Complexity Theory

Command Control, Communication Computer and Intelligence (C4I) systems enables modern military forces to achieve information superiority in the battlefield. C4I are complex System of systems (SOS) where individual systems interact locally to achieve global SOS behaviors. To build software for C4I systems conventional software engineering SwE process and practices have shortcomings and are not capable to support certain aspect of these systems. If C4I systems fail to operate as required due to the fact that SwE process was unable to fulfill its requirements, the consequences may not be tolerated because of the criticality of the mission of these systems in information warfare (IW). This paper highlights the distinguished characteristics and operational requirements of C4I systems which poses challenges to SwE process and practices. This paper also discuss the possible future research areas in order to enhance SwE process so that better software could drive these complex systems as required.

A broad international agenda for research and education in systemic sustainability, holism, and anticipation is needed to meet the challenges of sustainability science and to anticipate a better future. We propose a new scientific and cultural framework for this agenda based on the need to couple "bottomup" and "top-down" causation to understand complex and living systems as more than mechanisms; involving complex feedbacks and information relations with multiple simultaneous contexts. The initial framework, which is itself a subject of investigation, is based on categorical relations between natural forms of information and material phenomena-a new vision of science and nature that is emerging in all fields today. The necessary coupling of essential "causes" or modes of explanation, can be accomplished rigorously and mathematically using the approach of relational biology pioneered by the mathematical biologist Robert Rosen. This approach suggests a deep natural foundation in the sciences that is quintessentially ecological, introducing a principle of natural relation and anticipation involving "closed loops of causation" that cannot exist as traditional mechanisms. The new agenda aims to understand "systemic sustainability" in proper balance with "process sustainability," which tends to dominate sustainability research and practice today. At the same time, new organizational learning and entrepreneurship models are changing management, business, education, and social science toward more creative modes of functioning. These are met with a similar call for new models in education. The education agenda we envision will seek a balance between top-down and bottom-up modes of Readers may find the following article controversial.

The study of tensor calculus over semirings in terms of complexity theory was initiated by Damm et al. in [9]. Here we first look at tensor circuits, a natural generalization of tensor formulas; we show that the problem of asking whether the output of such circuits is non-zero is complete for the class NE NTIME´¾ Ç´Òµ µ for circuits over the boolean semiring,¨E for the field ¾ , and analogous results for other semirings. Common-sense restrictions such as imposing a logarithmic upper bound on circuit depth are also discussed. Second, we analyze other natural problems concerning tensor formulas and circuits over various semirings, such as asking whether the output matrix is diagonal, or a null matrix.

The traditional approach to the management of projects in the construction industry is constantly challenged, in particular the implementation of processes and the application of the project management knowledge base in complex projects. These challenges require a non-linear approach, a transformation from the control to the behavioural paradigm and a better understanding of how complexity in projects can be managed.

In this master thesis, the question is explored of how complexity theory can inform and challenge the study of organizations. Complexity theory researches complex social and natural systems and the phenomena to which they give rise, such as emergence, adaptiveness, self-organization and complexity. It has been suggested that (human) organizations are complex systems, being composed of many actors which, through local interactions, generate emergent behavior on the level of the organization as a whole. If this is true, it challenges many of the – implicit - assumptions we hold when thinking and writing about organizations. Drawing on complexity scholars and organization theorists such as Ralph Stacey, Paul Cilliers, and Edgar Morin, I analyze and critically evaluate (1) How complexity theory has been used in organizations studies so far (2) What theoretical and ethical consequences the insights from complexity theory hold for the way we think about organizations (3) What a theory of organization rooted in complexity studies could look like (4) How professionals working with organizations can develop an attitude that allows them to better deal with complexity in their practice. I conclude that complexity theory has important consequences for the way we think and work in organizations, proposing an approach which is not aimed at reducing complexity for those involved, but at engaging it from an attitude which is both modest and reflective.

My thesis was awarded with the Leo Polak Thesis Prize 2014 (second prize).

The purpose of this paper is to lay the ground for an open source pattern language for systemic transformation (PLAST) based on systemic interpretation. This pattern language will help change agents and practitioners on the ground make sense of complex systemic phenomena and dynamics so they can build truly transformative solutions and create greater coherence between disparate actions, thus leveraging and catalyzing agency and capacity for change wherever it may be found.

The end goal is to accelerate the transition to a sustainable and thrivable world, through the awareness and fostering of sustainable socio-economic dynamics regenerative of commons. Commons are understood here as the distributed factors of opportunity and renewal of the system, which need to be perpetually maintained to ensure the on-going sustainability and thrivability of the system and its components.

Paper prepared for the PurplSoc Workshop - Pursuit of Pattern Languages for Societal Change, at Danube-University, November 14/15, 2014

Özet
Matematiğin mimarlık dahil olmak üzere farklı disiplinlerle girdiği sıkı ilişki ve teknolojinin gün geçtikçe gelişmesiyle kullanım alanı artan bilgisayar destekli tasarım teknolojisi sayesinde tasarım sürecinde farklı matematiksel modellerin kullanılması mümkün olmuştur. Matematiksel modellerle strüktür tasarımı, geometri ve malzeme parametrelerini ön plana çıkarmıştır. 
Karmaşıklık kuramının sistemdeki dinamiklerin modellenmesi açısından strüktür tasarımındaki rolü önemlidir. Birbirinden farklı birçok parametrenin olması ve bunlar arasındaki ilişkilerin keşif süreci taşıyıcı sistemi tasarlanabilir bir sistem yapmıştır.  Geometri, bu sistemin formunu oluşturur ve ilk dikkat çeken parametredir. Yaratılan her form bir geometri içerir ve formun ayakta durabilmesi için de strüktür tasarımına ihtiyaç vardır. Mimarlıkta geometriyle birlikte malzeme, tasarımın dokusunun, biçiminin ve binanın görünümünün oluşmasında temel bileşenlerdendir.
Strüktür tasarımında en temel yöntem olan sonlu elemanlar analizi ışığında, arup optimizeri, dinamik rahatlama, evrimsel şekil optimizeri ve evrimsel strüktür optimizeri incelenmiştir. Bu analizler sonucu ortaya çıkan zincir eğrisi, bükülme, minimal yüzey ve nurbs modelleri araştırılmıştır. Arup optimizeri, tüm sistemde kendi kendini organize etmesini sağlayacak en uygun tekrar elemanlarını seçer ve bu elemanları tek tek analiz eder. Dinamik rahatlama, malzemenin yerçekimi ile kendiliğinden şekil almasını sağlayan topolojik şekildeki kemer yapının optimizasyonunu sağlar. Evrimsel şekil optimizeri ise serbest forma en uygun alanı seçmek için en az deplasman yaptıracak strüktürel eleman yerleşmesini analiz eder. Evrimsel strüktür optimizeri ise sistemde vektörel gerilimi azaltmaya yönelik analizler yapar.
Strüktür modellerinden zincir eğrisi modelinde zincir, yerçekimine karşı oluşan eğrinin formunu alır. Bükülme, malzemenin kırılma noktasının gelişen teknoloji ve yeni malzemelerle eşik değerinin artması sonucunda, eski kırılma noktasının bükülmesiyle oluşan formdur. Minimal yüzeyler, minimum yüzey-gerilim potansiyel enerjisine sahip ve alan olarak da minimum olan formlardır. Nurbs ise üniform olmayan çizgiler eğrisidir ve bu eğriler, bir strüktür modelinde geometrinin haritalamasını yaparak serbest form yapıların strüktüre referans olabilecek olası çizgi ve yüzey ilşikilerinin hesaplanmasında kullanılırlar.
Matematiğin bir model oluşturduğu bu strüktür sistemlerinde, bilgisayar ortamında oluşan simülasyon, geçmişin sıkıcı ve anlaması zor olan hesaplamalarını geride bırakıp mimar ve mühendislere ortak olarak kullanabilecekleri bir ara yüz oluşturmuştur.

          Anahtar Kelimeler: Strüktür Tasarımı, Karmaşıklık Kuramı, Optimizasyon, Geometri, Kendi kendini Organize Etme, Topoloji

Most of the tension resides between

1) Embedded, complexity-minded, multiscale/fractal localism (politics as an ecology/complex adaptive system),
and
2)  Abstract one-dimensional universalists and monoculturalism (politics as a top-down engineering project).

We go beyond the verbalism; we rely on information theory,  complexity theory, uncertainty approaches (say fragility), and probabilistic rigor to look at politics with the same eyes as we examine highly dimensional interactive elements such as nature, biological systems, internet networks, and medical issues.

This paper explores Mary Catherine Bateson's critique of individualism and argument for the recognition and development of interdependence. Individualism is presented as a cornerstone of American culture, forming a constellation along with analytic thinking, methodological individualism and free market capitalism. This constellation stands in opposition to and is held in place by the constellation of collectivism, holistic thinking, methodological holism and socialism/ communism. These constellations and their dimensions are viewed as static and reified and polarized to the extent that they are no longer useful. Creativity is introduced as a factor for change and the elements of process and transformation. The discussion is contextualized drawing on examples from both academia and popular culture.

The viral spread of digital misinformation has become so severe that the World Economic Forum considers it among the main threats to human society. This spread have been suggested to be related to the similarly problematized phenomenon of "echo chambers", but the causal nature of this relationship has proven difficult to disentangle due to the connected nature of social media, whose causality is characterized by complexity, non-linearity and emergence. This paper uses a network simulation model to study a possible relationship between echo chambers and the viral spread of misinformation. It finds an "echo chamber effect": the presence of an opinion and network polarized cluster of nodes in a network contributes to the diffusion of complex contagions, and there is a synergetic effect between opinion and network polarization on the virality of misinformation. The echo chambers effect likely comes from that they form the initial bandwagon for diffusion. These findin...

The complex environments of today’s markets makes managing organizations in complexity and turbulence a concern for senior managers, and necessitate developing a dynamic strategic framework to cope with complexity in managing organizations. This paper demonstrates a study that was conducted to value a structured set of management principles and sub-elements by a panel of experts to develop a conceptual framework to manage in complex and very high dynamic environments. The panel consisted of 22 senior level managers of grade “A” companies in the construction industry in Qatar State using a two-round Delphi technique. The study developed two frameworks. The first framework is for managing complexity in the construction sector. The second one is the primary general framework, which forms a basis for a generalized framework for other industries. This study participates in developing valuable management practices in complex environments to tackle uncertainty, unpredictability, disorder, rapid changes and non-linearity, which would be of great help for leaders, senior managers and practitioners who operate in complex environments. Journal: Construction Management and Economics Volume 36, 2018 - Issue 4

The management of social housing in Ireland and, to a lesser extent, in other countries has received relatively little attention from governments or researchers despite significant changes in the last two decades. This paper seeks to address some of the gaps in the ...

In this paper we will reflect upon the theoretical underpinnings of a project conducted in a South African village bordering on a valley wetland in order to contribute to the discourse of natural resources management. The wetland, located at the foothills of the Drankensberg Mountains in eastern Mpumalanga Province, is a lifeline for roughly one hundred farmers and their families. In the paper we will reflect on how poorly resourced farmers have struggled to respond to a decline in productivity resulting from the progressive desiccation and fertility losses experienced in their wetlands. How do farmers learn to cope in such situations? The justification for adopting an ecosystems approach that is strongly informed by complexity theory and social constructionist theoretical orientations is presented and challenges faced by the project team in this regard are reported. The orientation of the paper coincides with the conference theme of "learning in a changing world" in that ...

The ‘new political governance’ (NPG) describes how governments have centralized power in the executive and sought more responsiveness from public administrators. Most see NPG as a reaction to new public management; it is also a response to complexity. There is debate about NPG and its effects on the public service ethos. Focusing on the culture of information control under NPG through concepts about resilience from complex systems theory, we describe four ethical traps NPG accentuates, argue institutional diversity and polycentric governance protect from cascading ethical failures, and observe NPG may be a transitory mode in the search to manage complexity.

Although Jung made a connection between his concept of the archetype and mankind's evolutionary history throughout his career, he remained notoriously tight-lipped about his own specific views on evolutionary theory. In the final years of his life, however, he finally went more into detail about this important topic, putting forward a most thought-provoking idea: the notion that synchronicity, or meaning ful coincidences, had a role to play in the way evolution took shape. As I will argue in this paper, Jung's comments on this topic present clear evidence that he did not think primarily along Darwinian lines, as has recently been claimed; rather, I will argue that he adopted what Wolfgang Pauli referred to as a third position-one that goes beyond both Darwinism and Lamarckism. This third position is strongly informed by the notion that evolutionary changes are not random but meaningful, and that synchronicity has a role to play in the way evolution takes shape. This suggests that Jung is not so much a kindred spirit to Neo-Darwinian evolutionary psychologists, but a thinker who is much closer in his intuitions and affinities to several evolutionary thinkers who have been influential in the field of transpersonal psychology, most notably Ken Wilber.

This article examines the management practices in an entrepreneurial small firm which sustain the business. Using a longitudinal qualitative case study, four general processes are identified (experimentation, reflexivity, organising and sensing), that together provide a mechanism to sustain the enterprise. The analysis draws on concepts from entrepreneurship and complexity science. We suggest that an entrepreneur's awareness of the role of these parallel processes will facilitate their approaches to sustaining and developing enterprises. We also suggest that these processes operate in parallel at multiple levels, including the self, the business and inter-firm networks. This finding contributes to a general theory of entrepreneurship. A number of areas for further research are discussed arising from this result.

Internet of Everything and Edge Computing are just two of the latest trends in ICT, where waves of innovation have followed one another. Connectivity and computing have nevertheless remained the nerve center of every new technological platform, and data networks nowadays are ubiquitous in digital infrastructures: for this reason it is necessary to think of them in terms appropriate to the complexity they express and of which they are a fundamental element. In this paper I elaborate why data networks have to be regarded as complex systems, what implications this has for network engineers, and what modelling tools are available that can assist them during the design, the implementation and the operations of networks to prevent risks from the hidden fragilities that emergent collective behaviours bring without sacrificing robustness and high performance.

The anthropological transformation we are undergoing shows us the urgency of rethinking teaching and training, underlining the substantial inadequacy of our schools and universities in dealing with hypercomplexity, with the global extension of all political, social and cultural processes, and with their indeterminateness, interdependence and interconnection. The idea that educational processes are questions of a purely technical and/or technological nature, solely a problem of skills and know-how, is the "great mistake" of the hypertechnological society, based on the illusion of being able to measure, simplify and quantify everything, to eliminate error and unpredictability, to achieve total control and rationality. It is necessary to rethink education radically because the extraordinary scientific discoveries and the dynamics of the new technologies have completely overturned the complex interaction between biological and cultural evolution, doing away with the borders between the natural and the artificial, leading us not towards simplification, but in quite the opposite direction.

The term “behavioral” has become a hot topic in recent years in various disciplines; however, there is yet limited understanding of what theories can be considered behavioral theories and what fields of research they can be applied to. Through a cross-disciplinary literature review, this article identifies sixty-two behavioral theories from 963 search results, mapping them in a diagram of four groups (factors, strategies, learning and conditioning, and modeling), and points to five discussion points: understanding of terms, classification, guidance on the use of appropriate theories, inclusion in data-driven research and agent-based modeling, and dialogue between theory-driven and data-driven approaches.

To achieve a successful and sustainable adaptation to climate change we need to transform the way we think about change. Much water management research has focused on technical innovation with a range of new solutions developed to achieve a ‘more sustainable and integrated urban water management cycle’. But Danish municipalities and utility companies are struggling to bring such solutions into practice. ‘Green infrastructure’, for example, requires the consideration of a larger range of aspects related to the urban context than the traditional urban water system optimization. There is the need for standardized methods and guidelines to organize transdisciplinary processes where different types of knowledge and perspectives are taken into account. On the basis of the macro–meso–micro pattern inspired by complexity science and transition theory, we developed a conceptual framework to organize processes addressing the complexity characterizing urban water management in the context of c...

The existentialists, anthropologists, neuropsychologists and cognitivists have explored several aspects of the phenomenological ontology of Being revealing the dialectical complex experience of existing and being conscious of existing. A question remains: what does it mean to feel existing? Our investigation reveals thedistinction between the feeling of existence and the experience of being-in-this-world complexityas both paradoxical and chaotic. We present how the ontic-being feels chaos and deals with this paradox of experienced existing within thesystemic contingency of a timelessness and spacelessness intertwined world. We discover how our modern culture comes to offer an orderly frame of reference adding to a semantic complexity while the actual experience of living creates a feeling of deeper sense of chaotic embeddedness in this world. We discuss the implications of this mode of experienced complexity between paradox and chaos in terms of inner disorder along with a mixed sense of spleen and courage.

The problem of misuse or loss of natural resources like the forests are due to a limited understanding of the processes that lead to improvements in or deterioration of natural resour ces (E. Ostrom, 2009). This is because the Social-Ecological systems (SESs) are inherently complex, hence the problems related to their use are rarely due to a single cause which complicate the institutional design and change to solve it. It is in this context that the E. Ostrom's SES framework was developed as a tool of diagnostic analysis to understand the complexity embedded into the governance of the SESs (E. Ostrom, 2007). However, the use of the SES framework to identify how institutional change can be stimulated is still at lower level of development (E. Ostrom, 2009). The objective of this paper is to present how institutional change can be studied using SES framework in a concrete SES case study, and how the micro-/macro-relations can be modelled to understand the functionality of the commons in the context of variable patterns of interactions. This paper bases its methodology on the E. Ostrom SES framework theory and its application (E. Ostrom, 2011), and the meta-analysis of 32 case studies of Mexican community forests in the context of the Social-Ecological System Meta-Analysis Database (SESMAD, 2014). As the results, it was identified that: (i) the performance of each case study is based on a complex set of interactions whose patterns of interactions result into desired or undesired outcomes, hence the institutional change should be based on, to set out the configurations of variables of each case which may lead or not to desired outcomes, (ii) based on a case study as a unit of analysis, the micro-/macro-relations can be modeled through the institutional design founded on and fostered by considering the community forests SES as a complex system of variable interactions, whose patterns lead to successful of unsuccessful situations of the resource use. These results share a conception of that each case should not be considered as unique. The successful cases share some attributes whereas the failed cases present a lack of some of those attributes. Thus, a comparative study is necessary. Keywords: Social-Ecological Systems (SESs), Social-Ecological System (SES) framework, variable patterns of interactions, micro-/macro-relations of the commons, case-based meta-analysis.

O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar algumas reflexões de uma proposição – no contexto da minha experiência na formação inicial de professores de língua inglesa – de uma “Pedagogia Complexa de Línguas Adicionais”, visando o desenvolvimento do professor complexo (BORGES e SILVA, 2019).

This essay analyses Christopher Nolan's Inception and Abbas Kiarostami's Five Dedicated to Ozu in order to argue that from the perspective of complexity theory, the 'complex' Hollywood film is in many respects more 'simple' than the minimalist Iranian film.

The Internet of Things vision has recently emerged as a result of a proliferation of a large number of networked consumer electronic devices. There is a growing need to autonomously monitor power consumption of these devices. We present a self-organizing distributed algorithm for the dynamic approximation of power consumption in networked consumer electronic devices.

Architects have long sought to create spaces that can relate to or even induce specific emotional conditions in their users, such as states of relaxation or engagement. Dynamic or calming qualities were given to these spaces by controlling form, perspective, lighting, color, and materiality. The actual impact of these complex design decisions has been challenging to assess, from both quantitative and qualitative standpoints, because neural empathic responses, defined in this paper by feature indexes (FIs) and mind indexes (MIs), are highly subjective experiences. Recent advances in the fields of virtual procedural environments (VPEs) and virtual reality (VR), supported by powerful game engine (GE) technologies, provide computational designers with a new set of design instruments that, when combined with brain-computing interfacing (BCI) and eye-tracking (E-T) hardware, can be used to assess complex empathic reactions. As the COVID-19 health crisis showed, virtual social interaction becomes increasingly relevant, and the social catalytic potential of VPEs can open new design possibilities. The research presented in this paper introduces the cyber-physical design of such an affective computing system. It focuses on how relevant empathic data can be acquired in real time by exposing subjects within a dynamic VR-based VPE and assessing their emotional responses while controlling the actual generative parameters via a live feedback loop. A combination of VR, BCI, and E-T solutions integrated within a GE is proposed and discussed. By using a VPE inside a BCI system that can be accurately correlated with E-T, this paper proposes to identify potential morphological and lighting factors that either alone or combined can have an empathic effect expressed by the relevant responses of the MIs.

With an abundance of social network data being released, the need to protect sensitive information within these networks has become an important concern of data publishers. In this paper we focus on the popular notion of kanonymization as applied to node degrees in a social network. Given such a network N , the problem we study is to transform N to N ′ , such that the degree of each node in N ′ is attained by at least k − 1 other nodes in N ′. Apart from previous work, we permit modifications to the node set, rather than the edge set, and this offers unique advantages with respect to the utility of the released anonymized network. We study both vertex-labeled and unlabeled graphs, since instances of each occur in real-world social networks. Under the constraint of minimum node additions, we show that on vertex-labeled graphs, the problem is NP-complete. For unlabeled graphs, we give an efficient (near-linear) algorithm and show that it gives solutions that are optimal modulo k, a guarantee that is novel in the literature. Additionally, we demonstrate empirically that commonlystudied structural properties of the network, such as clustering coefficient, are quite minorly distorted by the anonymization procedure.

After several decades of archaeologists interpreting Thailand's metal age development using top-down approaches drawn from 1980s archaeological theory, it has become evident they do not work for this region. When the metal assemblages from Ban Chiang and related sites in northeast Thailand were studied with a systematic methodology, alternative perspectives emerged for how to better interpret the resilient, peaceful prehistoric societies dating from approximately 2100 BCE-300 CE. A testable model is proposed applying "Ricardo's Law of Comparative Advantage" that focuses on "regional exchange systems." Exchange networks existed in the middle Mekong and Chao Phraya basins from the pre-metal period through the metal age and underpinned heterarchical political and economic systems whereby goods and valuables were exchanged among decentralized networks of communities.

Roman expansion into the Rhineland was followed by centuries of religious entanglements that involved the interactions of individuals and communities with a variety of backgrounds, interests and agendas, and, over time, an array of cultic narratives and practices was maintained, transformed and abandoned.. The notion of cultic heterogeneity used in this discussion is informed by the perception that all social constructs are reproduced through continuous affirmation vis-àvis extent alternatives. Cultic discourse is inherently heterogeneous due to the discrepant attitudes, abilities and actions of situated agents. This will be explored by considering the symbolic narratives and ritual practices associated with the Hercules Magusanus cult on Rome's Germanic frontier.

In much of the current literature on supply chain management, supply networks are recognized as a system. In this paper, we take this observation to the next level by arguing the need to recognize supply networks as a complex adaptive system (CAS). We propose that many supply networks emerge rather than result from purposeful design by a singular entity. Most supply chain management literature emphasizes negative feedback for purposes of control; however, the emergent patterns in a supply network can much better be managed through positive feedback, which allows for autonomous action. Imposing too much control detracts from innovation and flexibility; conversely, allowing too much emergence can undermine managerial predictability and work routines. Therefore, when managing supply networks, managers must appropriately balance how much to control and how much to let emerge.

The concept of “rewilding” has made its way into popular culture in recent years, describing a network of supporting the health of the environment and humanity itself through the cultivation of un-cultivated spaces within existing structures. This paper looks at recent cutting-edge works in literary criticism and theory to see how they handle this growing contemporary impulse to defer to wildness, ie. Complexity, as the “natural” form of cultural and biological processes.

I propose a new theory of leadership in complex systems based upon computational modeling approaches that have appeared to date. It is new in that it promises an approach that is well specified, coherent across levels of analysis, is transparent to the outside observer and can be modeled computationally. Although many of its independent components have been modeled, the underlying theory connecting these models is articulated here for the first time.

This study examines that in what aspects the levels of leaders' emotional intelligence in chaos and complexity situations can affect the organizations. Also, in this study the dimensions of emotional intelligence which are closely related to social life and organizational systems will be considered in terms of chaos and complexity theories. At the same time in this study, how a situation that appears to be complex but has an order inside and has the potential to be directed with small interventions can be handled by a leader that has a high capacity of using his/her emotional intelligence will be scrutinised. Additionally, this study will present the advantages of some leader capabilities (such as personal and interpersonal relationships, stress management, adaptability, general mood, empathy, motivation and self-awareness) in the management of the organizations in the context of chaos and complexity theories. Last but not least, the effect of emotional intelligence level in the...

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El nuevo paradigma científico, desarrollado a partir de mediados del siglo XX es el paradigma de la complejidad. Se trataba inicialmente de estudios teóricos para explicar comportamientos sistémicos aparentemente anómalos. Surgió de la matemática y la física. Pero sus principios epistémicos y metodológicos se han aplicado a otros ámbitos como el estudio de los sistemas sociales y las distintas formas de organización social. Entre ellas, destaca su aplicación a la teoría económica y a la organización y administración de empresas. El presente trabajo pretende mostrar resumidamente la influencia que han tenido los conceptos, ideas y principios del pensamiento complejo en una nueva manera de concebir, planificar y gestionar la empresa para concluir con una serie de orientaciones que los teóricos de la economía están aún desarrollando con el fin de orientarse en un contexto de mercados globales y volátiles que generan incertidumbre.

Rare events have happened ever since the beginning of this universe. However, they have very recently become the subject of study and a category. This paper studies what rare events are and explores a series of epistemological consequences, thereafter, along with its complexity. The paper introduces a brand new understanding about the sciences of complexity, namely the study of unpredictable phenomena. Unpredictability is the ground, the problem, and the support for complexity as such, something that has never been openly set to the fore in the bibliography about the field. Resumen Los eventos raros han sucedido desde el comienzo de este universo y, sin embargo, la tematización y categorización de los mismos es un fenómeno perfectamente reciente. Este artículo estudia qué son los eventos raros y explora la tesis y consecuencia de tipo epistemológico y su complejidad. El texto permite por lo demás una nueva comprensión sobre las ciencias de la complejidad, a saber, el estudio de fenómenos impredecibles. La impredecibilidad constituye el piso, el problema y el soporte de la complejidad misma, algo que jamás ha sido puesto explícitamente de manifiesto en la bibliografía sobre el tema. Palabras clave: eventos raros, ciencias de la complejidad, teoría del conocimiento, ciencia, filosofía. Introducción En contraste con lo que enseñan las ciencias fisicalistas, el mundo y la naturaleza no están hechos de fenómenos universales, generales y comunes. Por el contrario, la vida de los seres humanos y de la naturaleza está constituida por acontecimientos extraordinarios, excepcionales, cuando dichos acontecimientos son significativos. La vida está constituida por innumerables acontecimientos excepcionales. Únicos, literalmente. Una aproximación (bastante desafortunada) consiste en decir que la existencia se define por oportunidades. De otra parte, la tierra parece ser un lugar único, la persona a la que amamos es diferente a cualquier otra, hemos tenido experiencias que a cada quien le parecen singulares e irrepetibles, y así sucesivamente. Y sin embargo existen los días anónimos, gente que nos es indiferente, lugares que no nos significan particularmente nada.

Quando nos voltamos para a tarefa de explicitar percepção e cognição, os dois principais modelos são aqueles que chamarei de estático e dinâmico. O modelo estático mais famoso e mais respeitado é o computacional. Chamo este modelo de estático devido ao fato de não depender ou não pressupor a temporalidade como elemento ou atributo intrínseco à realidade que pretende explicitar. Não que o processamento de informação não ocorra no tempo, mas sim que o tempo não é intrínseco ao sistema. No domínio da representação, 2 os processos são reversíveis e o modelo computacional é intrinsicamente uma abordagem ancorada na premissa da representação.