσε τις εκατόμβες του Σαρανταπόρου και των Γιαννιτσών. Για τους ίδιους ακριβώς λόγους διαβλήθηκε από τουρκικής και μάλιστα από νεοτουρκικής πλευράς. Αποτελούσε μια παραφωνία δίπλα στον Εσάτ πασά και τον Σουκρή πασά που για μήνες πρόβαλαν απελπισμένη αντίσταση στα Γιάννενα και την Αδριανούπολη αντίστοιχα. Στα χρόνια που ακολούθησαν η έκφραση «ψυχωμένος σαν τη Θεσσαλονίκη» έγινε παροιμιώδης ειρωνεία.