Jump to content

Genetic and anthropometric studies on Japanese people

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In population genetics, research has been done on the genetic origins of modern Japanese people.

Overview

[edit]

From the point of view of genetic studies, Japanese people:

Origins

[edit]
Main articles: Jōmon people, Yayoi people, and Genetic history of East Asians § Japanese people
Glacier cover in Japan at the height of the last glaciation about 20,000 years ago

A common origin of Japanese has been proposed by a number of scholars since Arai Hakuseki first brought up the theory and Fujii Sadamoto, a pioneer of modern archaeology in Japan, also treated the issue in 1781.[11] But after the end of World War II, Kotondo Hasebe and Hisashi Suzuki claimed that the origin of Japanese people was not the newcomers in the Yayoi period (300 BCE – 300 CE) but the people in the Jōmon period.[12] However, Kazuro Hanihara announced a new racial admixture theory in 1984.[12] Hanihara also announced the theory "dual structure model" in English in 1991.[13] According to Hanihara, modern Japanese lineages began with Jōmon people, who moved into the Japanese archipelago during the Paleolithic. Hanihara believed that there was a second wave of immigrants, from northeast Asia to Japan from the Yayoi period. Following a population expansion in Neolithic times, these newcomers then found their way to the Japanese archipelago sometime during the Yayoi period. As a result, miscegenation was common in the island regions of Kyūshū, Shikoku, and Honshū, but did not prevail in the outlying islands of Okinawa and Hokkaidō, and the Ryukyuan and Ainu people continued to dominate there. Mark J. Hudson claimed that the main ethnic image of Japanese people was biologically and linguistically formed from 400 BCE to 1,200 CE.[12] Currently, the most well-regarded theory is that present-day Japanese are descendants of both the indigenous Jōmon people and the immigrant Yayoi people.

Main migration routes into Japan during the Jōmon and Yayoi period

On the other hand, a study published in October 2009 by the National Museum of Nature and Science et al. concluded that the Minatogawa Man, who was found in Okinawa and was regarded as evidence that the Jōmon people were not a homogenous group and that these southern Jōmon came to Japan via a southern route and had a slender and more neo-Mongoloid face unlike the northern Jōmon.[14] Hiroto Takamiya of the Sapporo University suggested that the people of Kyushu immigrated to Okinawa between the 10th and 12th centuries CE.[15][16] Regardless, both northern and southern Jōmon were craniofacially different from modern mainland Japanese and had European-like features[17] and a 'well-defined and less flat upper face' respectively.[18] But they still had hair and teeth morphology that was characteristic of East Asian peoples, especially northern Jōmon.[17]

A 2011 study by Sean Lee and Toshikazu Hasegawa[19] reported that a common origin of Japonic languages had originated around 2,182 years before present.[20]

A 2015 study revealed that modern Japanese possess 2.2% West Eurasian ancestry, which likely originated from interactions with Silk Road traders around 1700 years ago.[21]

A study conducted in 2017 by Ulsan University in Korea presented evidence that the genetic origin of Koreans is closer to that of Southeast Asians (Vietnamese people).[22] This was additionally supported by Japanese research conducted in 1999 that supported the theory that the origin of the Yayoi people was in southern China near the Yangtze river.[23]

The origins of the Jōmon and Yayoi people have often been a subject of dispute, and a recent Japanese publisher[24] has divided the potential routes of the people living on the Japanese archipelago as follows:

A population genomic PCA graph, showing the substructure of Eastern Asian populations, including analyzed Japanese Jōmon samples. Japanese people's cluster (square) is almost indistinguishable to the Korean people's cluster (circle), while the Jōmon samples are shifted towards the Siberian cluster in a more distinct position. (2019)
  • Aboriginals that have been living in Japan for more than 10,000 years. (Without geographic distinction, which means, the group of people living in islands from Hokkaido to Okinawa may all be considered to be Aboriginals in this case.)
  • Immigrants from the northern route (北方ルート in Japanese) including the people from the Korean Peninsula, mainland China and Sakhalin Island.
  • Immigrants from the southern route (南方ルート in Japanese) including the people from the Pacific Islands, Southeast Asia, and in some context, India.

However, a clear consensus has not been reached.[25][26][27][28][29]

A study in 2017 estimates the Jōmon ancestry in people from Tokyo at approximately 12%.[30]

In 2018, an independent research conducted by director Kenichi Shinoda and his team at National Museum of Nature and Science was broadcast on NHK Science ZERO and it was discovered that the modern day Japanese are genetically extremely close to the modern day Koreans.[31] A genome study (Takahashi et al. 2019) shows that modern Japanese (Yamato) do not have much Jōmon ancestry at all. Nuclear genome analysis of Jōmon samples and modern Japanese samples show strong differences.[32] Various studies estimate the proportion of Jōmon ancestry in Japanese people at around 9-13%, with the remainder derived from later migrations from Asia including the Yayoi people.[30][33][2]

Recent studies have revealed that Jomon people are considerably genetically different from any other population, including modern-day Japanese.

— Takahashi et al. 2019, (Adachi et al., 2011; Adachi and Nara, 2018)
Ancestry profile of Japanese genetic clusters illustrating their genetic similarities to five mainland Asian populations

A study, published in the Cambridge University Press in 2020, suggests that the Jōmon people were rather heterogeneous, and that there was also a pre-Yayoi migration during the Jōmon period, which may be linked to the arrival of the Japonic languages, meaning that Japonic is one of the Jōmon languages. This migration is suggested to have happened before 6000BC, thus before the actual Yayoi migration.[34]

The most popular theory is that the Yayoi people were the people who brought wet rice cultivation to Japan from the Korean peninsula and Jiangnan near the Yangtze River Delta in ancient China.[35][page needed] According to several Japanese historians, the Yayoi and their ancestors, the Wajin, originated in the today Yunnan province in southern China.[36] Suwa Haruo[37] considered Wa-zoku (Wajin) to be part of the Baiyue (百越).[38]

Recent full genome analyses in 2020 by Boer et al. 2020 and Yang et al. 2020, reveals some further information regarding the origin of the Jōmon peoples. They were found to have largely formed from a Paleolithic Siberian population and an East Asian related population.[11][39] Gakuhari et al. (2020) stated that the Jōmon had strong genetic affinities with Taiwanese aborigines.[40]

According to a March 2021 study on genetic distance measurements from a large scale genetic study titled 'Genomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia', the modern "Japanese populations can be modelled as deriving from Korean (91%) and Jōmon (9%)."[41]

A September 2021 study published in the journal Science Advances found that the people of Japan bore genetic signatures from three ancient populations rather than just two as previously thought.[4] The study states that in addition to the previously discovered Jōmon and Yayoi strands, a new strand was hypothesized to have been introduced, most likely from the southern Korean peninsula, during the Yayoi-Kofun transition period that had strong cultural and political affinity with Korea and China.[42] The genomes of three Kofun individuals analyzed in the study document the arrival of people with "majority East Asian ancestry and their admixture with the Yayoi population" with the additional ancestry coming from migrants who were "already highly admixed" and "best represented by the Han, who have multiple ancestral components."[43]

According to the study, the genetic profile of the Japanese population was established in the Kofun period. Over 70% of their genetic makeup can be attributed to the Kofun component, with 15%-20% being attributed to Yayoi and the rest to the Jōmon component.[4] The Nikkei published an article that showed the Kofun strand in modern-day Japanese was concentrated in specific regions such as Kinki, Hokuriku and Shikoku.[44]

Wang and Wang (2022) reiterated that Yayoi immigrants did not demographically replace the Jōmon. Instead, they co-existed and intermarried with indigenous Jōmon, which led the Yayoi to have 60% Jōmon ancestry. The rest was northeast Asian. Jōmon admixture was decreased when ancestries related to the northern Han Chinese were introduced in the Kofun period.[45]

Liu et. al (2024) stated that Jōmon admixture in contemporary Japanese people varies depending on region, with admixture being the highest in southern Japan, especially Okinawa (28.5%), followed by northeastern Japan (19%) and western Japan (12%). [46]

Anthropometry

[edit]

Stephen Pheasant (1986), who taught anatomy, biomechanics and ergonomics at the Royal Free Hospital and the University College, London, said that Far Eastern people have proportionately shorter lower limbs than European and black African people. Pheasant said that the proportionately short lower limbs of Far Eastern people is a difference that is most characterized in Japanese people, less characterized in Korean and Chinese people, and least characterized in Vietnamese and Thai people.[47][48]

Rajvir Yadav et al. (2000) stated the sitting height to stature ratios of different populations: South Indian (0.4922), female Indian (0.4974), Eastern Indian (0.4991), Southeastern African (0.5096), Central Indian (0.5173), US (0.5202), Western Indian (0.5243), German (0.5266) and Japanese (0.5452).[49]

Hirofumi Matsumura et al. (2001) and Hideo Matsumoto et al. (2009) said that the Japanese and Vietnamese people are regarded to be a mix of Northeast Asians and Southeast Asians. However, the amount of northern genetics is higher in Japanese people compared to Vietnamese, who are closer to other Southeast Asians (Thai or Bamar people).[50][51]

Neville Moray (2005) said that, for Korean and Japanese pilots, sitting height is more than 54% of their stature, with about 46% of their stature from leg length. Moray said that, for Americans and most Europeans, sitting height is about 52% of their stature, with about 48% of their stature from leg length. Moray indicated that modifications in basic cockpit geometry are required to accommodate Japanese and Vietnamese pilots. Moray said that the Japanese have longer torsos and a higher shoulder point than the Vietnamese, but the Japanese have about similar arm lengths to the Vietnamese, so the control stick would have to be moved 8 cm closer to the pilot for the Japanese and 7 cm closer to the pilot for the Vietnamese. Moray said that, due to having shorter legs than Americans, rudder pedals must be moved closer to the pilot by 10 cm for the Japanese and 12 cm for the Vietnamese.[52]

Craniometry

[edit]
According to Pietrusewsky, the group most similar to the Japanese cranial bones were the Koreans. Meanwhile, Chinese, Mongolians and Southeast Asians were distinguished from the Japanese.[53] (2010)

Ashley Montagu (1989) said that the "Mongoloid skull generally, whether Chinese or Japanese, has been rather more neotenized than the Caucasoid or European..."[54]

Ann Kumar (1998) said that Michael Pietrusewsky (1992) said that, in a craniometric study, the cranial bones of Southeast Asians (Borneo, Vietnam, Sulu, Java, and Sulawesi etc.) are closer to Japanese, in that order, than Mongolian and Chinese populations are close to Japanese. In the craniometric study, Michael Pietrusewsky (1992) said that, even though Japanese people cluster with Mongolians, Chinese and Southeast Asians in a larger Asian cluster, the cranial bones of Japanese people are more closely aligned with several mainland and island Southeast Asian samples than with Mongolians and Chinese. However, Pietrusewsky (1992) also said, more research is needed on the similarity of the cranial bones between Japanese and Southeast Asians.[55][56]

In a craniometric study, Pietrusewsky (1994) found that the Japanese series, which was a series that spanned from the Yayoi period to modern times, formed a single branch with Korea.[57] Later, Pietrusewsky (1999) found, however, that Korean and Yayoi people were very highly separated in the East Asian cluster, indicating that the connection that Japanese have with Korea would not have derived from Yayoi people.[57] However, in a follow-up study, Pietrusewsky (2010) corrected that East Asians and Southeast Asians were markedly separated from each other. He found that Koreans had the most similar cranial bones to ancient and modern Japanese including the Yayoi people and Jōmon people, followed by Taiwan and Hainan.[53] He stated that a common origin of Northeast Asians could be traced and that they began entering the Japanese archipelago at the beginning of the Yayoi period.[53]

Park Dae-kyoon et al. (2001) said that distance analysis based on thirty-nine non-metric cranial traits showed that Koreans are closer craniometrically to Kazakhs and Mongols than to the populations in China and Japan.[58]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro (March 15, 2019) [2019]. "Jomon genome sheds light on East Asian population history" (PDF). bioRxiv. pp. 3–5.
  2. ^ a b Late Jomon male and female genome sequences from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, Japan - Hideaki Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science 2018/2019en
  3. ^ "'Jomon woman' helps solve Japan's genetic mystery". NHK World. Retrieved 2020-11-20.
  4. ^ a b c d Cooke NP, Mattiangeli V, Cassidy LM, Okazaki K, Stokes CA, Onbe S, et al. (September 2021). "Ancient genomics reveals tripartite origins of Japanese populations". Science Advances. 7 (38): eabh2419. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.2419C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2419. PMC 8448447. PMID 34533991.
  5. ^ Mitsuru Sakitani (2009). 『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』 [New History of the Japanese Islands Shown by Interdisciplinary Studies on DNA, Archeology, and Language] (in Japanese). Bensei Publishing. ISBN 9784585053941.
  6. ^ a b Suzuki, Yuka (December 6, 2012). "Ryukyuan, Ainu People Genetically Similar". Asian Scientist. Archived from the original on June 16, 2016. Retrieved June 11, 2016.
  7. ^ "'Jomon woman' helps solve Japan's genetic mystery". NHK World. Retrieved 2020-11-19.
  8. ^ 弥生人ＤＮＡで迫る日本人の起源」 [The origin of Japanese people approaching with Yayoi DNA]. ja:サイエンスZERO (Television production) (in Japanese). NHK. 2018-12-23.
  9. ^ Boer, Elisabeth de; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020). "Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2: e13. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.7. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10427481. PMID 37588377.
  10. ^ Wang, Chuan-Chao (2021). "Genomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia". Nature. 591 (7850): 413–419. Bibcode:2021Natur.591..413W. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03336-2. PMC 7993749. PMID 33618348.
  11. ^ a b Miller, Roy A. The Japanese Language. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle. 1967, pp. 61-62
  12. ^ a b c Nanta, Arnaud (2008). "Physical Anthropology and the Reconstruction of Japanese Identity in Postcolonial Japan". Social Science Japan Journal. 11 (1): 29–47. doi:10.1093/ssjj/jyn019.
  13. ^ Hanihara, K (1991). "Dual structure model for the population history of the Japanese". Japan Review. 2: 1–33.
  14. ^ Watanabe, Nobuyuki (October 1, 2009). 旧石器時代の「港川１号」、顔ほっそり 縄文人と差. The Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese). Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
  15. ^ Nakamura, Shunsuke (April 16, 2010). 沖縄人のルーツを探る. The Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese). p. 2. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
  16. ^ Hideaki Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Kirill Kryukov, Timothy A Jinam, Kazuyoshi Hosomichi, Aiko Saso: . In: . Band 62, Nr. 2, 1. September 2016
  17. ^ a b Jinam, Timothy A.; Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Inoue, Ituro; et al. (2015). "Unique characteristics of the Ainu population in Northern Japan". Journal of Human Genetics. 60: 565–571 – via Nature.
  18. ^ Miyazato, Eri; Yamaguchi, Kyoko; Fukase, Hitoshi; et al. (2014). "Comparative analysis of facial morphology between Okinawa Islanders and mainland Japanese using three-dimensional images". American Journal of Human Biology – via Wiley Online Library.
  19. ^ "メンバー". 13 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  20. ^ Lee, Sean; Hasegawa, Toshikazu (2011). "Bayesian phylogenetic analysis supports an agricultural origin of Japonic languages". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1725): 3662–3669. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0518. PMC 3203502. PMID 21543358.
  21. ^ Qin, Pengfei; Zhou, Ying; Lou, Haiyi; Lu, Dongsheng; Yang, Xiong; Wang, Yuchen; Jin, Li; Chung, Yeun-Jun; Xu, Shuhua (2015-04-02). "Quantitating and Dating Recent Gene Flow between European and East Asian Populations". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 9500. doi:10.1038/srep09500. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4382708. PMID 25833680.
  22. ^ "Researchers discover Korean genetic roots in 7,700-year-old skull". Korea.net. Korean Culture and Information Service. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
  23. ^ "Yayoi linked to Yangtze area". Trussel.com. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
  24. ^ from the book, 2009, Japanese published by Heidansha. "日本人". マイペディア. 平凡社. Original sentence:旧石器時代または縄文時代以来、現在の北海道から琉球諸島までの地域に住んだ集団を祖先に持つ。シベリア、樺太、朝鮮半島などを経由する北方ルート、南西諸島などを経由する南方ルートなど複数の渡来経路が考えられる
  25. ^ Tajima, Atsushi; Pan, I.-Hung; Fucharoen, Goonnapa; Fucharoen, Supan; Matsuo, Masafumi; Tokunaga, Katsushi; Juji, Takeo; Hayami, Masanori; Omoto, Keiichi; Horai, Satoshi (1 January 2002). "Three major lineages of Asian Y chromosomes: implications for the peopling of east and southeast Asia". Human Genetics. 110 (1): 80–88. doi:10.1007/s00439-001-0651-9. PMID 11810301. S2CID 30808716.
  26. ^ "Japanese Roots - news education science magazines technology science …". Discover.com. 16 March 2006. Archived from the original on 16 March 2006. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  27. ^ Diamond, Jared (June 1998). "Japanese Roots". livjm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2005-08-24.
  28. ^ "Lost Tribes of Israel - Where are the Ten Lost Tribes? (3)". Pbs.org. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  29. ^ Hammer, Michael F; Karafet, Tatiana M; Park, Hwayong; Omoto, Keiichi; Harihara, Shinji; Stoneking, Mark; Horai, Satoshi (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes" (PDF). Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. PMID 16328082. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2006. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  30. ^ a b "「縄文人」は独自進化したアジアの特異集団だった！ : 深読み". 読売新聞オンライン (in Japanese). 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
  31. ^ 弥生人ＤＮＡで迫る日本人の起源」 [The origin of Japanese people approaching with Yayoi DNA]. ja:サイエンスZERO (Television production) (in Japanese). NHK. 2018-12-23.
  32. ^ Nara, Takashi; Adachi, Noboru; Yoneda, Minoru; Hagihara, Yasuo; Saeki, Fumiko; Koibuchi, Ryoko; Takahashi, Ryohei (2019). "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the human skeletons excavated from the Shomyoji shell midden site, Kanagawa, Japan". Anthropological Science. 127 (1): 65–72. doi:10.1537/ase.190307. ISSN 0918-7960.
  33. ^ "'Jomon woman' helps solve Japan's genetic mystery". NHK World. Retrieved 2020-11-19.
  34. ^ Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Driem, George van (2020). "Munda languages are father tongues, but Japanese and Korean are not". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2: e19. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.14. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10427457. PMID 37588351.
  35. ^ Mitsuru Sakitani (2009). 『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』 [New History of the Japanese Islands Shown by Interdisciplinary Studies on DNA, Archeology, and Language] (in Japanese). Bensei Publishing. ISBN 9784585053941.
  36. ^ 鳥越憲三郎『原弥生人の渡来 』(角川書店,1982)、『倭族から日本人へ』(弘文堂 ,1985)、『古代朝鮮と倭族』(中公新書,1992)、『倭族トラジャ』(若林弘子との共著、大修館書店,1995)、『弥生文化の源流考』(若林弘子との共著、大修館書店,1998)、『古代中国と倭族』(中公新書, 2000)、『中国正史倭人・倭国伝全釈』(中央公論新社, 2004)
  37. ^ "SUWA Haruo (諏訪春雄)" (in Japanese). 2018-01-18.
  38. ^ 諏訪春雄編『倭族と古代日本』(雄山閣出版、1993)また諏訪春雄通信100
  39. ^ Boer, Elisabeth de; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020). "Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2: e13. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.7. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10427481. PMID 37588377.
  40. ^ Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Ramussen, Simon; et al. (2020). "Ancient Jomon genome sequence analysis sheds light on migration patterns of early East Asian populations". Communications Biology. 3 (437) – via Nature.com.
  41. ^ Wang, Chuan-Chao (2021). "Genomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia". Nature. 591 (7850): 413–419. Bibcode:2021Natur.591..413W. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03336-2. PMC 7993749. PMID 33618348.
  42. ^ Cooke 2021: "Several lines of archaeological evidence support the introduction of new large settlements to Japan, most likely from the southern Korean peninsula, during the Yayoi-Kofun transition. Strong cultural and political affinity between Japan, Korea, and China is also observable from several imports, including Chinese mirrors and coins, Korean raw materials for iron production, and Chinese characters inscribed on metal implements (e.g., swords)."
  43. ^ Cooke 2021:"Their genomes document the arrival of people with majority East Asian ancestry to Japan and their admixture with the Yayoi population. This additional ancestry is best represented in our analysis by Han, who have multiple ancestral components. A recent study has reported that people became morphologically homogeneous in the continent from the Neolithic onward, which implies that migrants during the Kofun period were already highly admixed."
  44. ^ Nikkei Science (23 June 2021). "渡来人、四国に多かった？ ゲノムが明かす日本人ルーツ" [Were there many migrants in Shikoku? Japanese roots revealed by genome analysis]. nikkei.com (in Japanese). Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  45. ^ Wang, Rui; Wang, Chuan-Chao (2022-08-08). "Human genetics: The dual origin of Three Kingdoms period Koreans". Current Biology. 32 (15): R844–R847. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.044. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 35944486. S2CID 251410856.
  46. ^ Liu, Xiaoxi; Koyama, Satoshi; Tomizuka, Kohei; et al. (2024). "Decoding triancestral origins, archaic introgression, and natural selection in the Japanese population by whole-genome sequencing". Science Advances. 10 (16) – via Science.org.
  47. ^ Pheasant, Stephen. (2003). Bodyspace: Anthropometry, ergonomics and the design of work (2nd. ed.). Taylor & Francis. Page 159. Retrieved March 14, 2018, from Google Books.
  48. ^ Buckle, Peter (1996). "Obituary". Work & Stress. 10 (3): 282. doi:10.1080/02678379608256807.
  49. ^ Rajvir Yadav; et al. (2000). "An Anthropometry of Indian Agricultural Workers". Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America. 31 (3): 59.
  50. ^ Matsumura, Hirofumi; Cuong, Nguyen Lan; Thuy, Nguyen Kim; Anezaki, Tomoko (2001). "Dental Morphology of the Early Hoabinian, the Neolithic da but and the Metal Age Dong Son Civilized Peoples in Vietnam". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 83 (1): 59–73. doi:10.1127/zma/83/2001/59. JSTOR 25757578. PMID 11372468.
  51. ^ Mastsumoto, Hideo (2009). "The origin of the Japanese race based on genetic markers of immunoglobulin G". Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series B. 85 (2): 69–82. Bibcode:2009PJAB...85...69M. doi:10.2183/pjab.85.69. ISSN 0386-2208. PMC 3524296. PMID 19212099.
  52. ^ Moray, Neville. (2005). Ergonomics: The history and scope of human factors. London and New York: Taylor & Francis. Pages 298 & 327. ISBN: 0-415-32258-8 Google Books link.
  53. ^ a b c Pietrusewsky, Michael (January 2010). "A multivariate analysis of measurements recorded in early and more modern crania from East Asia and Southeast Asia". Quaternary International. 211 (1–2): 42–54. Bibcode:2010QuInt.211...42P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.12.011. ISSN 1040-6182.
  54. ^ Montagu, Ashley. (1989). Growing Young (2nd. ed.). Granby, MA: Bergin & Garvey Publishers, inc. ISBN 0-89789-167-8 Retrieved March 13, 2018, from Google Books.
  55. ^ Kumar, Ann. (1998). An Indonesian Component in the Yayoi?: the Evidence of Biological Anthropology. Anthropological Science 106(3). Page 268. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from link to the PDF document.
  56. ^ Pietrusewsky, Michael. (1992). Japan, Asia and the Pacific: A multivariate craniometric investigation. In book: Japanese as a member of the Asian and Pacific populations, Publisher: Kyoto: International Research Center for Japanese Studies. International Symposium No. 4., Page 47. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from link to the article.
  57. ^ a b Kumar, Ann. (2009). Globalizing the Prehistory of Japan: Language, Genes and Civilisation. London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Page 79 & 88. Retrieved January 23, 2018, from link.
  58. ^ Park, Dae Kyoon; Lee, U Young; Lee, Jun Hyun; Choi, Byoung Young; Koh, Ki Seok; Kim, Hee Jin; Park, Sun Joo; Han, Seung Ho (2001). "Non-metric Traits of Korean Skulls". Korean Journal of Physical Anthropology. 14 (2): 117. doi:10.11637/kjpa.2001.14.2.117.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetic_and_anthropometric_studies_on_Japanese_people&oldid=1248882760"