Higher education in the United States

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Higher education
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Enrollment statistics
Tuition statistics
Financial aid statistics
Retention rates
Graduation rates
Higher education funding
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Higher education in the United States is mainly the province of state governments, most of which have an agency to oversee and develop policy. Since 1980, the federal government has played an increasing role in higher education through the United States Department of Education, which is the primary financier of university research and student financial aid. Over the past 20 years, higher education has come to be seen as an economic necessity, and most higher education policy has centered around trying to increase access, lower costs, and, particularly after the 2008 recession, contain student debt.

HIGHLIGHTS
  • Between 2012 and 2014, full-time enrollment nationwide fell from nearly 11.6 million to about 11.1 million.
  • Average tuition increased by 40 percent between the 2005-2006 and the 2015-2016 school years, about twice the rate of inflation.
  • About 57.6 percent of all students at four-year public colleges graduated within six years. Although postsecondary schools are classified as four-year and two-year institutions, relatively few students actually complete degrees within these time frames.

    • Click on the tabs below to learn more about higher education in the United States.

    Major issues

    College costs and prices

    While the cost of attending and completing college has been a concern for policymakers for at least the past 20 years, greater attention has been paid to college costs since the 2008 recession, particularly to the price of tuition. Tuition accounts for just a portion of student costs; in many states, the cost of room and board equals or surpasses the cost of tuition at public universities. However, unlike room and board, tuition has risen much faster than inflation, increasing by 40 percent between the 2005-2006 and the 2015-2016 school years. The consumer price index increased by 21.5 percent over the same time period. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, "tuition at public four-year institutions has risen faster than inflation every year since 1980."[1][2][3][4]

    Higher education has come to be seen as a financial necessity that benefits the economy overall. At the root of the issue is the concern that rising tuition will prevent more students from obtaining a college degree and burden those who do with mounting debt, the negative effects of which would ripple throughout the economy. Some studies suggest that universities have increased tuition as a response to state budget cuts, while others correlate rising tuition with the availability of federal financial aid. In May 2016, Gallup found that 47 percent of Americans supported completely funding college with state and federal expenditures and making it tuition-free for students, as Bernie Sanders called for in his 2016 presidential campaign.[5][6][7]

    Federal student aid

    Does research show that federal student aid increases tuition?

    August 14, 2017: Mary Clare Amselem, an education policy analyst at the Heritage Foundation, claimed that "Economists have found that virtually unrestricted access to federal student aid encourages colleges and universities to raise their tuition prices."

    Is Amselem correct that research shows federal student aid increases tuition?

    Read Ballotpedia's fact check »

    Federal student aid has emerged as an issue alongside rising college costs. The federal government provides financial aid to undergraduate students in the form of grants and loans. As the price of tuition has risen, so has the amount students borrow in loans: "college graduates who borrowed took an average of around $35K in 2014, up from roughly $20K in 2004 and $11K in 1994." Due to these factors, how federal student aid is administered has become a point of contention for those concerned with college access and affordability, particularly student loan interest rates and Pell Grants.[8]

    The two major types of federal loans are Perkins Loans and Direct Loans. Perkins Loans have an interest rate of 5 percent, while Direct Loans have interest rates that vary based on the date of disbursement and the loan type: loans disbursed between July 1, 2014, and July 1, 2017, have interest rates ranging from 3.76 percent to 7.21 percent. Some argue that student loan interest rates should be lowered to cut down on costs for student borrowers and boost college enrollment. Supporters of this idea say that by reducing borrowers' monthly payments, the rate of default would go down and the economy would benefit from the freed-up income. Opponents of lowering student loan interest rates say that it would not significantly reduce borrowers' monthly payments and would therefore have little effect on default rates. Others argue that student loan interest rates should be higher because there is no tangible collateral, or tied to choice of major, with students who choose more marketable majors receiving lower interest rates.[9][10][11][12][13]

    Pell Grants are awarded to low-income students and, unlike loans, do not have to be paid back. In the 2014-2015 school year, the maximum Pell Grant award amounted to $5,730. Due to the fast pace of rising tuition, Pell Grants cover a smaller portion of average tuition today than they have historically, about 25 percent in 2015 compared to 50 percent in 1975. Some argue that Pell Grants are an investment in the economy and that increasing award amounts would improve access to college and boost completion rates. Some also advocate restructuring the program to allow students to receive grants for summer classes or for more credit hours per semester, and President Barack Obama called for tying Pell Grants to inflation. Others argue that increasing the Pell Grant would not make college more affordable because it would exacerbate tuition increases and that the Pell Grant program already has a budget greater than some federal agencies. Some also point to the lower average graduation rate of Pell Grant recipients compared to non-recipients and say that the program should be defunded entirely to better fund K-12 education, arguing that the economy does not need a greater number of college graduates but rather students better prepared to enter college.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20]

    Student debt

    How policymakers should respond to growing student debt figures has become a major issue nationwide, particularly since the 2008 recession. Nationwide, 62 percent of all students graduated with debt in the 2013-2014 school year. This debt averaged to about $28,000 per borrower. Student debt has increased alongside college tuition and enrollment, and as of 2015, total student debt nationwide amounted to $1.3 trillion. Student debt has risen so much that it is now routinely referred to as a "crisis." Those who say there is a student debt crisis argue that graduates are postponing life events like marriage and buying a home because of their debt, and are not accumulating savings, dragging down the economy.[21][22]

    Multiple changes in policy have been proposed to address student debt. Advocates for a change in student debt policy have called for allowing student loans to be refinanced at a lower interest rate and making it easier to discharge the loans in bankruptcy. Some also say that financial information regarding student loans should be more transparent at the beginning of the college application process, arguing that many students are not fully aware of the amount of money they are borrowing and what their monthly repayment bill will be. Others have called for completely forgiving all student loan debt.[22][23]

    Others argue that focusing on overall student loan debt ignores the real problem of those who accumulate debt without earning a degree. They say that only a minority of graduates take on excessive student loan debt and that those who are at the greatest risk for defaulting are individuals who took on a small amount of debt, but dropped out. These drop-outs typically come from low-income families, and according to Mark Huelsman, senior policy analyst at Demos, they are four times more likely to default on their loans. Those who agree with this stance say that these individuals are worse off than if they hadn't gone to college at all and argue that focusing on student debt overall will result in policy decisions that further harm these individuals.[8][24]

    Some argue that there is not a student debt crisis at all. They say that the average amount of debt comes with manageable monthly payments and that only 1 percent of graduates with debt hold debt over $100,000. Andrew Kelly, director of the Center on Higher Education Reform at the American Enterprise Institute, contended that the apparent effect of student debt on life decisions is mistaking correlation for causation. Additionally, some say that referring to the issue as a "crisis" may result in policy decisions that reduce opportunities for low-income individuals to attend college in the future.[25][26]

    Admissions

    Enrollment

    See also: Higher education enrollment statistics

    According to the State Higher Education Executive Officers Association, college enrollment typically rises during economic downturns and declines as the economy improves. In 2014, higher education enrollment nationwide was 8.6 percent higher than pre-recession levels in 2008. However, enrollment has been declining since 2012. Full-time enrollment in higher education institutions rose sharply following the recession before peaking in 2011 and then dropping off.[27]

    Between 2012 and 2014, full-time enrollment nationwide fell from nearly 11.6 million to about 11.1 million. Click [show] on the green bar below the bar chart to view full-time public university enrollment for the country. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.

    United States higher ed enrollment 2016.png

    Demographics

    See also: Higher education enrollment demographics

    Enrollment by race and ethnicity

    Nationwide, total enrollment—full-time and part-time—in all public and private higher education institutions amounted to 20.4 million in fall 2013. Approximately 57 percent of these students were white. Hispanic students accounted for 15.2 percent of the total student population, followed by black students at 14.1 percent. Other racial and ethnic groups comprised the remainder. During that time, 59.3 percent of the nation's general population was white, 15.8 percent was Hispanic and 14.7 percent was black, with other groups comprising the remainder. The table below provides demographic information for both the postsecondary student and general populations. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[28]

    Higher education enrollment by race/ethnicity, 2013
    State Population category White Black Hispanic Asian Pacific Islander American Indian/Alaska Native Two or more races Non-resident alien
    United States Postsecondary students 56.9% 14.1% 15.2% 5.9% 0.3% 0.8% 2.7% 4.1%
    General population 59.3% 14.7% 15.8% 6.1% 0.3% 0.8% 2.9% N/A
    California Postsecondary students 32.3% 7.0% 36.1% 15.3% 0.6% 0.4% 4.2% 4.2%
    General population 33.7% 7.3% 37.6% 16.0% 0.6% 0.5% 4.3% N/A
    Vermont Postsecondary students 84.6% 2.6% 4.2% 2.4% 0.1% 0.6% 2.6% 2.9%
    General population 87.1% 2.7% 4.3% 2.5% 0.2% 0.6% 2.7% N/A
    Source: National Center for Education Statistics, "Table 306.60. Fall enrollment in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by race/ethnicity of student and state or jurisdiction: 2013"

    Enrollment by sex

    In fall 2013, 56.5 percent of all postsecondary students in the United States were women. The table below provides postsecondary student enrollment figures by sex for 2013. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[29]

    Higher education enrollment by sex, 2013
    State Total students Male students Percentage Female students Percentage
    United States 20,375,789 8,860,786 43.5% 11,515,003 56.5%
    California 2,636,921 1,207,738 45.8% 1,429,183 54.2%
    Vermont 43,534 19,918 45.8% 23,616 54.2%
    Source: National Center for Education Statistics, "Table 304.30. Total fall enrollment in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by attendance status, sex, and state or jurisdiction: 2012 and 2013"

    Affirmative action

    See also: State affirmative action information and State data on colleges considering race in admissions

    As federal contractors, public colleges and universities must utilize affirmative action in their employment practices according to federal law. However, many private colleges and universities across the country implemented similar measures in their admissions processes. These actions were typically voluntary, although a handful of states adopted rules requiring state universities to take affirmative action in admissions.[30][31][32]

    Affirmative action admissions programs were undertaken by public and private universities alike, beginning in the late 1960s and 1970s. Some universities initially established quotas in order to achieve a demographically diverse student body; these quotas were outlawed by the United States Supreme Court in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke in 1978. A common form of affirmative action in college admissions was that of racial preferences. Preferences were also sometimes extended towards women, athletes, and children of alumni. The use of racial preferences may be related to college selectivity: scholars such as law professor Richard Sander have found that preferences were strongest at elite institutions.[30][33][34][35]

    Eight states enacted laws banning the consideration of race in university admissions: Arizona, California, Florida, Michigan, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, and Washington. In Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College and Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. University of North Carolina, the Supreme Court effectively ended race-based considerations in college admissions in a June 29, 2023, decision. The ruling explicitly allowed national service academies to continue considering race as a factor in admissions for reasons of national security.[36][37]

    Student costs

    Tuition

    See also: Higher education tuition statistics

    In-state and private tuition

    Tuition accounts for just a portion of student costs; in many states, the cost of room and board equals or surpasses the cost of tuition at public universities. However, unlike room and board, tuition has risen much faster than inflation, increasing by 40 percent between the 2005-2006 and the 2015-2016 school years. The consumer price index increased by 21.5 percent over the same time period. Some studies suggest that universities have increased tuition as a response to state budget cuts, while others correlate rising tuition with the availability of financial aid.[38][3][39]

    In the 2013-2014 academic year, the national average in-state cost for tuition and required fees at a public four-year school totaled $8,312. For a private four-year school, the average was $25,696. The graph below displays average tuition prices in the United States between the 2005-2006 and 2015-2016 school years. Hover over the points to view precise figures. The table below the graph provides information on 2013-2014 average annual tuition costs in the United States for public and private schools. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[3][40]

    Note: Discrepancies in data between the line graph and the table below are due to differing sources of information.

    Higher education tuition and fees at 4-year institutions, 2013-2014 (in current dollars)
    State Public in-state Private
    2012-2013 2013-2014 Percent change 2012-2013 2013-2014 Percent change
    United States $8,070 $8,312 3.0% $24,525 $25,696 4.8%
    California $8,892 $8,903 0.1% $28,345 $29,678 4.7%
    Vermont $13,524 $13,952 3.2% $35,130 $36,449 3.8%
    Note: Dollar figures do not account for differences in the cost of living between states. Learn more here.
    Source: National Center for Education Statistics, "Table 330.20. Average undergraduate tuition and fees and room and board rates charged for full-time students in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by control and level of institution and state or jurisdiction: 2012-13 and 2013-14"

    Out-of-state tuition

    Public postsecondary schools receive some of their funding from their state's government. This money in turn comes from taxation of the state's residents. Since neither out-of-state students nor their parents paid that state's taxes, the schools charge these students additional tuition to account for the difference. This additional charge is a significant increase over in-state tuition in all 50 states. In the 2013-2014 school year, out-of-state students nationwide paid an average of $22,603 in annual tuition and required fees, 272 percent higher than the in-state average of $8,312.[3]

    The table below provides information on in-state and out-of-state tuition figures in the United States. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.

    Average annual in-state and out-of-state tuition and required fees, 2013-2014
    State Average in-state tuition Average out-of-state tuition Percent difference
    United States $8,312 $22,603 272%
    California $8,903 $30,663 344%
    Vermont $13,952 $33,700 242%
    Note: Dollar figures do not account for differences in the cost of living between states. Learn more here.
    Source: National Center for Education Statistics, "Table 330.20. Average undergraduate tuition and fees and room and board rates charged for full-time students in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by control and level of institution and state or jurisdiction: 2012-13 and 2013-14"

    Financial aid

    Does research show that federal student aid increases tuition?

    August 14, 2017: Mary Clare Amselem, an education policy analyst at the Heritage Foundation, claimed that "Economists have found that virtually unrestricted access to federal student aid encourages colleges and universities to raise their tuition prices." Is Amselem correct that research shows federal student aid increases tuition?

    Read Ballotpedia's fact check »

    The federal government provides financial aid to undergraduate students in the form of grants and loans. Notable grants administered by the United States government include Pell Grants and Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants (FSEOG). Loan programs administered by the federal government include the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan (Direct Loan) Program and Federal Perkins Loan Program. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 85 percent of first-time, full-time undergraduate students at four-year institutions (public and private) received financial aid in the 2013-2014 academic year. This is up from 75 percent in the 2006-2007 academic year.[9][41][42]

    Perkins Loans have an interest rate of 5 percent, while Direct Loans have interest rates that vary based on the date of disbursement and the loan type: loans disbursed between July 1, 2014, and July 1, 2017, have interest rates ranging from 3.76 percent to 7.21 percent. According to the U.S. Department of Education, the average default rate on Perkins Loans was 11.8 percent for borrowers who entered into repayment in 2012; the rate reflects borrowers who defaulted prior to September 30, 2014. This is compared to average default rates of 7.2 percent on home loans and 2.23 percent on credit card loans in 2014.[9][43][44][45]

    In addition, colleges and universities often offer institution-specific financial aid to their students, and individual states may also administer student financial aid programs. According to the National Association of State Student Grant and Aid Programs, the states disbursed approximately $11.7 billion in state-based financial aid to postsecondary students in the 2013-2014 academic year. This represented about 5 percent of all financial aid provided to undergraduate students, according to the College Board. The table below provides state-based aid figures for the United States. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[46][47]

    Total state-based financial aid, 2013-2014 (in millions)
    State Need-based grant aid Non-need-based grant aid Non-grant aid Total
    United States $7,491.27 $2,446.92 $1,756.51 $11,694.70
    California $1,671.94 $2.38 $21.38 $1,695.7
    Vermont $20.4 $.11 $.49 $21.
    Note: Dollar figures do not account for differences in the cost of living between states. Learn more here.
    Source: National Association of State Student Grant and Aid Programs, "45th Annual Survey Report on State-Sponsored Student Financial Aid"

    Click [show] on the table below to view figures on average financial aid amount awarded to full-time college freshmen, by type of aid.

    Student debt

    See also: Student debt in higher education in the United States

    Nationwide, 62 percent of all students graduated with debt in the 2013-2014 school year. This debt averaged to about $27,779 per borrower. Debt for students who graduated from a public institution averaged about $25,902 per borrower, while those graduating from private schools had debt averaging at $29,657. In some states, private school student debt was lower than public school student debt.[48][49]

    The tables below provide figures on student debt. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided. The first table also includes their national rank, from highest to lowest debt.

    Average student debt and percentage of graduates with debt, 2013-2014
    State Average debt National rank Percentage with debt National rank
    United States $27,779 -- 62% --
    California $21,382 46 55% 40
    Vermont $29,060 15 65% 16
    Source: CollegeInSight, "Explore All Data"


    Average student debt from public and private colleges, 2013-2014
    State Public in-state institution Private institution
    Average debt Percent of graduates with debt Average debt Percent of graduates with debt
    United States $25,902 60% $29,657 64%
    California $19,476 53% $27,493 61%
    Vermont $26,987 64% $31,023 67%
    Source: CollegeInSight, "Explore All Data"

    Academic outcomes

    Retention rates

    See also: Higher education retention rates

    Retention rates indicate the percentage of freshmen postsecondary students who enroll the following academic year as sophomores. According to the NCHEMS Information Center for Higher Education Policymaking and Analysis:[50]

    “ Students are more likely to drop out of postsecondary education during the first year than any other time. If a state can implement policies that help to increase retention rates either within institutions or through transfer, the likelihood of students persisting to graduation is far greater.[50][51] ”
    —NCHEMS Information Center for Higher Education Policymaking and Analysis

    The table below provides information on nationwide retention rates. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[52]

    Higher education retention rates, 2013-2014
    State Total Public Private nonprofit Private for-profit
    2-year 4-year 2-year 4-year 2-year 4-year
    United States 71% 60% 79% 62% 80% 68% 54%
    California 76% 71% 88% 64% 87% 72% 70%
    Vermont 78% 58% 80% N/A 81% N/A 83%
    Source: CollegeInSight, "Explore All Data"

    Graduation rates

    See also: Higher education graduation rates

    Graduation rates vary significantly according to the type of postsecondary institution. In 2013, according to The Chronicle of Higher Education:[53]

    • Of four-year public college students, 57.6 percent graduated within six years.
    • Of two-year public college students, 19.4 percent graduated within three years.
    • Of private, nonprofit four-year college students, 65.4 percent graduated within six years.
    • Of private, for-profit four-year college students, 33.2 percent graduated within six years.
    • Of private, for-profit two-year college students, 63.1 percent graduated within three years.

    Although postsecondary schools are classified as four-year and two-year institutions, relatively few students actually complete degrees within these time frames. At four-year schools, students commonly take between four and six years to complete their degrees. Likewise, students at two-year institutions commonly take three years to complete their degrees. To illustrate this point, both four-year and six-year completion rates are provided in the table below (only three-year rates are provided for two-year institutions, owing to a lack of information regarding two-year completion rates). For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[54]

    United States four year college completion.png
    United States six year college completion.png
    Graduation rates by state, 2013
    State Four-year institutions Two-year institutions
    Completion within four years Completion within six years Completion within three years
    Public Private nonprofit Private for-profit Public Private nonprofit Private for-profit Public Private for-profit
    United States 33.3% 52.8% 23.3% 57.6% 65.4% 33.2% 19.4% 63.1%
    California 33.6% 61.3% 13.5% 64.0% 73.9% 27.1% 26.2% 67.5%
    Vermont 52.5% 59.6% 10.3% 65.3% 66.3% 25.6% 11.1% N/A
    Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education, "Graduation rates by state"

    Funding

    Total state funding

    See also: Higher education funding

    Higher education funding mechanisms differ depending on the type of institution. Public colleges receive the lion's share of their funding from state and local governments. According to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, state and local appropriations accounted for 53 percent of higher education revenues nationwide in 2013. By contrast, private institutions do not receive direct government funding. Instead, these institutions rely primarily on tuition, gifts, and endowments.[55][56]

    The 2008 recession led to decreased public higher education funding as college enrollment increased:

    “ By 2012, the tuition revenues collected by public universities in 20 states covered more educational costs than did state-provided dollars.[51] ”
    —Texas Coalition for Excellence in Higher Education[57]

    While there have been moderate increases in state allocations between 2012 and 2015, the average amount of spending "is still 15 percent less, per student, than before the economic downturn," according to a study by the State Higher Education Executive Offices (SHEEO).[58]

    According to Grapevine, which is published by Illinois State University's Center for the Study of Education Policy and SHEEO, financial support for public higher education nationwide totaled about $81 billion in fiscal year 2015, a 11.7 percent increase over fiscal year 2013. The table below lists higher education fiscal support figures for the nation. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[59]

    State funding for higher education
    State Fiscal year 2013 Fiscal year 2014 Fiscal year 2015 Percent change
    United States $72,493,483,464 $76,950,508,609 $80,973,621,292 11.7%
    California $9,577,505,000 $10,535,904,000 $11,688,629,379 22.0%
    Vermont $89,340,755 $92,686,200 $91,637,327 2.6%
    Note: Dollar figures do not account for differences in the cost of living between states. Learn more here.
    Source: Grapevine, "Table 1: State Fiscal Support for Higher Education, by State, Fiscal Years 2009-10, 2012-13, 2013-14, and 2014-15"

    Funding per student

    According to the State Higher Education Executive Officers Association, average adjusted public postsecondary appropriations per full-time student declined 13.3 percent from fiscal year 2009 to 2013 on average in the United States. The table below lists nationwide adjusted public higher education appropriations per full-time student for fiscal years 2009, 2013 and 2014. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.[27]

    Public higher education appropriations per full-time student (in constant 2014 dollars)
    State Fiscal year 2009 Fiscal year 2013 Fiscal year 2014 1 year change 5 year change Change since recession
    United States $7,553 $6,215 $6,552 5.4% -13.3% -18.9%
    California $7,938 $7,252 $7,509 3.5% -5.4% -14.9%
    Vermont $2,889 $2,708 $2,816 4.0% -2.5% -11.0%
    Notes: "Educational appropriations are a measure of state and local support available for public higher education operating expenses including ARRA funds, and exclude appropriations for independent institutions, financial aid for students attending independent institutions, research, hospitals, and medical education."
    "Adjustment factors, to arrive at constant dollar figures, include Cost of Living Adjustment (COLA), Enrollment Mix Index (EMI), and Higher Education Cost Adjustment (HECA). The Cost of Living Adjustment (COLA) is not a measure of inflation over time."
    Source: State Higher Education Executive Officers Association, "State Higher Education Finance: FY 2014"

    Faculty

    Faculty overview

    See also: Higher education faculty statistics
    Employment of faculty at four-year public institutions

    The number of faculty nationwide increased by just over 55 percent, from 515,684 to 800,611, between the 1993-1994 and 2013-2014 school years in order to keep up with rising student enrollment. As of the 2013-2014 school year, part-time faculty at public four-year institutions, including teaching and research assistants, comprised 55.1 percent of the total number of faculty nationwide, up from 48.5 percent 20 years earlier. This figure was even higher at public two-year institutions: 69 percent.[60][61][62]

    From the 2008-2009 to the 2013-2014 school years, the average salary for full-time instructional faculty at public four-year institutions nationwide rose from $76,009 to $79,293, a slower rate of increase than that of the average American worker.[60]

    In the 2013-2014 school year, the percentages of female, black and Hispanic faculty members reached their highest levels ever: 42.3 percent, 5.4 percent and 4.3 percent, respectively. However, black and Hispanic representation in college faculty still fell below the proportion of both the general and college student populations who were black and Hispanic.[60]

    Employment status

    Below is a table that provides figures on full-time and part-time faculty employment for the 1993-1994 and 2013-2014 school years. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.

    Employment status of instructional faculty at public four-year institutions
    State 1993-1994 2013-2014
    Full time faculty Part time faculty Graduate assistants Part-time total as a percent of all faculty* Full time faculty Part time faculty Graduate assistants Part-time total as a percent of all faculty*
    United States 265,469 83,579 166,636 48.5% 359,586 163,962 277,063 55.1%
    California 25,432 10,253 16,318 51.1% 31,330 17,155 25,078 57.4%
    Vermont 1,050 246 133 26.5% 1,489 706 567 46.1%
    *"Part-time total" includes teaching and research assistants, who also work part time.
    Source: Southern Regional Education Board, "Fact Book Tables"

    Salaries

    The table below provides faculty salary information for the school years 2008-2009 and 2013-2014 for the United States. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided. Dollar figures have not been adjusted for inflation.

    Average salaries of full-time instructional faculty at public four-year institutions, 2013-2014
    State Average salary 2008-2009 Average salary 2013-2014 Percent change Inflation-adjusted percent change
    United States $76,009 $79,293 4.3% -1.5%
    California $89,930 $96,374 7.2% -1.3%
    Vermont $69,165 $78,881 14.0% 0.6%
    Note: Dollar figures do not account for differences in the cost of living between states. Learn more here.
    Source: Southern Regional Education Board, "Fact Book Tables"

    Demographics

    The table below provides demographic information for full-time faculty at public four-year colleges and universities from the 1993-1994 to the 2013-2014 school years. Click [show] on the green bar below the pie charts to view the table. For added context, corresponding data from the states with the highest and lowest levels of funding for higher education (California and Vermont, respectively) are also provided.

    United States college faculty demographics.png
    United States college student demographics.png

    Background

    History

    Harvard University, the first college in the United States

    The beginnings of higher education in the United States date back to before the American Revolution, when Harvard University was founded in 1636 for the education of men to become Puritan ministers. The establishment of Harvard was followed by the College of William & Mary in 1693, Yale University in 1701, and Princeton University in 1746. These earliest pre-Revolution colleges were mostly founded by religious groups and trained students for a life of service in their respective churches.[63][64]

    After the American Revolution, as the United States expanded west, new colleges were founded more rapidly. Many of these were based on the European model of liberal education, teaching a variety of subjects in math, science, and the humanities to develop well-rounded individuals. Since the newly-adopted U.S. Constitution left to the states government functions not expressly federal, the role of the federal government remained minimal until 1862. In that year, the United States Congress passed the Morrill Act, "which granted each state tracts of land with which to finance new agricultural and mechanical schools." This marked the beginning of the establishment of land-grant colleges, including the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Cornell University. Many of these became expansive state university systems.[64][65][66]

    During the second half of the twentieth century, college education came to be seen as a career investment and a force of social mobility. This view was furthered by the rapid expansion in the 1960s of networks of community colleges nationwide, which were intended to increase access to post-secondary education for individuals from a wide range of backgrounds. Today, a college degree is seen as almost necessary for career advancement, with particular emphasis placed on majors in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), as opposed to the liberal education of the colonial era.[65][66]

    Key federal legislation

    Representative Justin Smith Morrill, sponsor of the Morrill Act

    Morrill Act of 1862

    The Morrill Act marked the first major federal legislation regarding higher education. It established a system of land-grant colleges by bestowing 30,000 acres of public land per congressional seat to each state. The state government could then sell this land and use the revenue to establish new schools or finance existing ones, though "many states squandered the revenue" according to the National Archives and Records Administration. The land-grant schools funded through the Morrill Act focused on agriculture and mechanics. The act also required each of these schools to house a Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program.[67][68]

    Hatch Act of 1887

    The Hatch Act established and funded agricultural experiment stations at land-grant colleges across the nation, initially providing $15,000 to each school. These stations were centers of research aimed at improving agriculture and food production. The Hatch Act began a tradition of federally-sponsored research and initiated the era of the research university.[69][70]

    Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944

    The Servicemen's Readjustment Act, also known as the GI Bill, provided a wide range of benefits for veterans returning from World War II in order to help them readjust to civilian life. Most notably, the act funded postsecondary and continuing education for veterans, causing a sharp rise in the number of Americans with college degrees. The act was viewed as a huge success, popularizing the view of college education as a career investment and establishing a precedent of federal financial aid for college.[71]

    Higher Education Act of 1965

    The Higher Education Act was passed as part of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society program and was aimed at widening access to higher education. The act contained provisions for increased federal funding for post-secondary institutions, teacher preparation programs, and financial aid in the form of scholarships, grants and low-interest loans for students. The act has been amended several times, and many of the new provisions set requirements of schools in order to receive funding.[72][73]

    Agencies

    State governments are responsible for direct oversight of the education systems in their states, and each state typically has its own agency that sets policy and regulates its institutions of higher learning. The United States Department of Education has played a limited, though increasing, role in higher education nationwide.

    U.S. Department of Education

    The United States Department of Education is an executive department established in 1980. The Tenth Amendment of the United States Constitution leaves to the states government functions not expressly federal, meaning the Department of Education does not play a direct role in education matters such as setting curricula or establishing graduation requirements. Thus, within the realm of higher education, the primary responsibilities of the Department of Education are awarding financial aid to students and distributing funding to qualifying higher education institutions. In fact, since the passage of the GI Bill in 1944, "federal support has expanded so that it is now the primary financier of both scientific research and student financial aid" at higher education institutions. According to the American Council on Education:[66][74]

    “

    While the federal government generally does not provide direct operational support to colleges and universities, this special-purpose funding is an extremely important revenue source and, in turn, has increased the ability of the federal government to influence colleges and universities in areas outside research and financial aid. For example, in order for institutions to participate in the financial aid programs, they must comply with a wide range of federal reporting requirements on topics ranging from teacher preparation to gender equity in intercollegiate athletics.[51]

    		”
    —American Council on Education

    The department also enforces non-discrimination policies and collects data through its National Center for Education Statistics.

    National Center for Education Statistics

    The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity responsible for collecting and analyzing data related to education. NCES is located within the United States Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences and "fulfills a Congressional mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report complete statistics on the condition of American education; conduct and publish reports; and review and report on education activities internationally." NCES collects and distributes information related to higher education through its Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). Colleges and universities that participate in the Department of Education's student financial aid program are required to report data to IPEDS.[75][76]

    Recent news

    The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms United States higher education. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

    Higher education in the United States - Google News

    See also

    Higher education in the 50 states

    Click on a state below to read more about higher education in that state.

    http://ballotpedia.org/Higher_education_in_STATE

    Footnotes

    1. ↑ State Higher Education Executive Officers, "Public Policy for Higher Education in the United States: A Brief History of State Leadership," accessed August 31, 2016
    2. ↑ The College Board, "Tuition and Fees and Room and Board over Time, 2005-06 to 2015-16," accessed July 12, 2016
    3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 National Center for Education Statistics, "Table 330.20. Average undergraduate tuition and fees and room and board rates charged for full-time students in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by control and level of institution and state or jurisdiction: 2012-13 and 2013-14," accessed July 12, 2016 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "ncestuition" defined multiple times with different content
    4. ↑ National Conference of State Legislatures, "Tackling College Tuition," accessed August 31, 2016
    5. ↑ The Huffington Post, "Obama Wants To Permanently Link Pell Grants To Inflation," February 11, 2016
    6. ↑ Bernie Sanders, "It's Time to Make College Tuition Free and Debt Free," accessed August 31, 2016
    7. ↑ CNBC, "Why does a college degree cost so much?" accessed August 31, 2016
    8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 U.S. News & World Report, "Debt and No Degree," December 29, 2015
    9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 National Center for Education Statistics, "Fast Facts - Financial aid," accessed July 21, 2016
    10. ↑ Credible, "What are average student loan interest rates?" June 29, 2016
    11. ↑ Center for American Progress, "It's Our Interest: The Need to Reduce Student Loan Interest Rates," February 13, 2013
    12. ↑ Brookings, "What does cutting rates on student loans do?" April 14, 2016
    13. ↑ The Federalist, "No, Bernie Sanders, Student Loan Rates Should Be Higher," October 21, 2015
    14. ↑ How Stuff Works, "How Pell Grants Work," accessed September 2, 2016
    15. ↑ Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, "House Budget Committee Plan Cuts Pell Grants Deeply, Reducing Access to Higher Education," October 21, 2015
    16. ↑ The New York Times, "Stop Penalizing Poor College Students," November 12, 2013
    17. ↑ The Huffington Post, "Obama Wants To Permanently Link Pell Grants To Inflation," February 10, 2016
    18. ↑ UNCF, "Purchasing Power of Federal Pell Grants has Dropped to its Lowest Level Ever," accessed September 2, 2016
    19. ↑ RealClearMarkets, "To Increase College Grads, Obama Should Eliminate Pell Grants," January 27, 2014
    20. ↑ Heritage Foundation, "Pell Grant Increase Would Not Solve the College Cost Problem," November 16, 2010
    21. ↑ White Houses Council of Economic Advisers, "Investing in Higher Education: Benefits, Challenges, and the State of Student Debt," accessed September 2, 2016
    22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 National Conference of State Legislatures, "Student Loan Debt," November 9, 2015
    23. ↑ Money, "Why the Next President Should Forgive All Student Loans," August 12, 2016
    24. ↑ Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, "A crisis in student loans? How changes in the characteristics of borrowers and in the institutions they attended contributed to rising loan defaults," accessed September 2, 2016
    25. ↑ Forbes, "How The $1.2 Trillion College Debt Crisis Is Crippling Students, Parents And The Economy," August 7, 2013
    26. ↑ Brookings, "Experts debate whether student loans are a crisis for students and the economy," July 30, 2015
    27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 State Higher Education Executive Officers Association, "State Higher Education Finance: FY 2014," accessed July 11, 2016
    28. ↑ National Center for Education Statistics, "Table 306.60. Fall enrollment in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by race/ethnicity of student and state or jurisdiction: 2013," accessed July 11, 2016
    29. ↑ National Center for Education Statistics, "Table 304.30. Total fall enrollment in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by attendance status, sex, and state or jurisdiction: 2012 and 2013," accessed July 11, 2016
    30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Miller Center of Public Affairs, "Affirmative Action: Race or Class?" accessed February 10, 2015
    31. ↑ National Conference of State Legislatures, "Affirmative Action | Overview," February 7, 2015
    32. ↑ Higher Ed Jobs, "Facts and Myths of Affirmative Action," accessed March 25, 2015
    33. ↑ PBS, "Challenging Race Sensitive Admissions Policies," May 19, 2015
    34. ↑ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Affirmative Action," September 17, 2013
    35. ↑ Sander, R. & Taylor S. (2012). Mismatch: How Affirmative Action Hurts Students It's Intended to Help, and Why Universities Won't Admit It. Basic Books.
    36. ↑ AP News, "Divided Supreme Court outlaws affirmative action in college admissions, says race can’t be used," accessed June 29, 2023
    37. ↑ Supreme Court of the United States, "Students for Fair Admission, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College," accessed June 29, 2023
    38. ↑ The Huffington Post, "Obama Wants To Permanently Link Pell Grants To Inflation," February 11, 2016
    39. ↑ The College Board, "Tuition and Fees and Room and Board over Time, 2005-06 to 2015-16," accessed July 12, 2016
    40. ↑ The College Board, "Tuition and Fees by Sector and State over Time," accessed July 12, 2016
    41. ↑ Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education, "Grants and Scholarships," accessed December 18, 2014
    42. ↑ Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education, "Loans," accessed December 18, 2014
    43. ↑ Credible, "What are average student loan interest rates?" June 29, 2016
    44. ↑ Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, "Charge-Off and Delinquency Rates on Loans and Leases at Commercial Banks," May 18, 2016
    45. ↑ Federal Student Aid, "Three-year Official Cohort Default Rates for Schools," September 30, 2015
    46. ↑ National Association of State Student Grant and Aid Programs, "45th Annual Survey Report on State-Sponsored Student Financial Aid," accessed July 12, 2016 (Click on "45th Annual Survey" and "NASSGAP Survey Report 13-14" to access this report.)
    47. ↑ The College Board, "Trends in Student Aid," accessed June 30, 2016 (Click on the dropdown menu under "Trends in Student Aid Report Archive" and select 2014 to access this report)
    48. ↑ CollegeInSight, "Explore All Data," accessed July 12, 2016
    49. ↑ CollegeInSight, "Student Debt of Graduating Seniors," accessed July 12, 2016
    50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 NCHEMS Information Center for Higher Education Policymaking and Analysis, "Retention Rates - First-Time College Freshmen Returning Their Second Year," accessed December 15, 2014
    51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.
    52. ↑ CollegeInSight, "Explore All Data," accessed July 12, 2016
    53. ↑ The Chronicle of Higher Education, "College Completion: Who graduates from college, who doesn't, and why it matters," accessed December 15, 2014
    54. ↑ The Chronicle of Higher Education, "Graduation rates by state," accessed July 12, 2016
    55. ↑ Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, "States Are Still Funding Higher Education Below Pre-Recession Levels," May 1, 2014
    56. ↑ Business Insider, "Public Vs. Private College: Which Is Better For Your Wallet?" May 22, 2013
    57. ↑ Texas Coalition for Excellence in Higher Education, "Top 10 Higher Education State Policy Issues for 2013," January 9, 2013
    58. ↑ The Chronicle of Higher Education, "State Higher-Education Spending Is Up, but Not Above Pre-Recession Level," April 27, 2016
    59. ↑ Grapevine, "Table 1: State Fiscal Support for Higher Education, by State, Fiscal Years 2009-10, 2012-13, 2013-14, and 2014-15," accessed July 12, 2016
    60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Southern Regional Education Board, "Fact Book on Higher Education, 2013," accessed January 14, 2015
    61. ↑ Southern Regional Education Board, "Fact Book Tables," accessed July 12, 2016
    62. ↑ Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, "Occupational Outlook Handbook, Postsecondary Teachers," accessed January 15, 2015
    63. ↑ The Order of the Founders and Patriots of America, "Education in Massachusetts Bay," accessed January 2, 2015
    64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Encyclopædia Britannica, "University," December 12, 2013
    65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 academia.edu, "Higher Education and the Public Good: A Critical Historical Analysis from the Colonial Period to the Golden Age Era," accessed January 27, 2015
    66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 American Council on Education, "An Overview of Higher Education in the United States: Diversity, Access, and the Role of the Marketplace," accessed January 27, 2015
    67. ↑ Our Documents, "Morrill Act (1862)," accessed January 28, 2015
    68. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Land-Grant College Act of 1862," accessed January 28, 2015
    69. ↑ North Dakota State University, "The Hatch Act of 1887," accessed January 28, 2015
    70. ↑ LSU AgCenter, "History of the Hatch Act of 1887," accessed January 28, 2015
    71. ↑ Our Documents, "Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944)," accessed January 28, 2015
    72. ↑ Investopedia, "Higher Education Act of 1965 – HEA," accessed January 28, 2015
    73. ↑ Encyclopedia.com, "Higher Education Act of 1965," accessed January 28, 2015
    74. ↑ U.S. Department of Education, "An Overview of the U.S. Department of Education," accessed January 28, 2015
    75. ↑ United States Department of Education, "National Center for Education Statistics," accessed June 24, 2014
    76. ↑ United States Department of Education, "About IPEDS," accessed January 28, 2015
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