`indirect` and `polymorphic`: Vocabulary Types for Composite Class Design

ISO/IEC JTC1 SC22 WG21 Programming Language C++

P3019R9

Working Group: Library Evolution, Library

Date: 2024-09-15

Jonathan Coe <[email protected]>

Antony Peacock <[email protected]>

Sean Parent <[email protected]>

Abstract

We propose the addition of two new class templates to the C++ Standard Library: indirect<T> and polymorphic<T>.

Specializations of these class templates have value semantics and compose well with other standard library types (such as vector), allowing the compiler to correctly generate special member functions.

The class template indirect confers value-like semantics on a dynamically-allocated object. An indirect may hold an object of a class T. Copying the indirect will copy the object T. When an indirect<T> is accessed through a const access path, constness will propagate to the owned object.

The class template polymorphic confers value-like semantics on a dynamically-allocated object. A polymorphic<T> may hold an object of a class publicly derived from T. Copying the polymorphic<T> will copy the object of the derived type. When a polymorphic<T> is accessed through a const access path, constness will propagate to the owned object.

This proposal is a fusion of two earlier individual proposals, P1950 and P0201. The design of the two proposed class templates is sufficiently similar that they should not be considered in isolation.

History

Changes in R9

Re-order constructors.
Add converting assignment operator to indirect.
Add converting constructors to indirect and polymorphic.
Add intializer list constructors to indirect and polymorphic.
Avoid use of ‘heap’ and ‘free-store’ in favour of ‘dynamically-allocated storage’.

Changes in R8

Wording cleanup in parallel with independent implementation.
Add more explicit wording for use of allocator_traits::construct in indirect and polymorphic constructors.
Prevent indirect and polymorphic classes from being instantiated with in_place_t and specializations of in_place_type_t.
Strike mandates T is a complete type from indirect comparison operators and hash for consistency with reference wrapper.

Changes in R7

Discuss indirect’s non-conditional copy constructor in the light of implementation tricks that would enable it.
Improve wording for assignment operators to remove ambiguity.
Add motivation for valueless_after_move member function.

Changes in R6

Add std::in_place_t argument to indirect constructors.
Amend wording for assignment operators to provide strong exception guarantee.
Amend wording for swap to consider the valueless state.
Remove comparison operators for indirect where they can be compiler-synthesized.
Rename erroneous exposition only variable allocator to alloc.
Add drafting note on exception guarantees behaviour to swap.

Changes in R5

Fix wording for assignment operators to provide strong exception guarantee.
Add missing wording for valueless hash.

Changes in R4

Use constraints to require that the object owned by indirect is copy constructible. This ensures that std::is_copy_constructible_v does not give misleading results.
Modify comparison of indirect allow comparsion of valueless objects. Comparisons are implemented in terms of operator== and operator<=> returning bool and auto.
Remove std::format support for std::indirect as it cannot handle a valueless state.
Allow copy, move, assign and swap of valueless objects, discuss similarities with variant.
No longer specify constructors as uses-allocator constructing anything.
Require T to satisfy the requirements of Cpp17Destructible.
Rename exposition only variables p_ to p and allocator_ to alloc.
Add discussion on incomplete types.
Add discussion on explicit constructors.
Add discussion on arithmetic operators and update change table.
Remove references to std::indirect/std::polymorphic values terms under [*.general] sections.

Changes in R3

Add explicit to constructors.
Add constructor indirect(U&& u, Us&&... us) overload and requisite constraints.
Add constructor polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a) overload.
Add discussion on similarities and differences with variant.
Add table of breaking and non-breaking changes to appendix C.
Add missing comparison operators and ensure they are all conditionally noexcept.
Add argument deduction guides for std::indirect.
Address incorrect std::indirect usage in composite example.
Additions to acknowledgements.
Address wording for swap() relating to noexcept.
Address constraints wording for std::indirect comparison operators.
Copy constructor now uses allocator_traits::select_on_container_copy_construction.
Ensure swap and assign with self are nops.
Move feature test macros to [version.syn].
Remove std::optional specializations.
Replace use of “erroneous” with “undefined behaviour”.
Strong exception guarantee for copy assignment.
Specify constructors as uses-allocator constructing T.
Wording review and additions to <memory> synopsis [memory.syn]

Changes in R2

Add discussion on returning auto for std::indirect comparison operators.
Add discussion of emplace() to appendix.
Update wording to support allocator awareness.

Changes in R1

Add feature-test macros.
Add std::format support for std::indirect
Add Appendix B before and after examples.
Add preconditions checking for types are not valueless.
Add constexpr support.
Allow quality of implementation support for small buffer optimization for polymorphic.
Extend wording for allocator support.
Change constraints to mandates to enable support for incomplete types.
Change pointer usage to use allocator_traits pointer.
Remove std::uses_allocator specliazations.
Remove std::inplace_t parameter in constructors for std::indirect.
Fix sizeof error.

Motivation

The standard library has no vocabulary type for a dynamically-allocated object with value semantics. When designing a composite class, we may need an object to be stored indirectly to support incomplete types, reduce object size or support open-set polymorphism.

We propose the addition of two new class templates to the standard library to represent indirectly stored values: indirect and polymorphic. Both class templates represent dynamically-allocated objects with value-like semantics. polymorphic<T> can own any object of a type publicly derived from T, allowing composite classes to contain polymorphic components. We require the addition of two classes to avoid the cost of virtual dispatch (calling the copy constructor of a potentially derived-type object through type erasure) when copying of polymorphic objects is not needed.

Design requirements

We review the fundamental design requirements of indirect and polymorphic that make them suitable for composite class design.

Special member functions

Both class templates are suitable for use as members of composite classes where the compiler will generate special member functions. This means that the class templates should provide the special member functions where they are supported by the owned object type T.

indirect<T, Alloc> and polymorphic<T, Alloc> are default constructible in cases where T is default constructible.
indirect<T, Alloc> and polymorphic<T, Alloc> are unconditionally copy constructible and assignable, move constructible and move assignable.
indirect<T, Alloc> and polymorphic<T, Alloc> destroy the owned object in their destructors.

Deep copies

Copies of indirect<T> and polymorphic<T> should own copies of the owned object created with the copy constructor of the owned object. In the case of polymorphic<T>, this means that the copy should own a copy of a potentially derived type object created with the copy constructor of the derived type object.

Note: Including a polymorphic component in a composite class means that virtual dispatch will be used (through type erasure) in copying the polymorphic member. Where a composite class contains a polymorphic member from a known set of types, prefer std::variant or indirect<std::variant> if indirect storage is required.

`const` propagation

When composite objects contain pointer, unique_ptr or shared_ptr members they allow non-const access to their respective pointees when accessed through a const access path. This prevents the compiler from eliminating a source of const-correctness bugs and makes it difficult to reason about the const-correctness of a composite object.

Accessors of unique and shared pointers do not have const and non-const overloads:

T* unique_ptr<T>::operator->() const;
T& unique_ptr<T>::operator*() const;

T* shared_ptr<T>::operator->() const;
T& shared_ptr<T>::operator*() const;

When a parent object contains a member of type indirect<T> or polymorphic<T>, access to the owned object (of type T) through a const access path should be const qualified.

struct A {
    enum class Constness { CONST, NON_CONST };
    Constness foo() { return Constness::NON_CONST; }
    Constness foo() const { return Constness::CONST; };
};

class Composite {
    indirect<A> a_;

    Constness foo() { return a_->foo(); }
    Constness foo() const { return a_->foo(); };
};

int main() {
    Composite c;
    assert(c.foo() == A::Constness::NON_CONST);
    const Composite& cc = c;
    assert(cc.foo() == A::Constness::CONST);
}

Value semantics

Both indirect and polymorphic are value types whose owned object’s storage is managed by the specified allocator.

When a value type is copied it gives rise to two independent objects that can be modified separately.

The owned object is part of the logical state of indirect and polymorphic. Operations on a const-qualified object do not make changes to the object’s logical state nor to the logical state of owned objects.

indirect<T> and polymorphic<T> are default constructible in cases where T is default constructible. Moving a value type into dynamically-allocated storage should not add or remove the ability to be default constructed.

The valueless state and interaction with `std::optional`

Both indirect and polymorphic have a valueless state that is used to implement move. The valueless state is not intended to be observable to the user. There is no operator bool or has_value member function. Accessing the value of an indirect or polymorphic after it has been moved from is undefined behaviour. We provide a valueless_after_move member function that returns true if an object is in a valueless state. This allows explicit checks for the valueless state in cases where it cannot be verified statically.

Without a valueless state, moving indirect or polymorphic would require allocation and moving from the owned object. This would be expensive and would require the owned object to be moveable. The existence of a valueless state allows move to be implemented cheaply without requiring the owned object to be moveable.

Where a nullable indirect or polymorphic is required, using std::optional is recommended. This may become common practice since indirect and polymorphic can replace smart pointers in composite classes, where they are currently used to (mis)represent component objects. Using dynamically-allocated storage for T should not make it nullable. Nullability must be explicitly opted into by using std::optional<indirect<T>> or std::optional<polymorphic<T>>.

Allocator support

Both indirect and polymorphic are allocator-aware types. They must be suitable for use in allocator-aware composite types and containers. Existing allocator-aware types in the standard, such as vector and map, take an allocator type as a template parameter, provide allocator_type, and have constructor overloads taking an additional allocator_type_t and allocator instance as arguments. As indirect and polymorphic need to work with, and in the same way, as existing allocator-aware types, they too take an allocator type as a template parameter, provide allocator_type, and have constructor overloads taking an additional allocator_type_t and allocator instance as arguments.

Modelled types

The class templates indirect and polymorphic have strong similarities to existing class templates. These similarities motivate much of the design; we aim for consistency with existing library types, not innovation.

Modelled types for `indirect`

The class template indirect owns an object of known type, permits copies, propagates const and is allocator aware.

Like optional and unique_ptr, indirect can be in a valueless state; indirect can only get into the valueless state after being moved from, or assignment or construction from a valueless state.
unique_ptr and optional have preconditions for operator-> and operator*: the behavior is undefined if *this does not contain a value.
unique_ptr and optional mark operator-> and operator* as noexcept: indirect does the same.
optional and indirect know the underlying type of the owned object so can implement r-value qualified versions of operator*. For unique_ptr, the underlying type is not known (it could be an instance of a derived class) so r-value qualified versions of operator* are not provided.
Like vector, indirect owns an object created by an allocator. The move constructor and move assignment operator for vector are conditionally noexcept on properties of the allocator. Thus for indirect, the move constructor and move assignment operator are conditionally noexcept on properties of the allocator. (Allocator instances may have different underlying memory resources; it is not possible for an allocator with one memory resource to delete an object in another memory resource. When allocators have different underlying memory resources, move necessitates the allocation of memory and cannot be marked noexcept.) Like vector, indirect marks member and non-member swap as noexcept and requires allocators to be equal.
Like optional, indirect knows the type of the owned object so it can forward comparison operators and hash to the underlying object. A valueless indirect, like an empty optional, hashes to an implementation-defined value.

Modelled types for `polymorphic`

The class template polymorphic owns an object of known type, requires copies, propagates const and is allocator aware.

Like optional and unique_ptr, polymorphic can be in a valueless state; polymorphic can only get into the valueless state after being moved from, or assignment or construction from a valueless state.
unique_ptr and optional have preconditions for operator-> and operator*: the behavior is undefined if *this does not contain a value.
unique_ptr and optional mark operator-> and operator* as noexcept: polymorphic does the same.
Neither unique_ptr nor polymorphic know the underlying type of the owned object so cannot implement r-value qualified versions of operator*. For optional, the underlying type is known, so r-value qualified versions of operator* are provided.
Like vector, polymorphic owns an object created by an allocator. The move constructor and move assignment operator for vector are conditionally noexcept on properties of the allocator. Thus for polymorphic, the move constructor and move assignment operator are conditionally noexcept on properties of the allocator. Like vector, polymorphic marks member and non-member swap as noexcept and requires allocators to be equal.
Like unique_ptr, polymorphic does not know the type of the owned object (it could be an instance of a derived type). As a result, polymorphic cannot forward comparison operators or hash to the owned object.

Similarities and differences with variant

The sum type variant<Ts...> models one of several alternatives; indirect<T> models a single type T, but with different storage constraints to T.

Like indirect, a variant can get into a valueless state. For variant, this valueless state is accessible when an exception is thrown when changing the type: variant has bool valueless_by_exception(). When all of the types Ts are comparable, variant<Ts...> supports comparison without preconditions: it is valid to compare variants when they are in a valueless state. Variant comparisons can account for the valueless state with zero cost. A variant must check which type is the engaged type to perform comparison; valueless is one of the possible states it can be in. For indirect, allowing comparison when in a valueless state necessitates the addition of an otherwise redundant check. After feedback from standard library implementers, we opt to allow hash and comparison of indirect in a valueless state, at cost, to avoid rendering the valueless state undefined behaviour.

variant allows valueless objects to be passed around via copy, assignment, move and move assignment. There is no precondition on variant that it must not be in a valueless state to be copied from, moved from, assigned from or move assigned from. While the notion that a valueless indirect or polymorphic is toxic and must not be passed around code is appealing, it would not interact well with generic code which may need to handle a variety of types. Note that the standard does not require a moved-from object to be valid for copy, move, assign or move assignment: the only restriction is that it should be in a well-formed but unspecified state. However, there is no precedent for standard library types to have preconditions on move, copy, assign or move assignment. We opt for consistency with existing standard library types (namely variant, which has a valueless state) and allow copy, move, assignment and move assignment of a valueless indirect and polymorphic. Handling of the valueless state for indirect and polymorphic in move operations will not incur cost; for copy operations, the cost of handling the valueless state will be insignificant compared to the cost of allocating memory. Introducing preconditions for copy, move, assign and move assign in a later revision of the C++ standard would be a silent breaking change.

Like variant, indirect does not support formatting by forwarding to the owned object. There may be no owned object to format so we require the user to write code to determine how to format a valueless indirect or to validate that the indirect is not valueless before formatting *i (where i is an instance of indirect for some formattable type T).

`noexcept` and narrow contracts

C++ library design guidelines recommend that member functions with narrow contracts (runtime preconditions) should not be marked noexcept. This is partially motivated by a non-vendor implementation of the C++ standard library that uses exceptions in a debug build to check for precondition violations by throwing an exception. The noexcept status of operator-> and operator* for indirect and polymorphic is identical to that of optional and unique_ptr. All have preconditions (*this cannot be valueless), all are marked noexcept. Whatever strategy was used for testing optional and unique_ptr can be used for indirect and polymorphic.

Not marking operator-> and operator* as noexcept for indirect and polymorphic would make them strictly less useful than unique_ptr in contexts where they would otherwise be a valid replacement.

Tagged constructors

Constructors for indirect and polymorphic taking an allocator or owned-object constructor arguments are tagged with allocator_arg_t and in_place_t (or in_place_type_t) respectively. This is consistent with the standard library’s use of tagged constructors in optional, any and variant.

Without in_place_t the constructor of indirect would not be able to construct an owned object using the owned object’s allocator-extended constructor. indirect(std::in_place, std::allocator_arg, alloc, args) unambiguously constructs an indirect with a default constructed allocator and an owned object constructed with an allocator extended constructor taking an allocator alloc and constructor arguments args.

Converting constructors

In line with optional and variant, we add converting constructors to both indirect and polymorphic so they can be constructed from single values without the need to use in_place or in_place_type. As indirect and polymorphic are allocator-aware types, we also provide allocator-extended versions of these constructors, in line with those from basic_optional [2] and existing constructors from indirect and polymorphic.

Initializer-list constructors

We add initializer-list constructors to both indirect and polymorphic in line with those in optional and variant. As indirect and polymorphic are allocator-aware types, we provide allocator-extended versions of these constructors, in line with those from basic_optional [2] and existing constructors from indirect and polymorphic.

Explicit constructors

Constructors for indirect and polymorphic are marked as explicit. This disallows “implicit conversion” from single arguments or braced initializers. Given both indirect and polymorphic use dynamically-allocated storage, there are no instances where an object could be considered semantically equivalent to its constructor arguments (unlike pair or variant). To construct an indirect or polymorphic object, and with it use dynamically-allocated memory, the user must explicitly use a constructor.

The standard already marks multiple argument constructors as explicit for the inplace constructors of optional and any.

With some suitably compelling motivation, the explicit keyword could be removed from some constructors in a later revision of the C++ standard without rendering code ill-formed.

Converting assignment

Converting assignment for `indirect`

We add a converting assignment for indirect in line with the converting assignment operators from optional and variant.

template <class U = T>
constexpr optional& operator=(U&& u);

When assigning to an indirect, there is potential for optimisation if there is an existing owned object to be assigned to:

indirect<int> i;
foo(i);  // could move from `i`.
if (!i.valueless_after_move()) {
  *i = 5;
} else {
  i = indirect(5);
}

With converting assignment, handling the valueless state and potentially creating a new indirect object is done within the converting assignment. The code below is equivalent to the code above:

indirect<int> i;
foo(i); // could move from `i`.
i = 5;

Converting assignment for `polymorphic`

There is no converting assignment for polymorphic as type information is erased. There is no optimisation opportunity to be made as a new object will need creating regardless of whether the target of assignment is valueless or not.

The `valueless_after_move` member function

Both indirect and polymorphic have a valueless_after_move member function that is used to query the object state. This member function should normally be called: it should be clear through static analysis whether or not an object has been moved from. The valueless_after_move member function allows explicit checks for the valueless state in cases where it cannot be verified statically or where explicit checks might be required by a coding standard such as MISRA or High Integrity C++.

Design for polymorphic types

A type PolymorphicInterface used as a base class with polymorphic does not need a virtual destructor. The same mechanism that is used to call the copy constructor of a potentially derived-type object will be used to call the destructor.

To allow compiler-generation of special member functions of an abstract interface type PolymorphicInterface in conjunction with polymorphic, PolymorphicInterface needs at least a non-virtual protected destructor and a protected copy constructor. PolymorphicInterface does not need to be assignable, move constructible or move assignable for polymorphic<PolymorphicInterface> to be assignable, move constructible or move assignable.

class PolymorphicInterface {
  protected:
    PolymorphicInterface(const PolymorphicInterface&) = default;
    ~PolymorphicInterface() = default;
  public:
   // virtual functions
};

For an interface type with a public virtual destructor, users would potentially pay the cost of virtual dispatch twice when deleting polymorphic objects containing derived-type objects.

All derived types owned by a polymorphic must be publicly copy constructible.

Prior work

This proposal continues the work started in [P0201] and [P1950].

Previous work on a cloned pointer type [N3339] met with opposition because of the mixing of value and pointer semantics. We believe that the unambiguous value semantics of indirect and polymorphic as described in this proposal address these concerns.

Impact on the standard

This proposal is a pure library extension. It requires additions to be made to the standard library header <memory>.

Technical specifications

Header `<version>` synopsis [version.syn]

Note to editors: Add the following macros with editor provided values to [version.syn]

#define __cpp_lib_indirect ??????L    // also in <memory>
#define __cpp_lib_polymorphic ??????L // also in <memory>

Header `<memory>` synopsis [memory]

namespace std {

  // [inout.ptr], function template inout_ptr
  template<class Pointer = void, class Smart, class... Args>
    auto inout_ptr(Smart& s, Args&&... args);

<ins> // DRAFTING NOTE: not sure how to typeset <ins> reasonably in markdown
  // [indirect], class template indirect
  template<class T, class Allocator = allocator<T>>
    class indirect;

  // [indirect.hash], hash support
  template <class T, class Alloc> struct hash<indirect<T, Alloc>>;

  // [polymorphic], class template polymorphic
  template <class T, class Allocator = allocator<T>>
    class polymorphic;

  namespace pmr {

    template<class T> using indirect =
      indirect<T, polymorphic_allocator<T>>;

    template<class T> using polymorphic =
      polymorphic<T, polymorphic_allocator<T>>;
  }

</ins>
}

X.Y Class template indirect [indirect]

X.Y.1 Class template indirect general [indirect.general]

An indirect object manages the lifetime of an owned object. An indirect object is valueless if it has no owned object. An indirect object may only become valueless after it has been moved from.
In every specialization indirect<T, Allocator>, if the type allocator_traits<Allocator>::value_type is not the same type as T, the program is ill-formed. Every object of type indirect<T, Allocator> uses an object of type Allocator to allocate and free storage for the owned object as needed.
Constructing an owned object with arguments args... using an allocator al means calling allocator_traits<allocator_type>::construct(al, p, args...) where p is a pointer obtained by calling allocator_traits<allocator_type>::allocate.
Copy constructors for an indirect type obtain an allocator by calling allocator_traits<allocator_type>::select_on_container_copy_construction on the allocator belonging to the indirect object being copied. Move constructors obtain an allocator by move construction from the allocator belonging to the indirect object being moved. All other constructors for this type take a const allocator_type& argument. [Note: If an invocation of a constructor uses the default value of an optional allocator argument, then the allocator type must support value-initialization. –end note] A copy of this allocator is used for any memory allocation and element construction performed by these constructors and by all member functions during the lifetime of each indirect object, or until the allocator is replaced. The allocator may be replaced only via assignment or swap(). Allocator replacement is performed by copy assignment, move assignment, or swapping of the allocator only if ([container.reqmts]):

(64.1) allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_copy_assignment::value,

(64.2) allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_move_assignment::value,

(64.3) allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_swap::value

is true within the implementation of the corresponding indirect operation.
A program that instantiates the definition of the template indirect<T, Allocator> with a type for the T parameter that is a non-object type, an array type, in_place_t, or a cv-qualified type is ill-formed.
The template parameter T of indirect may be an incomplete type.
The template parameter Allocator of indirect shall meet the Cpp17Allocator requirements.
If a program declares an explicit or partial specialization of indirect, the behavior is undefined.

X.Y.2 Class template indirect synopsis [indirect.syn]

template <class T, class Allocator = allocator<T>>
class indirect {
 public:
  using value_type = T;
  using allocator_type = Allocator;
  using pointer = typename allocator_traits<Allocator>::pointer;
  using const_pointer = typename allocator_traits<Allocator>::const_pointer;

  constexpr indirect();

  explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a);


  constexpr indirect(const indirect& other);

  constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                     const indirect& other);

  constexpr indirect(indirect&& other) noexcept;

  constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                     indirect&& other) noexcept(see below);

  template <class... Us>
  explicit constexpr indirect(in_place_t, Us&&... us);

  template <class... Us>
  explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                              in_place_t, Us&&... us);

  template <class U>
  explicit constexpr indirect(U&& u);

  template <class U>
  explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a, U&& u);

  template<class U, class... Us>
  explicit constexpr indirect(in_place_t, initializer_list<U> ilist,
                              Us&&... us);

  template<class U, class... Us>
  explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                              in_place_t, initializer_list<U> ilist,
                              Us&&... us);

  constexpr ~indirect();

  constexpr indirect& operator=(const indirect& other);

  constexpr indirect& operator=(indirect&& other) noexcept(see below);

  template <class U>
  constexpr indirect& operator=(U&& u);

  constexpr const T& operator*() const & noexcept;

  constexpr T& operator*() & noexcept;

  constexpr const T&& operator*() const && noexcept;

  constexpr T&& operator*() && noexcept;

  constexpr const_pointer operator->() const noexcept;

  constexpr pointer operator->() noexcept;

  constexpr bool valueless_after_move() const noexcept;

  constexpr allocator_type get_allocator() const noexcept;

  constexpr void swap(indirect& other) noexcept(see below);

  friend constexpr void swap(indirect& lhs, indirect& rhs) noexcept(see below);

  template <class U, class AA>
  friend constexpr bool operator==(
    const indirect& lhs, const indirect<U, AA>& rhs) noexcept(see below);

  template <class U>
  friend constexpr bool operator==(
    const indirect& lhs, const U& rhs) noexcept(see below);

  template <class U, class AA>
  friend constexpr auto operator<=>(
    const indirect& lhs, const indirect<U, AA>& rhs) noexcept(see below)
    -> compare_three_way_result_t<T, U>;

  template <class U>
  friend constexpr auto operator<=>(
    const indirect& lhs, const U& rhs) noexcept(see below)
    -> compare_three_way_result_t<T, U>;

private:
  pointer p; // exposition only
  Allocator alloc = Allocator(); // exposition only
};

template <class Value>
indirect(Value) -> indirect<Value>;

template <class Alloc, class Value>
indirect(allocator_arg_t, Alloc, Value) -> indirect<
         Value, typename allocator_traits<Alloc>::template rebind_alloc<Value>>;

X.Y.3 Constructors [indirect.ctor]

The following element applies to all functions in [indirect.ctor]:

Throws: Nothing unless allocator_traits<allocator_type>::allocate or allocator_traits<allocator_type>::construct throws.

explicit constexpr indirect()

Constraints: is_default_constructible_v<T> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type T with an empty argument list, using the allocator alloc.
Postconditions: *this is not valueless.

explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a);

Constraints: is_default_constructible_v<T> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type T with an empty argument list, using the allocator alloc.
Postconditions: *this is not valueless.

constexpr indirect(const indirect& other);

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, constructs an owned object of type T with *other, using the allocator alloc.

constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                   const indirect& other);

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, constructs an owned object of type T with *other, using the allocator alloc.

constexpr indirect(indirect&& other) noexcept;

Mandates: If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::is_always_equal::value is false then T is a complete type.
Effects: If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, if alloc == other.alloc is true constructs an object of type indirect that owns the owned object of other; other is valueless. Otherwise, constructs an owned object of type T with *std::move(other), using the allocator alloc.

constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a, indirect&& other)
   noexcept(allocator_traits<Allocator>::is_always_equal::value);

Mandates: If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::is_always_equal::value is false then T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, if alloc == other.alloc is true constructs an object of type indirect that owns the owned object of other; other is valueless. Otherwise, constructs an owned object of type T with *std::move(other), using the allocator alloc.

template <class... Us>
explicit constexpr indirect(in_place_t, Us&&... us);

Constraints: is_constructible_v<T, Us...> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type T with std::forward<Us>(us)..., using the allocator alloc.
Postconditions: *this is not valueless.

template <class... Us>
explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a, in_place_t, Us&& ...us);

Constraints: is_constructible_v<T, Us...> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type T with std::forward<Us>(us)..., using the allocator alloc.

template <class U>
explicit constexpr indirect(U&& u);

Constraints: is_constructible_v<T, U> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, in_place_t> is false. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, indirect> is false.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type T with std::forward(u), using the allocator alloc.

template <class U>
explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a, U&& u);

Constraints: is_constructible_v<T, U> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, in_place_t> is false. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, indirect> is false.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type T with std::forward(u), using the allocator alloc.

template<class U, class... Us>
explicit constexpr indirect(in_place_t, initializer_list<U> ilist,
                            Us&&... us);

Constraints: is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true. is_constructible_v<T, initializer_list, Us...> is true. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type T with the arguments ilist, std::forward<Us>(us)..., using the allocator alloc.

template<class U, class... Us>
explicit constexpr indirect(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                            in_place_t, initializer_list<U> ilist,
                            Us&&... us);

Constraints: is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true. is_constructible_v<T, initializer_list, Us...> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type T with the arguments ilist, std::forward<Us>(us)..., using the allocator alloc.

X.Y.4 Destructor [indirect.dtor]

constexpr ~indirect();

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: If *this is not valueless, destroys the owned object using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

X.Y.5 Assignment [indirect.assign]

constexpr indirect& operator=(const indirect& other);

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: If addressof(other) == this is true, there are no effects.

If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_copy_assignment is true then the allocator needs updating.

If other is valueless, *this becomes valueless and the owned object in *this, if any, is destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

Otherwise, if alloc == other.alloc is true and *this is not valueless, *other is assigned to the owned object.

Otherwise a new owned object is constructed in *this using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::construct with the owned object from other as the argument, using either the allocator in *this or the allocator in other if the allocator needs updating. The previously owned object in *this, if any, is destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

If the allocator needs updating, the allocator in *this is replaced with a copy of the allocator in other.

Returns: A reference to *this.
Remarks: If any exception is thrown, the result of the expression this->valueless_after_move() remains unchanged. If an exception is thrown during the call to T’s selected copy constructor, no effect. If an exception is thrown during the call to T’s copy assignment, the state of its contained value is as defined by the exception safety guarantee of T’s copy assignment.

constexpr indirect& operator=(indirect&& other) noexcept(
    allocator_traits<Allocator>::propagate_on_container_move_assignment::value ||
    allocator_traits<Allocator>::is_always_equal::value);

Mandates: If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::is_always_equal::value is false, then T is a complete type.
Effects: If addressof(other) == this is true, there are no effects.

Ifallocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_move_assignment is true then the allocator needs updating.

If other is valueless, *this becomes valueless and the owned object in *this, if any, is destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

Otherwise, if alloc == other.alloc is true, swaps the owned objects in *this and other; the owned object in other, if any, is then destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

Otherwise constructs a new owned object with the owned object other as the argument as an rvalue, using either the allocator in *this or the allocator in other if the allocator needs updating. The previous owned object in *this, if any, is destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

If the allocator needs updating, the allocator in *this is replaced with a copy of the allocator in other.

Postconditions: other is valueless.
Returns: A reference to *this.
Remarks: If any exception is thrown, there are no effects on *this or other.

  template <class U>
  constexpr indirect& operator=(U&& u);

Constraints: is_constructible_v<T, U> is true. is_assignable_v<T&,U> is true. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, indirect> is false.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: If *this is valueless then equivalent to *this = indirect(allocator_arg, alloc, std::forward(u));. Otherwise, equivalent to **this = std::forward(u).
Returns: A reference to *this.

X.Y.6 Observers [indirect.observers]

constexpr const T& operator*() const & noexcept;
constexpr T& operator*() & noexcept;

Preconditions: *this is not valueless.
Returns: *p.

constexpr const T&& operator*() const && noexcept;
constexpr T&& operator*() && noexcept;

Preconditions: *this is not valueless.
Returns: std::move(*p).

constexpr const_pointer operator->() const noexcept;
constexpr pointer operator->() noexcept;

Preconditions: *this is not valueless.
Returns: p.

constexpr bool valueless_after_move() const noexcept;

Returns: true if *this is valueless, otherwise false.

constexpr allocator_type get_allocator() const noexcept;

Returns: alloc.

X.Y.7 Swap [indirect.swap]

constexpr void swap(indirect& other) noexcept(
  allocator_traits::propagate_on_container_swap::value
  || allocator_traits<Allocator>::is_always_equal::value);

Effects: Swaps p and other.p. If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_swap::value is true, then allocator_type shall meet the Cpp17Swappable requirements and the allocators of *this and other are exchanged by calling swap as described in [swappable.requirements]. Otherwise, the allocators are not swapped, and the behavior is undefined unless (*this).get_allocator() == other.get_allocator() is true.

constexpr void swap(indirect& lhs, indirect& rhs) noexcept(
  noexcept(lhs.swap(rhs)));

Effects: Equivalent to lhs.swap(rhs).

X.Y.8 Relational operators [indirect.relops]

template <class U, class AA>
constexpr bool operator==(const indirect& lhs, const indirect<U, AA>& rhs)
  noexcept(noexcept(*lhs == *rhs));

Constraints: *lhs == *rhs is well-formed and its result is convertible to bool.
Returns: If lhs is valueless or rhs is valueless, lhs.valueless_after_move() == rhs.valueless_after_move(); otherwise *lhs == *rhs.

template <class U, class AA>
constexpr synth-three-way-result<T> operator<=>(const indirect& lhs, const indirect<U, AA>& rhs)
  noexcept(noexcept(synth-three-way(*lhs, *rhs)));

Constraints: *lhs <=> *rhs is well-formed.
Returns: If lhs is valueless or rhs is valueless, !lhs.valueless_after_move() <=> !rhs.valueless_after_move(); otherwise synth-three-way(*lhs, *rhs).

X.Y.9 Comparison with T [indirect.comp.with.t]

template <class U>
constexpr bool operator==(const indirect& lhs, const U& rhs)
  noexcept(noexcept(*lhs == rhs));

Constraints: *lhs == rhs is well-formed.
Returns: If lhs is valueless, false; otherwise *lhs == rhs.

template <class U>
constexpr synth-three-way-result<T> operator<=>(const indirect& lhs, const U& rhs)
  noexcept(noexcept(synth-three-way(*lhs, rhs)));

Constraints: *lhs <=> rhs is well-formed.
Returns: If rhs is valueless, false < true; otherwise synth-three-way(*lhs, rhs).

X.Y.10 Hash support [indirect.hash]

template <class T, class Alloc>
struct hash<indirect<T, Alloc>>;

The specialization hash<indirect<T, Alloc>> is enabled ([unord.hash]) if and only if hash<remove_const_t<T>> is enabled. When enabled for an object i of type indirect<T, Alloc>, then hash<indirect<T, Alloc>>()(i) evaluates to either the same value as hash<remove_const_t<T>>()(*i), if i is not valueless; otherwise to an implementation-defined value. The member functions are not guaranteed to be noexcept.

X.Z Class template polymorphic [polymorphic]

X.Z.1 Class template polymorphic general [polymorphic.general]

A polymorphic object manages the lifetime of an owned object. A polymorphic object may own objects of different types at different points in its lifetime. A polymorphic object is valueless if it has no owned object. A polymorphic object may only become valueless after it has been moved from.
In every specialization polymorphic<T, Allocator>, if the type allocator_traits<Allocator>::value_type is not the same type asT, the program is ill-formed. Every object of type polymorphic<T, Allocator> uses an object of type Allocator to allocate and free storage for the owned object as needed.
Constructing an owned object with arguments args... using an allocator a means calling allocator_traits<allocator_type>::rebind_traits::construct(a, p, args...) where p is a pointer obtained by calling allocator_traits<allocator_type>::rebind_traits::allocate and U is either allocator_type::value_type or an internal type used by the polymorphic value.
Copy constructors for a polymorphic type obtain an allocator by calling allocator_traits<allocator_type>::select_on_container_copy_construction on the allocator belonging to the polymorphic object being copied. Move constructors obtain an allocator by move construction from the allocator belonging to the object being moved. All other constructors for this type take a const allocator_type& argument. [Note 3: If an invocation of a constructor uses the default value of an optional allocator argument, then the allocator type must support value-initialization. –end note] A copy of this allocator is used for any memory allocation and element construction performed by these constructors and by all member functions during the lifetime of each polymorphic value object, or until the allocator is replaced. The allocator may be replaced only via assignment or swap(). Allocator replacement is performed by copy assignment, move assignment, or swapping of the allocator only if (see [container.reqmts]):

(64.1) allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_copy_assignment::value,

(64.2) allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_move_assignment::value, or

(64.3) allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_swap::value is true within the implementation of the corresponding polymorphic value operation.

A program that instantiates the definition of polymorphic for a non-object type, an array type, a specialization of in_place_type_t or a cv-qualified type is ill-formed.
The template parameter T of polymorphic may be an incomplete type.
The template parameter Allocator of polymorphic shall meet the requirements of Cpp17Allocator.
If a program declares an explicit or partial specialization of polymorphic, the behavior is undefined.

X.Z.2 Class template polymorphic synopsis [polymorphic.syn]

template <class T, class Allocator = allocator<T>>
class polymorphic {
 public:
  using value_type = T;
  using allocator_type = Allocator;
  using pointer = typename allocator_traits<Allocator>::pointer;
  using const_pointer  = typename allocator_traits<Allocator>::const_pointer;

  explicit constexpr polymorphic();

  explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a);

  constexpr polymorphic(const polymorphic& other);

  constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                        const polymorphic& other);

  constexpr polymorphic(polymorphic&& other) noexcept;

  constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                        polymorphic&& other) noexcept(see below);

  template <class U, class... Ts>
  explicit constexpr polymorphic(in_place_type_t<U>, Ts&&... ts);

  template <class U, class... Ts>
  explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                                 in_place_type_t<U>, Ts&&... ts);

  template <class U>
  explicit constexpr polymorphic(U&& u);

  template <class U>
  explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a, U&& u);

  template <class U, class I, class... Us>
  explicit constexpr polymorphic(in_place_type_t<U>,
                                 initializer_list<I> ilist, Us&&... us)

  template <class U, class I, class... Us>
  explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                                 in_place_type_t<U>,
                                 initializer_list<I> ilist, Us&&... us)

  constexpr ~polymorphic();

  constexpr polymorphic& operator=(const polymorphic& other);

  constexpr polymorphic& operator=(polymorphic&& other) noexcept(see below);

  constexpr const T& operator*() const noexcept;

  constexpr T& operator*() noexcept;

  constexpr const_pointer operator->() const noexcept;

  constexpr pointer operator->() noexcept;

  constexpr bool valueless_after_move() const noexcept;

  constexpr allocator_type get_allocator() const noexcept;

  constexpr void swap(polymorphic& other) noexcept(see below);

  friend constexpr void swap(polymorphic& lhs,
                             polymorphic& rhs) noexcept(see below);
 private:
  Allocator alloc = Alloc(); // exposition only
};

X.Z.3 Constructors [polymorphic.ctor]

The following element applies to all functions in [polymorphic.ctor]:

Throws: Nothing unless allocator_traits<allocator_type>::allocate or allocator_traits<allocator_type>::construct throws.

explicit constexpr polymorphic()

Constraints: is_default_constructible_v<T> is true, is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type T with an empty argument list using the allocator alloc.
Postconditions: *this is not valueless.

explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a);

Constraints: is_default_constructible_v<T> is true, is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type T with an empty argument list using the allocator alloc.
Postconditions: *this is not valueless.

constexpr polymorphic(const polymorphic& other);

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, constructs an owned object of type U, where U is the type of the owned object in other, with the owned object in other using the allocator alloc.

constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                      const polymorphic& other);

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with alloc. If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, constructs an owned object of type U, where U is the type of the owned object in other, with the owned object in other using the allocator alloc.

constexpr polymorphic(polymorphic&& other) noexcept;

Mandates: If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::is_always_equal::value is false, then T is a complete type.
Effects: If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, if alloc == other.alloc is true, either constructs an object of type polymorphic that owns the owned object of other, making other valueless; or, owns an object of the same type constructed from the owned object of other considering that owned object as an rvalue. Otherwise, if alloc != other.alloc is true, constructs an object of type polymorphic, considering the owned object in other as an rvalue, using the allocator alloc.

[Drafting note: The above is intended to permit a small-buffer-optimization and handle the case where allocators compare equal but we do not want to swap pointers.]

constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                      polymorphic&& other) noexcept(allocator_traits<Allocator>::is_always_equal::value);

Mandates: If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::is_always_equal::value is false, then T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. If other is valueless, *this is valueless. Otherwise, if alloc == other.alloc is true, either constructs an object of type polymorphic that owns the owned object of other, making other valueless; or, owns an object of the same type constructed from the owned object of other considering that owned object as an rvalue. Otherwise, if alloc != other.alloc is true, constructs an object of type polymorphic, considering the owned object in other as an rvalue, using the allocator alloc.

[Drafting note: The above is intended to permit a small-buffer-optimization and handle the case where allocators compare equal but we do not want to swap pointers.]

template <class U, class... Ts>
explicit constexpr polymorphic(in_place_type_t<U>, Ts&&... ts);

Constraints: is_base_of_v<T, U> is true. is_constructible_v<U, Ts...> is true. is_copy_constructible_v is true. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type U with std::forward<Ts>(ts)... using the allocator alloc.
Postconditions: *this is not valueless.

template <class U, class... Ts>
explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                               in_place_type_t<U>, Ts&&... ts);

Constraints: is_base_of_v<T, U> is true and is_constructible_v<U, Ts...> is true and is_copy_constructible_v is true.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type U with std::forward<Ts>(ts)... using the allocator alloc.
Postconditions: *this is not valueless.

template <class U>
explicit constexpr polymorphic(U&& u);

Constraints: is_base_of_v<T, remove_cvref_t> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t> is true. is_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t, U> is true. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, polymorphic> is false. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true. remove_cvref_t is not a specialization of in_place_type_t.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type U with std::forward(u) using the allocator alloc.

template <class U>
explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a, U&& u);

Constraints: is_base_of_v<T, remove_cvref_t> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t> is true. is_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t, U> is true. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, polymorphic> is false. is_default_constructible_v<allocator_type> is true. remove_cvref_t is not a specialization of in_place_type_t.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type U with std::forward(u) using the allocator alloc.

template <class U, class I, class... Us>
explicit constexpr polymorphic(in_place_type_t<U>,
                               initializer_list<I> ilist, Us&&... us)

Constraints: is_base_of_v<T, remove_cvref_t> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t> is true. is_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t, U> is true. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, polymorphic> is false. remove_cvref_t is not a specialization of in_place_type_t.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: Constructs an owned object of type U with the arguments ilist, std::forward(u) using the allocator alloc.

template <class U, class I, class... Us>
explicit constexpr polymorphic(allocator_arg_t, const Allocator& a,
                               in_place_type_t<U>,
                               initializer_list<I> ilist, Us&&... us)

Constraints: is_base_of_v<T, remove_cvref_t> is true. is_copy_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t> is true. is_constructible_v<remove_cvref_t, U> is true. is_same_v<remove_cvref_t, polymorphic> is false. remove_cvref_t is not a specialization of in_place_type_t.
Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: alloc is direct-non-list-initialized with a. Constructs an owned object of type U with the arguments ilist, std::forward(u) using the allocator alloc.

X.Z.4 Destructor [polymorphic.dtor]

constexpr ~polymorphic();

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: If *this is not valueless, destroys the owned object using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

X.Z.5 Assignment [polymorphic.assign]

constexpr polymorphic& operator=(const polymorphic& other);

Mandates: T is a complete type.
Effects: If addressof(other) == this is true, there are no effects.

If allocator_traits<alloctor_type>::propagate_on_container_copy_assignment is true then the allocator needs updating.

If other is not valueless, a new owned object is constructed in *this using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::construct with the owned object from other as the argument, using either the allocator in *this or the allocator in other if the allocator needs updating.

The previous owned object in *this, if any, is destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

If the allocator needs updating, the allocator in *this is replaced with a copy of the allocator in other.

Returns: A reference to *this.
Remarks: If any exception is thrown, there are no effects on *this.

constexpr polymorphic& operator=(polymorphic&& other) noexcept(
    allocator_traits<Allocator>::propagate_on_container_move_assignment::value ||
    allocator_traits<Allocator>::is_always_equal::value);

Mandates: If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::is_always_equal::value is false, T is a complete type.
Effects: If addressof(other) == this is true, there are no effects.

If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_move_assignment is true then the allocator needs updating.

If alloc == other.alloc is true, swaps the owned objects in *this and other; the owned object in other, if any, is then destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

Otherwise, if alloc != other.alloc is true; if other is not valueless, a new owned object is constructed in *this using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::construct with the owned object from other as the argument as an rvalue, using either the allocator in *this or the allocator in other if the allocator needs updating. The previous owned object in *this, if any, is destroyed using allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy and then the storage is deallocated.

If the allocator needs updating, the allocator in *this is replaced with a copy of the allocator in other.

Returns: A reference to *this.
Remarks: If any exception is thrown, there are no effects on *this or other.

X.Z.6 Observers [polymorphic.observers]

constexpr const T& operator*() const noexcept;
constexpr T& operator*() noexcept;

Preconditions: *this is not valueless.
Returns: A reference to the owned object.

constexpr const_pointer operator->() const noexcept;
constexpr pointer operator->() noexcept;

Preconditions: *this is not valueless.
Returns: A pointer to the owned object.

constexpr bool valueless_after_move() const noexcept;

Returns: true if *this is valueless, otherwise false.

constexpr allocator_type get_allocator() const noexcept;

Returns: alloc.

X.Z.7 Swap [polymorphic.swap]

constexpr void swap(polymorphic& other) noexcept(
  allocator_traits::propagate_on_container_swap::value
  || allocator_traits::is_always_equal::value);

Effects: Swaps the states of *this and other, exchanging owned objects or valueless states. If allocator_traits<allocator_type>::propagate_on_container_swap::value is true, then allocator_type shall meet the Cpp17Swappable requirements and the allocators of *this and other are exchanged by calling swap as described in [swappable.requirements]. Otherwise, the allocators are not swapped, and the behavior is undefined unless (*this).get_allocator() == other.get_allocator().
[Note: Does not call swap on the owned objects directly. –end note]

constexpr void swap(polymorphic& lhs, polymorphic& rhs) noexcept(
  noexcept(lhs.swap(rhs)));

Effects: Equivalent to lhs.swap(rhs).

Reference implementation

A C++20 reference implementation of this proposal is available on GitHub at [https://www.github.com/jbcoe/value_types].

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Lewis Baker, Andrew Bennieston, Josh Berne, Bengt Gustafsson, Casey Carter, Rostislav Khlebnikov, Daniel Krugler, David Krauss, David Stone, Ed Catmur, Geoff Romer, German Diago, Jonathan Wakely, Kilian Henneberger, LanguageLawyer, Louis Dionne, Maciej Bogus, Malcolm Parsons, Matthew Calabrese, Nathan Myers, Neelofer Banglawala, Nevin Liber, Nina Ranns, Patrice Roy, Roger Orr, Stephan T. Lavavej, Stephen Kelly, Thomas Koeppe, Thomas Russell, Tom Hudson, Tomasz Kaminski, Tony van Eerd and Ville Voutilainen for suggestions and useful discussion.

References

A Preliminary Proposal for a Deep-Copying Smart Pointer, W. E. Brown, 2012
[http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2012/n3339.pdf]

A polymorphic value-type for C++, J. B. Coe, S. Parent 2019
[https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2022/p0201r6.html]

A Free-Store-Allocated Value Type for C++, J. B. Coe, A. Peacock 2022
[https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2022/p1950r2.html]

An allocator-aware optional type,
P. Halpern, N. D. Ranns, V. Voutilainen, 2024
[https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2024/p2047r7.html]

MISRA Language Guidelines
[https://ldra.com/misra/]

High Integrity C++
[https://www.perforce.com/resources/qac/high-integrity-cpp-coding-standard]

Appendix A: Detailed design decisions

We discuss some of the decisions that were made in the design of indirect and polymorphic. Where there are multiple options, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Two class templates, not one

It is conceivable that a single class template could be used as a vocabulary type for an indirect value type supporting polymorphism. However, implementing this would impose efficiency costs on the copy constructor when the owned object is the same type as the template type. When the owned object is a derived type, the copy constructor uses type erasure to perform dynamic dispatch and call the derived type copy constructor. The overhead of indirection and a virtual function call is not tolerable where the owned object type and template type match.

One potential solution would be to use a std::variant to store the owned type or the control block used to manage the owned type. This would allow the copy constructor to be implemented efficiently when the owned type and template type match. This would increase the object size beyond that of a single pointer as the discriminant must be stored.

For the sake of minimal size and efficiency, we opted to use two class templates.

Copiers, deleters, pointer constructors, and allocator support

The older types indirect_value and polymorphic_value had constructors that take a pointer, copier, and deleter. The copier and deleter could be used to specify how the object should be copied and deleted. The existence of a pointer constructor introduces undesirable properties into the design of polymorphic_value, such as allowing the possibility of object slicing on copy when the dynamic and static types of a derived-type pointer do not match.

We decided to remove the copier, delete, and pointer constructor in favour of adding allocator support. A pointer constructor and support for custom copiers and deleters are not core to the design of either class template; both could be added in a later revision of the standard if required.

We have been advised that allocator support must be a part of the initial implementation and cannot be added retrospectively. As indirect and polymorphic are intended to be used alongside other C++ standard library types, such as std::map and std::vector, it is important that they have allocator support in contexts where allocators are used.

Pointer-like helper functions

Earlier revisions of polymorphic_value had helper functions to get access to the underlying pointer. These were removed under the advice of the Library Evolution Working Group as they were not core to the design of the class template, nor were they consistent with value-type semantics.

Pointer-like accessors like dynamic_pointer_cast and static_pointer_cast, which are provided for std::shared_ptr, could be added in a later revision of the standard if required.

Constraints on incomplete types and conditional constructors

Both indirect and polymorphic support incomplete types. Support for an incomplete type requires deferring the instantiation of functions with requirements until they are used.

The default constructor of indirect requires that T is default constructible. We cannot write this constraint as a requirement on T because that would require T to be a complete type at class instantiation time. Instead we write the constraint as a requirement on a deduced type TT to defer evaluation of the constraint until the default constructor is instantiated.

template <typename TT = T>
indirect() requires is_default_constructible_v<TT>;

We can use this technique to write constraints on the default constructor of indirect and polymorphic. Both indirect and polymorphic are conditionally default constructible.

The same technique cannot be used for the copy or move constructor of polymorphic because that would require type information on an open set of erased types, which is not possible: a polymorphic object can contain any type that is derived from T, we cannot write a constraint that requires that all such types are copy constructible. We make polymorphic unconditionally copy and move constructible. The authors do not envisage that this could be relaxed in a future version of the C++ standard.

While a copy constructor cannot be a template, in C++20 and later we can conditionally constrain copy construction of indirect by defining:

indirect(const indirect& other) requires false = delete;

template <typename TT = T>
indirect(const indirect& other) requires is_copy_constructible_v<TT>;

An instantiation of the function template with TT = T is added to the overload set when indirect is copy-constructed and will be selected if the owned object type T is copy constructible. This would make copy construction conditional for indirect but not for polymorphic. We opt for consistency and make copy construction unconditional for both indirect and polymorphic. Making indirect conditionally copy constructible in a future version of the C++ standard would require adding a template function as above and would be an ABI break. It might be simpler to add new types for non-copyable indirect and polymorphic objects, although we do not propose the addition of such types in this draft.

Implicit conversions

We decided that there should be no implicit conversion of a value T to an indirect<T> or polymorphic<T>. An implicit conversion would require using a memory resource and memory allocation, which is best made explicit by the user.

Rectangle r(w, h);
polymorphic<Shape> s = r; // error

To transform a value into indirect or polymorphic, the user must use the appropriate constructor.

Rectangle r(w, h);
polymorphic<Shape> s(std::in_place_type<Rectangle>, r);
assert(dynamic_cast<Rectangle*>(&*s) != nullptr);

Explicit conversions

The older class template polymorphic_value had explicit conversions, allowing construction of a polymorphic_value<T> from a polymorphic_value, where T was a base class of U.

polymorphic_value<Quadrilateral> q(std::in_place_type<Rectangle>, w, h);
polymorphic_value<Shape> s = q;
assert(dynamic_cast<Rectangle*>(&*s) != nullptr);

Similar code cannot be written with polymorphic as it does not allow conversions between derived types:

polymorphic<Quadrilateral> q(std::in_place_type<Rectangle>, w, h);
polymorphic<Shape> s = q; // error

This is a deliberate design decision. polymorphic is intended to be used for ownership of member data in composite classes where compiler-generated special member functions will be used.

There is no motivating use case for explicit conversion between derived types outside of tests.

A converting constructor could be added in a future version of the C++ standard.

Comparisons for `indirect`

We implement comparisons for indirect in terms of operator== and operator<=> returning bool and auto respectively.

The alternative would be to implement the full suite of comparison operators, forwarding them to the underlying type and allowing non-boolean return types. Support for non-boolean return types would support unusual (non-regular) user-defined comparison operators which could be helpful when the underlying type is part of a domain-specific-language (DSL) that uses comparison operators for a different purpose. However, this would be inconsistent with other standard library types like optional, variant and reference_wrapper. Moreover, we’d likely only give partial support for a theoretical DSL which may well make use of other operators like operator+ and operator- which are not supported for indirect.

Supporting `operator()` `operator[]`

There is no need for indirect or polymorphic to provide a function call or an indexing operator. Users who wish to do that can simply access the value and call its operator. Furthermore, unlike comparisons, function calls or indexing operators do not compose further; for example, a composite would not be able to automatically generate a composited operator() or an operator[].

Supporting arithmetic operators

While we could provide support for arithmetic operators, +, - ,*, /, to indirect in the same way that we support comparisons, we have chosen not to do so. The arithmetic operators would need to support a valueless state which there is no precedent for in the standard library.

Support for arithmetic operators could be added in a future version of the C++ standard. If support for arithmetic operators for valueless or empty objects is later added to the standard library in a coherent way, it could be added for indirect at that time.

Member function `emplace`

Neither indirect nor polymorphic support emplace as a member function. The member function emplace could be added as :

template <typename ...Ts>
indirect::emplace(Ts&& ...ts);

template <typename U, typename ...Ts>
polymorphic::emplace(in_place_type<U>, Ts&& ...ts);

This would be API noise. It offers no efficiency improvement over:

some_indirect = indirect(/* arguments */);

some_polymorphic = polymorphic(in_place_type<U>, /* arguments */);

Support for an emplace member function could be added in a future version of the C++ standard.

Small Buffer Optimisation

It is possible to implement polymorphic with a small buffer optimisation, similar to that used in std::function. This would allow polymorphic to store small objects without allocating memory. Like std::function, the size of the small buffer is left to be specified by the implementation.

The authors are sceptical of the value of a small buffer optimisation for objects from a type hierarchy. If the buffer is too small, all instances of polymorphic will be larger than needed. This is because they will allocate memory in addition to having the memory from the (empty) buffer as part of the object size. If the buffer is too big, polymorphic objects will be larger than necessary, potentially introducing the need for indirect<polymorphic<T>>.

We could add a non-type template argument to polymorphic to specify the size of the small buffer:

template <typename T, typename Alloc, size_t BufferSize>
class polymorphic;

However, we opt not to do this to maintain consistency with other standard library types. Both std::function and std::string leave the buffer size as an implementation detail. Including an additional template argument in a later revision of the standard would be a breaking change. With usage experience, implementers will be able to determine if a small buffer optimisation is worthwhile, and what the optimal buffer size might be.

A small buffer optimisation makes little sense for indirect as the sensible size of the buffer would be dictated by the size of the stored object. This removes support for incomplete types and locates storage for the object locally, defeating the purpose of indirect.

Appendix B: Before and after examples

We include some minimal, illustrative examples of how indirect and polymorphic can be used to simplify composite class design.

Using `indirect` for binary compatibility using the PIMPL idiom

Without indirect, we use std::unique_ptr to manage the lifetime of the implementation object. All const-qualified methods of the composite will need to be manually checked to ensure that they are not calling non-const qualified methods of component objects.

Before, without using `indirect`

// Class.h

class Class {
  class Impl;
  std::unique_ptr<Impl> impl_;
 public:
  Class();
  ~Class();
  Class(const Class&);
  Class& operator=(const Class&);
  Class(Class&&) noexcept;
  Class& operator=(Class&&) noexcept;

  void do_something();
};

// Class.cpp

class Impl {
 public:
  void do_something();
};

Class::Class() : impl_(std::make_unique<Impl>()) {}

Class::~Class() = default;

Class::Class(const Class& other) : impl_(std::make_unique<Impl>(*other.impl_)) {}

Class& Class::operator=(const Class& other) {
  if (this != &other) {
    Class tmp(other);
    using std::swap;
    swap(*this, tmp);
  }
  return *this;
}

Class(Class&&) noexcept = default;
Class& operator=(Class&&) noexcept = default;

void Class::do_something() {
  impl_->do_something();
}

After, using `indirect`

// Class.h

class Class {
  indirect<class Impl> impl_;
 public:
  Class();
  ~Class();
  Class(const Class&);
  Class& operator=(const Class&);
  Class(Class&&) noexcept;
  Class& operator=(Class&&) noexcept;

  void do_something();
};

// Class.cpp

class Impl {
 public:
  void do_something();
};

Class::Class() : impl_(indirect<Impl>()) {}
Class::~Class() = default;
Class::Class(const Class&) = default;
Class& Class::operator=(const Class&) = default;
Class(Class&&) noexcept = default;
Class& operator=(Class&&) noexcept = default;

void Class::do_something() {
  impl_->do_something();
}

Using `polymorphic` for a composite class

Without polymorphic, we use std::unique_ptr to manage the lifetime of component objects. All const-qualified methods of the composite will need to be manually checked to ensure that they are not calling non-const qualified methods of component objects.

Before, without using `polymorphic`

class Canvas;

class Shape {
 public:
  virtual ~Shape() = default;
  virtual std::unique_ptr<Shape> clone() = 0;
  virtual void draw(Canvas&) const = 0;
};

class Picture {
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Shape>> shapes_;

 public:
  Picture(const std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Shape>>& shapes) {
    shapes_.reserve(shapes.size());
    for (auto& shape : shapes) {
      shapes_.push_back(shape->clone());
    }
  }

  Picture(const Picture& other) {
    shapes_.reserve(other.shapes_.size());
    for (auto& shape : other.shapes_) {
      shapes_.push_back(shape->clone());
    }
  }

  Picture& operator=(const Picture& other) {
    if (this != &other) {
      Picture tmp(other);
      using std::swap;
      swap(*this, tmp);
    }
    return *this;
  }

  void draw(Canvas& canvas) const;
};

After, using `polymorphic`

class Canvas;

class Shape {
 protected:
  ~Shape() = default;

 public:
  virtual void draw(Canvas&) const = 0;
};

class Picture {
  std::vector<polymorphic<Shape>> shapes_;

 public:
  Picture(const std::vector<polymorphic<Shape>>& shapes)
      : shapes_(shapes) {}

  // Picture(const Picture& other) = default;

  // Picture& operator=(const Picture& other) = default;

  void draw(Canvas& canvas) const;
};

Appendix C: Design choices, alternatives and breaking changes

The table below shows the main design components considered, the key design decisions made, and the cost and impact of alternative design choices. As presented in this paper, the design of class templates indirect and polymorphic has been approved by the LEWG. The authors have until C++26 is standardized to consider making any breaking changes; after C++26, whilst breaking changes will still be possible, the impact of these changes on users could be potentially significant and unwelcome.

Component	Decision	Alternative	Change impact	Breaking change?
Member `emplace`	No member `emplace`	Add member `emplace`	Pure addition	No
`operator bool`	No `operator bool`	Add `operator bool`	Changes semantics	No
`indirect` comparsion preconditions	`indirect` must not be valueless	Allows comparison of valueless objects	Runtime cost	No
`indirect` hash preconditions	`indirect` must not be valueless	Allows hash of valueless objects	Runtime cost	No
Copy and copy assign preconditions	Object can be valueless	Forbids copying of valueless objects	Previously valid code would invoke undefined behaviour	Yes
Move and move assign preconditions	Object can be valueless	Forbids moving of valueless objects	Previously valid code would invoke undefined behaviour	Yes
Requirements on `T` in `polymorphic<T>`	No requirement that `T` has virtual functions	Add Mandates or Constraints to require `T` to have virtual functions	Code becomes ill-formed	Yes
State of default-constructed object	Default-constructed object (where valid) has a value	Make default-constructed object valueless	Changes semantics; necessitates adding `operator bool` and allowing move, copy and compare of valueless (empty) objects	Yes
Small buffer optimisation for polymorphic	SBO is not required, settings are hidden	Add buffer size and alignment as template parameters	Breaks ABI; forces implementers to use SBO	Yes
`noexcept` for accessors	Accessors are `noexcept` like `unique_ptr` and `optional`	Remove `noexcept` from accessors	User functions marked `noexcept` could be broken	Yes
Specialization of optional	No specialization of optional	Specialize optional to use valueless state	Breaks ABI; engaged but valueless optional would become indistinguishable from a disengaged optional	Yes
Permit user specialization	No user specialization is permitted	Permit specialization for user-defined types	Previously ill-formed code would become well-formed	No
Explicit constructors	Constructors are marked `explicit`	Non-explicit constructors	Conversion for single arguments or braced initializers becomes valid	No
Support comparisons for indirect	Comparisons are supported when the owned type supports them	No support for comparisons	Previously valid code would become ill-formed	Yes
Support arithmetic operations for `indirect`	No support for arithmetic operations	Forward arithemtic operations to the owned type when it supports them	Previously ill-formed code would become well-formed	No
Support `operator ()` for `indirect`	No support for `operator ()`	Forward `operator()` to the owned type when it is supported	Previously ill-formed code would become well-formed	No
Support `operator []` for `indirect`	No support for `operator []`	Forward `operator[]` to the owned type when it is supported	Previously ill-formed code would become well-formed	No

indirect and polymorphic: Vocabulary Types for Composite Class Design

Abstract

History

Changes in R9

Changes in R8

Changes in R7

Changes in R6

Changes in R5

Changes in R4

Changes in R3

Changes in R2

Changes in R1

Motivation

Design requirements

Special member functions

Deep copies

const propagation

Value semantics

The valueless state and interaction with std::optional

Allocator support

Modelled types

Modelled types for indirect

Modelled types for polymorphic

Similarities and differences with variant

noexcept and narrow contracts

Tagged constructors

Converting constructors

Initializer-list constructors

Explicit constructors

Converting assignment

Converting assignment for indirect

Converting assignment for polymorphic

The valueless_after_move member function

Design for polymorphic types

Prior work

Impact on the standard

Technical specifications

Header <version> synopsis [version.syn]

Header <memory> synopsis [memory]

X.Y Class template indirect [indirect]

X.Y.1 Class template indirect general [indirect.general]

X.Y.2 Class template indirect synopsis [indirect.syn]

X.Y.3 Constructors [indirect.ctor]

X.Y.4 Destructor [indirect.dtor]

X.Y.5 Assignment [indirect.assign]

X.Y.6 Observers [indirect.observers]

X.Y.7 Swap [indirect.swap]

X.Y.8 Relational operators [indirect.relops]

X.Y.9 Comparison with T [indirect.comp.with.t]

X.Y.10 Hash support [indirect.hash]

X.Z Class template polymorphic [polymorphic]

X.Z.1 Class template polymorphic general [polymorphic.general]

X.Z.2 Class template polymorphic synopsis [polymorphic.syn]

X.Z.3 Constructors [polymorphic.ctor]

X.Z.4 Destructor [polymorphic.dtor]

X.Z.5 Assignment [polymorphic.assign]

X.Z.6 Observers [polymorphic.observers]

X.Z.7 Swap [polymorphic.swap]

Reference implementation

Acknowledgements

References

Appendix A: Detailed design decisions

Two class templates, not one

Copiers, deleters, pointer constructors, and allocator support

Pointer-like helper functions

Constraints on incomplete types and conditional constructors

Implicit conversions

Explicit conversions

Comparisons for indirect

Supporting operator() operator[]

Supporting arithmetic operators

Member function emplace

Small Buffer Optimisation

Appendix B: Before and after examples

Using indirect for binary compatibility using the PIMPL idiom

Before, without using indirect

After, using indirect

Using polymorphic for a composite class

Before, without using polymorphic

After, using polymorphic

`indirect` and `polymorphic`: Vocabulary Types for Composite Class Design

`const` propagation

The valueless state and interaction with `std::optional`

Modelled types for `indirect`

Modelled types for `polymorphic`

`noexcept` and narrow contracts

Converting assignment for `indirect`

Converting assignment for `polymorphic`

The `valueless_after_move` member function

Header `<version>` synopsis [version.syn]

Header `<memory>` synopsis [memory]

Comparisons for `indirect`

Supporting `operator()` `operator[]`

Member function `emplace`

Using `indirect` for binary compatibility using the PIMPL idiom

Before, without using `indirect`

After, using `indirect`

Using `polymorphic` for a composite class

Before, without using `polymorphic`

After, using `polymorphic`