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    <title>Ethiopic Layout Requirements</title>
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    <div id="abstract">
      <p>This document describes requirements for the layout and presentation of text in languages that use the Ethiopic script when they are used by Web standards and technologies, such as HTML, CSS, Mobile Web, Digital Publications, and Unicode.</p>
    </div>
    <div id="sotd">
      <p>This document describes the basic requirements for Ethiopic script layout and text support on the Web and in eBooks. These requirements provide information for Web technologies such as CSS, HTML and digital publications about how to support users of Ethiopic scripts.  Currently the document focuses on Amharic and Tigrinya. </p>
      <p>The editor&rsquo;s draft of this document is being developed by the <a href="https://github.com/w3c/elreq/">Ethiopic Layout Task Force</a>, part of the W3C <a href="https://www.w3.org/International/ig/">Internationalization Interest Group</a>. It is published by the <a href="https://www.w3.org/International/core/">Internationalization Working Group</a>. The end target for this document is a Working Group Note.</p>
     </div>
<section id="intro">
    <h2>Introduction</h2>
    <section id="purpose">
    <h3>Purpose of this Document</h3>
    <p>This document describes requirements of the layout and presentation of text in the Ethiopic script for use with Web standards and technologies, such as HTML, CSS, Mobile Web and Digital Publications (e.g. eBooks). In addition to the Ethiopian and Eritrean homelands, the script is widely used throughout the diaspora of these two nations. Accordingly, requirements are gathered from stakeholders engaged in Ethiopic publishing from all regions.</p>
    <p>The document does not describe implementations or issues related to specific technologies, such as CSS. Instead, it describes the typographic requirements of Ethiopic in a technology-agnostic manner, so that the content remains evergreen and is equally relevant to all technologies that aim to represent Ethiopic text on the Web.</p>
    </section>
    <section id="how_developed">
    <h3>How this Document was Created</h3>
    <p>This document was created by the <a href="https://github.com/w3c/elreq/">W3C Ethiopic Layout Task Force</a>.  The Task Force will discuss many issues and harmonize the requirements from user communities and solutions from technological experts.</p>
    <p>The following types of experts will be involved in the creation of this document:</p>
    <ol>
      <li>Ethiopic typography experts.</li>
      <li>Experts from the publishing industry representing the spectrum of traditional to modern layout practices.</li>
      <li>Academic experts with a focus on <a href="#term.geez" class="termref">Ge&rsquo;ez</a> manuscripts and philology.</li>
    </ol>
    <p>The Task Force will conduct a survey of the publishing industry to solicit input and identify the set of in-use layout styles. This document will then represent the normalized results of the industry survey which in turn becomes a basis for its validity and suitability to purpose. In the interim before to the survey results have been compiled and applied to this document, tentative specifications will be given based on the most-probable survey results anticipated from participating experts. <span class="note">Survey Pending</span> notes will appear along side specification sections to denote their status.</p>
  </section>
  <section id="basic_principles">
    <h3>Basic Principles for Document Development</h3>
    <p>Growing out of the 182 element Ge&rsquo;ez language syllabary for two millenia, Ethiopic in its present day form is a multilingual, and multinational, script comprised by 494 symbols representing: syllables, numerals, punctuation and tonal marks.  Numerous linguistic, cultural, literary, historical and political issues surround the script and its utilization -all of which the authors strive to avoid discussing unless directly relevant to clarifying a given layout use case. The following principles are applied in the development of this document:</p>
    <ol>
      <li>View publishers as the primary stakeholders.</li>
      <li>Attempt a &ldquo;90% solution&rdquo; where the common and primary needs of publishers are addressed. Important but less widely used practices such as for <a href="#term.yaredic-zaima-notation" class="termref">Yaredic Zaima Notation</a> will be addressed at a future time.</li>
      <li>It does not cover every issue of Ethiopic typography, but only the import differences from the Western language systems.</li>
      <li>The technical aspects of actual implementation are not covered by this document.</li>
      <li>In order to help readers&rsquo; understanding of how Ethiopic is used, typical real-life examples are provided.</li>
      <li>Text layout rules and recommendations for readable design are different things, however these two issues are difficult to discuss independently. In this document, these two aspects are carefully separated. The aesthetic design recommendations are mainly described using notes.</li>
      <li>The main target of this document is common books. The authors&rsquo; experiences are mainly related to common books, and the quality required for common books is the highest in the market. There are many kinds of books in the market, and the requirements are quite diverse. The task force has a lot of accumulated experience in requirements and solutions for Ethiopic text composition. Nonetheless, many issues, which have been discussed over a long period of time, are applicable for other kinds of publication.</li>
      <li>In terms of frequency of use, the importance of magazines, technical manuals, and Web documents rates alongside common books. However, there are several characteristics in these publications, which are different from common books. These issues should be treated more fully in future documents.</li>
    </ol>
  </section>

  <section id="ethiopic_eras">
    <h3>In-Scope Publishing Eras</h3>
    <p>While Ethiopic documents can be characterized under a number of time periods, we discern only two gross eras herein. <a href="#term.classical-ethiopic" class="termref">Classical Ethiopic</a> encompases the layout requirements found in the documents of the first printing presses and coming into fruition under the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie.  While not the focus of this document, &ldquo;Classical Ethiopic&rdquo; also encompasses handwritten manuscripts whose practices are present in early publishing. This era is characterized more by the influences of the Ge&rsquo;ez tradition as embodied by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church with respect to spelling conventions, syntax and punctuation use, <a href="#term.wordspace" class="termref">Ethiopic Wordspace</a> and numeral system preference. Also featuring less variation in layout practice which is likely the result of having fewer publishing houses in operation.</p>
    <p>The Classical Ethiopic era is followed by <a href="#term.modern-ethiopic" class="termref">Modern Ethiopic</a> spanning from the post-Imperial period up until the present day. Modern Ethiopic practices are characterized by looser spelling conventions, the preference change toward whitespace and western numerals, more variation in layout styles  and in some cases limitations imposed by desktop publishing software designed for Western markets.</p>
    <p>The focus of this document is on the Modern Ethiopic layout conventions with distinctions pertaining to Classical Ethiopic noted when known.  An exception will be a complication that the authors hope to resolve found in Classical era documents where Ethiopic Wordspace interplays with Whitespace in a number of contexts.</p>
  </section>
  </section>

  <section id="characters">
    <h2>Characters &amp; Phrases</h2>
    <section id="ethiopic_with_other_scripts">
    <h3>Interlingual Documents with Ethiopic</h3>
    <!-- Discuss: Any considerations for when foreign scripts (Latin, Arabic, etc) are used with Ethiopic text. Relative character heights and weights.-->
    <section id="relative_character_heights">
      <h4>Relative Character Heights</h4>
      <p>In multilingual documents, differences between the heights of letters in Ethiopic script and its companion foreign script are often found.
        The difference is likely an artifact of the typesetting technology in use and does not represent the intent of the author or publisher.
        In the classic typeface style of Ethiopic script the letters will be of variable heights. Fixed height styles are more generally used for
        advertisement and not publishing. The nature of variable height Ethiopic letters is a factor that complicates how to  best align letter height with a foreign script.</p>
      <figure id="comparative_heights_latn_ethi"> <img src="images/English-Ethiopic-Relative-Heights-With-Guide-Lines.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Comparative heights of English and Ethiopic script.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>At a given point size, letter heights within a script may vary widely between typefaces. This adds another level of difficulty
        to aligning heights between scripts as an alignment will only be optimal between a specific typeface pair. Within a script featuring variable
        (not fixed) height letters the relative heights of letters are subject to change between typefaces. This phenomena reinforces the
        previous assertion on typeface pair optimization, but also introduces the possibility that alignment optimization can be language
        sensitive. This happens when an alignment pair designed for the letter inventory of one language is applied to another language
        that includes letters that exceed the heights of the optimized set. </p>
      <figure id="comparative_height_typeface"> <img src="images/Z-Reference-Monotype.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Comparative letter heights.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>The relative heights of letters used in different languages may also change with typeface as this next figure illustrates. </p>
      <figure id="comparative_height_blin_tigrinya"> <img src="images/Z-Reference-Abyssinica.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Comparative letter heights change with typeface, <span lang="am">&#4693;</span> of Blin and Tigrinya now exceeds the heights of Amharic.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p> With these caveats considered, &ldquo;Zen&rdquo; alignment is a means to optimize an Ethiopic-Latin typeface pair that is suitable for a general
        use case when priori knowledge of a document language is unknown. Its basis is reviewed here.
        The Latin letter &ldquo;Z&rdquo; and Ethiopic letter &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4757;</span>&rdquo; are chosen as pairing symbols representative of the mean height .  They both feature broad
        horizontal strokes that are easy for the eye to follow as a nearly continuous stroke.
        Ethiopic letters that were introduced as an extension to the Ge&rsquo;ez core will  typically feature a macron or other modifier at the top of
        a base letter in order to form the extension letter. The macron necessarily extends the height of a letter.  Using the top of the macron
        for the reference height of a letter leads to height alignment that makes the majority of Ethiopic letters appear too short against Latin letters. </p>
      <figure id="align_top_symbol"> <img src="images/Z-Ny-N-Top-Aligned.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Alignment and top of symbols (Ethiopic letters too squat).</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p> A better approach is to align Z with caron (&#381;) against <span lang="am">&#4757;</span> with macron <span lang="am">(&#4765;)</span> while aligning and Z with <span lang="am">&#4757;</span> and find typefaces with a good tuple of aligned pairings.</p>
      <figure id="align_below_accent"> <img src="images/Z-caron-Ny-Z-N-Alignment.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Alignment below accent (better sizing).</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>Going further, we may assume that the <span lang="am">&#4765;</span> and &#381; will align satisfactorily (optionally check any irregularities) and simply align the Z-<span lang="am">&#4757;</span> pair.
        Phonetically the sequence of these two letters would sound like &ldquo;zen&rdquo;, hence the name.</p>
      <figure id="zen_reference_alignment"> <img src="images/Z-N-Alignment.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Z-<span lang="am">&#4757;</span> or &ldquo;Zen&rdquo; Reference Alignment.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Does Z-<span lang="am">&#4757;</span> alignment seem reasonable?</li>
          <li>If not Z-<span lang="am">&#4757;</span> alignment, what Ethiopic letter should be applied as a height reference point for alignment? Or what other height alignment basis should be used?</li>
          <li>Should height alignment be attempted as per the letter inventory of a target language or for the script as a whole (practical but less optimal)?</li>
          <li>Relative to a Latin uppercase letter, should the height of Ethiopic letters: (a) equal (b) shorter (c) taller?</li>
          <li>Is height alignment an issue with other writing systems?  If so, how is it addressed?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="relative_typeface_weights">
      <h4>Relative Typeface Weights</h4>
      <p>A common practice in Ethiopic literature is the change of typeface weight in one script to appear more visually similar to the other.
        Most typically a Latin typeface will be made heavier to better match its Ethiopic counterpart.  This weight increase is demonstrated in many
        Ethiopic fonts that include  Latin letters. The font designer may have increased the weight of the Latin range primarily to provide heavier
        weight punctuation to use with Ethiopic script (see <a href="#ethiopicized_punctuation">Ethiopicized Punctuation</a>).</p>
      <p>Literature produced with a heavier Latin typeface may represent the author&rsquo;s stylistic sensibilities but, in some cases, may  only be a
        pragmatic outcome when an author finds manually changing between fonts too burdensome. 
        The view of professional publishers is unknown here and should be determined.</p>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>When publishing in the classical Ethiopic weight, should English words appear in their default English weight?</li>
          <li>If heavier Latin letters are desirable, how much so? Can a weight increase be defined as a percentage of the Ethiopic?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="baseline_alignment">
      <h4>Baseline Alignment</h4>
      <p>It is not uncommon to observe mid-sentence baseline changes in interlingual documents produced with pre-digital typesetting systems
         where Ethiopic and Latin text, for example, would appear to be laid out along different baselines in a line of text.  The most common
         example of this appears in documents produced with a typewriter where a sheet of paper had to be moved between typewriters to produce
         a line in two scripts.  An apparent baseline difference here would be the result of mechanical misalignment.</p>

       <p><em>Note: The only point that seems can be made here would be to state that Ethiopic and foreign scripts should share the same baseline.  This
              may already be the case with computer typography.  If so, this section should be removed.</em></p>
    </section>
  </section>


  <section id="sebatbeit_glyph_preferences">
    <h3>Sebatbeit Glyph Preferences</h3>
    <p>The Sebatbeit (aka Sebat Bet) language features a greater number and frequency of labiovelarized letter forms in comparison to the larger
       language communities utilizing Ethiopic script.  In Sebatbeit publishing a number of modifications to diacritical marks are regularly
       applied to aid glyph clarity.  These modified glyphs will sometimes appear within in font as a <em>Stylistic Alternative</em> or an
       entirely separate font may be used in publishing where these letter shapes appear as the default forms.  The glyphs are enumerated here and
       are recommended for Sebatbeit literature.</p>
    <figure id="sebatbeit_glyph_preferences_sample"> <img src="images/Sebatbeit-Glyph-Preferences.png" alt=" " height="477" width="412" />
      <figcaption>Labiovelar letter shape preferences for Sebatbeit (Sebat Bet) literature.</figcaption>
    </figure>

    <div class="issues">
      <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
      <ol>
        <li>Do any parties publishing in Sebatbeit disagree with these letter shapes?</li>
        <li>Are any other glyph changes known for other languages?</li>
      </ol>
    </div>
  </section>


  <section id="punctuation">
  <h3>Punctuation</h3>
  <section id="ethiopic_punctuation">
    <h4>Punctuation Used in Ethiopic</h4>
    <p>In Classical era Ethiopic up to nine punctuation marks can be found. Though rarely, if ever, would all nine be found in a single document.
       The Classical Ethiopic punctuation inventory may <em>appear</em> to be larger in number as a result of bi-chromatic rendering which can be
       applied to any punctuation and in several different styles.  However, the bi-chromatic forms do not change the syntactic role of a given
       punctuation.  In the Modern era, a third of the punctuation marks: <span lang="am">&#4967;</span>, <span lang="am">&#4968;</span>, and <span lang="am">&#4960;</span> have largely fallen into disuse while a number of punctuation
       marks from Western practices have been adopted. Bi-chromatic punctuation is now reserved for spiritual materials and remains a calligraphic practice.</p>
    <p>Ethiopic punctuation segments text and is non-enclosing. 
       The Ethiopic word separator, labeled &ldquo;Ethiopic Wordspace&rdquo; in the Unicode standard, is given special attention in this section as follows more
       complex rules of interaction with other punctuation as well as justification.  Ethiopic punctuation is often aligned with similar English
       punctuation though these associations must be understood as approximate.  Ethiopic fullstop and wordspace are highly regular in their application,
       others, particularly <span lang="am">&#4963;</span>, <span lang="am">&#4964;</span>, and <span lang="am">&#4965;</span> will be consistently used within a document but their roles may change between authors or institutes.  A detailed
       review of punctuation semantics is beyond the scope of this document, however Ethiopic comma is given special attention in the following section.</p>
    <p>The following descriptions of Ethiopic punctuation usage has been translated from Gebre and Shewaye.</p>

    <table>
      <thead>
        <tr>
          <th>Symbol</th>
          <th>Address</th>
          <th>Names</th>
          <th>Usage</th>
        </tr>
      </thead>
      <tbody>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am" style="text-align: center;">&#4961;</td>
          <td>U+1361</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <span lang="gez">&#4757;&#4817;&#4661; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</span><br/>
              Amharic: <span lang="am">&#4609;&#4616;&#4725; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</span><br/>
              Tigrinya: <span lang="ti">&#4781;&#4621;&#4720;-&#4752;&#4901;&#4706;</span><br/>
              English: Ethiopic Wordspace<br/>
          </td>
          <td>Literally &ldquo;two dots&rdquo; or &ldquo;two points&rdquo;. This mark is used to separate words.
              Since the rise of digital publishing the mark is primarily applied today in a handwritten document.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am" style="text-align: center;">&#4966;</td>
          <td>U+1366</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <span lang="gez">&#4768;&#4661;&#4720;&#4768;&#4637;&#4654;</span><br/>
              Amharic: <span lang="am">&#4768;&#4661;&#4648;&#4866; &#4656;&#4648;&#4829;</span><br/>
              Tigrinya: <br/>
              English: Ethiopic Preface Colon<br/>
          </td>
          <td>This mark is used following clarification of a certain subject. It will preface validation statements and examples that support the clarification.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am" style="text-align: center;">&#4963; &#4965;</td>
          <td>U+1363 U+1365</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <span lang="gez">&#4752;&#4896;&#4619; &#4640;&#4648;&#4829;</span><br/>
              Amharic: <span lang="am">&#4752;&#4896;&#4619; &#4656;&#4648;&#4829;</span><br/>
              Tigrinya: <span lang="ti">&#4757;&#4925;&#4621; &#4909;&#4629;&#4875;&#4653; (&#4757;&#4925;&#4621; &#4656;&#4648;&#4829;)</span><br/>
              English: Ethiopic Comma<br/>
          </td>
          <td>Often used to separate comparative and sequential list of names, phrases, or numbers as well as to separate parts of a sentence that are not complete by themselves.
              <em>A special note of explanation is needed here.  While the Unicode standard refers to &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4965;</span>&rdquo; as &ldquo;ETHIOPIC COLON&rdquo; the correlation with &ldquo;colon&rdquo; from Western practices as
              the name implies can given the wrong impression over the functional role of the symbol in writing.  Noted writing experts Desta Tekle Wold, Kidane Wolde Kifle, Dereje Gebre, and Tesfaye Shewaye all assert the equivalence of the two symbols; a shared view that reduces the two symbols to simple glyph alternatives of one another.  There is some observed tendency to use &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4965;</span>&rdquo; glyph more frequently in religious works, thus to distinguish the two in discussion the &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4965;</span>&rdquo; glyph will be referred to in this document as either <span lang="gez">&#4757;&#4817;&#4661; &#4640;&#4648;&#4829;</span> or ecclesiastical comma</em>
          </td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am" style="text-align: center;">&#4964;</td>
          <td>U+1364</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <span lang="gez">&#4816;&#4706;&#4845; &#4640;&#4648;&#4829;</span><br/>
              Amharic: <span lang="am">&#4853;&#4653;&#4709; &#4656;&#4648;&#4829;</span><br/>
              Tigrinya: <span lang="ti">&#4853;&#4653;&#4709; &#4909;&#4629;&#4875;&#4653;</span><br/>
              English: Ethiopic Semicolon<br/>
          </td>
          <td>To separate equivalent main phrases in one idea. Even though it is not placed at the end of a paragraph, it can be used to separate sentences with similar ideas in a paragraph.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am" style="text-align: center;">&#4967;</td>
          <td>U+1367</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <span lang="gez">&#4640;&#4616;&#4661;&#4720; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</span><br/>
              Amharic: <span lang="am">&#4646;&#4661;&#4725; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</span><br/>
              Tigrinya: <span lang="ti">&#4637;&#4621;&#4781;&#4725; &#4629;&#4726; (&#4725;&#4773;&#4637;&#4653;&#4720; &#4629;&#4726;)</span><br/>
              English: Ethiopic Question Mark<br/>
          </td>
          <td>Used at the end of the questioning sentence. In modern writing  &ldquo;?&rdquo; is preferred.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am" style="text-align: center;">&#4962;</td>
          <td>U+1362</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <span lang="gez">&#4816;&#4706;&#4845; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</span><br/>
              Amharic: <span lang="am">&#4768;&#4651;&#4725; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</span><br/>
              Tigrinya: <span lang="ti">&#4771;&#4653;&#4707;&#4821;&#4720; &#4752;&#4901;&#4706;</span><br/>
              English: Ethiopic Fullstop<br/>
          </td>
          <td>This mark is placed at the end of the sentence that describes the completeness of an idea.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am" style="text-align: center;">&#4960;</td>
          <td>U+1360</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <br/>
              Amharic: <br/>
              Tigrinya: <br/>
              English: Ethiopic Section Mark<br/>
          </td>
          <td>Used to divide sections or subsections; generally three or more used together on a line of their own.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td style="text-align: center;">&#4968;</td>
          <td>U+1368</td>
          <td>Ge&rsquo;ez: <br/>
              Amharic: <br/>
              Tigrinya: <br/>
              English: Ethiopic Paragraph Separator<br/><span style="color: #ffffff">English: </span>Ethiopic Seven Dot Section Mark
          </td>
          <td>May be used to conclude the final paragraph of a section in lieu of Ethiopic Full Stop. May also be used under the same rules given for Ethiopic Section Mark.</td>
        </tr>
      </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>Adopted into Ethiopic writing practices are enclosing punctuation such as parenthesis, brackets, single and double quotation marks and guillemets.
       Expressive punctuation such as question mark, exclamation point, inverted exclamation mark, and ellipsis are also incorporated into Ethiopic practices. 
       Additional foreign symbols that denote currency, time, mathematics, or communicate with Internet protocols (e.g. "@" , "://") have also
       been adopted as over the last century as international communication grew.</p>
    <p>The ES-781:2002 standard identifies the following inventory of western symbols to be used with Ethiopic:</p>
    <p style="margin-left: 20px"><code>1234567890 ? ! &iexcl; . / () [] {} &lt; = &gt; \ # % &amp; _ - + &plusmn; &times; &divide; &lsquo; &rsquo; &ldquo; &rdquo; &lsaquo; &rsaquo; &laquo; &raquo;</code></p>
    <p>Additionally the following punctuation is observed to be used with Ethiopic writing:</p>
    <p style="margin-left: 20px"><code>$ : , &euro; @ &hellip;</code></p>
    <p>Inverted exclamation mark is repurposed and utilized differently than in its Western usage.
       In Ethiopic writing the inverted exclamation mark is known as &ldquo;Timirte Slaq&rdquo; (<span lang="am">&#4725;&#4773;&#4637;&#4653;&#4720;&#4961;&#4645;&#4619;&#4677;</span>) appears at the end of
       a sentence and will denote sarcasm. All borrowed punctuation is subject to typeface alignment with Ethiopic weights and shapes, an aesthetic
       enhancement discussed in this section as <a href="#ethiopicized_punctuation">&ldquo;Ethiopicized Punctuation&rdquo;</a>.</p>
  </section>

  <section id="ethiopic_comma_usage">
    <h4>Ethiopic Comma Usage</h4>
      <p>In Ethiopic writing practices three encoded symbols will be used in the context of comma, however they are generally not used together.
         Looked at another way, the Ethiopic comma may appear with three different glyphs. The western comma also has an important role in Ethiopic writing.
         Usage rules are as follows:</p>
      <dl>
        <dt lang="am">&#4963; - &#4752;&#4896;&#4619; &#4640;&#4648;&#4829;</dt>
        <dd><span class="uname">U+1363 ETHIOPIC COMMA</span> <span lang="am">(&#4768;&#4635;/ &#4752;&#4896;&#4619; &#4640;&#4648;&#4829;, &#4725;&#4877;/ &#4757;&#4925;&#4621; &#4656;&#4648;&#4829;)</span> is used as a comma in Ethiopian practices and as a semicolon in Eritrea. &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4963;</span>&rdquo; will also be
              used in Ge&rsquo;ez writing as a semicolon (is this a modern usage or classic?).
              <span class="uname">U+1364 ETHIOPIC SEMICOLON</span>, <span lang="am">&#4964;</span>, in turn is used as a colon in Eritrean writing (verify).</dd>
        <dt lang="am">&#4965; - &#4757;&#4817;&#4661; &#4640;&#4648;&#4829;</dt>
        <dd><span class="uname">U+1365 ETHIOPIC COLON</span> in contrast to its Unicode name, is never used as a colon in any known Ethiopic practices.
              Rather, it is a classical glyph variant of <span class="uname">U+1364 ETHIOPIC SEMICOLON</span> <span lang="am">(&#4963;)</span>. <span lang="am">&#4965;</span> is the default comma glyph in Ge&rsquo;ez writing and is the preferred
              comma glyph by some modern writers writing in other languages. <span lang="am">&#4965;</span> is the default comma in most Amharic bibles, likely in keeping with
              the Ge&rsquo;ez Bible that the Amharic would have been translated from.  Some modern Bible translations into Amharic, as well as other religious
              literature, will use <span lang="am">&#4963;</span> as the default comma in prose but maintain <span lang="am">&#4965;</span> for passage references, e.g. <span lang="am">&#4635;&#4724;4&#4965;23 , &#4846;&#4624;13&#4965;16 ,</span> etc. Given this
              common usage in religious materials &ldquo;ecclesiastical comma&rdquo; is a practical English term for referring to the <span lang="am">&#4965;</span> glyph variant. 
              As mentioned already, writing experts Desta Tekle Wold, Kidane Wolde Kifle, Dereje Gebre, and Tesfaye Shewaye all attest to the equivalence of the two symbols.</dd>
        <dt lang="am">&#4961; - &#4757;&#4817;&#4661; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</dt>
        <dd><span class="uname">U+1361 ETHIOPIC WORDSPACE</span> <span lang="am">(&#4768;&#4635;/ &#4609;&#4616;&#4725; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;, &#4725;&#4877;/ &#4781;&#4621;&#4720; &#4752;&#4901;&#4706;)</span> in keeping with Ge&rsquo;ez heritage, is used as the word separator (i.e. space) in the classical writing practices
              of both Eritrean and Ethiopia.  In modern Eritrean writing practices <span class="uname">ETHIOPIC WORDSPACE</span> will be used in the role of a comma (illustrated in Figure <a href="#ecclesiastical_emphasis_sample"></a>).
              When used in modern Ethiopian writing, it retains its classic role as word separator (space).
              See <a href="#wordspace_in_comma_context"></a> for elaboration on this topic. </dd>
        <dt>, - comma</dt>
        <dd><span class="uname">U+002C COMMA</span> is utilized in Eritrean and Ethiopian writing practices in the formatting of western numbers only.</dd>
      </dl>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>Are the above descriptions correct?</li>
            <li>Should authors be able to set a default comma (<span lang="am">&#4963;</span>,<span lang="am">&#4965;</span>,<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>) in software?</li>
            <li>Should authors be able to set a default space symbol in software?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
    </section>

    <section id="wordspace_in_comma_context">
      <h4>Ethiopic Wordspace in the Context of Comma</h4>
      <p>In recent decades some communities have adopted a practice of employing the wordspace symbol as a comma when <span class="uname">U+0020 SPACE</span> [ ] is used as the word separator. The interpretation of the symbol is then dependent on the context of the writing convention in use by the author. Accordingly, an application user setting could be offered to set the symbol context.</p>
      <p>An alternative view point on this practice is that <span class="uname">U+1363 ETHIOPIC COMMA</span> [<span lang="am">&#4963;</span>] is in fact in use by these user communities; however its glyph has decayed whereby the line segment is lost and so it visually coincides with <span class="uname">U+1361 ETHIOPIC WORDSPACE</span> [<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>].  Under this perspective, a simple solution would be modify an Ethiopic font for these users (perhaps adding an alternative glyph in an OpenType stylistic set) where the Ethiopic comma character address and semantics remain intact though the visual form has been tailored to meet aesthetic needs. </p>
      <figure id="nebiy_mohammed_page_35"> <img src="images/corpus-samples/Nebiy-Mohammed-Page-35-Cropped.png" alt=" " width="800" height="540"/>
        <figcaption>Ethiopic Wordspace in the context of comma (Itedalewe, 1987 (1979 EC))</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Should comma context be a user preference?</li>
          <li>Not an issue but a note; an author of this document recommends strongly preserving the symbol semantics of Ethiopic Wordspace and not overloading it with the semantics of Ethiopic Comma. Doing so simplifies spacing rules for the Wordspace symbol as the comma usage context will not need to be addressed. Applying the &ldquo;decayed glyph&rdquo; perspective as an alternative glyph in a font is preferred as it mitigates the semantic overloading.</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="ethiopicized_punctuation">
      <h4>Ethiopicized Punctuation</h4>
      <p>The shape and weight of adopted symbols are often changed for a better visual fit with an accompanying
         Ethiopic typeface. Enhanced foreign symbols are referred to here as <a href="#term.ethiopicized" class="termref">&ldquo;Ethiopicized&rdquo;</a>. While many symbols are borrowed from western writing,
         not all necessarily benefit from Ethiopicization.  Those that do will primarily be used in a context where the foreign symbol directly
         abuts some Ethiopic symbol. Common Ethiopic symbols are demonstrated in the following figure:</p>
      <figure id="ethiopicized_punctuation_260"> <img src="images/Ethiopicized-Punctuation-Sample-260.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Samples of Ethiopicized punctuation compared to shapes in a companion Latin typeface.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Are there any additional western symbols required for Ethiopic writing?</li>
          <li>Are any symbols from other foreign script (Chinese, Arabic, etc.) that should be included?</li>
          <li>What symbols benefit from shape change?</li>
          <li>What symbols benefit from weight change?</li>
          <li>Noteworthy for layout correction is that an isolated left double guillemet, &raquo;, is common in tabular text to indicate that the entry above is to be duplicated. This is a use case
              where the left double guillemet is not required to be balanced by a right double guillemet (&ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4725;&#4773;&#4637;&#4653;&#4720;&#4961;&#4848;&#4874;&#4632;&#4961;&#4675;&#4621;&#4961;</span>&rdquo; context).</li>
          <li>Are square &ldquo;dots&rdquo; in punctuation preferable over circular?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="optical_balancing">
      <h4>Optical Balancing</h4>
      <p>Foreign language words or phrases are regularly found inline within a paragraph of Ethiopic text, often bounded within
         enclosing punctuation such as brackets and quotation marks (e.g. []()""''&laquo;&raquo;&lsaquo;&rsaquo;).  This practice is most often observed in
         news articles on international topics.  The weight of the enclosing punctuation may be found as matching either the Ethiopic or
         Latin weight.  The preference of stakeholders must be determined here. Comparative samples follow:</p>
      <figure id="punctuation_at_latin_boundary_latin_guillemets"> <img src="images/Punctuation-At-Latin-Boundary-Latin-Guillemets.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Latin text enclosed with Latin weight guillemets.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <figure id="punctuation_at_latin_boundary_ethiopic_guillemets"> <img src="images/Punctuation-At-Latin-Boundary-Ethiopic-Guillemets.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Latin text enclosed with Ethiopic weight guillemets.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <figure id="punctuation_at_latin_boundary_latin_quotes"> <img src="images/Punctuation-At-Latin-Boundary-Latin-Quotes.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Latin text enclosed with Latin weight quotes.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <figure id="punctuation_at_latin_boundary_ethiopic_quotes"> <img src="images/Punctuation-At-Latin-Boundary-Ethiopic-Quotes.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Latin text enclosed with Ethiopic weight quotes.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>As a rule within the embedded foreign script, the weight of punctuation and other symbols (numbers, etc) should be in keeping
         with the weight of the foreign text and not that of the surrounding Ethiopic.</p>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What do stakeholders feel should be the default weight for enclosing punctuation?</li>
          <li>Would preferences change if Ethiopic wordspace were applied in the samples?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="ethiopic_wordspace_at_latin_boundaries">
      <h4>Ethiopic Wordspace Alongside Other Punctuation And Line Breaks</h4>
      <p>It modern literature where punctuation may be borrowed from Western writing, inconsistent formatting practices are found with respect to the presence of Ethiopic Wordspace (<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>) alongside borrowed punctuation. It is helpful to establish rules for Ethiopic Wordspace in the presence of other symbols so that software grammar and formatting checkers can offer corrections leading to better quality and more consistent literature. The following rules are proposed:</p>

       <ul>
         <li>A letter or number may border either side of Ethiopic Wordspace.</li>
         <li>Ethiopic Wordspace may appear before, but not after, an opening punctuation, such as: ( , [ , { ,  &laquo; , &lsaquo; , &ldquo; .</li>
         <li>Ethiopic Wordspace may appear after, but not before, an closing punctuation, such as: ) , ] , } , &raquo; , &rsaquo; , &rdquo; .<br/>

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<em>Example:</em><br/>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Incorrect: <span lang="am">&hellip; &#4933;&#4939;&#4725;&#4961;(&#4933;&#4941;&#4819;&#4725;&#4961;)&#4961;&#4776;&#4632;&#4961;&#4778;&#4848;&#4720;&#4961;&#4757;&#4661;&#4653;&#4961;(&#4773;&#4757;&#4848;&#4961;&#4768;&#4638;&#4651;&#4961;&#4936;&#4899;&#4757;&#4961;)&#4962;</span><br/>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <span lang="am">&hellip; &#4933;&#4939;&#4725;&#4961;(&#4933;&#4941;&#4819;&#4725;&#4961;)&#4776;&#4632;&#4961;&#4778;&#4848;&#4720;&#4961;&#4757;&#4661;&#4653;&#4961;(&#4773;&#4757;&#4848;&#4961;&#4768;&#4638;&#4651;&#4961;&#4936;&#4899;&#4757;&#4961;)&#4962;</span><br/>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Correct: <span lang="am">&hellip; &#4933;&#4939;&#4725;&#4961;(&#4933;&#4941;&#4819;&#4725;)&#4961;&#4776;&#4632;&#4961;&#4778;&#4848;&#4720;&#4961;&#4757;&#4661;&#4653;&#4961;(&#4773;&#4757;&#4848;&#4961;&#4768;&#4638;&#4651;&#4961;&#4936;&#4899;&#4757;)&#4962;</span><br/>
         </li>
         <li>No other punctuation may border Ethiopic Wordspace.</li>
         <li>A new line may follow, but not precede, an Ethiopic Wordspace (a wordspace may not start a new line).</li>
         <li>Whitespace may not follow or precede an Ethiopic Wordspace (note, this does not include stretchable space used in line justification).</li>
         <li>An Ethiopic Wordspace followed by another Ethiopic Wordspace must be interpreted as an Ethiopic Full Stop (<span lang="am">&#4962;</span>).</li>
       </ul>
       <div class="issues">
         <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
         <ol>
           <li>Are the above rules valid?</li>
         </ol>
        </div>
    </section>

    <section id="space_wordspace_substitution_rules">
      <h4>Space-Wordspace Substitution Rules</h4>
      <p>Rules are presented here to aid layout software that would offer the functionality of space symbol conversion to and from Ethiopic wordspaces.
         This functionality is desirable in a viewer application (e.g. web browser, eBook reader) to make the same
         substitution as per a user preference.  Thus the user would be able to read a document with Ethiopic wordspaces that
         was composed and delivered with white space. Likewise in the reverse, a user who preferred white space could have their preference
         supported in a document that encodes Ethiopic wordspaces only. Similarly, this functionality would be useful to users of an editor application.</p>
      <p class="issues">[TBD: Test cases should be developed to validate these rules. Apply screenshots of test cases to help illustrate the requirement that a rule addresses.]</p>
      <p><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><strong>Space to Wordspace Transformation Rules</strong></span></p>
      <ol>
        <li>White space symbols other than space (U+0020) are not processed. <span  class="issues">Issue: how should non-breaking-space be handled?</span></li>
        <li>Space(s) at the start of a line are assumed to be there for positioning and are not processed.</li>
        <li>A sequence of one or more spaces is treated as a single space.</li>
        <li>Space(s) are substituted for wordspace when bounded by letters, or between a letter and number.</li>
        <li>Space(s) are substituted for wordspace before or after enclosing punctuation as per the convention applied in <a href="#ethiopic_wordspace_at_latin_boundaries">Ethiopic Wordspace Alongside Other Punctuation and Line Breaks</a>.</li>
        <li>Space(s) before or after non-enclosing punctuation are removed.</li>
        <!-- li>Space(s) before or after quotation marks are removed.</li  I don't think a special rule is needed for quotation marks. -->
        <li>Space(s) bounded by non-Ethiopic numbers are not processed.</li>
        <li>A wordspace will be appended to the end of line (a line ending with a hard return) that does not end with punctuation.</li>
      </ol>
      <p><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><strong>Wordspace to Space Transformation Rules</strong></span></p>
      <ol>
        <li>A sequence of more than two wordspaces is not converted as the author&rsquo;s intent is indeterminate.</li>
        <li>A sequence of exactly two wordspaces is converted to an <span class="uname">ETHIOPIC FULLSTOP</span> (U+1362).<br/><em>Note: This conversion is suggested as an auto-correct feature.</em></li>
        <li>A sequence of exactly one wordspace is convert to space.</li>
        <li>A wordspace at the end of a line may be removed.</li>
        <!--
  general wordspace rules for consideration, or not, review later:
          <li>A wordspace may not start a line.</li>
          <li>A wordpsace may not start a sentence.</li>
          <li>Wordspace follows letters and numbers only. Conversly: a wordspace may not follow another punctuation or spacing symbol.</li>
-->
      </ol>
      <p>An additional wordspace conversion rule that is independent of the above space-wordspace substitution rules: Very commonly in Ethiopic documents
         a sequence of two wordspaces are found and may be substituted for Ethiopic fullstop. This may be considered a defect correction rule.</p>
    </section>

    <section id="ethiopic_gemination_mark_positioning">
      <h4>Ethiopic Gemination Mark <span lang="am">(&#4901;&#4709;&#4677;)</span> Vertical Positioning</h4>
      <p>The Ethiopic gemination mark, <span lang="am">&#4901;&#4709;&#4677;</span>, is almost universally found at a fixed height above the baseline in typeset literature. The mark&rsquo;s position must
         then be fixed so that it remains above the tallest Ethiopic letter symbol; this produces a variable height gap between the top of the letter and the mark.
         Conversely, when the symbol is hand written (often above typeset text) the mark will be found at a variable height above the baseline and demonstrating
         a fixed height above the letter symbol.
         Quite possibly the former style is an artifact of a limitation of the layout technology employed, and the later representative of an author&rsquo;s
         desired rendering.</p>
      <figure id="gemination_heights_comparison"> <img src="images/gemination-heights-comparison.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Two gemination styles compared: typical printed (above) and handwritten (below).</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What do stakeholders feel should be the default positioning style (fixed, floating)?</li>
          <li>The same rules apply to the <span class="uname">ETHIOPIC COMBINING VOWEL LENGTH MARK</span> (U+135E) and <span class="uname">ETHIOPIC COMBINING GEMINATION AND VOWEL LENGTH MARK</span> (U+135D). Stakeholders here (current or past) should be identified.</li>
          <li>OpenType shaping logic may be sufficient to handle the issue.  Thus a specification here might only be utilized by font implementations.</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="parenthetical_expressions">
      <h4>Parenthetical Expressions</h4>
      <p>Parenthetical expressions are found regularly in modern Ethiopic writing and will apply any of the enclosing symbol pairs:
        // , () and [].</p>
      <figure id="kwk_metsehafe_sewasew_page_65_inner_parenthesis"> <img src="images/kwk-mashafa-sawasew-page-65-inner-parenthesis-one-line.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>A practical example of inner parenthesis found in <cite>Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa Saw&#257;sew Wages Wamazgaba Q&#257;l&#257;t Hadis</cite> by Kidane Wolde Kifle.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What are the preferred parenthetical enclosing symbol pairs for modern writing?</li>
          <li>Do special rules apply for inner expressions?</li>
          <li>Do copy editors or publishers set a policy for parenthesis symbols, or leave it up to the author to decide?</li>
          <li>Of interest: when are parenthesis first found in Ethiopic writing and in what form?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="quotation">
      <h4>Quotation</h4>
      <p>Classical Ethiopic literature applying quotation marks will employ double guillemet (&laquo; &raquo;) in a primary style and single
         guillemets (&lsaquo; &rsaquo;) in a secondary style. Single guillemets will be used for inner-quotation and single word quotation.
         Modern Ethiopic writing will additionally utilize Latin quotation marks similarly (&ldquo; &rdquo; &lsquo; &rsquo;, U+201C, U+201D, U+2018, U+2019). 
         The choice of Latin script quotation may represent either an author preference or a software limitation that made guillemets
         unavailable or difficult to access.</p>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What are the preferred quotation marks for modern Ethiopic literature?</li>
          <li>Is the single quotation mark usage statement correct?</li>
          <li>Do any other rules apply to quotation usage in Ethiopic writing?</li>
          <li>Do copy editors or publishers set a policy for quotation mark choice, or leave it up to the author to decide?</li>
          <li>Do the same rules apply for Ethiopic wordspace surrounding a closing quotation mark as with a closing parenthesis?</li>
          <li>Of interest: When are quotation marks first found in Ethiopic writing and in what form?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="ellipsis">
      <h4>Ellipsis</h4>
      <p>Both punctuation-baseline and raised ellipses are found in Ethiopic literature. In Ethiopic publishing ellipsis may have anywhere from 3 to 6 dots used regularly.  The presence of one style over the other may simply be an artifact of the publishing technology and not necessarily in line with the publisher's preference.</p>
      <figure id="paulos_ngongo_atsie_menilik_page_113"> <img src="images/raised-ellipsis.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Example of a raised 4-dot ellipsis found in Atsie Menilik by Paulos Ngongo.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>How many dots should be in an ellipsis?</li>
          <li>Which ellipsis form is preferred as the default?</li>
          <li>How much spacing between dots is desirable?</li>
          <li>Are square dots preferable over circular?</li>
          <li>What spacing (if any) before and after the dots?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>
    </section>

    <section id="ethiopic_word_boundaries">
      <h3>Word Boundaries</h3>
      <p><em>Discuss: Do regular rules apply?  One consideration for Ethiopic would be that a newline is not a dependable word boundary
         in the common case where words are split across lines without a hyphen symbol and white space is the default wordspace.
         Word boundaries are known here only by context.</em></p>
         <p class="issues">Discuss: The special case with wordspace sticking to a word leading to the mouse text selection rule that a following wordspace should be automatically selected with text, analogous to the rule applied to white space. MS Word does this.</p>
    </section>

    <section id="ethiopic_wordspace_format">
      <h3>Formatting of Ethiopic Wordspace</h3>

      <section id="ethiopic_whitespace_rules">
        <h4>Rules of Applying Whitespace in Ethiopic Text</h4>
        <p>When Ethiopic Wordspace (<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>) is used to separate words, there may still be some valid application for white space &ldquo; &rdquo;. White space is permissible to support the following formatting needs:</p>
        <ul>
          <li>Indentation.</li>
          <li>Following a counter suffix.</li>
          <li>Within a numeric sequence, like a phone number.</li>
          <li>Within a date format (sometimes, not always).</li>
          <li>Within a scripture reference (sometimes not always).</li>
          <li>Before and following quotation marks.</li>
          <li>Following an ellipsis (?).</li>
          <li>Within a block of embedded foreign script.</li>
        </ul>
        <p><em>[TBD: Image samples needed]</em></p>
        <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>Are the above rules valid?</li>
            <li>For the above cases where white space is valid, can the spacing width rules applied for Latin text be applied for Ethiopic?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      </section>
    </section>

    <section id="numbers">
      <h3>Numbers</h3>
      <section id="ethiopic_numeral_bars">
        <h4>Ethiopic Numeral Bars</h4>
        <p>Sequences of Ethiopic numerals, such as years and page numbers, may be written in one of two styles.  In the most common style in modern literature
           the numerals are written as discrete, independent, symbols.  In a second &ldquo;joining&rdquo; style of writing, primarily found in calligraphic text and handwriting, the numerals
           may share a common upper and lower bar. Conceivably the joining style went out of favor as it proved more difficult to support in publishing technology. Modern
           preferences should be determined from stakeholders.</p>
        <figure id="isolated_and_joining_numeral_bars"> <img src="images/isolated-and-joining-numeral-bars.png" alt=" " />
          <figcaption>Two numeral styles compared.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>What do stakeholders feel should be the default style (joined, isolated)?</li>
            <li>Do stakeholders want the option for both styles?</li>
            <li>Are there any context rules to determine when a given style is appropriate?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      </section>

      <section id="ethiopic_numeral_vertical_alignment">
        <h4>Ethiopic Numeral Vertical Alignment</h4>
        <p>In the Ethiopic numeral system a single symbol may represent a numeral with an order of magnitude in the power of 0, 1, 2 or 4.
           This feature of the numeral system leads to several potential layout possibilities when numerals are arranged vertically.</p>
        <figure id="numeral_vertical_alignment"> <img src="images/numeral-vertical-alignment.png" alt=" " />
          <figcaption>Four vertical alignments compared.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>Are the vertical alignment rules of Roman or Coptic numerals appropriate (and what are they)?</li>
            <li>In what layout context is right justification appropriate?</li>
            <li>In what layout context is decimal place justification appropriate?</li>
            <li>In what layout context is left justification appropriate?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      </section>

      <section id="ethiopic_ordinal_notation">
        <h4>Ordinal Notation</h4>
        <p>An ordinal is formed in Amharic when &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4763;</span>&rdquo;, and in Tigrinya when &ldquo;<span lang="ti">&#4845;</span>&rdquo;, follows a cardinal number.
           The ordinal marker is often, but not always, rendered in superscript form. The superscript practice is most prevalent with ordinals
           in western numerals, but is also applied with Ethiopic numerals.</p>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>What letters should be superscripted, and it what contexts? For example, &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4659;</span>&rdquo; and &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4709;&#4653;</span>&rdquo; may also be superscripted in
                presentation of prices but is not common in print (found mostly in store front advertising).</li>
            <li> Are ordinals always superscripted, or is superscript language or locale specific? Should superscript for ordinals be a setting?</li>
            <li>An argument goes that superscript of &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4763;</span>&rdquo; should not follow an Ethiopic numerals since the counting system is put into a Ge&rsquo;ez context
                and Ge&rsquo;ez literature does not use a superscript.  Yet &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4763;</span>&rdquo; is appropriate to Amharic language and is not a letter found in Ge&rsquo;ez. The class of
                literature may be at issue here, such a religious materials.</li>
            <li>What should the height (in percentage) of the superscripted symbol be with respect to the base text?</li>
            <li>How should the superscripted symbol be aligned vertically with the base text?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      </section>
    </section>

    <section id="h_emphasis">
      <h3>Emphasis</h3>
      <p>Classical Ethiopic writing does not feature a letter shape stylistic change to communicate word emphasis. In religious works, the color red will be used to emphasize a spiritual aspect of a word in a passage (i.e. &ldquo;rubricate&rdquo;).</p>
      <p>Emphasis in modern Ethiopic writing will employ every emphasis device available from the available publishing technology (e.g. underline, slant, embolden, letter size, letter outline, background shapes, etc.). The practice however is idiosyncratic and inconsistently applied leading to debate and disagreement within the publishing community.</p>
      <p>The following subsections present a proposed best practice of the authors.</p>
      <section id="emphasis_within_prose">
        <h4>Emphasis Within Prose</h4>
        <!-- p>Within a paragraph, a reference to a book title, or section title is given in italic. Words may also be emboldened to emphasize importance.</p -->
        <p> Italic applied to Ethiopic has been experiment with since the arrival of desktop publishing. Earlier in the 20th century, a typeface change to a pre-20th century style would be applied in place of italic. Underlined text was introduced to Ethiopic publishing in the earlier 20th century and was well established by mid-century. It is not uncommon to find the underline &ldquo;Ethiopicized&rdquo; whereby the weight is made heavier to correspond with the greater weight of Ethiopic letters relative to Western weights.</p>
        <figure id="mekonnen_zewdie_yemaychew_qwulegna_page_56"> <img src="images/heavy-underline-example.png" alt=" " />
          <figcaption>Heavier underline weight found in <cite>YeMaychew Qwuslegna</cite> by Mekonnen Zewdie.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <figure id="kwk_metsehafe_sewasew_page_268"> <img src="images/kwk-mashafa-sawasew-page-268-typeface-change-for-emphasis.jpg" alt=" " />
          <figcaption>Typeface change for emphasis found in <cite>Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa Saw&#257;sew Wages Wamazgaba Q&#257;l&#257;t Hadis</cite> by Kidane Wolde Kifle.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <figure id="kwk_mezgebe_fidel_page_43"> <img src="images/kwk-mezgebe-fidel-page-43-font-size-increase-for-emphasis.png" alt=" " />
          <figcaption>Typeface size change for emphasis found in <cite>Mazgaba Fidal</cite> by Kidane Wolde Kifle.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>How much slant when an italic designed typeface is not available? 10% is suggested.</li>
            <li>Should the underline of Ethiopic text use a weight that is proportionally heavier (with respect to the text), or apply only the weight of the word processor?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
    <!--
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          transform: scale(1) rotate(0deg) translate(0px, 0px) skew(15deg, 0deg);">&#4621;&#4841;</span>
         <span style="-moz-transform: scale(1) rotate(0deg) translate(0px, 0px) skew(20, 0deg);
         -webkit-transform: scale(1) rotate(0deg) translate(0px, 0px) skew(20, 0deg);
         -o-transform: scale(1) rotate(0deg) translate(0px, 0px) skew(20, 0deg);
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          transform: scale(1) rotate(0deg) translate(0px, 0px) skew(20, 0deg);">&#4621;&#4841;</span>
      </p>
-->
      </section>

      <section id="ecclesiastical_emphasis">
        <h4>Ecclesiastical Emphasis</h4>
        <p>In religious literature, certain words or phrases with a spiritual or more holy aspect may be rubricated (inked in red).  The practice is context dependent and a word rubricated in one sentence may not be in the next (or elsewhere in the same sentence).</p>
        <figure id="ecclesiastical_emphasis_sample"> <img src="images/ecclesiastical-emphasis-sample-cropped.jpg" alt=" " width="600"/>
          <figcaption>Ecclesiastical emphasis sample from Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa &#7778;alot Mes Ser&rsquo;ate Kiddase Betegre&ntilde;&ntilde;&#257;, Page 32 (Woldemariam, 1995 (1988 EC))</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>What shade of red?</li>
            <li>What is the preferred substitute for red when only monochrome publishing is available?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      </section>

      <section id="emphasis_with_wordspace">
        <h4>Emphasis With Ethiopic Wordspace</h4>
        <p>As a rule, a wordspace following a word that is emphasized in some way (color, bold, italic, underline, etc.) shall receive the same emphasis. This is in keeping with the Ge&rsquo;ez literature tradition.</p>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>Does this rule make aesthetic sense in full justification with wordspace in centered positioning style? In Ge&rsquo;ez manuscripts no issue arises since little or no white space appears between the wordspace and boundary words.  The elastic space around wordspace may stretch considerably in typeset documents, under justification, where continuation of the emphasis may appear peculiar after some stretching threshold width.</li>
            <li>Related: Does word emphasis include a following punctuation?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      </section>

    </section>

  <section id="ethiopic_abbreviation_formation">
    <h3>Abbreviation Formation</h3>
    <p>Abbreviations in Ethiopic languages will apply an abbreviation marker ("/" or ".") placed between the first letters of each word in a phrase.
       In a multi-word abbreviation, the last word may sometimes remain whole. Abbreviation of a single word will keep the first and final letters of the word separated by slash &ldquo;/&rdquo;.
       Classical literature that uses the Ethiopic Wordspace may not use an abbreviation marker and instead will rely on the Ethiopic Wordspace to separate initial letter abbreviations
       that will be understood from context: (e.g. <span lang="am">&#4819;&#4632;&#4720;&#4961;&#4637;&#4629;&#4648;&#4725;&#4961;</span> &rArr; <span lang="am">&#4819;&#4961;&#4637;&#4961;</span>).
       </p>
    <!-- 
       Single word abbreviation that applies a right side truncation (vs mid) will apply a "." as the abbreviation maker.
       In a multi-word abbreviations the last word may remain whole. Two letter words are only abbreviated in a multi-word abbreviation.
     -->
    <p><strong>Examples:</strong><br/>
       <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Single Word</span><br/>
       <span lang="am" style="margin-left:40px;"> &#4634;&#4754;&#4661;&#4725;&#4653; &rArr; &#4634;/&#4653;</span><br/>
       <span lang="am" style="margin-left:40px;"> &#4614;&#4661;&#4946;&#4723;&#4621; &rArr; &#4614;/&#4621;</span><br/>
       <span lang="am" style="text-decoration: underline;">Multi Word</span><br/>
       <span lang="am" style="margin-left:40px;"> &#4896;&#4677;&#4619;&#4845; &#4634;&#4754;&#4661;&#4725;&#4653; &rArr; &#4896;/&#4634;/&#4653;</span><br/>
       <span lang="am" style="margin-left:40px;"> &#4770;&#4725;&#4846;&#4917;&#4843; &#4774;&#4653;&#4726;&#4854;&#4781;&#4661; &#4720;&#4811;&#4629;&#4854; &#4708;&#4720; &#4781;&#4653;&#4661;&#4722;&#4843;&#4757; &rArr; &#4770;/&#4774;/&#4720;/&#4708;/&#4781;</span></p>

    <div class="issues">
      <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
      <ol>
        <li>When &ldquo;.&rdquo; is used as the abbreviation marker, it is sometimes found at the end of the abbreviation.</li>
        <li>Confirm single word abbreviation rule.</li>
        <li>Are mixed abbreviation markers appropriate? Some well-established abbreviations apply a &ldquo;.&rdquo; as the marker, for example
            &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707; &#4841;&#4754;&#4712;&#4653;&#4658;&#4722;</span>&rdquo; becomes &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4768;.&#4768;.&#4841;</span>&rdquo;.  This may reflect the chosen convention of the institute.</li>
        <li>What symbol is applied for foreign words transcribed into an Ethiopic languages?</li>
        <li>Do copy editors or publishers set a policy for abbreviation, or leave it up to the author to decide?</li>
        <li>Of interest: when are abbreviations first found in Ethiopic writing and in what form?</li>
      </ol>
    </div>
    <!-- An extreme example with 11 levels: &#4704;&#4770;/&#4774;/&#4720;/&#4708;/&#4781;/&#4656;/&#4725;/&#4708;/&#4635;/&#4632;/&#4635;&#4741;&#4704;&#4648; &#4677;&#4849;&#4659;&#4757;  via http://eotcmk.org/site/component/contact/?task=view&contact_id=1 -->
  </section>

  <section id="kerning_pairs_and_ligatures">
    <h3>Letter Spacing</h3>
    <p>Any number of kerning pairs and ligatures are possible for Ethiopic typography that would lead to better visual quality of printed literature. While beyond the present scope of this task force, raising the topic with stakeholders to gauge the level of interest would be beneficial to help set the direction of future work.</p>
    <p>An assumption here is that ligatures are only relevant to the reproduction of calligraphical manuscripts and not a requirement of modern literature.</p>

      <figure id="kerning_examples"> <img src="images/Kerning-Examples.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Examples of Common Words With and Without Kerning Applied</figcaption>
      </figure>

      <figure id="ligature_examples"> <img src="images/Ligature-Examples.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Examples of Common Ligatures found in Calligraphical Manuscripts</figcaption>
      </figure>

    <div class="issues">
      <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
      <ol>
        <li>Is defining kerning pairs of interest to your organization?</li>
        <li>Is defining ligatures of interest to your organization?</li>
      </ol>
    </div>
  </section>

  </section>


  <section id="lines_and_paragraphs">
    <h2>Lines &amp; Paragraphs</h2>
    <!-- Discuss: Line composition rules, Punctuations, Mixed script text, Paragraph adjustment, Directionality and bidi, Tab setting, Alignment, Justification, Hyphenation, Word/Sentence boundaries, Special cases (e.g. poetry, math, vertical, etc.)  -->

     <section id="ethiopic_line_breaking">
       <h3>Line Breaking</h3>
       <p>Word processors and text readers such as web browsers, eBook devices, etc. will automatically format the sentences of a paragraph over a number of lines as allowable by the available width of the viewing area.  These software systems apply formatting rules that govern where and how a line may end and a new line begin.  Line breaking rules for Ethiopic are expressed with rules for how a line may start. A line may start with:</p>
       <ul>
         <li>A letter.</li>
         <li>A number.</li>
         <li>A tab.</li>
         <li>A non-terminal or non-joining punctuation (such as  &laquo; &lsaquo; &ldquo; $ ( [ { ). Conversely, may not start with a terminal or joining punctuation (such as: ? ! &iexcl; <span lang="am">&#4962;</span>) ] } / % &ndash; &rdquo; &rsaquo; &raquo; <span lang="am">&#4961; &#4963; &#4964; &#4965; &#4966;</span> space, math operators)</li>
       </ul>
       <div class="issues">
       <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
         <ol>
           <li>Are the above rules valid?</li>
           <li>Are any additional rules needed to govern how a line may end or begin?</li>
         </ol>
       </div>
     </section>

     <section id="ethiopic_hyphenation">
       <h3>Hyphenation</h3>
       <p>In classical Ethiopic writing the wordspace separator symbol (<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>) negated the need for word hyphenation across a line of text. Accordingly, a word could be split over across a line at any position. When wordspace fell out of favor in modern writing the practice of splitting a word across lines of text continued without change.  The reader would know to mentally reconstruct a word by relying on knowledge of lexicon and context.  The scanned document samples within this report illustrate word splitting across lines both in the presence of wordspace and without.</p>
       <div class="issues">
         <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
         <ol>
           <li>When wordspace, &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>&rdquo;, is used, what rules for splitting a word across lines apply?</li>
           <li>When space is used, should Ethiopic writing use a hyphen &ldquo;&#8208;&rdquo; to split words across lines?</li>
           <li>When space is used, and if words should be split across lines (with or without a hyphen), are the following rules for word splitting suitable?
             <ul>
               <li>Words are split at a morpheme boundary, for example: <span lang="am">&#4708;&#4720;&#8208;<br/>&#4632;&#4757;&#4877;&#4645;&#4725;</span> . </li>
               <li>Words are split along a syllable boundary.</li>
               <li>Words of a single syllable are not split over lines.</li>
               <li>Words are split after a prefix.</li>
               <li>Words are split before a suffix.</li>
               <li>Numbers are not split over lines.</li>
               <li>Words of two letters are not split over lines.</li>
             </ul>
           </li>
         </ol>
       </div>
     </section>

  <section id="ethiopic_justification">
    <h3>Justification</h3>
    <section id="justification_with_space">
      <h4>Justification When SPACE is the Word Delimiter</h4>
      <p>When space (U+0020) is used as the word separator in Ethiopic text, the line spacing rules applicable to western text may be applied to meet user expectations.</p>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Is the above assessment correct? Are there any special justification formatting considerations when SPACE is used with Ethiopic text?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="justification_with_wordspace">
      <h4>Justification When ETHIOPIC WORDSPACE is the Word Delimiter</h4>
      <p>Since the arrival of the printing press in Ethiopia in 1863 (Pankhurst, 1998), full justification of Ethiopic has been a common typesetting practice in Ethiopian, and later Eritrean, publishing houses. Earlier, Ethiopic justification rules are a feature of Hiob Ludolf&rsquo;s Historia &AElig;thiopica, which is noted as the first use of movable type for Ethiopic script (Ludolf, 1681). Prior to letterpress typography, calligraphic manuscripts rendered on parchment also featured full, or approximately full, justification. Though the latter likely reflects the scribe&rsquo;s desire not to waste a millimeter of available lateral writing space.</p>
      <p>The placement of Ethiopic wordspace presents a complication to the justification of Ethiopic text. Two placement styles developed in typeset
        literature which will be referred to here as &ldquo;word bound&rdquo; and &ldquo;centered&rdquo; styles. Additionally, the word spacing following an Ethiopic fullstop
        may (or may not) be governed by a special rule and in combination with the two wordspace spacing styles. These spacing rules are discussed in the
        following sections.</p>
      <figure id="justification_in_historia_aethiopica"> <img src="images/justification_in_historia_aethiopica.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Ethiopic Justification in <cite>Historia &AElig;thiopica</cite> (Ludolf, 1681)</figcaption>
      </figure>
    </section>

    <section id="justification_with_word_bound_wordspace">
      <h5>Justification with Word Bound Wordspace and Punctuation</h5>
      <p>In keeping with line justification for Latin script, the non-printed or &ldquo;blank space&rdquo; (space and gaps) between words is treated as stretchable. The width of the space symbol itself will be elongated to some aesthetic width value that may vary from space symbol to space symbol across a printed line. In Ethiopic justification, the blank space between the Ethiopic word separator and the words it separates is likewise allowed to stretch. This stretching of blank space may be either symmetrical (&ldquo;centered&rdquo;) or asymmetrical but in the latter case space stretching is always between the right-side of the separator and the following word &ndash;referred to here as &ldquo;word bound&rdquo;. </p>
      <p>In  &ldquo;word bound&rdquo;  justification  the  word  separator,   which  may  be  either  a  punctuation  symbol  or <span class="uname">U+1361 ETHIOPIC WORDSPACE</span> [<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>], appears to adhere to the word to the left as if it were its final character. Figures <a href="#justification_word_bound"></a> and <a href="#justification_in_historia_aethiopica"></a> both illustrate the word bound style.</p>
      <figure id="justification_word_bound"> <img src="images/corpus-samples/Ografi-Page-35-Cropped.png" alt=" " width="800" height="223" />
        <figcaption>Ethiopic justification in word bound style (Erikson, 1921 (1913 EC))</figcaption>
      </figure>
    </section>

    <section id="justification_with_centered_wordspace">
      <h5>Justification with Centered Wordspace and Punctuation</h5>
      <p>In the second major form of Ethiopic justification the blank space around word separators is stretched equally on both the left and right sides; giving the appearance of the separator being centered between the words it divides. <a href="#fig_justification_centered"></a> depicts the "centered wordspace" justification style, which applies equally for other punctuation.</p>
      <figure id="fig_justification_centered"> <img src="images/corpus-samples/Alweledim-Page-87-Cropped.png" alt=" " width="800" height="443" />
        <figcaption>Ethiopic justification in centered style (Gubenya, 1973 (1966 EC)).</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>To further illustrate the justification spacing applied to both Ethiopic punctuation and wordspace, <a href="#fig_white_space_round_wordspace"></a> presents blank space stretching from the point of view of the symbol&rsquo;s typographic bounding box. Here the &ldquo;design blank space&rdquo;, the space between the visible symbol and the box border, is itself stretched as needed to meet line justification: </p>
      <figure id="fig_white_space_round_wordspace"> <img src="images/white_space_round_wordspace.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption> Depiction of blank space around Ethiopic wordspace for three modes of text justification.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Which spacing style should be the default used by applications?</li>
          <li>Do stakeholders have names or use-cases for these different wordspace formatting styles?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="spacing_threshold_following_full_stop">
      <h5>Spacing Threshold Following Full Stop</h5>
      <p>In the regular mode of Ethiopic justification (both forms), <span class="uname">U+1362 ETHIOPIC FULL STOP</span> [<span lang="am">&#4962;</span>], will be treated equally with all other punctuation symbols.  In a second mode, the Ethiopic full stop will have special spacing rules applied to it whereby more separation space is allowed following the symbol and the start of the next word.  In a sense, the right side space of the full stop is &ldquo;more elastic&rdquo; than in the regular mode.  The elasticity rule and the visual effect are similar to that of the final line of a fully justified paragraph in Western text.  When the final line of a paragraph of Latin script crosses a certain horizontal threshold, the line will become fully justified. Below that threshold the line will appear left aligned.  The same rule appears to be applied to the Ethiopic full stop but on any line of the paragraph.  An illustration of this sub-mode is depicted in the following: </p>
      <figure id="kwk_metsehafe_sewasew_page_159"> <img src="images/corpus-samples/KWK-Page-159-Cropped.png" alt=" " width="800" height="297" />
        <figcaption>Justification Sample from  Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa Saw&#257;sew, Page 159 (Kifle, 1955 (1948 EC))</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
         <li>Does the additional spacing after fullstop apply to other Ethiopic punctuation?  Additional spacing is also seen in the above sample following ETHIOPIC SEMICOLON.</li>
         <li>Is additional spacing after punctuation desirable by current day publishers?  If so, how much space and for which punctuation symbols?</li>
       </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="shorcomings_in_electronic_typesetting">
      <h5>Shortcomings Found in Electronic Typesetting Systems</h5>
      <p>To date, computer software that typesets text has applied justification rules for blank space stretching that were designed to meet publishing requirements in the Western world. When the same rules are applied to Ethiopic text, the results are unsatisfactory as they do not meet user expectations. Largely responsible for the formatting dissonance when Western justification is applied to Ethiopic text, is the absence of a white space symbol in the writing system. There is no explicit white space symbol (in classic Ethiopic writing) to be &ldquo;stretched&rdquo;.</p>
       <p>Formatting algorithms will then process <span class="uname">U+1361 ETHIOPIC WORDSPACE</span> [<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>] as a punctuation symbol where word enclosing rules, rather than word spacing rules, will be applied. While still stretchable, &ldquo;white space&rdquo; in the Ethiopic wordspace is implicit rather than explicit. For a complete solution, software will ultimately need to be enhanced to stretch implicit space as required. Reclassifying the Ethiopic wordspace as a &ldquo;Zs&rdquo; symbol is expected to help alleviate justification issues and clears the way for software firms to implement comprehensive support for Ethiopic justification. Since the Ethiopic wordspace interferes with justification in present day software, authors may opt not to use it or may &ldquo;pad&rdquo; wordspace and Ethiopic punctuation with explicit white space to produce the desired justification style (i.e. <a href="#justification_with_word_bound_wordspace">Word Bound</a> or <a href="#justification_with_centered_wordspace">Centered</a>). To properly render text formatted in this way, future &ldquo;wordspace aware&rdquo; software, should elide spaces bordering Ethiopic wordspace and punctuation when producing justified text.</p>
      <p>The following samples depict formatting of Kidane Wolde Kifle&rsquo;s seminal work <cite>Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa Saw&#257;sew</cite> with a popular word processor (Kifle, 1955 (1948 EC)) under the limitations of Western spacing rules justification.</p>
      <figure id="kwk_metsehafe_sewasew_page_65"> <img src="images/corpus-samples/KWK-Page-65-Cropped.png" alt=" " width="800" height="297" />
        <figcaption>Full Justification Sample from Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa Saw&#257;sew, Page 65 (Kifle, 1955 (1948 EC))</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <figure id="msword_justification_with_wordsapce"> <img src="images/justification_sample_with_12pt.png" alt=" " width="806"/>
        <figcaption>The sample from the previous figure with a 12 point  font and fully justified by Microsoft Word 2010 within a 6.5 inch margin  with line-breaking rules applied. No spaces (U+0020) in sample. </figcaption>
      </figure>
      <figure id="msword_justification_with_sapce"> <img src="images/justification_sample_with_spaces.png" alt=" " width="806"/>
        <figcaption>The sample from the earlier figure  with space (U+0020) replacing Ethiopic wordspace. Space characters  have additionally  been added following Ethiopic punctuation. </figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>In digital documents such as in web pages and eBooks, it is recommended that the appearance of either <span class="uname">U+0020 SPACE</span> [ ] or <span class="uname">U+1361 ETHIOPIC WORDSPACE</span> [<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>] be configurable as a user preference. An easy to access &ldquo;space&rdquo; toggle button would enhance a viewing application&rsquo;s usability.</p>
        </section>
    </section>

    <section id="first_paragraph">
      <h3>First Paragraph Rule</h3>
      <p>Paragraph indentation is a regular practice in Ethiopic publishing, and not common in hand written manuscripts where a Hareg (<span lang="am">&#4624;&#4648;&#4877;</span>) or Mekfel (<span lang="am">&#4632;&#4781;&#4936;&#4621;</span>)
         will be used instead. Some Western publishers will apply a special rule whereby the first paragraph of a section is not indented. The same
         rule can be found applied in Ethiopic publications; however, the adoption appears to be limited.</p>
      <!-- Note that &#4621;&#4869;&#4752;&#4725; &#4720;&#4632;&#4621;&#4662; &#4768;&#4845;&#4632;&#4899;&#4637; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4982;&#4977; provides examples of no-indent-at-start-of-section -->
      <div class="issues">
      <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>How much should a paragraph be indented?</li>
          <li>Should the first paragraph of a section be indented?</li>
          <li>Should a new paragraph be indented following a list?</li>
          <li>Are there any other special rules for when to, or not to, indent a paragraph?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="lists_and_counters">
    <h3>Lists and Counters</h3>
    <section id="bullet_lists">
        <h4>Bullet Lists</h4>
        <p>Bullet lists are utilized regularly in Ethiopic literature. Authors using a computer or typewriter will work with the list marker
           symbols made available by their software or machine. Many marker, or &ldquo;bullet&rdquo;, symbols are accepted for Ethiopic literature though
           not all will be considered optimal. Some creative writers have even recently applied <span lang="am">&#4968;</span> and <span lang="am">&#4960;</span>
           (U+1368 <span class="uname">ETHIOPIC PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR</span> and U+1360 <span class="uname">ETHIOPIC SECTION MARK</span> respectively)
           as list bullets.  The following samples compare common bullet shapes and sizes with example lists:</p>
        <figure id="circle_bullet_size_samples"> <img src="images/circle-bullet-size-samples.png" alt=""/>
          <figcaption>Circle bullet size relative to letter height.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <figure id="square_bullet_size_samples"> <img src="images/square-bullet-size-samples.png" alt=""/>
          <figcaption>Square bullet size relative to letter height.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <figure id="inline_list_with_spaces"> <img src="images/diamond-bullet-size-samples.png" alt=""/>
          <figcaption>Diamond bullet size relative to letter height.</figcaption>
        </figure>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>What are the preferred bullet shapes?</li>
            <li>Should <span lang="am">&#4968;</span> and <span lang="am">&#4960;</span> be available as bullet choices?</li>
            <li>What are the preferred shape sequences in nested lists (e.g. bullet hierarchy)?</li>
            <li>What is bullet height and width relative to letter dimensions?</li>
            <li>What is the default distance of the list item text from the bullet?</li>
            <li>Are lists indented (left  margin)? If so, how much?</li>
            <li>Examples are needed for pre-digital, classical, literature.</li>
            <li>Diamond shaped bullets are found commonly and may represent a desired default.
                The Unicode standard provides a number of similar diamond shaped symbols.
                From this set of diamond symbols, those suitable for adorning Ethiopic bullet lists must be determined.
            <p style="margin-left: 20px">&#11049; (U+2B29)<br/>
                  &#9670; (U+25C6)<br/>
                  &#11045; (U+2B25)<br/>
                  &#10070; (U+2756)<br/>
                  &diams; (U+2666)</p>
            </li>
            <li>Do copy editors or publishers set a policy for list symbols, or leave it up to the author to decide?</li>
            <li>Of interest: when are bullet lists first found in Ethiopic writing and in what form?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
        <!-- See reference: https://unicode-search.net/unicode-namesearch.pl?term=DIAMOND -->
    </section>

    <section id="counter_suffix">
      <h4>Ordered List Counter Suffix</h4>
      <p>In Ethiopic ordered lists a number of symbols are used for the counter suffix.
         For example: "/" , "<span lang="am">&#4966;</span>" , "." , ")" and even "<span lang="am">&#4961;</span>" (Ethiopic Wordspace).</p>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What are the preferred counter suffix symbols? What is the best default?</li>
          <li>How much, if any, white space follows the suffix? Perhaps the same amount of space as would follow a bullet symbol?</li>
          <li>Do copy editors or publishers set a policy for counter suffix, or leave it up to the author to decide?</li>
          <li>Of interest: when are ordered lists first found in Ethiopic writing and in what form?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="counter_suffix_alignment">
      <h4>Counter Suffix Alignment</h4>
      <p>Ethiopic corpus will present lists with two styles of alignment. These are a left side alignment at the
        list counter, or alignment along the counter suffix. Layout software will align a list at the suffix in
        keeping with the later style.  The former style (left justified at counter) may reflect a limitation of the
        layout technology employed and not a preference of the author, copy editor or typesetter. A depiction of these
        two alignment styles is presented in the following figures:</p>
      <figure id="counter_suffix_left_justified"> <img src="images/list-aligned-on-counter-left.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Alphabetical list aligned justified on counter left.</figcaption>
      </figure>
          <figure id="counter_suffix_marker_justified"> <img src="images/list-aligned-on-suffix.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Alphabetical list aligned on suffix.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What alignment style(s) do stakeholders desire?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="inline_lists">
      <h4>Inline Lists</h4>
      <p>Inlined enumerated lists are commonly found in Ethiopic documents. Inline lists will follow the same sequences as regular lists.  However,
      the spacing after the counter suffix may be different.  Typically a regular keyboard space is observed following the suffix, if any. This
      is most likely a matter of convenience for the author and not necessarily representative of good formatting.</p>

      <figure id="inline_list_with_wordspaces"> <img src="images/inline-list-with-wordspace.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Ethiopic inline list sample using wordspaces with 3 spacings (none, hair and thin) following the counter suffix.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <figure id="inline_list_with_space"> <img src="images/inline-list-with-space.png" alt=""/>
        <figcaption>Ethiopic inline list sample using spaces with 3 spacings (none, hair and thin) following the counter suffix.</figcaption>
      </figure>

      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>How much space (what width) should appear after the counter suffix?</li>
          <li>Is the space after the counter suffix different when Ethiopic wordspace is used?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="numbered_lists">
      <h4>Numbered Lists</h4>
      <p>Ethiopic literature will apply ordered numbered list using both Ethiopic and Western numeral systems. Ethiopic numeral
        lists are addressed in the <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/css-counter-styles-3/#valdef-counter-style-name-ethiopic-numeric">Ethiopic Numeric Counter Style</a> section of the <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/css-counter-styles-3/">CSS Counter Styles Level 3</a> specification.</p>
      <table>
        <tr>
          <th colspan="5">Ethiopic Numeral Lists</th>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am">&#4969;&#4961; ...<br/>&#4970;&#4961; ...<br/>&#4971;&#4961; ...<br/>&#4972;&#4961; ...</td>
          <td lang="am">&#4969;/ ...<br/>&#4970;/ ...<br/>&#4971;/ ...<br/>&#4972;/ ...</td>
          <td lang="am">&#4969;) ...<br/>&#4970;) ...<br/>&#4971;) ...<br/>&#4972;) ...</td>
          <td lang="am">&#4969;. ...<br/>&#4970;. ...<br/>&#4971;. ...<br/>&#4972;. ...</td>
          <td lang="am">&#4969;&#4966; ...<br/>&#4970;&#4966; ...<br/>&#4971;&#4966; ...<br/>&#4972;&#4966; ...</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <th colspan="5">Western Numeral Lists</th>
        </tr>
        <tr>
          <td lang="am">1&#4961; ...<br/>2&#4961; ...<br/>3&#4961; ...<br/>4&#4961; ...</td>
          <td>1/ ...<br/>2/ ...<br/>3/ ...<br/>4/ ...</td>
          <td>1) ...<br/>2) ...<br/>3) ...<br/>4) ...</td>
          <td>1. ...<br/>2. ...<br/>3. ...<br/>4. ...</td>
          <td lang="am">1&#4966; ...<br/>2&#4966; ...<br/>3&#4966; ...<br/>4&#4966; ...</td>
        </tr>
      </table>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What is the counter suffix preference with Ethiopic numbers? Does it depend on language?</li>
          <li>What is the counter suffix preference with Western numbers? Does it depend on language?</li>
          <li>Are there any sublist (nested list) considerations?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="alphabetical_lists">
      <h4>Alphabetical (<span lang="am">&#4608;&#4616;&#4624;&#4632;</span>) Lists</h4>
      <p>The Unicode standard encodes Ethiopic syllables for many languages using Ethiopic script past and present.
         Alphabetic lists are commonplace in Ethiopic literature, but will conform to the letter inventory of the language of the surrounding content.
         The W3C&rsquo;s <a href="https://www.w3.org/International/core/Overview">Internationalization Working Group</a> publishes alphabetical
         counter style code snippets for a <a href="https://w3c.github.io/predefined-counter-styles/#ethiopic-styles">large number of languages using Ethiopic script.</a>
         Many of these lists are believed to be only hypothetical and based upon the letter inventory of the identified languages;
         but may not have been used in practice.  The alphabetical counter styles specified here encompass a smaller collection of languages with a
         demonstrated requirement as found by example in corpus or have come from stakeholder input.</p>
          <table>
            <tr>
              <th>Ge&rsquo;ez</th>
              <th>Amharic</th>
              <th>Blin</th>
              <th>Tigrinya<br/>(Eritrean)</th>
              <th>Tigrinya<br/>(Ethiopian)</th>
            </tr>
            <tr style="padding-left:0px; vertical-align: top;">
              <td><!-- Ge&rsquo;ez -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4608;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4616;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4624;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4632;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4640;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4648;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4656;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4672;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4704;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4720;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4736;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4752;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4768;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4776;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4808;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4816;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4824;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4840;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4848;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4872;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4896;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4912;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4920;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4928;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4936;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4944;&#4966;</li>
                </ul></td>
              <td><!-- Amharic -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4608;/</li>
                  <li>&#4616;/</li>
                  <li>&#4624;/</li>
                  <li>&#4632;/</li>
                  <li>&#4640;/</li>
                  <li>&#4648;/</li>
                  <li>&#4656;/</li>
                  <li>&#4664;/</li>
                  <li>&#4672;/</li>
                  <li>&#4704;/</li>
                  <li>&#4720;/</li>
                  <li>&#4728;/</li>
                  <li>&#4736;/</li>
                  <li>&#4752;/</li>
                  <li>&#4760;/</li>
                  <li>&#4768;/</li>
                  <li>&#4776;/</li>
                  <li>&#4792;/</li>
                  <li>&#4808;/</li>
                  <li>&#4816;/</li>
                  <li>&#4824;/</li>
                  <li>&#4832;/</li>
                  <li>&#4840;/</li>
                  <li>&#4848;/</li>
                  <li>&#4864;/</li>
                  <li>&#4872;/</li>
                  <li>&#4896;/</li>
                  <li>&#4904;/</li>
                  <li>&#4912;/</li>
                  <li>&#4920;/</li>
                  <li>&#4928;/</li>
                  <li>&#4936;/</li>
                  <li>&#4944;/</li>
                </ul></td>
              <td><!-- Blin -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4608;/</li>
                  <li>&#4616;/</li>
                  <li>&#4624;/</li>
                  <li>&#4632;/</li>
                  <li>&#4648;/</li>
                  <li>&#4656;/</li>
                  <li>&#4664;/</li>
                  <li>&#4672;/</li>
                  <li>&#4688;/</li>
                  <li>&#4704;/</li>
                  <li>&#4720;/</li>
                  <li>&#4728;/</li>
                  <li>&#4736;/</li>
                  <li>&#4752;/</li>
                  <li>&#4760;/</li>
                  <li>&#4768;/</li>
                  <li>&#4776;/</li>
                  <li>&#4792;/</li>
                  <li>&#4808;/</li>
                  <li>&#4816;/</li>
                  <li>&#4824;/</li>
                  <li>&#4832;/</li>
                  <li>&#4840;/</li>
                  <li>&#4848;/</li>
                  <li>&#4864;/</li>
                  <li>&#4872;/</li>
                  <li>&#4888;/</li>
                  <li>&#4896;/</li>
                  <li>&#4904;/</li>
                  <li>&#4912;/</li>
                  <li>&#4920;/</li>
                  <li>&#4928;/</li>
                  <li>&#4936;/</li>
                  <li>&#4944;/</li>
                </ul></td>
              <td><!-- Eritrean Tigrinya -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4608;/</li>
                  <li>&#4616;/</li>
                  <li>&#4624;/</li>
                  <li>&#4632;/</li>
                  <li>&#4648;/</li>
                  <li>&#4656;/</li>
                  <li>&#4664;/</li>
                  <li>&#4672;/</li>
                  <li>&#4688;/</li>
                  <li>&#4704;/</li>
                  <li>&#4720;/</li>
                  <li>&#4728;/</li>
                  <li>&#4752;/</li>
                  <li>&#4760;/</li>
                  <li>&#4768;/</li>
                  <li>&#4776;/</li>
                  <li>&#4792;/</li>
                  <li>&#4808;/</li>
                  <li>&#4816;/</li>
                  <li>&#4824;/</li>
                  <li>&#4832;/</li>
                  <li>&#4840;/</li>
                  <li>&#4848;/</li>
                  <li>&#4864;/</li>
                  <li>&#4872;/</li>
                  <li>&#4896;/</li>
                  <li>&#4904;/</li>
                  <li>&#4912;/</li>
                  <li>&#4920;/</li>
                  <li>&#4936;/</li>
                  <li>&#4944;/</li>
                </ul></td>
              <td><!-- Ethiopian Tigrinya -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4608;/</li>
                  <li>&#4616;/</li>
                  <li>&#4624;/</li>
                  <li>&#4632;/</li>
                  <li>&#4640;/</li>
                  <li>&#4648;/</li>
                  <li>&#4656;/</li>
                  <li>&#4664;/</li>
                  <li>&#4672;/</li>
                  <li>&#4688;/</li>
                  <li>&#4704;/</li>
                  <li>&#4720;/</li>
                  <li>&#4728;/</li>
                  <li>&#4736;/</li>
                  <li>&#4752;/</li>
                  <li>&#4760;/</li>
                  <li>&#4768;/</li>
                  <li>&#4776;/</li>
                  <li>&#4792;/</li>
                  <li>&#4808;/</li>
                  <li>&#4816;/</li>
                  <li>&#4824;/</li>
                  <li>&#4832;/</li>
                  <li>&#4840;/</li>
                  <li>&#4848;/</li>
                  <li>&#4864;/</li>
                  <li>&#4872;/</li>
                  <li>&#4896;/</li>
                  <li>&#4904;/</li>
                  <li>&#4912;/</li>
                  <li>&#4920;/</li>
                  <li>&#4928;/</li>
                  <li>&#4936;/</li>
                  <li>&#4944;/</li>
                </ul></td>
            </tr>
      </table>
<!---
     <p>These tables are expressed in the following as per the <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/css-counter-styles-3/">CSS Counter Styles Level 3</a> recommendation.</p>
     <div class="example" id="ethiopic-halehame-gez-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-halehame-gez">ethiopic-halehame-gez<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-halehame-gez"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4608; &#4616; &#4624; &#4632; &#4640; &#4648; &#4656; &#4672; &#4704; &#4720; &#4736; &#4752; &#4768; &#4776; &#4808; &#4816; &#4824; &#4840; &#4848; &#4872; &#4896; &#4912; &#4920; &#4928; &#4936; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "&#4966;&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
          <div class="example" id="ethiopic-halehame-am-et-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-halehame-am-et">ethiopic-halehame-am-et<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-halehame-am-et"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4608; &#4616; &#4624; &#4632; &#4640; &#4648; &#4656; &#4664; &#4672; &#4704; &#4720; &#4728; &#4736; &#4752; &#4760; &#4768; &#4776; &#4792; &#4808; &#4816; &#4824; &#4832; &#4840; &#4848; &#4864; &#4872; &#4896; &#4904; &#4912; &#4920; &#4928; &#4936; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "/&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
          <div class="example" id="ethiopic-halehame-ti-et-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-halehame-ti-et">ethiopic-halehame-ti-et<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-halehame-ti-et"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4608; &#4616; &#4624; &#4632; &#4640; &#4648; &#4656; &#4664; &#4672; &#4688; &#4704; &#4720; &#4728; &#4736; &#4752; &#4760; &#4768; &#4776; &#4792; &#4808; &#4816; &#4824; &#4832; &#4840; &#4848; &#4864; &#4872; &#4896; &#4904; &#4912; &#4920; &#4928; &#4936; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "/&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
          <div class="example" id="ethiopic-halehame-ti-er-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-halehame-ti-er">ethiopic-halehame-ti-er<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-halehame-ti-er"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4608; &#4616; &#4624; &#4632; &#4648; &#4656; &#4664; &#4672; &#4688; &#4704; &#4720; &#4728; &#4752; &#4760; &#4768; &#4776; &#4792; &#4808; &#4816; &#4824; &#4832; &#4840; &#4848; &#4864; &#4872; &#4896; &#4904; &#4912; &#4920; &#4936; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "/&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
          <div class="example" id="ethiopic-halehame-byn-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-halehame-byn">ethiopic-halehame-byn<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-halehame-byn"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols:  &#4608; &#4616; &#4624; &#4632; &#4648; &#4656; &#4664; &#4672; &#4688; &#4704; &#4720; &#4728; &#4752; &#4760; &#4768; &#4776; &#4792; &#4808; &#4816; &#4824; &#4832; &#4840; &#4848; &#4864; &#4872; &#4888; &#4896; &#4904; &#4912; &#4920; &#4936; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "/&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
-->
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li><span lang="am">&#4712;</span> appears to be equally included and omitted in <span lang="am">&#4608;&#4616;&#4624;&#4632; </span> lists. Stakeholders should be resolve to include or exclude it, or define two list styles (with and without <span lang="am">&#4712;</span>).</li>
          <li>How is end of sequence handled in <span lang="am">&#4608;&#4616;&#4624;&#4632;</span>  lists?
            <ol type="a">
              <li>Sequence as radix, e.g.: <span lang="am">... &#4936; ... &#4944; ... &#4608;&#4608; ... &#4608;&#4616; ...</span></li>
              <li>Columnar radix, e.g.: <span lang="am">... &#4936; ... &#4944; ... &#4608;&#4609; ... &#4608;&#4617; ...</span></li>
              <li>Wrap to next column, e.g.: <span lang="am">... &#4936; ... &#4944; ... &#4609; ... &#4617; ...</span></li>
              <li>With any approach, how is the end of matrix handled?</li>
            </ol>
          </li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="&#4768;&#4704;&#4872;&#4848;_lists">
      <h4>Abegede (<span lang="am">&#4768;&#4704;&#4872;&#4848;</span>) Lists</h4>
      <p>The <span lang="am">&#4768;&#4704;&#4872;&#4848;</span> ordering of the Ethiopic syllabary is an alignment with the Coptic and Greek alphabets possibly to
         facilitate interdenominational communication or for the transfer of gematria practices.
         The ordering is used today largely for pedagogical purposes and has been used by some authors for the collation of
         entire works such as dictionaries. More often authors will apply the ordering for list orders.</p>
      <p>The &#4768;&#4704;&#4872;&#4848; ordering is potentially desirable to any language using the Ethiopic syllabary.
         The ordering is less likely to be found in the writing practices of languages that have a written tradition of under a hundred years.
         The language specific orders shown here are only those found utilized in corpus.</p>
      <table>
        <tr>
          <th>Ge&rsquo;ez</th>
          <th>Amharic</th>
          <th>Tigrinya<br/>(Eritrean)</th>
          <th>Tigrinya<br/>(Ethiopian)</th>
        </tr>
        <tr style="padding-left:0px; vertical-align:top;">
          <td><!-- Ge&rsquo;ez -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4768;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4704;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4872;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4848;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4608;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4808;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4824;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4624;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4896;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4840;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4776;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4616;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4632;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4752;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4640;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4816;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4936;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4920;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4672;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4648;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4656;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4720;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4736;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4928;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4912;&#4966;</li>
                  <li>&#4944;&#4966;</li>
                </ul></td>
              <td><!-- Amharic -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4768;/</li>
                  <li>&#4704;/</li>
                  <li>&#4872;/</li>
                  <li>&#4848;/</li>
                  <li>&#4864;/</li>
                  <li>&#4608;/</li>
                  <li>&#4808;/</li>
                  <li>&#4824;/</li>
                  <li>&#4832;/</li>
                  <li>&#4624;/</li>
                  <li>&#4896;/</li>
                  <li>&#4904;/</li>
                  <li>&#4840;/</li>
                  <li>&#4776;/</li>
                  <li>&#4792;/</li>
                  <li>&#4616;/</li>
                  <li>&#4632;/</li>
                  <li>&#4752;/</li>
                  <li>&#4760;/</li>
                  <li>&#4640;/</li>
                  <li>&#4816;/</li>
                  <li>&#4936;/</li>
                  <li>&#4920;/</li>
                  <li>&#4672;/</li>
                  <li>&#4648;/</li>
                  <li>&#4656;/</li>
                  <li>&#4664;/</li>
                  <li>&#4720;/</li>
                  <li>&#4728;/</li>
                  <li>&#4736;/</li>
                  <li>&#4928;/</li>
                  <li>&#4912;/</li>
                  <li>&#4944;/</li>
                </ul></td>
              <td><!-- Eritrean Tigrinya -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4768;/</li>
                  <li>&#4704;/</li>
                  <li>&#4872;/</li>
                  <li>&#4848;/</li>
                  <li>&#4864;/</li>
                  <li>&#4608;/</li>
                  <li>&#4808;/</li>
                  <li>&#4824;/</li>
                  <li>&#4832;/</li>
                  <li>&#4624;/</li>
                  <li>&#4896;/</li>
                  <li>&#4904;/</li>
                  <li>&#4840;/</li>
                  <li>&#4776;/</li>
                  <li>&#4792;/</li>
                  <li>&#4616;/</li>
                  <li>&#4632;/</li>
                  <li>&#4752;/</li>
                  <li>&#4760;/</li>
                  <li>&#4816;/</li>
                  <li>&#4936;/</li>
                  <li>&#4920;/</li>
                  <li>&#4672;/</li>
                  <li>&#4688;/</li>
                  <li>&#4648;/</li>
                  <li>&#4656;/</li>
                  <li>&#4664;/</li>
                  <li>&#4720;/</li>
                  <li>&#4728;/</li>
                  <li>&#4912;/</li>
                  <li>&#4944;/</li>
                </ul></td>
              <td><!-- Ethiopian Tigrinya -->
            
            <ul lang="am" style="list-style-type:none; padding-left:0px; list-style-type: none;
        list-style-position:inside;
        margin:0;
        padding:0;">
                  <li>&#4768;/</li>
                  <li>&#4704;/</li>
                  <li>&#4872;/</li>
                  <li>&#4848;/</li>
                  <li>&#4864;/</li>
                  <li>&#4608;/</li>
                  <li>&#4808;/</li>
                  <li>&#4824;/</li>
                  <li>&#4832;/</li>
                  <li>&#4624;/</li>
                  <li>&#4896;/</li>
                  <li>&#4904;/</li>
                  <li>&#4840;/</li>
                  <li>&#4776;/</li>
                  <li>&#4792;/</li>
                  <li>&#4616;/</li>
                  <li>&#4632;/</li>
                  <li>&#4752;/</li>
                  <li>&#4760;/</li>
                  <li>&#4640;/</li>
                  <li>&#4816;/</li>
                  <li>&#4936;/</li>
                  <li>&#4920;/</li>
                  <li>&#4672;/</li>
                  <li>&#4688;/</li>
                  <li>&#4648;/</li>
                  <li>&#4656;/</li>
                  <li>&#4664;/</li>
                  <li>&#4720;/</li>
                  <li>&#4728;/</li>
                  <li>&#4736;/</li>
                  <li>&#4928;/</li>
                  <li>&#4912;/</li>
                  <li>&#4944;/</li>
                </ul></td>
            </tr>
      </table>
<!--
      <p>These tables are expressed in the following as per the <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/css-counter-styles-3/">CSS Counter Styles Level 3</a> recommendation.</p>
      <div class="example" id="ethiopic-abegede-gez-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-abegede-gez">ethiopic-abegede-gez<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-abegede-gez"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4768; &#4704; &#4872; &#4848; &#4608; &#4808; &#4824; &#4624; &#4896; &#4840; &#4776; &#4616; &#4632; &#4752; &#4640; &#4816; &#4936; &#4920; &#4672; &#4648; &#4656; &#4720; &#4736; &#4928; &#4912; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "&#4966;&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
          <div class="example" id="ethiopic-abegede-am-et-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-abegede-am-et">ethiopic-abegede-am-et<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-abegede-am-et"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4768; &#4704; &#4872; &#4848; &#4864; &#4608; &#4808; &#4824; &#4832; &#4624; &#4896; &#4904; &#4840; &#4776; &#4792; &#4616; &#4632; &#4752; &#4760; &#4640; &#4816; &#4936; &#4920; &#4672; &#4648; &#4656; &#4664; &#4720; &#4728; &#4736; &#4928; &#4912; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "/&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
          <div class="example" id="ethiopic-abegede-ti-et-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-abegede-ti-et">ethiopic-abegede-ti-et<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-abegede-ti-et"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4768; &#4704; &#4872; &#4848; &#4864; &#4608; &#4808; &#4824; &#4832; &#4624; &#4896; &#4904; &#4840; &#4776; &#4792; &#4616; &#4632; &#4752; &#4760; &#4640; &#4816; &#4936; &#4920; &#4672; &#4688; &#4648; &#4656; &#4664; &#4720; &#4728; &#4736; &#4928; &#4912; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "/&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
          <div class="example" id="ethiopic-abegede-ti-er-example">
        <pre class="stylesheet">@counter-style <dfn data-dfn-type="dfn" data-noexport="" id="ethiopic-abegede-ti-er">ethiopic-abegede-ti-er<a class="self-link" href="#ethiopic-abegede-ti-er"></a></dfn> {
  system: alphabetic;
  speak-as: upper-latin;
  symbols: &#4768; &#4704; &#4872; &#4848; &#4864; &#4608; &#4808; &#4824; &#4832; &#4624; &#4896; &#4904; &#4840; &#4776; &#4792; &#4616; &#4632; &#4752; &#4760; &#4640; &#4816; &#4936; &#4920; &#4672; &#4688; &#4648; &#4656; &#4664; &#4720; &#4728; &#4736; &#4912; &#4944; ;
  suffix: "/&amp;#x2009;";
}
</pre>
      </div>
-->
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li><span lang="am">&#4712;</span> appears to be equally included and omitted in <span lang="am">&#4768;&#4704;&#4872;&#4848;</span> lists. Stakeholders should be resolve to include or exclude it, or define two list styles (with and without <span lang="am">&#4712;</span>).</li>
          <li>How is end of sequence handled in <span lang="am">&#4768;&#4704;&#4872;&#4848;</span> lists?
            <ol type="a">
              <li>Sequence as radix, e.g.: <span lang="am">... &#4912; ... &#4944; ... &#4768;&#4768; ... &#4768;&#4704; ...</span></li>
              <li>Columnar radix, e.g.: <span lang="am">... &#4912; ... &#4944; ... &#4768;&#4705; ... &#4768;&#4873; ...</span></li>
              <li>Wrap to next column, e.g.: <span lang="am">... &#4912; ... &#4944; ... &#4705; ... &#4873; ...</span></li>
              <li>With any approach, how is the end of matrix handled?</li>
            </ol>
          </li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="inlined_continuation">
      <h4>Inline End of List Continuation</h4>
      <p>An observed formatting practice is to begin a paragraph on the same line with the last item in a list.
<!-- is the start of a following paragraph inline with the last list item. -->
         The paragraph may flow immediately from the last item, or some indentation may be applied. This practice is illustrated in the following figure:</p>
      <figure id="end_of_list_inlined_paragraph_continuation"> <img src="images/end-of-list-inline-continuation.png"  alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Sample for inlined paragraph continuation at end of list.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Is this an older style? Idiosyncratic to a few authors? The desired norm?</li>
          <li>When appropriate, what is the width of the paragraph offset (if any) from the final list item?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>
	  </section>

    <section id="styling_initials">
    <h3>Styling initials</h3>
	
	<p>Although initial letter styling is not an innate feature of the Ethiopic script, there have been occurrences of its usage noted. However, the specifications and guidelines for composition of these decorative elements are undefined or insubstantial.</p>
   </section>
  </section>

  <section id="h_pages">
    <h2>Layout &amp; Pages</h2>
    <!-- p><em>Discuss: Basic common templates, Page elements, Page-level directionality, Bidirectional characteristics, Arrangement of elements, Text columns, Header, Footer, Illustrations, Tables, Page numbers, Margins, Positioning and arrangement of content, Pagination rules, Specimens and examples.</em></p -->

    <section id="h_page_margins">
      <h3>Page Margins</h3>
      <p>Proper document layout is very import for religious works in the Ge&rsquo;ez traditions. Certain works like homiliaries (such as <span lang="am">&#4853;&#4653;&#4659;&#4752;&#4961;&#4634;&#4779;&#4772;&#4621;</span>) are consistently formatted in two columns and the Synaxarium (<span lang="am">&#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4936;&#4961;&#4661;&#4757;&#4781;&#4659;&#4653;</span>) in three.  Margins in this class of literature will most common exhibit a 1x2x4 ratio where the top and fore edge margins are twice that of the gutter and half that of the bottom (depicted in the following figure).</p>
      <figure id="tradditional_page_margins"> <img src="images/GeezMargins.png" alt=" "/>
        <figcaption>Page margins in Ge&rsquo;ez literature.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>These practices are not well understood by the authors and comprehensive input is sought from experts.</p> 

      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>What are the margin requirements for the various classes of Ethiopic literature?</li>
            <li>What works should be in multiple columns? How many columns and what width and spacing should be between them?</li>
            <li>Is header formatting different for Ethiopic documents than Western?</li>
            <li>Is footer formatting different for Ethiopic documents than Western?</li>
            <li>Is page number positioning and formatting different for Ethiopic documents than Western?</li>
            <li>Does Ethiopic page layout have any special requirements that are different from Western?</li>
            <li>Are there page dimensions used in Ethiopic publishing that are not standard in the West?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
    </section>

    <section id="h_page_numbering">
      <h3>Page Numbering</h3>
      <p>The layout and formatting of page and section numbering in Ethiopic practices does not demonstrate a marked difference from Western conventions. 
         Most often the page number itself will appear in the center footer position or in the outer header section, but may appear in any standard position.
         Page counting differences do need to be considered.</p>
      <figure id="zeneb_ethiopia_metsehafe_chewata_sigawi_page_39"> <img src="images/page-number-in-two-systems.png" alt=" "/>
        <figcaption>Page numbering in two systems from Metsehafe Chewata Sigawi by Zeneb Ethiopia.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>In Ethiopic book publishing, the first numbered page will generally be seen on the <span lang="am">&#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;</span> section. When a <span lang="am">&#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;</span> section is not present,
         numbering is expected to begin at the <span lang="am">&#4632;&#4877;&#4706;&#4843;</span>. The prevailing Modern Ethiopic practice is to begin counting pages from the inner cover page (this
         is a matter of perception, by some views the outer cover is the first page and the inner cover, which is generally empty, is not counted). Thus, the first printed
         number appearing at either the <span lang="am">&#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;</span> or <span lang="am">&#4632;&#4877;&#4706;&#4843;</span> is not &ldquo;1&rdquo; (or &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4969;</span>&rdquo;) but the physical page count up to
         this point (for example &ldquo;4&rdquo; or &ldquo;5&rdquo;).</p>
      <p>At the author's discretion, either Western or Ethiopic numerals may be used for page numbers. In digital publishing, it is recommended that a setting be offered
         the user to toggle the numeral system from the published default. Additionally, a tooltip that appears when focus is over an Ethiopic page number to present the Western
         numeral equivalent would be helpful for some readers.</p>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>Where is page 1 counted from?</li>
            <li>Where does the first printed page appear?</li>
            <li>Are there any other special considerations with page numbering? For example, page numbering of appendices, etc.</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      <section id="h_preface_page_numbering">
        <h4>Preface Page Numbering</h4>
        <p>Increasingly, modern authors and publishers are adding additional front matter sections (see <a href="#h_document_structure">Document Structure</a>) and moving "page 1"
           out to either the <span lang="am">&#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;</span> or <span lang="am">&#4632;&#4877;&#4706;&#4843;</span>. Prior to "page 1" preceding pages may be numbered in one of two ways.  In the first
           convention where pages are numbered with Ethiopic numerals, the preface numbering may be alphabetic in the <span lang="am">&#4608;&#4616;&#4624;&#4632;</span> counting system or in the
           <span lang="am">&#4768;&#4704;&#4872;&#4848;</span> sequence (for example in Desta Tekle Wold's &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4816;&#4850;&#4661;&#4961;&#4843;&#4635;&#4653;&#4763;&#4961;&#4632;&#4829;&#4872;&#4704;&#4961;&#4675;&#4619;&#4725;&#4962;</span>&rdquo;).</p>
        <p>In the second convention where pages are numbers with Western numerals, the preface page numbering will apply Ethiopic numerals.  Under both conventions the preface page
           number begins on the first printed page after the cover.</p>
        <div class="issues">
          <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>Are the above descriptions accurate?</li>
            <li>Are there any other page numbering conventions that should be supported by software?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
      </section>
    </section>

    <section id="h_document_structure">
      <h3>Document Structure</h3>
      <p>Layout and formatting rules may specific to a section or region of a document. Page numbering as discussed in the previous section is a good example.
         It is important to properly identify the regular sections of documents and to record any special requirements they may have in regards to layout and
         formatting.  In this way software will be able to present documents as expected, reduce the formatting burden of authors through automation, as well
         as automatically generate a table of contents as expected.</p>
      <p>The following are identified book sections found a small corpus survey.  A maximal view is presented, few books may exhibit all sections indicated:</p>
      <p lang="am">&#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4941;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4632;&#4723;&#4656;&#4706;&#4843;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4632;&#4661;&#4723;&#4808;&#4667;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4632;&#4824;&#4781;&#4653;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4637;&#4661;&#4875;&#4755;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4635;&#4813;&#4907;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4677;&#4853;&#4632; &#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4632;&#4877;&#4706;&#4843;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4781;&#4941;&#4621; &#4969;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#4637;&#4821;&#4651;&#4941; &#4969;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#4637;&#4821;&#4651;&#4941; &#4970;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#4637;&#4821;&#4651;&#4941; &#4971;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4781;&#4941;&#4621; &#4970;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#4637;&#4821;&#4651;&#4941; &#4972;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#4637;&#4821;&#4651;&#4941; &#4973;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#4637;&#4821;&#4651;&#4941; &#4974;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4781;&#4941;&#4621; &#4971;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8942;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4633;&#4851;&#4844; &#4675;&#4619;&#4725;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4811;&#4706; &#4632;&#4923;&#4629;&#4941;&#4725;<br/>
          &nbsp;&nbsp;&#4632;&#4896;&#4685;&#4637;</p>

      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
          <ol>
            <li>Are these sections correct? Are any missing?</li>
            <li>What sections are optional?</li>
            <li>Do any sections require special formatting?</li>
            <li>Do certain classes of literature use different sections?</li>
          </ol>
        </div>
    </section>


    <section id="section_headings">
      <h3>Section Headings</h3>
      <p><em>[Consider if all or part of this section should be integrated with <a href="#html5-alignment"></a>]</em></p>
      <p>The default section headings stylistic changes (size, weight) applied to Roman script in word processors and web browsers are generally applicable to Ethiopic literature.  In classic and modern layout practices applied to books and magazines, the document and chapter titles will be centered. </p>
      <p>The use of underlining and color changes are not recommended for Ethiopic headings as they are not a traditional practice.</p>
      <p>The following presents the six heading levels defined in the HTML standard and their applicable context in Ethiopic literature.  Samples are provided here for review and consideration of the default settings for letter sizing and line spacing.</p>
      <dl>
        <dt>Heading 1</dt>
        <dd>To be applied for document titles (usually centered). Default display properties: <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h1.html#h1">https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h1.html</a></dd>
        <dt>Heading 2</dt>
        <dd>To be applied for chapter titles (usually centered). Default display properties: <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h1.html#h1">https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h2.html</a></dd>
        <dt>Heading 3</dt>
        <dd>To be applied for chapter section titles. Default display properties: <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h1.html#h1">https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h3.html</a></dd>
        <dt>Heading 4</dt>
        <dd>To be applied for chapter sub-section titles. Default display properties: <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h1.html#h1">https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h4.html</a></dd>
        <dt>Heading 5</dt>
        <dd>To be applied for chapter sub-sub-section titles. Default display properties: <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h1.html#h1">https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h5.html</a></dd>
        <dt>Heading 6</dt>
        <dd>To be applied for chapter sub-sub-sub-section titles. Default display properties: <a href="https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h1.html#h1">https://www.w3.org/TR/html-markup/h6.html</a></dd>
      </dl>
      <p>Relative sizes for comparison: <span lang="am" style="display: inline; color: black; font-size: 2em; font-weight: bold;">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</span
      ><span lang="am" style="display: inline; color: black; font-size: 1.5em; font-weight: bold;">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</span
      ><span lang="am" style="display: inline; color: black; font-size: 1.17em; font-weight: bold;">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</span
      ><span lang="am" style="display: inline; color: black; font-weight: bold;">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</span
      ><span lang="am" style="display: inline; color: black; font-size: .83em; font-weight: bold;">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</span
      ><span lang="am" style="display: inline; color: black; font-size: .67em; font-weight: bold;">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</span></p>
      <p>The following illustrates vertical spacing of the heading sizes. Heading and paragraph blocks are highlighted to illuminate spacing boundaries.</p>
      <h1 lang="am" style="text-align: center; display: block; color: black; font-size: 2em; font-weight: bold; background-color: #99ccff">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725; 1</h1>
      <p lang="am" style="background-color: #ccffcc">&#4845;&#4613;&#4757; &#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4941; &#4616;&#4632;&#4923;&#4941; &#4843;&#4656;&#4709;&#4777;&#4704;&#4725; &#4637;&#4781;&#4757;&#4843;&#4725; &#4840;&#4654;&#4635; &#4621;&#4817;&#4779;&#4757; &#4707;&#4924; &#4621;&#4709;&#4752; &#4853;&#4757;&#4877;&#4621; &#4704;&#4666;&#4973;&#4987;&#4978;&#4975; &#4819;.&#4637; ...</p>
      <h2 lang="am" style="text-align: center; display: block; color: black; font-size: 1.5em; font-weight: bold; background-color: #99ccff">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725; 2</h2>
      <p lang="am" style="background-color: #ccffcc">&#4845;&#4613;&#4757; &#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4941; &#4616;&#4632;&#4923;&#4941; &#4843;&#4656;&#4709;&#4777;&#4704;&#4725; &#4637;&#4781;&#4757;&#4843;&#4725; &#4840;&#4654;&#4635; &#4621;&#4817;&#4779;&#4757; &#4707;&#4924; &#4621;&#4709;&#4752; &#4853;&#4757;&#4877;&#4621; &#4704;&#4666;&#4973;&#4987;&#4978;&#4975; &#4819;.&#4637; ...</p>
      <h3 lang="am" style="text-align: center; display: block; color: black; font-size: 1.17em; font-weight: bold; background-color: #99ccff">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725; 3</h3>
      <p lang="am" style="background-color: #ccffcc">&#4845;&#4613;&#4757; &#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4941; &#4616;&#4632;&#4923;&#4941; &#4843;&#4656;&#4709;&#4777;&#4704;&#4725; &#4637;&#4781;&#4757;&#4843;&#4725; &#4840;&#4654;&#4635; &#4621;&#4817;&#4779;&#4757; &#4707;&#4924; &#4621;&#4709;&#4752; &#4853;&#4757;&#4877;&#4621; &#4704;&#4666;&#4973;&#4987;&#4978;&#4975; &#4819;.&#4637; ...</p>
      <h4 lang="am" style="text-align: center; display: block; color: black; font-weight: bold; background-color: #99ccff">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725; 4</h4>
      <p lang="am" style="background-color: #ccffcc">&#4845;&#4613;&#4757; &#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4941; &#4616;&#4632;&#4923;&#4941; &#4843;&#4656;&#4709;&#4777;&#4704;&#4725; &#4637;&#4781;&#4757;&#4843;&#4725; &#4840;&#4654;&#4635; &#4621;&#4817;&#4779;&#4757; &#4707;&#4924; &#4621;&#4709;&#4752; &#4853;&#4757;&#4877;&#4621; &#4704;&#4666;&#4973;&#4987;&#4978;&#4975; &#4819;.&#4637; ...</p>
      <h5 lang="am" style="text-align: center; display: block; color: black; font-size: .83em; font-weight: bold; background-color: #99ccff">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725; 5</h5>
      <p lang="am" style="background-color: #ccffcc">&#4845;&#4613;&#4757; &#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4941; &#4616;&#4632;&#4923;&#4941; &#4843;&#4656;&#4709;&#4777;&#4704;&#4725; &#4637;&#4781;&#4757;&#4843;&#4725; &#4840;&#4654;&#4635; &#4621;&#4817;&#4779;&#4757; &#4707;&#4924; &#4621;&#4709;&#4752; &#4853;&#4757;&#4877;&#4621; &#4704;&#4666;&#4973;&#4987;&#4978;&#4975; &#4819;.&#4637; ...</p>
      <h6 lang="am" style="text-align: center; display: block; color: black; font-size: .67em; font-weight: bold; background-color: #99ccff">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725; 6</h6>
      <p lang="am" style="background-color: #ccffcc">&#4845;&#4613;&#4757; &#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4941; &#4616;&#4632;&#4923;&#4941; &#4843;&#4656;&#4709;&#4777;&#4704;&#4725; &#4637;&#4781;&#4757;&#4843;&#4725; &#4840;&#4654;&#4635; &#4621;&#4817;&#4779;&#4757; &#4707;&#4924; &#4621;&#4709;&#4752; &#4853;&#4757;&#4877;&#4621; &#4704;&#4666;&#4973;&#4987;&#4978;&#4975; &#4819;.&#4637; ...</p>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Should heading sizes 1 and 2 be centered by default, or should this be left to custom stylesheet?</li>
          <li>What percentage emboldened when a bold designed typeface is not available?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="ethiopic_footnotes">
      <h4>Footnotes &amp; Superscript</h4>
      <p>Using Microsoft Word as a reference point, Footnote counters are simple superscripted cardinal numbers.  The superscripted text is "top-aligned" with the reference text.  This alignment
         style works well the letters of the typeface are fixed height, but may not be visually optimal in a variable letter height writing system. We will apply Z-<span lang="am">&#4757;</span> Alignment
         to illustrate the difficulty encountered with Ethiopic text.</p>
      <figure id="zn_superscript"> <img src="images/ZN-Superscript.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Superscript Top Alignment.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <p>The variable heights of Ethiopic letters introduces the same &ldquo;fixed-vs-floating&rdquo; issue with superscript text as discussed in the previous section on the Ethiopic gemination mark.</p>
      <figure id="superscript_vertical_alignment"> <img src="images/Superscript-Vertical-Alignment.png" alt=" " />
        <figcaption>Two superscript styles compared.</figcaption>
      </figure>
      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>What do stakeholders feel should be the default positioning style (fixed, floating)?</li>
          <li>What should the relative height be of the superscripted text? The English default is a 7/12<sup>ths</sup> ratio.</li>
          <li>Are Ethiopic numerals used for footnote counting?</li>
          <li>Top-alignment of superscript text may only be an MS Word practice; superscript in web documents does not appear to follow the same vertical alignment rules.</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>

    <section id="bibliographic_citation">
      <h3>Bibliographic Citation</h3>
      <p>A formally recognized standard for bibliographic citation of Ethiopic publications is not found in the Ethiopian
         publishing community, and bibliographic convention is left to the discretion of individual authors. Establishing a standard
         is recommended by the present authors and will aid in document consistency and in the machine processing of reference citations.
         To address a book citation convention, a strong starting point 
         is available from the work of a recognized subject matter expert, <a href="http://www.aau.edu.et/chls/ato-dereje-gebre/">Dereje Gebre</a> of the AAU Amharic Language Department, and past Vice President of the Ethiopian Writer&rsquo;s Association. Professor Dereje
         employs the following convention: </p>
      <p><code> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
            &lt;Citation&gt; ::=
            &lt;Author Full Name&gt; "<span lang="am">&#4964;</span>"
            &lt;Publication Date&gt; "<span lang="am">&#4964;</span>"
            &lt;i&gt;&lt;Title&gt;&lt;/i&gt;
            &lt;City&gt; "<span lang="am">&#4964;</span>"
            &lt;Publisher&gt; "<span lang="am">&#4962;</span>"<br/>
            </code></p>
      <p>where</p>
      <p><code> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
            &lt;Title&gt; ::= &lt;Terminated Title&gt; | ( &lt;Unterminated Title&gt; "<span lang="am">&#4962;</span>" )<br/>
            &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
            &lt;Terminated Title&gt; ::= &lt;Unterminated Title&gt; [<span lang="am">&#4961;&#4964;&#4962;?</span>]<br/>
            &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
            &lt;Unterminated Title&gt; ::= &lt;Text&gt; [:Letter:]</code></p>
          An example:
          <div class="example" id="-example" lang="am"> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
        &#4848;&#4648;&#4864; &#4872;&#4709;&#4652;&#4964; &#4634;&#4843;&#4829;&#4843; 1996&#4964; <i>&#4720;&#4877;&#4707;&#4651;&#4810;&#4961;&#4840;&#4925;&#4613;&#4936;&#4725;&#4961;&#4632;&#4635;&#4650;&#4843;&#4962;</i> &#4757;&#4877;&#4853; &#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843; &#4853;&#4653;&#4869;&#4725;&#4964; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962; </div>

      <div class="issues">
        <p>Issues/Questions:</p>
        <ol>
          <li>Does the Ethiopian Writer&rsquo;s Association endorse any conventions for media citation?</li>
          <li>What are formats for other media types?</li>
        </ol>
      </div>
    </section>
  </section>

  <section class="appendix" id="glossary">
    <h1>Glossary</h1>
    <table class="glossary">
    <thead>
      <tr>
        <th>Term</th>
        <th>Amharic<span data-lang="am"></span></th>
        <th>Tigrinya<span data-lang="ti"></span></th>
        <th>Definition<span data-lang="en"></span></th>
      </tr>
    </thead>
    <tbody>
      <tr id="term.geez">
        <td>Ge&rsquo;ez</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4877;&#4821;&#4829;</td>
        <td lang="ti">&#4877;&#4821;&#4829;</td>
        <td>The name of both the ancient Semitic language of northern Ethiopia and Eritrea as well as the name of the corresponding syllabic writing system.  Also known as &ldquo;Ethiopic&rdquo;. It survives today as the liturgical language of the Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox Chuches.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="def_text_block">
        <td>text block</td>
        <td lang="am">TBD</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>The part of the page normally occupied by text.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="def_justify">
        <td>justify</td>
        <td lang="am">TBD</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>To adjust the length of the line so that it is flush left and right on the measure.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="def_measure">
        <td>measure</td>
        <td lang="am">TBD</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>The standard length of the line; ie. column width or width of the overall text block.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.wordspace">
        <td>Ethiopic Wordspace</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4609;&#4616;&#4725; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</td>
        <td lang="ti">&#4781;&#4621;&#4720; &#4752;&#4901;&#4706;</td>
        <td>The printed word separator in Ethiopic literature depicted by two vertical dots (U+1361).</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.ethiopicized">
        <td>Ethiopicized</td>
        <td lang="am">TBD</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>The stylization of western symbols (usually punctuation and numerals) to match the strokes and weight of an Ethiopic typeface.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.classical-ethiopic">
        <td>Classical Ethiopic</td>
        <td lang="am">TBD</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>In the scope of this specification Classical Ethiopic refers to the set of practices observed
            in the mechanic printing of Ethiopian and Eritrean literature through the end of the imperial era.
            Literature at the start of this era begins as an outgrowth of scribal practices and in the later half
            is more uniform in layout and editorial quality which is likely the result of state control over publishing.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.modern-ethiopic">
        <td>Modern Ethiopic</td>
        <td lang="am">TBD</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>Ethiopic manuscripts published primarily after the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie where
            writing practices have become less adherent to the Ge&rsquo;ez tradition, more pragmatic so as
            to facilitate the constraints and limitations imposed by mass media.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.yaredic-zaima-notation">
        <td>Yaredic Zaima Notation</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4843;&#4652;&#4851;&#4810; &#4828;&#4635; &#4637;&#4621;&#4781;&#4726;&#4731;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>The system of marking intonation in Ge&rsquo;ez hymnody devised by the 6<sup>th</sup> century Saint Yared of Axum.</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.acknolwedgment">
        <td>Acknowledgement</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4637;&#4645;&#4875;&#4755;</td>
        <td lang="ti">&#4637;&#4661;&#4875;&#4755;</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.tbd-2">
        <td>Author&rsquo;s Note</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4632;&#4661;&#4723;&#4808;&#4667;</td>
        <td lang="ti"></td>
        <td>Also <span lang="am">&#4840;&#4768;&#4659;&#4723;&#4634;&#4813; &#4635;&#4661;&#4723;&#4808;&#4667;</span></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.references">
        <td>Bibliography</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4811;&#4706; &#4632;&#4923;&#4629;&#4941;&#4725;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.chapter">
        <td>Chapter</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4637;&#4821;&#4651;&#4941;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.dedication">
        <td>Dedication</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4632;&#4723;&#4656;&#4706;&#4843;</td>
        <td lang="ti">&#4632;&#4723;&#4627;&#4659;&#4656;&#4706;</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.foreward">
        <td>Foreward</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4677;&#4853;&#4632; &#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.glossary">
        <td>Glossary</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4633;&#4851;&#4844; &#4675;&#4619;&#4725;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.index">
        <td>Index</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4632;&#4896;&#4685;&#4637;</td>
        <td lang="ti">&#4739;&#4707;&#4650; &#4771;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4722; &#4872;&#4925;</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.introduction">
        <td>Introduction</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4632;&#4877;&#4706;&#4843;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.ISBN">
        <td>ISBN</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4632;&#4819;&#4632;&#4685;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4840;&#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4937; &#4819;&#4616;&#4637;&#4768;&#4672;&#4941; &#4632;&#4616;&#4843; &#4685;&#4901;&#4653;</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.part">
        <td>Part</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4781;&#4941;&#4621;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.preface">
        <td>Preface</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4632;&#4677;&#4853;&#4637;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>Sometimes &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4632;&#4877;&#4616;&#4907; </span>&rdquo; in older books</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.punctuation">
        <td>Punctuation</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4661;&#4653;&#4768;&#4720; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</td>
        <td lang="ti">&#4661;&#4653;&#4768;&#4720; &#4752;&#4901;&#4709;</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.table-of-contents">
        <td>Table of Contents</td>
        <td lang="am"><span lang="am">&#4635;&#4813;&#4907; </span></td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td>Same as &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4632;&#4781;&#4645;&#4720; &#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</span>&rdquo;?</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.title">
        <td>Title</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4768;&#4653;&#4773;&#4661;&#4725;</td>
        <td lang="ti">TBD</td>
        <td></td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.tbd-1">
        <td>TBD</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4632;&#4659;&#4656;&#4706;&#4843;</td>
        <td lang="ti"></td>
        <td>Same as &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4635;&#4659;&#4656;&#4706;&#4843;</span>&rdquo;?</td>
      </tr>
      <tr id="term.tbd-3">
        <td>TBD</td>
        <td lang="am">&#4635;&#4661;&#4723;&#4808;&#4674;&#4843;</td>
        <td lang="ti"></td>
        <td>"Advertisement" resolve this with &ldquo;Author&rsquo;s Note&rdquo;. Sometimes seen as &ldquo;<span lang="am">&#4635;&#4661;&#4720;&#4811;&#4808;&#4674;&#4843;</span>&rdquo;.</td>
      </tr>
      <!-- &#4632;&#4621;&#4632;&#4867; -->
    </tbody>
  </table>
  </section>

  <section class="appendix" id="html5-alignment">
    <h1>Alignment with HTML5 Layout &amp; Formatting</h1>
    <p>This appendix is introduced to help ensure that the Ethiopic layout requirements in this recommendation has a sufficient and practical coverage in its scope.
       HTML5 is applied here for comparison as it is anticipated as the most frequently applied document language under which the recommendation will be applied.
       HTML5 elements will be reviewed in this appendix and remarks made to indicate that either: no recommendation is needed (western defaults are applicable),
       a document section is identified that covers the element in the Ethiopic context, or that a gap in coverage is identified and will be addressed.</p>
    <h2>Layout</h2>
    <dl>
      <dt>&lt;header&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;nav&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;section&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;article&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;aside&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;footer&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
    </dl>
    <h2>Quotation &amp; Citation</h2>
    <dl>
      <dt>&lt;q&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Covered in <a href="#quotation"></a> (verify that &lt;q&gt; is sufficiently addressed).</dd>
      <dt>&lt;blockquote&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;abbr&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;address&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;cite&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;dfn&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;bdo&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;details&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;summary&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
    </dl>
    <h2>Formatting</h2>
    <dl>
      <dt>&lt;b&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;strong&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;i&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;em&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;mark&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: Assume for now that the yellow ( rgb(255,255,0) ) highlight default convention is adequate.</dd>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;small&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: Assume for now that the size change for Latin script is adequate.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;del&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: Consider the application of the traditional overscore mark for deletion, at least in manuscript context.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;ins&gt;</dt>
      <dd><i>TBD Notes</i></dd>
      <dt>&lt;sub&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: Assume for now that the vertical offset for Latin script is adequate.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;sup&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: Assume for now that the vertical offset for Latin script is adequate.</dd>
    </dl>
    <h2>Lists</h2>
    <dl>
      <dt>&lt;ul&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Covered in <a href="#bullet_lists"></a>.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;ol&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Covered in <a href="#numbered_lists"></a>.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;li&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Covered in <a href="#counter_suffix"></a>.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;dl&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: Find a sample in traditional publishing.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;dt&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: Is bold an appropriate emphasis? Find a sample in traditional publishing.</dd>
      <dt>&lt;dd&gt;</dt>
      <dd>Review: How much indentation?  Find a sample in traditional publishing.</dd>
    </dl>
  </section>

  <section class="appendix" id="acknowledgements">
    <h1>Acknowledgements</h1>
    <p>Special thanks to the following people who contributed to this document (contributors&rsquo; names listed in in alphabetic order).</p>
    <p class="acknowledgement">This Person, That Person, etc</p>
    <p data-lang="en">Please find the latest info of the contributors at the <a href="https://github.com/w3c/elreq/graphs/contributors">GitHub contributors list</a>.</p>
  </section>

  <section class="appendix" id="references">
    <h1>References</h1>
    <dl class="ref">
      <dt>Pankhurst, 1998</dt>
      <dd>
        <!-- use this alternative link until the Addis Tribute archive is restored --> 
        <p><cite><a href="http://web.linkethiopia.org/guide-to-ethiopia/the-pankhurst-history-library/geez-literature-church-libraries-and-the-coming-from-europe-of-the-printed-word/">Ge&rsquo;ez Literature, Church Libraries, and the Coming, from Europe, of the Printed Word.</a></cite> R. Pankhurst. Addis Tribune, August 28, 1998. Addis Ababa.</p></dd>
      <dt>Alemayehu, 1965</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>F&#601;q&#601;r &#601;sk&auml; M&auml;qab&#601;r</cite>, H. Alemayehu. Berhanenna Selam Printing Enterprise, 1965. Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="am"><cite>&#4941;&#4677;&#4653;&#4961;&#4773;&#4661;&#4776;&#4961;&#4632;&#4675;&#4709;&#4653;</cite>&#4963; &#4608;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4616;&#4635;&#4840;&#4609;&#4962; &#4709;&#4653;&#4611;&#4757;&#4755; &#4656;&#4619;&#4637; &#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843; &#4853;&#4653;&#4864;&#4725;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4982;&#4976;&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Gebre, 2004</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Tegbarawi Yetsihifet Memariya</cite>, D. Gebre. Commercial Printing Enterprises, 2004. Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="am"><cite>&#4720;&#4877;&#4707;&#4651;&#4810;&#4961;&#4840;&#4925;&#4613;&#4936;&#4725;&#4961;&#4632;&#4635;&#4650;&#4843;</cite>&#4963; &#4848;&#4648;&#4864; &#4872;&#4709;&#4652;&#4962; &#4757;&#4877;&#4853; &#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843; &#4853;&#4653;&#4869;&#4725;&#4963; &#4634;&#4843;&#4829;&#4843; 1996&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Shewaye, 1993</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Anbebo YemMredatina YeMeSaf Chilotan Madaber</cite>, T. Shewaye. Educational Materials Publishing and Distribution Agency, 1993. Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="am"><cite>&#4768;&#4757;&#4709;&#4710; &#4840;&#4632;&#4648;&#4851;&#4725;&#4755; &#4840;&#4632;&#4923;&#4941; &#4733;&#4622;&#4723;&#4757; &#4635;&#4851;&#4704;&#4653; </cite>&#4963; &#4720;&#4661;&#4939;&#4844; &#4664;&#4811;&#4844;&#4962; &#4725;.&#4632;.&#4635;.&#4635;.&#4853;.&#4963; 1986&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
    </dl>
    <h2>Full Image References</h2>
    <p><em>[TBD: Transcriptions are under two conventions, unify them to a single convention.]</em></p>
    <dl class="ref">
      <dt>Ludolf, 1681</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#justification_in_historia_aethiopica"></a></p>
        <p><cite><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j10VAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT237">Historia Aethiopica, sive brevis et succincta descriptio regni Habessinorum</a></cite> H. Ludolf. L.III.c.5 Paragraph 35.  Frankfurt: prostat apud Joh. David Zunne. 1681</p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Erikson, 1921</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#justification_word_bound"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>YeOgrafi LeEthiopia Lijoch Tiqim</cite>, O. Erikson. Page 35. Swedish Mission, 1921 (1913 EC). Asmara.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="am"><cite>&#4840;&#4774;&#4877;&#4651;&#4938;&#4962; &#4616;&#4770;&#4725;&#4846;&#4917;&#4843;&#4961;&#4621;&#4870;&#4733;&#4961;&#4901;&#4677;&#4637;</cite>&#4963; &#4772;&#4650;&#4781;&#4662;&#4757;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; &#4980;&#4973;&#4962; &#4840;&#4634;&#4661;&#4846;&#4757;&#4877;&#4961;&#4661;&#4812;&#4849;&#4771;&#4961;&#4635;&#4741;&#4720;&#4637;&#4961;&#4723;&#4720;&#4632;&#4733;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4978;&#4971;&#4962; &#4768;&#4661;&#4632;&#4651;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Ethiopiawi, 1944</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#zeneb_ethiopia_metsehafe_chewata_sigawi_page_39"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Metsehafe Chewata Sigawi WeMenfesawi</cite>, Z. Ethiopiawi. Page 39. Merha Tibeb Publishers, 1952 (1944 EC). Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="am"><cite>&#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4936;&#4961;&#4904;&#4811;&#4723;&#4962;&#4961;&#4645;&#4875;&#4810;&#4961;&#4808;&#4632;&#4757;&#4936;&#4659;&#4810;&#4962;</cite> &#4824;&#4752;&#4709;&#4961;&#4770;&#4725;&#4846;&#4917;&#4843;&#4810;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; &#4980;&#4977;&#4962; &#4632;&#4653;&#4624;&#4961;&#4901;&#4704;&#4709;&#4961;&#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843;&#4961;&#4708;&#4725;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4981;&#4972;&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661;&#4961;&#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Gubenya, 1973</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#fig_justification_centered"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Alweledem</cite>, A. Gubenya. Page 87. Brana Publisher,  1973 (1966 EC). Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="am"><cite>&#4768;&#4621;&#4808;&#4616;&#4848;&#4637;</cite>&#4963; &#4768;&#4708; &#4873;&#4704;&#4763;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; &#4985;&#4975;&#4962; &#4709;&#4651;&#4755; &#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843; &#4848;&#4653;&#4869;&#4725; &#4723;&#4720;&#4632;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4983;&#4974;&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Itedalewe, 1987</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#nebiy_mohammed_page_35"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>&#7716;a&#7779;ir Tarix Nebiy Mu&#7717;amed</cite>, J.H.A. Itedalewe. Page 35. Selam Printing House, 1987 (1979 EC). Asmara.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="ti"><cite>&#4624;&#4922;&#4653; &#4723;&#4650;&#4797; &#4752;&#4706;&#4845; &#4633;&#4624;&#4632;&#4853; (&#4656;&#4616;&#4619;&#4609; &#4819;&#4616;&#4845;&#4610; &#4808;&#4656;&#4616;&#4637;) &#4709;&#4869;&#4709;&#4650;&#4621;</cite>&#4963; &#4869;&#4709;&#4650;&#4621; &#4624;&#4866; &#4768;&#4705;&#4704;&#4776;&#4653; &#4773;&#4720;&#4851;&#4616;&#4808;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; 35&#4962; &#4708;&#4725; &#4635;&#4741;&#4720;&#4637; &#4656;&#4619;&#4637;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4984;&#4976;&#4962; &#4768;&#4645;&#4632;&#4651;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Kifle, 1955</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#kwk_metsehafe_sewasew_page_65_inner_parenthesis"></a></p>
        <p><a href="#kwk_metsehafe_sewasew_page_159"></a></p>
        <p><a href="#kwk_metsehafe_sewasew_page_65"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa Saw&#257;sew Wages Wamazgaba Q&#257;l&#257;t Hadis</cite>, K. W. Kifle. Pages 65 &amp; 159. Artistic Printers, 1955 (1948 EC). Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="gez"><cite>&#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4936;&#4961;&#4656;&#4811;&#4661;&#4813;&#4961;&#4808;&#4877;&#4661;&#4961;&#4808;&#4632;&#4829;&#4872;&#4704;&#4961;&#4675;&#4619;&#4725;&#4961;&#4624;&#4850;&#4661;</cite>&#4963; &#4778;&#4851;&#4752;&#4961;&#4808;&#4621;&#4853;&#4961;&#4781;&#4941;&#4620;&#4962; &#4872;&#4926;&#4733; &#4983;&#4973; &#4773;&#4755; &#4987;&#4982;&#4977;&#4962; &#4768;&#4653;&#4722;&#4661;&#4722;&#4781;&#4961;&#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843;&#4961;&#4708;&#4725;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4981;&#4976;&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Kifle, 1965</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#kwk_mezgebe_fidel_page_43"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Mazgaba Fidal</cite>, K. W. Kifle. Page 43. Artistic Printers, 1965 (1957 EC). Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="gez"><cite>&#4632;&#4829;&#4872;&#4704;&#4961;&#4938;&#4848;&#4621;</cite>&#4963; &#4778;&#4851;&#4752;&#4961;&#4808;&#4621;&#4853;&#4961;&#4781;&#4941;&#4620;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; &#4981;&#4971;&#4962; &#4768;&#4653;&#4722;&#4661;&#4722;&#4781;&#4961;&#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843;&#4961;&#4708;&#4725;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4982;&#4975;&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Ngongo, 1995</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#paulos_ngongo_atsie_menilik_page_113"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Atse Menilik</cite>, P. Ngongo. Page 113. Bole Printers, 1992 (1984 EC). Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="am"><cite>&#4768;&#4900; &#4637;&#4754;&#4621;&#4781;</cite>&#4963; &#4915;&#4813;&#4622;&#4661; &#4766;&#4766;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; 113&#4962; &#4710;&#4620; &#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843; &#4708;&#4725;&#4963; &#4840;&#4779;&#4722;&#4725; 1984&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661; &#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Woldemariam, 1995</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#ecclesiastical_emphasis_sample"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>Ma&#7779;&#7717;afa &#7778;alot Mes Ser&rsquo;ate Kiddase Betegre&ntilde;&ntilde;&#257;</cite>, B. Woldemariam. Page 32. Mahbere Haawaryat F-Ha Bet Mahtem Tehatmet, 1995 (1988 EC). Asmera.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="gez"><cite>&#4632;&#4925;&#4624;&#4936; &#4920;&#4622;&#4725; &#4637;&#4661; &#4645;&#4653;&#4819;&#4720; &#4677;&#4851;&#4660; &#4709;&#4725;&#4877;&#4653;&#4763;</cite>&#4963; &#4704;&#4653;&#4608; &#4808;&#4621;&#4848;&#4635;&#4653;&#4843;&#4637;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; &#4980;&#4970;&#4962; &#4635;&#4741;&#4704;&#4648; &#4624;&#4811;&#4653;&#4843;&#4725; &#4941;-&#4611; &#4708;&#4725; &#4635;&#4741;&#4720;&#4637; &#4720;&#4736;&#4725;&#4632;&#4725;&#4963; &#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4985;&#4976;&#4962; &#4768;&#4645;&#4632;&#4651;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
      <dt>Zewdie, 1995</dt>
      <dd>
        <p><a href="#mekonnen_zewdie_yemaychew_qwulegna_page_56"></a></p>
        <p><em>Transcribed Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;"><cite>YeMaychew Qwuslegna</cite>, M. Zewdie. Page 56. Birhanena Selam Publishers, 1955 (1948 EC). Addis Ababa.</span></p>
        <p><em>Source Citation:</em><br/>
        <span style="margin-left:2em;" lang="gez"><cite>&#4840;&#4635;&#4845;&#4904;&#4813;&#4961;&#4685;&#4662;&#4616;&#4763;&#4962;</cite> &#4632;&#4784;&#4757;&#4757;&#4961;&#4824;&#4813;&#4852;&#4962; &#4872;&#4925; &#4982;&#4974;&#4962; &#4709;&#4653;&#4611;&#4757;&#4755;&#4961;&#4656;&#4619;&#4637;&#4961;&#4635;&#4720;&#4634;&#4843;&#4961;&#4708;&#4725;&#4963; &#4901;&#4677;&#4637;&#4725;&#4961;&#4979;&#4971;&#4961;&#4672;&#4757;&#4961;&#4978;&#4977;&#4987;&#4981;&#4976;&#4961;&#4819;.&#4637;.&#4962; &#4768;&#4850;&#4661;&#4961;&#4768;&#4704;&#4707;&#4962;</span></p>
      </dd>
    </dl>
  </section>
  
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