Fracking in West Virginia

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Fracking in the U.S.
Energy policy in the U.S.
State fracking policy
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Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is a method of oil and natural gas extraction that involves injecting fluid into subterranean rock formations at high pressure. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), there were approximately 23,000 hydraulically fractured wells in the United States in 2000. In 2015, the United States contained approximately 300,000 hydraulically fractured wells, which accounted for 67 percent of U.S. natural gas production and 51 percent of U.S. crude oil production.[1][2][3]

According to the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, there were 56,675 oil and natural gas wells in West Virginia. Of that total, there were 2,273 horizontal wells that were hydraulically fractured—4 percent of wells in 2015.[4]

This article focuses on fracking in West Virginia and state-specific, rather than federal, regulation of the process. The article begins with general information about fracking and applicable federal laws and regulations covering fracking and includes state-specific information about where fracking occurs and state laws and regulations covering fracking. In addition, this article includes relevant oil and natural gas data for West Virginia and surrounding states.[5]

See the sections below for further information on the following topics:

  1. Background: This section provides general information about the fracking process, how it is regulated at the state level, and how federal laws apply to oil and gas operations.
  2. Areas of activity: This section provides information (if available) on where fracking occurs in the state.
  3. State regulations: This section presents information on state-level laws and regulations as they relate to fracking and links to proposed legislation in the state legislature.
  4. Reserves: This section includes data on crude oil and natural gas reserves in West Virginia and surrounding states from the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
  5. Production: This section includes data on all oil and natural gas production (which includes production with fracking operations) in West Virginia and surrounding states from the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
  6. Wells: This section includes data on crude oil and natural gas wells, including but not limited to wells with fracking, in West Virginia and surrounding states from the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
  7. Economic impact: This section outlines the nationwide economic impacts of fracking throughout the United States.
  8. Environmental impact: This section outlines the nationwide environmental impacts of fracking throughout the United States.

Fracking background

An overview of the fracking process (click to enlarge)
See also: Fracking

Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is a method of oil and natural gas extraction. The process involves injecting fluid into subterranean rock formations at high pressure. The high-pressure fluid produces a fracture network that allows crude oil and natural gas inside dense rocks to flow into a wellbore and be extracted at the surface. The fluid (known as frac fluid) contains between 98 percent and 99.5 percent water and sand; between 0.5 percent and 2 percent of the fluid is composed of chemical additives, which are used to stop the growth of microorganisms, prevent well casing corrosion, increase the rate at which the fluid is injected, and reduce pressure, among other uses.[6]

As of 2015, thirty-one states produced crude oil and 33 states produced natural gas. States have primary regulatory authority over fracking and regulate the location and spacing of wells, drilling methods, lining of wells, the process of fracking itself, plugging wells, waste disposal, and site reclamation. In some states, environmental regulatory agencies regulate fracking; in others, fracking is regulated by oil and gas commissions.[7][8][9]

While states have primary regulatory authority over fracking, oil and gas operators must meet requirements in the following federal environmental and public health laws, among others:[10]

  • The Clean Air Act, which regulates air pollutants emitted during oil and gas production
  • The Clean Water Act, which regulates all pollution discharges into surface waters and requires oil and gas operators to obtain permits to discharge produced water—fluids used during fracking as well as water that occurs naturally in oil or gas-bearing formations—into surface water.
  • The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, which requires oil and gas operators to report the release of hazardous substances during oil and operations and allows the EPA to investigate hazardous substance releases and require operators to restore areas affected by hazardous spills.

Areas of activity

Read about West Virginia's state energy profile »

According to the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, there were 56,675 oil and natural gas wells in West Virginia. Of that total, there were 2,273 horizontal wells that were hydraulically fractured—4 percent of wells in 2015.[4]

The map below shows the location of hydraulically fractured horizontal wells in West Virginia as of May 2017. An interactive, searchable version of the map below can be accessed here.

Map of hydraulically fractured horizontal wells in West Virginia as of May 2017 (click to enlarge)
Map legend

West Virginia overlies the Marcellus Shale, a sedimentary rock formation that spans from portions of Ohio and Virginia to upstate New York. The formation contains multiple unconventional oil and natural gas resources accessed through fracking. Additionally, West Virginia overlies the Utica Shale, a formation containing natural gas resources that sits 2,000 to 3,000 feet below the Marcellus Shale.[11][12][13][14][15]

Map of the Marcellus Shale and producing wells
Click to enlarge.
Map of the Utica shale
Click to enlarge.

State regulations

The West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection is responsible for regulating fracking in West Virginia. The department enforces regulations on the following:[16]

  • Well construction, casing, and cementing
  • Protection of underground and surface water
  • The reporting and disclosure of the types of fluids used in fracking and at what volume and a description of each chemical additive used in fracking
  • The maximum amount of surface and injecting pressure used during the process
  • Spill prevention and clean-up
  • All other information considered necessary for the regulation of fracking for safety and environmental protection

West Virginia's oil and gas regulations can be accessed here.

As of March 2017, West Virginia regulations required fracking operators to complete and submit a list of chemicals used during the fracking process on the website FracFocus.org. Operators that consider a chemical or the concentration of a chemical to be a trade secret are allowed to withhold these chemicals from public disclosure and thus disclosure to potential competitors.[17]

Reserves

The information below shows proven crude oil and natural gas reserves in West Virginia and surrounding states from 2007 to 2015 according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). The EIA defines proven (or proved) reserves as the "estimated volumes of hydrocarbon resources that analysis of geologic and engineering data demonstrates with reasonable certainty are recoverable under existing economic and operating conditions." Proven reserve estimates vary over time as prices fluctuate, technology advances (including the advancement of hydraulic fracturing technology), and states or operators discover new resources. For example, the price of natural gas increased in 2013. This led to more natural gas production because it became more economical to extract natural gas and sell at a higher price. This price increase led the EIA to increase its estimates of proven natural gas reserves.[18]

Crude oil reserves in West Virginia and select surrounding states,
in thousand barrels
State 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 % of U.S. total (2015)
West Virginia 28 23 19 17 21 7 17 11 12 0.04%
Kentucky 24 17 20 15 17 9 17 16 10 0.03%
Ohio 48 38 38 42 41 39 42 78 62 0.19%
Virginia -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- N/A
U.S. total 21,317 19,121 20,682 23,267 26,544 30,529 33,371 36,385 32,318 N/A
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Crude Oil Proved Reserves, Reserves Changes, and Production"
Note: "--" indicates that data were not available.


Natural gas reserves in West Virginia and select surrounding states,
in billion cubic feet
State 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 % of U.S. total (2015)
West Virginia 4,881 5,266 6,090 7,163 10,532 14,881 23,209 31,153 20,553 6.68%
Kentucky 2,588 2,846 2,919 2,785 2,128 1,515 1,794 1,753 1,362 0.44%
Ohio 1,027 985 896 832 758 1,235 3,201 7,193 12,104 3.93%
Virginia 2,529 2,378 3,091 3,215 2,832 2,579 2,373 2,800 2,496 0.81%
U.S. total 21,317 19,121 20,682 23,267 26,544 30,529 33,371 36,385 32,318 N/A
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Natural Gas Reserves Summary as of Dec. 31"
Note: "--" indicates that data were not available.

Production

Note: This section provides information about oil and gas production on private and state-owned lands. Information on oil and gas production on federal lands is accessible here. In addition, the section below provides information on all types of oil and gas production in the state, which includes wells that have not been hydraulically fractured.

The graph and table below provide information about crude oil production in West Virginia. Information from select surrounding states is provided for comparative purposes. Click the [Show] button on the table to expand it.[19]

Crude oil production in West Virginia and neighboring states (2007-2016)


The graph and table below provide information about natural gas production in West Virginia. Information from select surrounding states is provided for comparative purposes. Click the [Show] button on the table to expand it.

Natural gas production in West Virginia and neighboring states (2007-2015)

Coalbed methane is natural gas (which is composed primarily of methane) that is formed in coal deposits or coal seams. Coalbed methane can be used in the same manner as natural gas. The table below shows coalbed methane production in West Virginia and neighboring states. Click the [Show] button to see the table.[20][21][22]

Shale gas is natural gas located in shale plays, which are specific regions with natural gas resources. The table below shows shale gas production in West Virginia and neighboring states. Click the [Show] button to see the table.[23][24]

Wells

The information below shows crude oil wells by state from 2000 to 2009 and natural gas wells by state from 2007 to 2015 from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). This data contains all wells, including wells that have not been hydraulically fractured. According to the EIA, "The quality and completeness of data is dependent on update lag times and the quality of individual state and commercial source databases." Click the [Show] buttons to expand the tables.

The bar graph and table present information about the number of crude oil wells in West Virginia. Information from select surrounding states is provided for comparative purposes.

Crude oil wells in West Virginia and neighboring states (2000-2009)


The bar graph and table below present information about the number of producing natural gas wells in West Virginia. Information from select surrounding states is provided for comparative purposes.

Producing natural gas wells in West Virginia and neighboring states (2007-2015)

Injection wells

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 revised the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974) to exclude “the underground injection of fluids or propping agents (other than diesel fuels) pursuant to fracking operations related to oil, gas, or geothermal production activities” from the EPA’s underground injection control program. These control programs are meant "to prevent underground injection which endangers drinking water sources." The 2005 act authorized state governments to regulate fracking as the process relates to underground drinking water sources, though state regulations must meet the minimum requirements outlined in federal laws that affect oil and gas wells, including the Clean Air Act (which regulates air pollutants emitted from oil and gas wells), the Clean Water Act (which regulates discharges of any pollutants into surface waters), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (which regulates the prevention and cleanup of released hazardous substances), among other laws.[25][26]

To ensure drinking water quality, the EPA or authorized state agencies regulate Class II injection wells, which are underground shafts used to store salt water, carbon dioxide (CO2), brine, and other fluids, to dispose of waste, and to enhance production during the oil and gas extraction process. These agencies set rules and issue permits outlining minimum safety requirements related to the construction, operation, maintenance, plugging, and abandonment of injection wells.[27]

The table below shows the number of Class II (oil and gas) injection wells in West Virginia and surrounding states in 2015.

Class II injection wells in West Virginia and surrounding states
in 2015
State Class II injection wells % of total Class II injection wells (2015)
West Virginia 659 0.36%
Kentucky 3,018 1.64%
Ohio 2,402 1.31%
Virginia 15 0.01%
U.S. total 183,855 --
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Underground Injection Control Inventory-Federal Fiscal Year 2015"

Economic impact

To nominate another study on hydraulic fracturing, contact us at [email protected].


An aerial view of a fracking site (click to enlarge)

The section below includes a discussion of the nationwide, rather than state-specific, economic impact of fracking. The information below summarizes studies and other reports on the economic impact of fracking throughout in the United States, and links to the studies are provided below.

Brookings Institution study (2015)

A March 2015 study by the Brookings Institution, whose stated mission is "to conduct in-depth research that leads to new ideas for solving problems facing society at the local, national and global level," estimated that natural gas prices were 47 percent lower in 2013 than they would have been without an increase in fracking operations. Specifically, the study found that an increased natural gas supply attributed mainly to fracking had reduced gas prices by $3.45 per 1,000 cubic feet of gas. Further, the study's authors, Catherine Hausman and Ryan Kellog, argued that residential consumer gas bills decreased $13 billion per year between 2007 to 2013 due to fracking. Additionally, Hausman and Ryan argued that increased fracking operations outpaced data collection on the environmental impacts of fracking. The authors found that state regulators face uncertainty about how to focus on mitigating specific environmental concerns as a result. The complete study can be accessed here.

Congressional Budget Office study (2014)

In December 2014, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), a federal office that provides budgetary information to Congress, published a study on the economic and budgetary effects of increased oil and natural gas production, including increased fracking use. The study's authors argued that natural gas costs in the year 2040 would be 70 percent higher without increased development of natural gas through fracking. The authors also found that gross domestic product (GDP) in the year 2020 would be 0.7 percent higher than it would have been without increased natural gas production and that GDP would be 0.9 percent higher by 2040. The study's authors concluded that federal tax revenues would be $35 billion higher in the year 2020 due to increased natural gas production. According to the CBO's report, the Marcellus Shale (which includes Pennsylvania, New York, and West Virginia) accounted for 25 percent of total recoverable shale gas followed by the Haynesville-Bossier Shale in Texas and Louisiana at 15 percent, the Eagle Ford Shale in Texas at 10 percent, and the Barnett Shale in Texas at 10 percent (as of December 2014). The CBO report also found that the Eagle Ford and Austin Chalk Shales (both in Texas) accounted for 40 percent of recoverable shale oil (crude oil found in shale formations) followed by the Bakken Shale in North Dakota and Montana at 20 percent (as of December 2014).[28][29]

American Enterprise Institute study (2013)

A February 2013 study by Aparna Mathur and Kevin A. Hassett at the American Enterprise Institute, which describes itself as "a community of scholars and supporters committed to expanding liberty, increasing individual opportunity and strengthening free enterprise," found that direct economic benefits from increased gas production by fracking generated approximately $36 billion in economic activity in 2011 (multiplying total U.S. natural gas production of 8.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in 2011 by an average price of $4.24 per thousand cubic feet). The authors argued that this economic value could lead to higher employment in the gas production and delivery sectors. The complete study can be accessed here.

IHS study (2013)

A September 2013 study published by IHS, which describes itself as dedicated to "next-generation information, analytics and solutions to customers in business, finance and government," concluded that an increase in unconventional oil and natural gas production (production that uses technology such as fracking to force petroleum or gas from the ground and up through a well) increased disposable income per U.S. household by an average of $1,200 in the year 2012. The study's authors argued that this increased income came in the form of lower energy bills and lower costs for goods and services. Additionally, the study's authors said that up to 250,000 jobs could be created by the year 2020 due to fracking. The full study can be accessed here.[30]

Environmental impact

To nominate another study on hydraulic fracturing, contact us at [email protected].


Hydraulic fracturing operations in progress (click to enlarge)

The section below includes a discussion of the nationwide, rather than state-specific, environmental impacts (air, water, and seismic) of fracking. The information below summarizes studies and other reports on the environmental impact of fracking throughout in the United States, and links to the studies are provided below.

Air impacts

Given frequent changes in U.S. oil and gas operations nationwide, the types of energy extracted, the number of wells drilled during a given period, and varying regional factors, estimates on the nationwide impact of fracking on air quality are difficult to calculate. As with any type of energy production, steps during the process (extraction, transportation, and transportation) can produce air pollutants at varying levels depending on the level of operations in a particular area. Air pollution sources during fracking can include road and pipeline construction, well drilling and completion, and natural gas processing, transportation, and storage. The main pollutants released during the fracking process include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter. VOCs react with nitrogen oxides to produce ground-level ozone, also known as smog. These pollutants are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies under the Clean Air Act.[31][32][33]

Water impacts

A September 2015 study from researchers at Duke University found that fracking operators used approximately 250 billion gallons of water from 2005 to 2014 to extract oil and natural gas from hydraulically fracked wells. This accounted for less than 1 percent of total industrial water use in the United States. The study's authors argued, "While fracking an unconventional shale gas or oil well takes much more water than drilling a conventional oil or gas well, the study finds that compared to other energy extraction methods, fracking is less water-intensive in the long run." Further, the study's authors found that fracking operations produced approximately 210 billion gallons of wastewater. Specifically, the authors noted that hydraulically fracked oil wells produced half a barrel of wastewater for each barrel of oil produced. This is compared to a conventional oil well, which produced more than approximately three barrels of wastewater for each barrel of oil produced.[34][35][36]

In December 2016, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released a final report requested by Congress in 2010 on the impact of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) on drinking water resources. The EPA report stated that there was "scientific evidence that hydraulic fracturing activities can impact drinking water resources in the United States under some circumstances." Specifically, the EPA concluded that, in some circumstances, poorly constructed drilling wells and incorrect wastewater management affected drinking water resources, particularly near drilling sites. According to the report, effects on drinking water "ranged in severity, from temporary changes in water quality to contamination that made private drinking wells unusable." An earlier draft version of the report, released in June 2015, concluded that fracking had not resulted in any widespread or systemic impact on drinking water quality. That conclusion was deleted in the report's final version. The EPA concluded that its findings were limited in scope, reporting that "uncertainties and data gaps limited the EPA's ability to fully assess impacts to drinking water resources both locally and nationally."[37][38][39]

For more information on the December 2016 study, see this article. The complete December 2016 study can be accessed here.

Seismic events

See also: Seismicity

The term induced seismicity (or induced seismology) refers to seismic events that occur at higher than normal rates due to human activity. Induced seismic events (e.g., smaller earthquakes and tremors) can be the result of mining, damming rivers, or injecting fluids into underground wells during fracking.[40][41][42][43][44]

In 2014, the U.S. Geological Survey concluded the following:[41][45][46]

“ USGS’s studies suggest that the actual hydraulic fracturing process is only very rarely the direct cause of felt earthquakes. While hydraulic fracturing works by making thousands of extremely small 'microearthquakes,' they are, with just a few exceptions, too small to be felt; none have been large enough to cause structural damage. As noted previously, underground disposal of wastewater co-produced with oil and gas, enabled by hydraulic fracturing operations, has been linked to induced earthquakes.[41][47] ”
—U.S. Geological Survey

In 2016, the U.S. Geological Survey found that wastewater disposal, rather than fracking, was the main cause of an increase in earthquakes throughout the central United States from 2009 to 2013. According to the agency, wastewater disposal wells raise pressure levels more than fracked wells. Larger amounts of fluid are used in wastewater disposal wells than in fracked wells; thus, wastewater disposal wells are more likely to produce induced seismic events than fracked wells.[48][49]

A 2015 study by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identified three factors needed for a disposal well to induce seismic activities: sufficient pressure buildup due to the disposing of fluids, a fault of concern (a fault that is significantly stressed), and a path allowing increased pressure to move from a well to a fault. According to the EPA, as of 2015 few disposals wells had produced earthquakes with a magnitude above 4 on the Richter scale (for comparison, an earthquake with a magnitude of 3 is similar to the passage of a nearby truck).[50]

For more information on fracking and seismic activity, see this article.

Recent news

The link below is to the most recent stories in a Google news search for the terms West Virginia fracking. These results are automatically generated from Google. Ballotpedia does not curate or endorse these articles.

Fracking in West Virginia - Google News

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ University of Oklahoma, "Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources," accessed March 12, 2014
  2. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Hydraulic fracturing accounts for about half of current U.S. crude oil production," March 15, 2016
  3. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Hydraulically fractured wells provide two-thirds of U.S. natural gas production, May 5, 2016
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, "Oil and Gas Production Data," accessed May 11, 2017
  5. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "West Virginia - Profile Analysis," accessed May 1, 2017
  6. ↑ Frack Wire, “What is Fracking,” accessed January 28, 2014
  7. ↑ Groundwater Protection Council, "State oil and natural gas regulations designed to protect water resources," May 2009
  8. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Natural Gas Gross Withdrawals and Production," accessed May 16, 2017
  9. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Crude Oil Production," accessed May 16, 2017
  10. ↑ U.S. Government Accountability Office, "Unconventional Oil and Gas Development - Key Environmental and Public Health Requirements," September 5, 2012
  11. ↑ Flaherty, K. J., and Flaherty, Thomas, III, Pennsylvania Geological Survey, "Oil and gas in Pennsylvania (3rd ed.): 4th ser., Educational Series 8," accessed September 22, 2015
  12. ↑ Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, "Marcellus Shale," accessed September 22, 2015
  13. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Pennsylvania Profile Analysis," updated December 18, 2013
  14. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey, "Appalachian Basin Energy Resources -- A New Look at an Old Basin," April 25, 2015
  15. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey, "USGS Releases First Assessment of Shale Gas Resources in the Utica Shale: 38 trillion cubic feet," October 4, 2012
  16. ↑ West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, "Oil and Gas and Regulations," accessed May 1, 2017
  17. ↑ Chemical and Engineering News, "Tracking Fracking," accessed April 14, 2017
  18. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "U.S. Crude Oil and Natural Gas Proved Reserves," December 19, 2014
  19. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Crude Oil Production," accessed April 18, 2017
  20. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey, "Coal-Bed Methane: Potential and Concerns," October 2000
  21. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy, "Coal Mining and Transportation," February 12, 2013
  22. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Coalbed Methane Fields, Lower 48 states," April 8, 2009
  23. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Energy in Brief,” accessed January 28, 2014
  24. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration, "Shale Gas Production," December 4, 2014
  25. ↑ Legal Information Institute, "42 U.S. Code Section 300h - Regulations for State programs," accessed February 10, 2017
  26. ↑ Congressional Research Service, "Hydraulic Fracturing and Safe Drinking Water Act Regulatory Issues," July 13, 2015
  27. ↑ Groundwater Protection Council, "State oil and natural gas regulations designed to protect water resources," May 2009
  28. ↑ Congressional Budget Office, "The Economic and Budgetary Effects of Producing Oil and Natural Gas From Shale," December 2014
  29. ↑ Congressional Budget Office, "Home," accessed September 1, 2015
  30. ↑ IHS Markit, "U.S. Unconventional Oil and Gas Revolution to Increase Disposable Income by More than $2,700 per Household and Boost U.S. Trade Position by More than $164 billion in 2020, New IHS Study Says," September 4, 2013
  31. ↑ University of Oklahoma, "Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Resources," accessed March 15, 2014
  32. ↑ Stanford Law School Student Journals, "Local Government Fracking Regulations: A Colorado Case Study," January 2014
  33. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Oil," September 25, 2013
  34. ↑ American Chemical Society, "Water Footprint of Hydraulic Fracturing," September 15, 2015
  35. ↑ Duke University, "How Much Water Does U.S. Fracking Really Use?" September 15, 2015
  36. ↑ Reuters, "Water demand from fracking less than 1 percent of U.S. total: study," September 15, 2015
  37. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named hill
  38. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)," accessed December 13, 2016
  39. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "EPA Releases Final Report on Impacts from Hydraulic Fracturing Activities on Drinking Water," December 13, 2016
  40. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy, "Induced Seismicity," accessed April 27, 2015
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 U.S. Geological Survey, "Man-Made Earthquakes Update," January 17, 2014
  42. ↑ National Public Radio, "How Oil and Gas Disposal Wells Can Cause Earthquakes," accessed June 2, 2014
  43. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey, "2016 One-Year Seismic Hazard Forecast for the Central and Eastern United States from Induced and Natural Earthquakes," 2016
  44. ↑ United States Geological Survey, "Incorporating Induced Seismicity in the 2014 United States National Seismic Hazard Model—Results of 2014 Workshop and Sensitivity Studies," 2015
  45. ↑ Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, "Earthquakes Induced by Hydraulic Fracturing in Poland Township, Ohio," January 2015
  46. ↑ Energy In Depth, "Characterization of an Earthquake Sequence Triggered by Hydraulic Fracturing in Harrison County, Ohio," November/December 2014
  47. ↑ Note: This text is quoted verbatim from the original source. Any inconsistencies are attributable to the original source.
  48. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey, "Induced Earthquakes," accessed July 27, 2016
  49. ↑ American Association for the Advancement of Science, "Injection-Induced Earthquakes," July 12, 2013
  50. ↑ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Minimizing and Managing Potential Impacts of Injection Induced Seismicity from Class II Disposal Wells: Practical Approaches," February 2015
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