3. PIGS

A.B. Koziner and E.R. Shtakelberg

In the USSR there are 32 breeds, breed groups and types of pigs (see Table 3.1). The number includes 22 breeds that have been developed since the beginning of the Soviet era or subjected to continuous acclimatization to become adapted to the conditions in the areas of their breeding. These 22 breeds account for 29 million out of the 73 million in the Soviet Union. The rest are foreign breeds and 2- or 3-breed crosses. Development of such a large number of breeds is justified by the diversity of natural and climatic zones in the country as well as by the need to have several contrasting breeds in each region for commercial crossbreeding.

Table 3.1 PIG NUMBERS ON 1 JANUARY 1980
(in thousands)

Formation of breeds began in the second half of the 19th century. It continued on a large scale through the 1930s to the 1950s and is still continuing. The technique employed in developing the country's breeds was based on the following typical method: crossing of native animals distinguished by such assets as fitness, adaptation to the local climate, strong constitution and disease resistance, with highly-productive improved European breeds, and consolidation of the valuable progeny through selection over several generations.

All the national breeds have a "strong constitution". This term covers a number of qualities indicating an animal's good health and high productivity: well-developed bones, strong legs and hoofs, good hair coat, elastic and smooth skin. Strong constitution is closely associated with high productivity (reproductive ability in particular) and is an essential requirement in the improvement of existing breeds of pigs and the formation of new ones. It is in this quality that the USSR pig breeds differ from a number of foreign breeds, Landrace for instance.

According to the instruction manual on evaluation (1976) there are three types of pig breeds, namely, general-purpose, meat (pork and bacon), and lard. The breed's type is decided during its development according to market requirement and position of the breed in the breeding system (maternal or paternal line). For instance, most of the breeds developed in the 1940s and the 1950s belonged to the extreme lard type. Today, the old breeds are being improved and new ones are being developed to satisfy such economic needs as better fattening performance and meat quality. The breeds used in breeding systems as maternal belong as a rule to the general-purpose type and show excellent prolificacy. The meat type is used in paternal lines.

When a certain level of productivity and number of head is reached, a group of animals becomes established first as a breed group and then as an independent breed. To establish a breed group at least 3000 breeding sows and 300 boars are required with not less than 3 breeding lines and 6 families; for a breed 5000 sows, 500 boars, 6 lines and 12 families are needed. Each line should be composed of at least two branches.

Formation of breeds is a continuous process. The most productive and best adapted to the local conditions replace the inferior breeds whose numbers at first gradually decline and then they disappear altogether. Improvement of progressive breeds on the basis of intra-breed selection and infusion of blood and crossbreeding produces new regional types which may later be transformed into breed groups and breeds. Three new crossbred meat types have recently been recognized - Don (Donskoi), Kemerovo and Poltava. (This Kemerovo type must not be confused with the Kemerovo breed described later).

The following 14 breed groups disappeared during the last two decades: Alabuzin, Chausky, Dnieper, Dobrinka, Pridonskaya, Ievlev, Kalikin, Krolevets, Meshchevsk, Moldavian Black, Omsk Grey, Podolian, Rossosh, Slutsk Black Spotted. On the one hand this is a legitimate process as it involves the expansion of the breeding area of more productive breeds. On the other hand, preservation of the declining breeds is an important problem, because they possess such assets as natural adaptation, resistance to stress, high quality of meat, low protein requirement and many others which tend to be lost as the productivity of the progressive breeds increases.

Preservation of rare or declining breeds is carried out at special farms and centres for protection of the germ plasm of individual breeds. Deep freezing storage of boar semen in specially built centres will be carried out when techniques are perfected.

Improvement of purebreds is conducted at 93 breeding centres (plemzavods), 150 breeding state farms (plemkhoz) and 1257 breeding farms (plemferma). Plemzavods are the leading breeding establishments. They carry out research into techniques of improvement and formation of new lines. Animal breeding is their main activity and the level of production is higher than in other farms. In the plemkhoz the level of breeding and production is a little lower. Pig breeding is not always the major activity on these farms. Plemfermas are mainly involved in line crossing rather than in pure breeding. Plemkhozes and plemfermas in their breeding programmes are daughter establishments of leading plemkhozes. Plemzavods are controlled by the ministries of agriculture of the Union or of the Republics; plemfermas are controlled by the region.

Progeny and performance tests of all breeding animals are carried out annually according to the cental directive on evaluation. The best animals (1200 boars and 12 000-14 000 sows) are entered into state herdbooks by breeds. The State Test of breeds is conducted once every 10 years (see Table 3.2).

Table 3.2 FATTENING PERFORMANCE AND MEAT QUALITY OF BREEDS.
DATA OF 1976-77 STATE TEST OF BREEDS

A census of all breeds is conducted at all types of farm every five years. A State Inspection of pig breeding farms is carried out at a similar interval. Breed councils have been established which make decisions on the selection policy for each breed, region and breeding herd.

There is an annual central exhibition (located at the Permanent Exhibition of National Economic Achievements in Moscow), as well as Republic and regional exhibitions and shows where champions are declared. In addition there are All-Union and Republic competitions at which prizes are awarded to best farms, institutions and breeders. Prizes and certificates are issued to breeders of new highly-productive types, breeding lines, breed groups and breeds. Selection accomplishments are given the same legal protection as patented products or techniques.

About 4500-4800 boars and 15 000-18 000 sows annually are progeny tested at 62 state control and test stations and 117 centres for testing fattening performance. Catalogues of progeny-tested boars are published annually. On the breeding farms backfat thickness of young stock is measured ultrasonically as a part of the performance test.

Overall guidance on improving the existing breeds and developing new ones is provided by the State, Republic and Zonal Centres for breeding and genetics. On the local scene these activities are directed by breeding experts of breeding farms, personnel of the region, district and interregional breeding directorates as well as of the State breeding stations (in Estonia and Georgia).

The research and academic institutes provide guidance on breeding and participate directly in pig breeding.

Much attention is devoted to the rational use of the country's breeding resources in commercial pig production. There has been developed a balanced system in the USSR of vertical integration of breeding and reproduction farms on the pyramid principle depending on the selection goals and breeding level. There have been established 15 Republic, 112 region and territory successful pig breeding systems based on two- and three-breed crossing.

In this monograph the breeds are described in the following order:

GENERAL-PURPOSE BREEDS

Breitov
Byelorussian Black Pied
Kemerovo
Large White
Latvian White
Lithuanian White
Livny
Murom
North Caucasian
North Siberian
Semirechensk
Ukrainian White Steppe

MEAT-TYPE BREEDS

Estonian Bacon
Urzhum

LARD-TYPE BREEDS

Mangalitsa
Mirgorod
Ukrainian Spotted Steppe

BREED GROUPS (general-purpose)

Aksai Black Pied
Forest Mountain
Kakhetian
Siberian Black Pied
Tsivilsk

GENERAL-PURPOSE BREEDS
BREITOV (Breitovskaya)

The breed was developed by crossbreeding in collective farms of the Yaroslavl region under the guidance of V.M. Fedorinov, Director of the Breitov State Breeding Station and G.F. Makhonina, Expert Breeder of the station.

Prior to the 1917 Revolution the local landowners imported the Large White and Middle White from Great Britain and the Danish Landrace from Denmark as well as improved lop-eared pigs from Latvia and Lithuania and Polesian pigs from Byelorussia. Interbreeding of the imported breeds and crossing with the native animals produced a large population of improved crosses.

A great role in the development of the Breitov was played by V.M. Fedorinov's system of dividing the population into 16 unrelated groups. The subsequent crossing of these groups allowed the concentration, within a short time, of inherited qualities without inbreeding.

During the development of the breed the emphasis was on the extensive use of locally available feeds: potatoes, root crops, green-cut clover, clover seed bran and flax chaff, by-products of butter and cheese factories, with only a small amount
of fodder grain.

The Breitov was accorded official recognition in 1948. At the outset it was primarily a lard type, but as the consumer demand for lean pork increased the Breitov has been bred for improved meat qualities. At present, the breed is classified as
general-purpose.

The total number of head was 216 000 in 1960, 62 000 in 1964 and 48 000 in 1969. As of 1 January 1980 the Breitov numbered 65 800 including 29 400 purebreds of which 1100 were breeding boars, 4500 breeding sows and 2400 on test.

The breed has a medium-sized, wide head with a dished face, large drooping ears, wide and deep chest, wide back and loin, hard and sometimes wrinkled skin and dense bristles. The colour is white; some animals may have coloured spots on the body.

In 1983 evaluation of animals at breeding farms produced the following data: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 297 kg, sow live weight - 236 kg, boar body length - 177 cm, sow body length - 161 cm, litter size - 10.5, weight of one-month-old litter - 51 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 157 kg. The test results of the breed's fattening performance were as follows: time to reach 100 kg live weight - 208 days, feed/kg gain - 3.98 fodder units, backfat thickness - 31 mm, length of carcass - 93 cm, ham weight - 10.3 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the boar Talisman 55 owned by Gorodishche breeding state farm of Pskov region. Its results were as follows: average daily gain - 724 g, feed/kg gain - 3.82 fodder units, length of carcass - 96 cm, backfat thickness - 28 mm.

The Breitov meat is distinguished by bright colour, excellent marbling and high protein quality index (ratio of tryptophan to hydroxyproline). While for all breeds the index averages 8.04, and in the Large White it is 8.06, for the Breitov its value is 8.60.

Sows farrow twice a year and may remain prolific until the age of 5-6 years old.

The renowned assets of the Breitovskaya are its hardiness, good adaptability to the climate in the northwest of the Russian Republic, ability to consume bulky feeds in large quantities and to gain rapidly on low-concentrate feeding as well as
excellent dietary qualities and palatability of the meat.

Crossing the Breitov with other breeds produces good results. For example, the offspring of Large White sows and Breitov boars gave the following results: litter size - 12.2, weight of the newborn - 1.48 kg, weight of one-month-old litter - 58 kg, live weight of 60-day-old piglet - 23.3 kg, time to reach 100 kg live weight during the performance test - 173 days, average daily gain - 811 g, feed/kg gain - 3.85 fodder units.

As the Breitov breed cannot compete with the Large White in litter size and the weight of month-old litter nor with the Landrace in meat quality its expansion has slowed down.

The breed consists of 16 boar lines and 24 sow families.

Purebred animals are raised at 3 breeding state farms (Druzhba in Leningrad region, Gorodishche in Pskov region, Drozdovski in Smolensk region) and at 7 breeding collective farms in Yaroslavl region. The breed is zoned for use as a maternal and
paternal breed in commercial crossbreeding systems in Leningrad, Pskov, Smolensk, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, Kostroma and Murmansk regions and in the Tatar ASSR.

The breeding of the Breitov aims to improve meat quality and fattening performance while maintaining high prolificacy and milk production through selection plus some blood infusion from imported meat-type breeds.

BYELORUSSIAN BLACK PIED (Belorusskaya cherno-pestraya)

The breed was developed by staff of the Byelorussian Animal Breeding Research Institute and experts of breeding farms with the participation of N.M. Zamyatin. In the 19th century the native lop and short-eared pigs were interbred and crossed with imported breeds such as the Yorkshire, Middle White, Tamworth and Large Black. The crossbreeding produced a large population of improved native animals distinguished by greater height, larger litter size, earlier maturity and an ability to thrive with poor management and feeding.

In the 1920s crossbreeding of the improved native Byelorussian breed with the Large White, Middle White and Berkshire continued. The genetic influence of the Estonian Bacon and the (Swedish) Landrace has contributed to the Byelorussian Black Pied.

Selection on the basis of the main economic characteristics, ruggedness of constitution and vitality was intensively carried out in the process of development.

Classified as general-purpose it was recognized as a breed group in 1957 and as a breed in 1976. The number of head has varied as follows: 74 000 in 1964; 46 000 in 1969 and 73 000 in 1974. By the early 1980s the total number reached 102 000
including 63 700 purebred animals, of which 5 800 were breeding boars, 1 000 boars being tested, 7 300 breeding sows and 5 500 sows being tested.

The Byelorussian Black Pied has a light head, straight face, and medium lop ears. It has good depth and width of body, straight and wide back, moderately plump hams, straight and correctly set legs. The colour is black pied.

The 1983 evaluation of animals at breeding farms produced the following data; live weight of 36-month-old boars - 298 kg, body length - 176 cm, sow live weight - 243 kg, body length - 163 cm. The average litter size was 10.1, weight of month-old litter - 50 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 160 kg. The figures obtained at breeding centres were as follows: boar live weight - 303 kg, sow live weight - 246 kg, boar body length - 176 cm, sow body length - 163 cm, litter size - 10.5, weight of month-old litter - 52 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 167 kg.

The results of the breed's performance test are as follows: time to reach 100 kg live weight - 194 days, feed/kg gain - 3.64 fodder units, backfat thickness - 31 mm, length of carcass - 95 cm, ham weight - 10.6 kg.

In 1983 the record holder was the boar Maket 1463 owned by Goncharovski breeding centre of Lyakhovichski district in Brest region. Its descendants gained 100 kg live weight in 194 days; the average daily gain was 728 g, feed/kg gain - 3.44 fodder units, length of carcass - 96 cm, backfat thickness at the 5-6th thoracic vertebra - 30 mm, eye-muscle area - 27 cm². Another record holder was the boar Zarechny I owned by Zhgunski breeding centre of Dobrushski district in Gomel region. Its progeny gave the following results: time to gain 100 kg live weight - 183 days, average daily gain - 718 g, feed/kg gain - 3.58 fodder units, length of carcass - 94 cm, backfat thickness - 30 mm, eye-muscle area - 29 cm². The boar Zarechny 7763 owned by Voronovski state farm of Voronovski district in Grodno region had the following progeny performance: 192 days, 744 g, 3.28 fodder units, 96 cm, 36 mm and 29 cm² respectively.

The Byelorussian Black Pied is distinguished by high resistance to disease and to stress.

By crossing with the Large White litter size and weight of month-old litter were increased by 8-10%, fattening performance by 2-5% and feed/kg gain by 0.2-0.3 fodder units. Compared to pure breeding of the Byelorussian Black Pied the three-breed cross - Estonian Bacon x (Large White x Byelorussian Pied ) - increased litter size by 9.9%, litter live weight at weaning by 17% and average daily gain by 10.4%, and reduced the feed/kg gain by 7.4%. The average meat yield in the three-breed crosses was 2% higher.

The breed consists of 9 lines and 26 families.

At present the Byelorussian Black Pied is improved and bred at 4 breeding centres (Goncharovski in Brest region, Zhgunski in Gomel region, Dzerzhinski in Minsk region, Lenino in Mogilev region), at Voronovski state breeding farm in Grodno region and at 9 breeding farms. The breed is zoned for raising in all parts of Byelorussia and accounts for 0.3% of the total pig population. In addition it is used as a maternal and paternal breed in crossbreeding systems.

The further improvement of the Byelorussian Black Pied is directed towards increasing litter size, quality of meat and adaptability to the conditions of commercial pig units.

KEMEROVO (Kemerovskaya)

The breed was developed in Kemerovo region under the guidance of A.I. Ovsyannikov and I.I. Gudilina by crossing native Siberian sows with Large White and Berkshire and to a lesser extent with Large Black boars. Blood of the North Siberian
breed and the Siberian Black Pied breed group was later introduced to create some lines and families.

Classified as a general-purpose breed it was officially recognized in 1961.

The total number was 133 000 in 1960, 70 000 in 1964, 39 000 in 1969, 58 000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 the total population was 53 200 including 23 500 purebreds, of which 2300 were breeding boars, 500 boars on test, 2800 breeding sows and 2700 sows on test.

The Kemerovo animals have a medium-sized head with slightly dished face, small and erect ears, wide and medium-long body, wide and deep chest, correctly-set legs with tough hoofs and dense bristles. The colour is black with small spots on legs, body, tail and forehead.

In 1983 evaluation of animals at breeding farms produced the following data: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 326 kg, sow live weight - 240 kg, boar body length - 176 cm, sow body length - 159 cm, litter size - 9.7, weight of month-old litter - 53 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 175 kg. The results obtained at breeding centres were somewhat higher: boar live weight - 338 kg, sow live weight - 255 kg, boar body length - 180 cm, sow body length - 160 cm, litter size - 10.5, weight of month-old litter - 61 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 205 kg.

The results of the breed's performance test were as follows: time to reach 100 kg live weight - 185 days, feed/kg gain - 4.0 fodder units, backfat thickness - 30 mm, length of carcass - 94 cm, ham weight - 9.7 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the boar Zhemchug 429 owned by Yurginski breeding centre. Its live weight was 352 kg and body length 190 cm. Its progeny gave the following results: time to gain 100 kg live weight - 190 days, average daily gain - 729 g, feed/kg gain - 3.99 fodder units, backfat thickness - 27 mm. In 1984 the breed's champion was the sow Primernaya 590 owned by the same breeding centre. Its results were: litter size 13.0 head, live weight of one-month litter - 63 kg, weight of two-month-litter - 216 kg.

The breed consists of 12 boar lines and 16 sow families.

The Kemerovo breed is improved at Yurginski leading breeding centre, and Chkalov breeding state farm in Kemerovo region, and at breeding farms in Kustanai region and in Sakhalin.

The Kemerovo animals are well adapted to the severe climate of Siberia and north Kazakhstan. They are distinguished by hardiness and remarkable vitality. The breed is widely used in crossing with the standard Siberian breeds such as the Large
White, North Siberian Landrace and the Siberian Black Pied. The breed is zoned for raising in Kemerovo, Omsk, Chita and Sakhalin regions, in Krasnoyarsk territory, in the Tuva ASSR and in Kustanai region of the Kazakh Republic.

Part of the Kemerovo population was mated with the Landrace to improve meat quality. As a result there was developed and accorded official recognition in 1978 a new meat-type of the Kemerovo breed (KM-1). The type is employed in developing a
Siberian regional type of a new meat breed.

The breeding of the Kemerovo is directed at improving prolificacy, meat quality and strength of bone.

LARGE WHITE (Krupnaya belaya)

The Soviet Large white was developed as a result of many years' work by Russian and Soviet breeding experts to acclimatize the English Large White in varying climatic and feeding conditions. Large White pigs were first imported from the Britain in the 1880s. At the time the best pig breeding farms were owned by A.F. Budna and M.M. Shchepkin. Crossbreeding local pigs with the English Large White boars generated highly productive crosses. Later Large White pigs were imported from Britain several times in the 1920s and 1960s. As a result of selection by many scientists and breeders the Soviet Large White was developed - a very flexible breed adaptable to varying climatic and natural conditions in the USSR. It is superior to the English Large White in many respects. The breed belongs to the general-purpose type.

The Large White is the most popular breed in the USSR accounting for 86.5% of all pigs of recognized breeds. During the last two decades its numbers increased by 42% and reached 25 554 000 in 1980, including 370 600 breeding boars, 56 800 boars being tested, 2 382 000 breeding sows and 1 639 000 sows being tested.

The Large White breed has a high productivity; sows are good mothers with high prolificacy, it has a medium-sized head with slightly dished face. The ears are intermediate in size, thin, elastic, tilted forward and erect. Chest is deep and wide. The back is straight and wide. Hams are plump extending down to the hocks. Other features are: well-developed, strong and correctly set legs; hard, elastic non-folded skin; dense but thin bristles. Its colour is white.

In 1983 evaluation of animals on breeding farms produced the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 298 kg, body length - 179 cm; sow live weight - 235 kg, length - 163 cm. The average litter size was 10.3, weight of month-old litter - 53 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 165 kg. The figures obtained at breeding centres were somewhat higher: boar live weight - 322 kg, sow live weight - 233 kg, boar body length - 183 cm, sow body length - 163 cm, litter size - 11.2, weight of month-old litter - 58 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 192 kg.

The results of the breed's performance test are as follows: time to reach 100 kg live weight - 205 days, feed/kg gain - 4.03 fodder units, backfat thickness - 30 mm, length of carcass - 95 cm, ham weight - 10.5 kg.

In 1984 the breed's champion was the boar Sulzh 239 owned by Krekshino breeding state farm in Moscow region. It gave the following results: live weight - 364 kg, body length - 196 cm; progeny test: time to gain 100 kg live weight - 189 days, feed/kg gain 3.85 fodder units, backfat thickness - 28 mm, ham weight - 10.7 kg.

In the same year the champion in the reproductive and fattening test was the sow Yasochka 59280 owned by Primalkinski breeding centre in the Kabardino-Balkar Autonomous Republic. It gave the following results: litter size - 13.5, weight of one-month-old litter - 61 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 216 kg, time to gain 100 kg weight during the fattening performance test - 186 days, feed/kg gain - 3.59 fodder units, backfat thickness - 29 mm, length of carcass - 95 cm.

The Large White surpasses other breeds in such qualities as high and lasting prolificacy and the ability to adapt itself in any climatic conditions. Sows are renowned mothers.

The breed consists of over 100 lines and of a large number of sow families.

The breed is divided into 17 separate populations, each bred in a particular group of farms consisting of a leader breeding centre and 3-5 branch farms with a single breeding programme. The Large White is being improved at 55 breeding centres, 72 breeding state farms and 888 breeding farms. The leading farms are Nikonovskoe, Bolshoe Alekseeskoe, Konstantinovo and Achkasovo breeding centres in Moscow region, Ventsy-Zaria in Krasnodar territory, Velikaya Buromka in Cherkassy region and
Vasilievka in Sumy region.

The breed is classified for raising in all parts and zones of the USSR excluding Latvia and Lithuania which have their own white breeds (see below). It is employed as the principal maternal line in many breeding systems.

The Large White was used in developing the majority of Soviet breeds. At present it is being selected for improved fattening performance and meat quality while maintaining high prolificacy and good consitition.

Recently three highly productive regional types have been developed. The Byelorussian intra-breed type (BKB-1) was officially recognized in 1975, the Moscow meat type (MM-1) in 1981 and the Estonian intra-breed type (EKB-1) in 1982.

LATVIAN WHITE (Latviiskaya belaya)

The breed was developed under the direction of the Latvian Research Institute for Animal Breeding and Veterinary Science on the basis of crossbreeding native pigs with the Large White and partially with the German short-eared white pigs (Edelschwein) in Kurzem and Vidzem state breeding stations. As the Large White was the improver, the Latvian White has a similar type, constitution and conformation.

Classified as a general-purpose breed it was officially recognized in 1967. The Latvian White population has increased as follows: 167 000 in 1964, 216 000 in 1969 and 380 000 in 1974. By 1980 the number of head was 501 000 including 279 500 purebred animals of which 4500 were breeding boars, 600 boars on test, 43 500 breeding sows and 41 000 sows on test.

In 1983 evaluation of animals at breeding farms gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 321 kg, body length - 179 cm; sow live weight - 251 kg, body length 166 cm, average litter size - 10.4, weight of month-old litter - 53 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 173 kg. The results obtained at breeding centres were as follows: boar live weight - 314 kg, body length - 190 cm, sow live weight - 253 kg, body length - 166 cm, litter size - 10.6, weight of month-old litter - 54 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 176 kg.

The results of the breed's performance test were as follows: time to gain 100 kg live weight - 192 days, feed/kg gain 3.61 fodder units, fat depth - 28 mm, length of carcass - 96 cm, ham weight - 10.4 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the sow Austra 1650 owned by Kirov collective farm in Latvia which gave outstanding results in growth and prolificacy: live weight - 340 kg, body length - 186 cm, litter size - 13.0 head, weight of one-month-old litter - 57 kg. Another record was made by the sow Garena 2784 bred at Zemgale collective farm in Lithuania. Its results were - live weight - 265 kg, body length - 168 cm, litter size - 12.5 head, weight of one-month-old litter - 54.5 kg, weight of two-month old litter - 221 kg, time for her offspring to gain 100 kg live weight on test - 177 days, average daily gain - 925 g, feed/kg gain - 3.19 fodder units, backfat thickness - 26 mm.

The breed consists of 9 basic lines and 16 families.

The Latvian White is being improved at 12 breeding centres, 16 breeding state farms and 6 breeding farms. The leading breeding centres are: Sigulda experimental farm of the Latvian Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Research Institute in Riga
district, Vetsautse experimental and training farm in Dobelski district, Karl Marx collective farm in Ekabpilsski district, Briviba collective farm in Liepaya district and Valle collective farm in Stuchka district, all in Latvia.

Accounting for 95.8% of the total purebred population in Latvia the Latvian White ranks as the main planned breed in the Republic. It is employed as a maternal breed in crossbreeding systems and raised in all parts of Latvia.

LITHUANIAN WHITE (Litovskaya belaya)

The breed was developed by crossing native pigs with Large White, German short-eared (Edelschwein) and German lop-eared (German Landrace) boars by breeding experts of Sheduvski, Ukmergski and Shakyaski State breeding stations with the participation and under the guidance of the scientific personnel of the Lithuanian Animal Breeding Research Institute.

Classified as a general-purpose breed it was recognized in 1967. In numbers the breed is second to the Large White; its population was 377 000 in 1964, 508 000 in 1969 and 946 000 in 1974. By 1980 the total population was 1 055 400 including 981 600 purebreds of which 11 000 were breeding boars, 3300 boars on test, 70 300 breeding sows and 103 800 on test.

As the Large White has greatly influenced the Lithuanian White's development the breed is similar to the Large White in type, constitution, conformation and productivity. However, certain faults occur in individual animals such as weak pasterns, depression behind the shoulders and insufficient hair covering.

The 1983 evaluation of animals gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 313 kg, body length - 182 cm, sow live weight - 248 kg, body length - 167 cm, litter size - 10.8, weight of month-old litter - 55 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 170 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the sow Smilga 3350 owned by the experimental farm of the Lithuanian Agricultural Research institute. It gave the following results: litter size - 12.0, weight of one-month-old litter - 70.4 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 185 kg, time for offspring to gain 100 kg live weight on test - 174 days, average daily gain - 774 g, feed/kg gain - 3.75 fodder units, backfat thickness - 24.6 mm.

The breed consists of 12 boar lines and 29 sow families.

The Lithuanian White is divided into five separate populations, each being raised in 3-5 leading breeding centres and breeding farms and 12 subsidiary farms. Three of the five populations are being improved by pure breeding, one by infusion of
Swedish Yorkshire blood and one by Landrace blood.

The breed is zoned for raising in the Lithuanian Republic. It is also employed in crossbreeding systems in Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenia, Byelorussia, Moldavia and some parts of the Russian Republic. Improvement is carried out at 30 breeding centres and 88 breeding farms. The main farms include Baisogal experimental farm of the Lithuanian Animal Husbandry Research Institute and Draugas, Chernyakhovski, Grizhuva, Zhemaite and Kapsukas collective farms. Selection is directed towards improved quality of meat and fattening performance, and against faults in the conformation.

LIVNY (Livenskaya)

The breed was developed in Orel region by crossing the native lop-eared pigs with Large White, Berkshire and Poland China boars under the direction of N.N. Korovetskaya.

Classifed as a general-purpose type the breed was recognized in 1949. The total number was 476 000 in 1960, 125 000 in 1964, 75 000 in 1969 and 83 000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 its total population was 59 600 including 27 200 purebreds, of
which 2 200 were breeding boars, 500 boars on test, 5 500 breeding sows and 3 000 sows on test.

Its conformational characteristics are: a relatively short and wide head with dished face; large, thick and slightly drooping ears; wide, straight and sometimes arched back; wide and deep chest; ample bone; strong legs; rough skin sometimes with wrinkles; much hair growing evenly all over the body. The colour is white or black pied; some animals are red-pied or black.

In 1983 evaluation at breeding farms gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 295 kg, body length - 179 cm, sow live weight - 237 kg, body length - 163 cm, litter size - 10.1, weight of month-old litter - 51 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 154 kg. The results obtained at breeding centres were as follows: boar live weight - 303 kg, body length - 182 cm, sow live weight - 241 kg, body length - 168 cm, litter size - 10.0 head, weight of month-old litter - 57, weight of two-month-old litter - 164 kg.

The performance test in 1983 gave the following results: time to reach 100 kg weight - 196 days, feed/kg gain - 4.11 fodder units, backfat thickness - 35 mm, length of carcass - 93 cm, ham weight - 11.0 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion in meat quality and fattening performance of offspring was the boar Borets 7981 owned by Druzhba collective farm of Orel region. It gave the following results: time to gain 100 kg live weight - 191 days, average daily gain - 736 g, feed/kg gain - 3.75 fodder units, length of carcass - 93 cm , backfat thickness - 34 cm, eye-muscle area - 32 cm², ham weight 11.1 kg.

The breed is distinguished by remarkable adaptability to weather and feeding conditions and by high meat quality. For instance, the Livny is superior to all other breeds in the USSR in terms of meat colour.

The breed's genealogic structure consists of 18 boar lines and 46 sow families.

The breed is zoned for raising in Orel, Lipetsk and Voronezh regions. It is being improved at A.S. Georgievski breeding centre of Orel region and at 11 breeding farms. Selection is directed toward improved litter size, fattening performance and meat quality.

MUROM (Muromskaya)

The breed was developed in Vladimir region by crossing native pigs with the Lithuanian White and the Large White under the direction of A.P. Redkin and I.A. Savich.

The breed was recognized in 1957. The number of head was 56 000 in 1960, 27 000 in 1964, 26 000 in 1969 and 24 000 in 1974. In January 1980 its total population was 16 900 including 12 000 purebreds, of which 264 were breeding boars, 72 boars on test, 2 434 breeding sows and 1 141 sows on test.

The Murom is similar to the Large White in its constitution and conformation. It has a light head with slightly dished face, moderately large forward drooping ears, wide and deep chest, level and wide back and dense bristles growing evenly all over the body. The colour is white.

The 1983 evaluation gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 314 kg, body length - 182 cm, sow live weight - 257 kg, body length - 167 cm, litter size - 10.7, weight of month-old litter - 55 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 157 kg.

The 1983 performance test results were as follows: time to reach 100 kg live weight - 200 days, feed/kg gain - 3.95 fodder units, backfat thickness - 27 mm, length of carcass - 99 cm, ham weight - 10.8 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion in meat quality and fattening performance was the boar Klyk 1249 owned by Obyedinenie state breeding farm of Murom district in Vladimir region. Its offspring gave the following results: time to gain 100 kg body weight - 192 days, average daily gain - 729 g, feed/kg gain - 3.78 fodder units, length of carcass - 98 cm, backfat thickness - 26 mm, eye-muscle area - 29 cm² , ham weight - 10.9 kg.

The breed consists of 9 boar lines and 22 sow families.

The breed is being improved at Obyedinenie breeding state farm and 6 breeding farms in Vladimir region. Selection is for increased size of litter and improved meat quality.

NORTH CAUCASIAN (Severokavkazskaya)

The breed was developed at the state and collective farms of Rostov region and Krasnodar territory under the direction of P.E. Ladan by crossing the native Kuban pigs with the Large White, the Berkshire and the White Short-eared breed (German Edelschwein).

The breed was recognized in 1955. It numbered 133 000 in 1960, 141 000 in 1964, 126 000 in 1969 and 182 000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 the total population was 195 000 including 113 600 purebreds, of which 7000 were breeding boars, 1600 boars on test, 14 800 breeding sows and 13 300 sows on test.

The North Caucasian has a wide head with slightly dished face, erect or semi-erect ears, wide and deep chest, wide and medium-long back and loin, plump and full hams, strong legs and pasterns, dense and soft bristles. The colour is black-pied.

The 1983 evaluation produced the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 279 kg, body length - 171 cm, sow live weight 228 kg, body length - 159 cm, litter size - 9.8, weight of month-old litter - 49 kg, total weight of two-month-old litter - 160 kg. The results obtained at breeding centres are much higher: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 309 kg, body length - 179 cm, sow live weight - 236 kg, body length - 161 cm, litter size - 10.1, weight of month-old litter - 48 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 170 kg.

The results of the 1983 performance test were as follows: time to reach 100 kg body weight - 198 days, feed/kg gain - 4.45 fodder units, backfat thickness - 34 mm, length of carcass - 91 cm, ham weight - 11.1 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion in meat quality and fattening performance was the boar Vostok 377 owned by Vtoraya Pyatiletka state farm in Krasnodar territory. Its progeny test results: time to gain 100 kg body weight - 209 days, feed/kg gain - 4.01 fodder units, length of carcass - 91 cm, eye-muscle area - 33 cm² , ham weight - 11 kg, daily gain - 747 g.

The breed consists of 14 boar lines and 36 sow families.

The breed is raised and improved at 2 breeding centres, 2 breeding state farms and 14 breeding farms. The best are Gornyak breeding centre, Pobeda breeding farm and Donskoe training farm in Rostov region, Krasny Vodopad breeding centre in Tashkent region in the Uzbek Republic and Alekseevski state breeding farm in the Mari Autonomous Republic.

It is zoned for raising, in Rostov and Volgograd regions, Krasnodar and Stavropol territories, the Mari ASSR as well as in individual regions of Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Turkemenia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan and Armenia. Selection is for improved meat quality and fattening performance. The new highly-productive Don (Donskoi) meat-type (DM-1) was developed and accorded official recognition in 1978.

NORTH SIBERIAN (Sibirskaya severnaya)

The breed was developed in Novosibirsk region by crossing the native short-eared Siberian pigs with Large White boars under the direction of M.O. Simon. During the phase of inter se breeding of crossbreds positive assortative mating was widely used. Various degrees of inbreeding and rigid culling were practised.

The North Siberian was recognized in 1942.

The total number was 78 000 in 1960, 24 000 in 1964, 17 000 in 1969 and 52 000 in 1974. As of January 1980 its population was 58 700 including 24 500 purebreds, of which 1400 were breeding boars, 200 boars on test, 2900 breeding sow and 3000 sows on test.

The North Siberian animals have a harmonious conformation. They are medium sized with slightly dished face, erect ears, straight and wide back, and strong and short legs; the skin is unwrinkled, hard and rather coarse; bristles are long and flexible and there is often an undercoat. The colour is white.

The 1983 evaluation of the North Siberian gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 312 kg, body length - 178 cm, sow live weight - 238 kg, body length - 163 cm, litter size 10.7, weight of month-old litter 54 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 182 kg.

In the performance and meat quality tests the breed had the following results: time to reach 100 kg body weight - 196 days, feed/kg gain - 3.87 fodder units, backfat thickness - 32 mm, length of carcass - 94 cm, ham weight - 10.4 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion in meat quality and fattening performance was the boar Kedr 8203 owned by Oyashinski state breeding farm in Novosibirsk region, which had the following progeny performance: time to gain 100 kg body weight - 192 days, average daily gain - 788 g, feed/kg gain - 3.52 fodder units, length of carcass - 95 cm, backfat thickness - 33 mm.

The North Siberian has as good economic characteristics as the Large White but is much superior to the latter in hardiness and adaptability to the harsh climate of North Siberia. Dense bristle covering and undercoat provide effective protection against low temperatures in winter and against mosquitoes and gnats which severely trouble the Large White in summer.

The breed consists of 8 boar lines and 12 sow families.

The breed is raised and improved in Oyashinski state breeding centre, Borovskoe experimental farm of the Siberian Animal Husbandry Research and Technological Institute and Krasny Oktyabr breeding farm in Krasnoyarsk territory.

The breed is zoned for raising and use in crossbreeding systems in the Novosibirsk region, Krasnoyarsk territory, the Buryat ASSR and Kazakhstan. Selection is for improved meat quality and fattening performance. The improvement programme includes an immunogenetic test to control the authenticity of pedigrees, intense selection pressure and maintainance of genetic similarity within lines.

SEMIRECHENSK (Semirechenskaya)

The breed was developed specially for raising in the climate of southeast Kazakhstan where summer temperatures may go as high as 48⁰ C; night and day temperatures fluctuate from 48⁰ to 5⁰ ; winter temperatures drop to almost -50⁰ and the snowfall is minimal.

It was generated as a result of mating crosses (Large White x wild boar) with the Kemerovo breed and subsequent inter se breeding of the best specimens having 3/4, 7/8 or 15/16 of Large White blood, and continued interbreeding during 4-5 generations. The breed was developed under the direction of the Institute of Experimental Biology of the Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences. It was first called the Kazakh Hybrid.

The Semirechensk was recognized in 1978. It numbered 4000 in 1969, 27 000 in 1974 and 67 000 in 1980 including 43 000 purebreds, of which 1200 were breeding boars, 5900 breeding sows and 4300 sows on test.

The Semirechensk animals have a head with straight face, small erect ears, moderately long body, deep chest, straight and wide back and strong legs. The colour is white; however reddish, dark brown and black-pied offspring may sometimes occur.

The 1983 evaluation produced the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 275 kg, body length - 169 cm, sow live weight - 222 kg, body length - 155 cm, litter size - 10.5, weight of month-old litter - 48 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 159 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the sow Gornaya 64 owned by Buruldaiski state breeding farm in Chimkent region of Kazakhstan. It gave the following results: live weight at 28 months - 260 kg, body length - 160 cm, litter size - 12.3, weight of one-month-old litter - 62 kg. Its offspring gave the following results in the performance test: average daily gain - 681 g, feed/kg gain - 4.0 fodder units, backfat thickness - 33.

The Semirechensk animals combine the high productivity of the improved breed with the strong constitution of the wild boar. They are well adapted to the extreme climatic conditions of southeast Kazakhstan and do not suffer from overheating despite their white colour.

The Semirechensk has better resistance to a number of diseases than many other breeds. The incidence of respiratory troubles in piglets is 3-5 times less than in the young stock of the Large White and the Kemerovo. The animals are less susceptible to pathogenic protozoa. In industrial complexes the Semirechensk pigs are as productive as the Large White but exceed it in piglet viability and sow hardiness. Under these conditions the culling rate for the Semirechensk sows is 26% less than of the Large White sows.

The breed consists of 9 boar lines and 20 sow families.

The breed is raised in 30 farms of Alma-Ata, Taldy-Kurgan, Jambul, Chimkent and Karaganda regions in Kazakhstan. Its improvement is carried out at 4 breeding state farms - Illiiski and Kaskelenski in Alma-Ata region, Buruldaiski and XXII Party Congress in Chimkent region, and at two breeding farms - Razvilnenski in Taldy-Kurgan region and Rosa Luxemburg in Jambul region.

UKRAINIAN WHITE STEPPE (Ukrainskaya stepnaya belaya) ,

The breed was developed by M.F. Ivanov on Askania Nova farm by crossing improved pigs native to southern Ukraine with Large White boars. It was the first Soviet experience in developing a new breed and the method used has become the classic breeding technology which was subsequently employed in developing many Soviet breeds. The Ukrainian White Steppe was also the first breed developed with the specific purpose of combining the high productivity of improved breeds with the hardiness and local adaptation of native pigs. To consolidate the inherited qualities of the best crosses during the breed's development a high degree of inbreeding was practised combined with rigid culling on the basis of such desirable qualities as ruggedness of constitution.

The breed was recognized in 1932. It ranks third in numbers in the USSR. Its population was 812 000 in 1964, 487 000 in 1969 and 738 000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 its total population stood at 636 300 including 524 200 purebreds, of which 12 500 were breeding boars, 800 boars on test, 88 400 breeding sows and 52 300 sows on test.

The Ukrainian White Steppe differs a little from the Large White in conformation. It has medium-sized head with slightly dished face, large ears slightly drooping over the eyes, denser bone, deeper and wider body, strong legs, compact skin and dense bristles. The colour is white.

The 1983 evaluation gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 322 kg, body length - 183 cm, sow live weight - 238 kg, body length - 164 cm, litter size - 10.8, weight of month-old litter - 48 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 148 kg. The results obtained at breeding centres were somewhat higher: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 338 kg, body length - 186 cm, sow live weight -243 kg, body length - 165 cm, litter size - 11.2, weight of month-old litter - 50 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 158 kg.

The performance test produced the following results: time to reach 100 kg body weight - 186 days, feed/kg gain - 3.76 fodder units, backfat thickness - 28 cm, length of carcass - 97 cm, ham weight - 10.5 kg.

In 1984 the breed's champion was the boar Askaniets 4497 owned by the Askania Nova experimental farm in Kherson reion, which gave the following figures: live weight at 32 months - 403 kg, body length - 185 cm. Its offspring gave the following results in the fattening performance test: time to gain 100 kg body weight - 177 days, feed/kg gain - 3.8 fodder units, backfat thickness - 28 mm, ham weight - 12.2 kg. The 14 sows sired by him produced litters with an average size of 12.2 and weight at one-month-old of 63 kg.

The Ukrainian Steppe White is better adapted to the continental climate of the south Ukraine than the Large White. It has a more solid but more rugged conformation.

The breed consists of 15 boar lines and 55 sow families.

The breed is zoned for raising in Kherson, Zaporozhye, Odessa and Nikolaev regions of the Ukraine as well as in some regions of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkmenia and Moldavia. Continued improvement of the Ukrainian White Steppe is conducted at 3 breeding centres, 2 breeding state farms and 32 breeding farms under the direction of the Ukrainian Research Institute for Animal Husbandry in the Steppe Regions. The main breeding centres are Askania Nova and Sivash in Kherson region, and Zarya collective farm in Zaporozhye region. Selection is for improved fattening performance and meat quality. Initial infusion of Landrace blood is practised in the development of certain new lines.

MEAT-TYPE BREEDS
ESTONIAN BACON (Estonskaya bekonnaya)

The breed was developed in Estonia by crossing the native long-eared pigs with Large White, German, improved Finnish and Danish Landrace boars. The greatest influence was that of the Danish Landrace.

The breed was recognized in 1961. It numbered 102 000 in 1964, 81 000 in 1969, and 140 000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 the total population was 198 200 including 122 800 purebreds, of which 9 800 were breeding boars, 14 000 boars on test, 15 500 breeding sows and 11 000 sows on test

The Estonian Bacon breed has a medium-sized head with straight or slightly dished face, large drooping ears tilted forward, long body, wide and deep chest, long and wide back and full hams. The colour is white with pink skin, sometimes with small coloured spots.

The 1983 evaluation gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 323 kg, body length - 186 cm, sow live weight - 244 kg, body length - 170 cm, litter size - 11.1, weight of month-old litter - 56 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 176 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the sow Kryyt 3516 owned by Suigu collective farm in Estonia which gave the following results: litter size - 13.0 head, weight of one-month-old litter - 57.3 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 245 kg. Its offspring produced the following results in the fattening performance test: time to gain 100 kg body weight - 171 days, average daily gain - 828 g, feed/kg gain - 3.4 fodder units, backfat thickness - 29.4 mm.

In appearance the breed is similar to the Landrace although it is superior in many respects. According to the results of the 1976-77 State evaluation of breeds the Estonian Bacon took 6 days less to gain 100 kg live weight than the Landrace. Its average daily gain was 16 g more and feed/kg gain 0.19 fodder units less. its carcass length was 5 cm more, backfat thickness 8 mm less, and weight of bacon carcass 29.5% higher. Its meat has a higher protein quality index (ratio of tryptophan to hydroxyproline) being 6.32 against 4.97 in the Landrace.

The breed consists of 14 boar lines and over 30 sow families.

The Estonian Bacon animals are raised and improved at Novy Dvor breeding centre in Grodno region in Byelorussia, at one state breeding farm and 48 breeding farms of which 34 are found in Estonia and the rest in Gorki, Tambov, Kaliningrad, Lipetsk, Pskov, Vologda, Ivanovo and Tomsk regions, in Primorski territory and in Kazakhstan and Moldavia.

The Estonian Bacon is extensively used in crossbreeding systems as a paternal line. In Estonia it is also used as a maternal breed. Selection is for improved meat quality and fattening performance

URZHUM (Urzhumskaya)

The breed was developed in Kirov region by crossing native pigs with Large White boars. It was recognized in 1957. It numbered 106 000 in 1960, 79 000 in 1964, and 100 000 in 1969. As of 1 January 1980 the breed's total popultion was 107 300 including 39 900 purebreds of which 3 400 were breeding boars, 500 boars on test, 7 300 breeding sows and 2 600 sows on test.

The Urzhum is similar to the Large White in its conformation. It has a clean head with long snout; heavy ears slightly tilted forward; long, deep but not wide body; strong legs; massive and coarse bone; dense bristles. Its colour is white.

The 1983 evaluation gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 291 kg, body length - 179 cm, sow live weight - 245 kg, body length - 163 cm, litter size - 10.5, weight of month-old litter - 51 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 161 kg. The results obtained at breeding centres were somewhat higher; body weight of 36-month-old boars - 322 kg, body length - 183 cm, sow live weight -267 kg, body length - 169 cm, litter size - 11.5, weight of month-old litter - 59 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 191 kg.

The performance test gave the following results: time to gain 100 kg body weight - 206 days, feed/kg gain - 4.29 fodder units, backfat thickness - 31 mm, length of carcass - 96 kg, ham weight - 11 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the sow Mushka 6444 owned by Mukhinski breeding centre in Kirov region, which gave the following figures: litter size -13.3, weight of one-month-old litter - 70 kg, average daily gain of its offspring during the fattening performance test - 726 g, feed/kg gain - 3.56 fodder units, backfat thickness - 28 mm.

Urzhum animals are well adapted to local conditions as well as to the consumption of bulky succulent feeds. The Urzhum ranks second after the Landrace among 19 breeds in terms of digestibility of dry matter and protein. Its figure for digestibility of dry matter is 75.84%, protein - 80.16%; the Large White figure is 74.98% and 79.9% respectively.

The breed consists of 15 boar lines and 15 sow families.

The Urzhum breed is raised and improved at 2 breeding centres and at 7 breeding farms. The breed is classified for raising and use in crossbreeding systems in Kirovsk, Kostroma and Moscow regions and in the Mari, Udmurt and Tatar ASSRs. Selection is for increased rate of growth and improved meat quality.

LARD-TYPE BREEDS
MANGALITSA (Mangalitskaya)

The breed was developed by crossing pigs native to the Balkan Penirisula with improved Chinese animals. The Mangalitsa animals were imported into the USSR from Hungary and Romania. They are classified as fat producers. The breed's population in the USSR has been steadily declining. The number of head was 10 000 in 1964, 12 000 in 1969 and 6000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 the total Mangalitsa population was 5000 including 670 purebreds (38 breeding boars and 166 breeding sows).

The Mangalitsa has a medium-sized head with straight face, ears tipping forward; wide, slightly arched, back; deep and wide chest; straight and strong legs; black compact skin, free from wrinkles. Black colour of snout, eylids, teats and hoofs is a breed character. The body is covered with soft curly hair and the head and legs with straight short dense hair closely clinging to the skin. Hair colour is dingy white or dark tan; on head and legs it is almost black.

During 1977-81 the average evaluation results were as follows: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 149 kg, body length - 143 cm, sow live weight - 113 kg, body length - 121 cm, litter size - 7.0, weight of month-old litter - 29.7 kg, weight of two-month-old litter 56.2 kg. Individual sows may farrow up to 10-12 piglets at a time.

The Mangalitsa animals have a small litter size, early formation of fat tissues, admirable hardiness and adaptability to pasture feeding in mountain forest conditions. Compared with other breeds the Mangalitsa shows greater endurance at low temperatures. It is raised in mountain parts of Georgia and used in crossing with the Kakhetian breed group. The litter size in crosses is 20-25% more than in the pure Kakhetian animals.

MIRGOROD (Mirgorodskaya)

The breed was developed in collective and state farms of Poltava region by experts of the Mirgorod State Breeding station under the direction of A.F. Bondarenko and the personnel of the Poltava Pig Breeding Research Institute. It was formed by crossing the Ukrainian native short-eared spotted pigs with Berkshire, Large White, Middle White and to some extent, with Tamworth boars.

Classified as lard type the breed was recognized in 1940. The total number of head was 744 000 in 1960, 372 000 in 1964, 227 000 in 1969 and 222 000 in 1974. In 1980 its total population was 186 000 including 136 800 purebreds, of which 6200 were breeding boars, 200 boars on test, 26 900 breeding sows and 7800 sows on test.

The breed has a medium-sized head with slightly dished face; small erect ears with forward pitch but occasionally slightly drooping; wide chest; straight wide back; strong medium-long legs which are shorter than in the Large White; hard elastic unwrinkled skin; dense bristles growing evenly all over the body. The colour is predominantly black-pied, but black, black-and-tan, and tan animals sometimes occur.

The 1983 evaluation produced the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 275 kg, body length - 170 cm, sow live weight - 217 kg, body length - 153 cm, litter size - 9.5, weight of month-old litter - 48 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 142 kg. The results obtained at breeding centres were somewhat higher: boar live weight - 296 kg, body length - 179 kg, sow live weight - 238 kg, body length - 162 cm, litter size - 10.8, weight of month-old litter - 59 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 172 kg.

The 1983 performance test gave the following results: time to reach 100 kg live weight - 220 days, feed/kg gain - 4.03 fodder units, backfat thickness - 28 mm, length of carcass - 94 cm, ham weight - 10.1 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the sow Yagoda 276 owned by Dekabrist breeding centre in Poltava region. Its results were as follows: live weight at 51 months - 315 kg, body length - 175 cm, litter size - 12.6, weight of one-month-old litter - 66 kg, average daily gain by its offspring during the fattening performance test - 719 g, feed/kg gain - 3.84 fodder units, backfat thickness - 24 mm.

In 1983 the breed's champion in the meat quality and fattening performance test was the boar Dnepr 91 owned by 60th Anniversary of the Great October Revolution state breeding farm in Yarmolinetski district of Khmelnitski region. Its offspring gave the following results in the fattening performance test: time to gain 100 live weight - 197 days, average daily gain - 824 g, feed/kg gain - 3.7 fodder units, length of carcass - 95 cm, backfat thickness - 37 mm, ham weight - 10.3 kg.

The breed consists of 11 boar lines and 34 sow families.

Mirgorod animals are well adapted to the Ukrainian forest steppe and to pasture feeding. The breed is zoned for raising in the Ukraine and widely used in crossbreeding systems as a maternal and paternal breed.

It is being improved at 2 breeding centres and 24 breeding farms, the chief of which are Peremoga and Dekabrist breeding centres in Poltava region. Selection is directed towards increased body length and meat yield.

UKRAINIAN SPOTTED STEPPE (Ukrainskaya stepnaya ryabaya)

The breed was developed by crossing selected spotted pigs of the Ukrainian White Steppe breed with Berkshire and Mangalitsa boars. During the subsequent inter se breeding close inbreeding was practised and rigid culling on the basis of constitution and productivity. The programme was carried out at the Askania Nova experimental farm of the Ukrainian Research Institute for Animal Husbandry in Steppe Regions under the guidance of L.K. Greben.

The breed was recognized in 1961. It numbered 28 000 in 1960, 18 000 in 1964, 8000 in 1969 and 7000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 its total population was 7000 including 5800 purebreds, of which 316 were breeding boars, 65 boars on test, 799 breeding sows and 491 sows on test.

In type the breed stands close to the Ukrainian White Steppe. The colour is spotted black-and-white or black-and-tan and sometimes black.

The 1983 evaluation gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 322 kg, body length - 183 cm, sow live weight - 238 kg, body length - 164 cm, litter size - 10.8, weight of month-old litter - 48 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 148 kg. The results at breeding centres were as follows: live weight of 36-month-old boars - 338 kg, body length - 186 cm, sow live weight - 243 kg, body length - 165 cm, litter size - 11.2, weight of month-old litter - 50 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 158 kg.

The performance test gave the following results: time to reach 100 kg body weight - 186 days, feed/kg gain - 3.76 fodder units, backfat thickness - 28 mm, length of carcass - 97 cm, ham weight - 10.5 kg.

In 1983 the breed's champion was the boar Real 429 owned by Askania Nova experimental farm, which gave the following results: time for its offspring to gain 100 kg body weight during the fattening performance test - 187 days, average daily gain - 811 g, feed/kg gain - 3.58 fodder units, backfat thickness - 30 mm.

The breed consists of 9 boar lines and 18 sow families.

The Ukrainian Spotted Steppe is superior to the Ukrainian White Steppe in hardiness and adaptability to the hot climate in the southern Ukraine. It is raised and improved at Askania Nova breeding centre and at 4 breeding farms in Kherson and Nikolaev regions.

BREED GROUPS
AKSAI BLACK PIED (Aksaiskaya cherno-pestraya)

The breed group was developed on the basis of crossing native pigs with the Large White and the Berkshire.

It numbered 3000 in 1964, 4000 in 1969 and 9000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 the total population was 11 000 including 5000 purebreds, of which 173 were breeding boars, 342 breeding sows and 444 sows on test.

It has a harmonious conformation. Its colour is black-pied.

The 1983 evaluation gave the following results: live weight of 36-month-old boars 317 kg, body length - 182 cm, sow live weight - 245 kg, body length - 167 cm, litter size - 9.7, weight of month-old litter 51 kg, weight of two-month-old litter -174 kg. The breed group gave the following results in the fattening performance test: time to reach 100 kg body weight - 212 days, feed/kg gain - 4.27 fodder units, backfat fat thickness - 30 mm, length of carcass - 96 cm, ham weight - 11.2 kg.

The group consists of 3 boar lines and 6 sow families.

The group is raised and improved at Kaskelenski breeding state farm and at Aksai experimental and training farm of Alma-Ata region in Kazakhstan. The Aksai animals are used in commercial crossing with North Caucasian, Large White and Landrace boars.

The group is zoned for raising in the Alma-Ata region. It is being improved in litter size, meat quality and fattening performance by infusion of Large White and Estonian Bacon blood.

FOREST MOUNTAIN (Lesogornaya)

The breed group was developed by crossing pigs native to the north and east of Armenia with the Large White and the Mangalitsa.

It numbered 7000 in 1964, 14 000 in 1969 and 2000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 there were 579 purebred animals, of which 16 were breeding boars, 75 breeding sows and 30 sows on test.

Forest Mountain pigs have a deep and wide chest, long body, high legs with strong hoofs, good bristle covering with undercoat. The colour is white, but black may occur.

Live weight of mature boars is 260 kg, sow live weight - 165-167 kg, litter size - 7-10, weight of month-old litter - 40-45 kg, weight of two-month-old litter -130-140 kg.

Hardiness and adaptability to maintenance on pasture are the major assets of the breed group. The carcasses have a higher fat content (9.9%), lower moisture content in the meat, and a higher intensity of meat colour compared with the Large White and meat breeds.

Forest Mountain pigs are well adapted to both confinement and pasture management i.e. they are kept on pasture until they are 6-8 months old and then they are fattened for 60-80 days.

The group consists of 4 boar lines.

The breed group is zoned for raising in forest and mountain zones of Armenia. Fattening performance is being improved by infusion of Large White blood.

KAKHETIAN (Kakhetinskaya)

The Kakhetian breed group is a primitive type which is close to the wild boar as shown by the position of lower molars, the long slim lacrimal bones and the striped pattern of piglets.

In the past the Kakhetian pigs were found in all parts of Georgia. Now the purebred animals are present mainly in Akhmeta, Telavi, Kvareli, Gurjaani and Dusheti regions.

The Kakhetian animals have a relatively small head with straight face and erect ears, rather short body, wide and deep chest, straight wide back and strong, correctly-set legs with tough hoofs. The body is covered with hard, long and straight bristles.

The Kakhetian breed group population is rather limited. It numbered 6000 in 1969, and 2000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 the number was only 1200 including 745 purebreds, of which 2 were breeding boars and 103 breeding sows.

The animals have a slow rate of development and small litter size and are late maturing. The 1982 evalution gave the following results: live weight of 6-month-old boars - 85 kg, body length - 89 cm, sow live weight - 62 kg, body length - 95 cm, litter size - 5.0, weight of month-old litter - 20.3 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 28 kg.

Although the Kakhetian cannot compete directly with improved breeds steps are being taken to protect them and to organize their pure breeding in order to infuse their blood into improved breeds to improve constitution and disease resistance.

SIBERIAN BLACK PIED (Sibirskaya cherno-pestraya)

The breed group was developed from the coloured animals discarded in the process of breeding the North Siberian white pigs.

It numbered 4000 in 1964, 7000 in 1969 and 12 000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 its population was 5300 head including 2300 purebreds, of which 258 were breeding boars, 166 breeding sows and 183 sows on test.

The Black Pied breed group is similar to the North Siberian breed although it is superior in adaptation to the local conditions and particularly to heat. The Siberian Pied pigs have rough skin, free from wrinkles on head and legs; the body is covered with soft dense bristles and underhair. It has full hams. The colour is black-pied.

The group consists of 4 boar lines and 4 sow families.

The breed group is zoned for raising in Novosibirsk region.

TSIVILSK (Tsivilskaya)

The breed group was developed by crossing native Chuvash pigs with Large White boars. Numbers were 28 000 in 1960, 41 000 in 1964, 21 000 in 1969 and 24 000 in 1974. As of 1 January 1980 the total population of purebred animals was 35 600, including 616 breeding boars, 35 boars on test, 3700 breeding sows and 2300 sows on test.

In Tsivilsk pigs the head is heavier than in the Large White, with wide forehead and slightly dished face, rather long snout and medium-size ears tilted forward. The back is straight and even. The colour is white.

The 1983 evaluation gave the following results; live weight of 36-month-old boars - 299 kg, body length - 177 cm, sow live weight - 229 kg, body length - 160 cm, litter size - 10.5, weight of month-old litter - 47 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 136 kg.

The 1983 performance test gave the following results: time to reach 100 kg body weight - 196 days, feed/kg gain - 3.90 fodder units, backfat thickness - 30 mm, length of carcass - 96 cm, ham weight - 10.3 kg.

The breed group's champion in 1984 was the sow Ula 374 owned by the Chuvash agricultural experimental station in the Chuvash Autonomous Republic, which gave the following results at the age of 56 months: body weight - 265 kg, body length - 166 cm, litter size - 14, weight of one-month-old litter - 82 kg, weight of two-month-old litter - 187 kg. During the fattening performance test its offspring gave the following results: time to gain 100 kg body weight - 187 days, feed/kg gain - 3.83 fodder units, backfat thickness - 28 mm, length of carcass - 97 cm, ham weight - 10.6 kg.

The breed group consists of 11 boar lines and 21 sow families.

The group is raised and improved at the Chuvash agricultural experiment station and at 4 pig breeding units on collective farms in the Chuvash ASSR.

The Tsivilsk breed group is used in crossing with the Large White in the Chuvash Republic breeding system. The breeding is directed toward improving maternal quality and fattening performance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
(In Russian)

Dobrokhotov G.N. Pig breeding. Kolos, Moscow. 1974.

Ladan P.E., Kozlovski V.G. and Stepanov V.I. Pig breeding. Kolos, Moscow. 1978.

Ladan P.E. and Mysik A.T. (Eds.) Pig breeds of the USSR. VASKLNIL, Kolos publishers, Moscow. 1970, 1981.

Ladan P.E. and Mysik A.T. (Eds.) Pig breeds. VASKLNIL, Moscow. 1981

Volkopyalov B.P. Pig breeding. 3rd revised edition, Izdatelstvo selskokhozyaist-vennoi literatury, zhurnalov i plakatov. Moscow, Leningrad. 1963.