%!PS-Adobe-3.0 %%Title: (Microsoft Word - Dissertation, with fixes) %%Creator: (Microsoft Word: LaserWriter 8 8.5.1) %%CreationDate: (2:49 pm Monday, 13 April, 1998) %%For: (Stuart Cheshire) %%Routing: (mailto:\[email protected]) %%Pages: 152 %%DocumentFonts: Times-Roman Times-Bold Times-Italic Arial-BoldMT Symbol ArialMT Courier MonotypeSorts Helvetica Courier-Bold %%DocumentNeededFonts: Times-Roman Times-Bold Times-Italic Symbol Courier Helvetica Courier-Bold %%DocumentSuppliedFonts: Arial-BoldMT ArialMT MonotypeSorts %%DocumentData: Clean7Bit %%PageOrder: Ascend %%Orientation: Portrait %%DocumentMedia: Default 612 792 0 () () %ADO_ImageableArea: 30 31 582 761 %%EndComments %%BeginDefaults %%ViewingOrientation: 1 0 0 1 %%EndDefaults userdict/dscInfo 5 dict dup begin /Title(Microsoft Word - Dissertation, with fixes)def /Creator(Microsoft Word: LaserWriter 8 8.5.1)def /CreationDate(2:49 pm Monday, 13 April, 1998)def /For(Stuart Cheshire)def /Pages 152 def end put /md 257 dict def md begin/currentpacking where {pop /sc_oldpacking currentpacking def true setpacking}if %%BeginFile: lw8_basic-2.3 %%Copyright: Copyright 1990-1997 Adobe Systems Incorporated and Apple Computer Incorporated. 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2 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 240 704 :M f165 sf (\321 ii)S 262 704 :M ( \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 3 3 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 3 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 274 704 :M f165 sf (\321 iii \321)S 170 368 :M f180 sf (\251 Copyright 1998 by Stuart David Cheshire)S 237 398 :M (All Rights Reserved)S endp showpage %%Page: 4 4 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 4 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 239 704 :M f165 sf (\321 iv \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 5 5 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 5 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 276 704 :M f165 sf (\321 v \321)S 105 68 :M .196 .02(I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it is fully adequate,)J 105 86 :M 1.085 .108(in scope and in quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Ph)J 467 86 :M (ilosophy.)S 294 175 :M (Mary Baker)S 366 175 :M (\(Principal A)S 425 175 :M (dvisor\))S .24 lw 218.24 257 155.12 @c 105 235 :M .196 .02(I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it is fully adequate,)J 105 253 :M 1.085 .108(in scope and in quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Ph)J 467 253 :M (ilosophy.)S 294 342 :M (Craig Partridge)S 218.24 257 322.12 @c 105 402 :M .196 .02(I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it is fully adequate,)J 105 420 :M 1.085 .108(in scope and in quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Ph)J 467 420 :M (ilosophy.)S 294 509 :M (Nick McKeown)S 218.24 257 489.12 @c 105 569 :M (Approved for the University Committee on Graduate Studies:)S 218.24 257 638.12 @c endp showpage %%Page: 6 6 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 6 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 239 704 :M f165 sf (\321 vi \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 7 7 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 7 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 vii)S 301 704 :M ( \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Abstract)S 78 164 :M f165 sf .27 .027(Byte stuffing is a process that encodes a sequence of data bytes that may contain \324illegal\325)J 78 182 :M .471 .047(or \324reserved\325 values, using a potentially longer sequence that contains no occurrences of)J 78 200 :M (these values. The extra length is referred to as the )S 319 200 :M f243 sf (overhead)S 364 200 :M f165 sf ( of the encoding.)S 78 230 :M .066 .007(To date, byte stuffing algorithms, such as those used by SLIP, PPP and AX.25, have been)J 78 248 :M .314 .031(designed to incur low average overhead, but little effort has been made to minimize their)J 78 266 :M (worst-case overhead.)S 78 296 :M 1.21 .121(However, there are some increasingly popular network devices whose performance is)J 78 314 :M .478 .048(determined more by the worst case than by the average case. For example, the transmi)J 503 314 :M (s)S 508 314 :M (-)S 78 332 :M .071 .007(sion time for ISM-band packet radio transmitters is strictly limited by FCC regulation. To)J 78 350 :M 1.067 .107(adhere to this regulation, the current practice is to set the maximum packet size artifi-)J 78 368 :M .266 .027(cially low so that no packet, even after worst-case overhead, can exceed the transmission)J 78 386 :M (time limit.)S 78 416 :M .077 .008(This dissertation presents a new byte stuffing algorithm, called Consistent Overhead Byte)J 78 434 :M 1.382 .138(Stuffing \(COBS\), which tightly bounds the worst-case overhead. It guarantees in the)J 78 452 :M 1.167 .117(worst case to add no more than one byte in 254 to any packet. For large packets this)J 78 470 :M .415 .042(means that their encoded size is no more than 100.4% of their pre-encoding size. This is)J 78 488 :M 1.397 .14(much better than the 200% worst-case bound that is common for many byte stuffing)J 78 506 :M (algorithms, and is close to the information-theoretic limit of about 100.07%.)S 78 536 :M 1.057 .106(Furthermore, the algorithm is computationally cheap, and its average overhead is very)J 78 554 :M (competitive with that of existing algorithms.)S endp showpage %%Page: 8 8 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 8 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 235 704 :M f165 sf (\321 viii \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 9 9 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 9 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 275 704 :M f165 sf (\321 ix \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Acknowledgements)S 78 158 :M f165 sf .48 .048(Thanks to my advisor, Mary Baker, for all her help developing the ideas in this dissert)J 503 158 :M (a-)S 78 176 :M .708 .071(tion, for teaching me how to present my work clearly and convincingly in written form)J 78 194 :M .278 .028(and consequently achieve a series of successful conference publications, and for her help)J 78 212 :M .508 .051(with all those innumerable educational steps a Ph.D. student has to complete in order to)J 78 230 :M .573 .057(graduate. Without Mary\325s support I would never have had the opportunity to pursue my)J 78 248 :M (interest in wireless networking which led to the results presented in this dissert)S 456 248 :M (ation.)S 78 272 :M 1.155 .116(Thanks to my mentors during my years spent at Stanford University: David Cheriton,)J 78 290 :M .429 .043(Craig Partridge and Mary Baker. Without their excellent teaching, both in the classroom)J 78 308 :M 1.172 .117(and in private conversation, I may never have developed the thorough understanding,)J 78 326 :M .082 .008(reasoned opinions, and sound intuitions necessary to produce a Ph.D. thesis in the field of)J 78 344 :M (computer ne)S 138 344 :M (tworking.)S 78 368 :M .736 .074(Thanks to my Oral Defence Committee, Mary Baker, Craig Partridge, Nick McKeown,)J 78 386 :M (Vaughan Pratt, and John Gill, for their valuable advice and suggestions about my thesis.)S 78 410 :M .193 .019(Thanks to my Reading Committee, Mary Baker, Craig Partridge and Nick McKeown, for)J 78 428 :M 1.248 .125(their great efforts helping me produce this dissertation, and their vigilance in helping)J 78 446 :M (ensure that it met the high standards they expect.)S 78 470 :M 2.249 .225(Thanks to Steven Gass, Engineering Library Head Librarian, for his assistance in)J 78 488 :M (searching the computing and communications literature all the way back to 1968.)S 78 512 :M 1.612 .161(Thanks to John Gill for sharing with me his 1991 design for a protocol for sending)J 78 530 :M 1.308 .131(XWindow protocol units over a modem connection, and for his invaluable assistance)J 78 548 :M 2.018 .202(analysing and discussing with me the performance characteristics and probabilistic)J 78 566 :M (behaviour of consistent overhead byte stuffing.)S 78 590 :M 1.922 .192(Thanks to Tom Costello and Anna Patterson for their assistance proof-reading this)J 78 608 :M (dissertation.)S 78 632 :M 1.455 .145(Thanks to my wife, Pavani Diwanji, for her emotional support through the long and)J 78 650 :M (sometimes difficult process of completing a Ph.D.)S endp showpage %%Page: 10 10 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 10 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 240 704 :M f165 sf (\321 x \321)S 42 56 :M 1.65 .165(Thanks to Digital Equipment Corporation for creating the Alta Vista search engine,)J 42 74 :M .604 .06(which proved to be an invaluable time-saver in locating publications and other inform)J 467 74 :M (a-)S 42 92 :M (tion on the Internet.)S 42 122 :M (This work was supported by:)S 78 146 :M (Rockwell International Science Center)S 78 170 :M (FX Palo Alto Laboratory)S 78 194 :M (AT&T/Lucent)S 78 218 :M (NSF Faculty Career grant number CCR-9501799)S 78 242 :M (A grant from the Keio Research Institute at SFC, Keio University)S 78 260 :M (and the Info)S 136 260 :M (r)S 140 260 :M (mation-Technology Promotion Agency of Japan, and)S 78 284 :M (An Alfred P. Sloan Faculty Research Fellowship)S endp showpage %%Page: 11 11 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 11 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 275 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xi \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Contents)S 78 170 :M f258 sf (ABSTRACT)S 132 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 136 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 140 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 144 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 148 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 152 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 156 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 160 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 170 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 170 :M 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.75 0 rm (.)S 268 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 492 206 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 499 206 :M (IX)S 78 242 :M (LIST OF TABLES)S 160 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 492 242 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 496 242 :M (XV)S 78 278 :M (LIST OF FIGURES)S 164 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 278 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 278 :M (XVII)S 78 314 :M (1. INTRODUCTION)S 168 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 492 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 496 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 500 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 505 314 :M (1)S 78 338 :M f273 sf (1.1 P)S 99 338 :M f288 sf (ROBLEM )S f273 sf (S)S 140 338 :M f288 sf (TATEMENT)S 183 338 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 186 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 498 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 501 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 505 338 :M (1)S 78 362 :M (1.2 P)S 99 362 :M f288 sf (RIMARY )S f273 sf (C)S 140 362 :M f288 sf (ONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS )S f273 sf (P)S 239 362 :M f288 sf (H)S 245 362 :M f273 sf (.D. T)S 266 362 :M f288 sf (HESIS)S 288 362 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 291 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 498 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 501 362 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 505 362 :M (5)S 78 386 :M (1.3 O)S f288 sf (UTLINE OF )S f273 sf (D)S f288 sf (ISSERTATION)S 204 386 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 207 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 498 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 501 386 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 505 386 :M (5)S 78 422 :M f258 sf (2. PRIOR WORK)S 156 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 160 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 492 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 496 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 500 422 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 505 422 :M (7)S 78 446 :M f273 sf (2.1 B)S 100 446 :M f288 sf (ACKGROUND)S f273 sf (: P)S 162 446 :M f288 sf (ACKET )S 191 446 :M f273 sf (F)S 197 446 :M f288 sf (RAMING AND )S 251 446 :M f273 sf (D)S f288 sf (ATA )S f273 sf (S)S 282 446 :M f288 sf (TUFFING)S 318 446 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 321 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 498 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 501 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 505 446 :M (7)S 78 470 :M (2.2 T)S f288 sf (ERMINOLOGY)S 153 470 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 156 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 470 :M (10)S 78 494 :M (2.3 B)S 100 494 :M f288 sf (ACKGROUND)S f273 sf (: E)S f288 sf (ARLY )S 186 494 :M f273 sf (H)S f288 sf (ISTORY)S 222 494 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 225 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 494 :M (11)S 90 512 :M f303 sf (2.3.1 Fire Beacons and Optical Telegraphs)S 264 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 512 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 512 :M (11)S 90 530 :M (2.3.2 Morse Code)S 162 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 530 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 530 :M (12)S 90 548 :M (2.3.3 The Cost of Out-Of-Band Framing)S 252 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 548 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 548 :M (13)S 90 566 :M (2.3.4 Choice of In-Band Framing Marker)S 258 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 566 :M (13)S 90 584 :M (2.3.5 Barker Codes and Comma-Free Encoding)S 282 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 584 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 584 :M (15)S 78 608 :M f273 sf (2.4 D)S f288 sf (ESIRABLE )S f273 sf (P)S 146 608 :M f288 sf (ROPERTIES OF A )S 211 608 :M f273 sf (F)S 217 608 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (P)S 257 608 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOL)S 297 608 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 300 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 608 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 608 :M (18)S 90 626 :M f303 sf (2.4.1 Transparency)S 168 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 626 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 626 :M (18)S 90 644 :M (2.4.2 Reliability)S 156 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 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662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 662 :M (20)S endp showpage %%Page: 12 12 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 12 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xii)S 265 704 :M ( \321)S 54 56 :M f303 sf (2.4.4 Efficiency)S 117 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 56 :M .25 0 rm 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(F)S 82 80 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (H)S f288 sf (IERARCHY)S 165 80 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 168 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 80 :M (23)S 42 104 :M (2.6 R)S 64 104 :M f288 sf (EVIEW OF )S 104 104 :M f273 sf (E)S f288 sf (XISTING )S 144 104 :M f273 sf (F)S 150 104 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (P)S 190 104 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOLS)S 234 104 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 237 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 104 :M 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.25 0 rm (.)S 396 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 104 :M (24)S 42 128 :M (2.7 O)S f288 sf (UT)S 75 128 :M f273 sf (-O)S 86 128 :M f288 sf (F)S f273 sf (-B)S 100 128 :M f288 sf (AND )S f273 sf (F)S 125 128 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (P)S 165 128 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOLS)S 207 128 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 210 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 128 :M (26)S 54 146 :M f303 sf (2.7.1 Ethernet)S 111 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 146 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 146 :M (26)S 54 164 :M (2.7.2 Token Ring)S 123 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 164 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 164 :M (28)S 54 182 :M (2.7.3 Fiber Distributed Data Interface)S 210 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 182 :M (29)S 54 200 :M (2.7.4 Teletext)S 108 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 200 :M (32)S 54 218 :M (2.7.5 ISDN)S 99 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 102 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 105 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 108 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 218 :M (33)S 42 242 :M f273 sf (2.8 N)S f288 sf (ON)S 76 242 :M f273 sf (-T)S f288 sf (RANSPARENT )S f273 sf (I)S f288 sf (N)S 148 242 :M f273 sf (-B)S 158 242 :M f288 sf (AND )S f273 sf (F)S 183 242 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (P)S 223 242 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOLS)S 267 242 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 270 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 242 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 242 :M (38)S 54 260 :M f303 sf (2.8.1 MPEG)S 105 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 108 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 260 :M (38)S 54 278 :M (2.8.2 T-1 / D4 Framing with AMI Line Coding)S 240 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 278 :M (40)S 42 302 :M f273 sf (2.9 T)S f288 sf (RANSPARENT )S f273 sf (I)S f288 sf (N)S 126 302 :M f273 sf (-B)S 136 302 :M f288 sf (AND )S f273 sf (F)S 161 302 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (P)S 201 302 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOLS )S f273 sf (W)S f288 sf (ITHOUT )S 286 302 :M f273 sf (D)S f288 sf (ATA )S f273 sf (S)S 317 302 :M f288 sf (TUFFING)S 351 302 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 354 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 302 :M (43)S 54 320 :M f303 sf (2.9.1 T-1 / ESF Framing with B8ZS Line Coding)S 249 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 320 :M (43)S 54 338 :M (2.9.2 Verilink Patent)S 138 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 338 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 338 :M (45)S 54 356 :M (2.9.3 Baudot Code)S 129 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 356 :M (47)S 54 374 :M (2.9.4 RS-232)S 108 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 374 :M (49)S 54 392 :M (2.9.5 SONET)S 108 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 392 :M (52)S 54 410 :M (2.9.6 Cambridge Ring)S 144 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 410 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 410 :M (54)S 54 428 :M (2.9.7 RATP)S 102 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 105 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 108 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 428 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 428 :M (56)S 54 446 :M (2.9.8 Digital Equipment Corporation DDCMP)S 243 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 446 :M (57)S 54 464 :M (2.9.9 XMODEM \(The Christensen Protocol\))S 234 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 464 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 464 :M (58)S 54 482 :M (2.9.10 YMODEM)S 126 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 482 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 482 :M (59)S 42 506 :M f273 sf (2.10 T)S f288 sf (RANSPARENT )S f273 sf (I)S f288 sf (N)S 131 506 :M f273 sf (-B)S 141 506 :M f288 sf (AND )S f273 sf (F)S 166 506 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (P)S 206 506 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOLS )S f273 sf (W)S f288 sf (ITH )S f273 sf (D)S f288 sf (ATA )S f273 sf (S)S 305 506 :M f288 sf (TUFFING)S 339 506 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 342 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 506 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 506 :M (61)S 54 524 :M f303 sf (2.10.1 IBM BISYNC)S 135 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 524 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 524 :M (61)S 54 542 :M (2.10.2 Kermit)S 111 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 542 :M (63)S 54 560 :M (2.10.3 ZMODEM)S 126 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 560 :M (65)S 54 578 :M (2.10.4 SLIP and AX.25)S 147 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 578 :M (66)S 54 596 :M (2.10.5 PPP)S 102 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 105 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 108 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 596 :M (67)S 54 614 :M (2.10.6 John Gill\325s XWindow Modem Protocol)S 240 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 614 :M (69)S 54 632 :M (2.10.7 HDLC)S 108 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 111 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 114 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 117 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 120 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 632 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 632 :M (70)S 42 656 :M f273 sf (2.11 S)S 68 656 :M f288 sf (UMMARY OF )S f273 sf (F)S 125 656 :M f288 sf (RAMING )S f273 sf (P)S 165 656 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOLS)S 207 656 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 210 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 656 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 656 :M (73)S endp showpage %%Page: 13 13 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 13 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 271 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xiii \321)S 78 56 :M f258 sf (3. ALGORITHMS)S 160 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 492 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 496 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 500 56 :M (77)S 78 80 :M f273 sf (3.1 COBS S)S f288 sf (YNTAX AND )S f273 sf (S)S 182 80 :M f288 sf (EMANTICS)S 225 80 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 228 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 80 :M (77)S 78 104 :M (3.2 COBS E)S 128 104 :M f288 sf (NCODING )S 167 104 :M f273 sf (P)S 173 104 :M f288 sf (ROCEDURE)S 216 104 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 219 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 104 :M (80)S 78 128 :M (3.3 B)S 100 128 :M f288 sf (EHAVIOUR OF )S f273 sf (COBS)S 183 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 128 :M (82)S 78 152 :M (3.4 Z)S f288 sf (ERO )S f273 sf (P)S 123 152 :M f288 sf (AIR )S 139 152 :M f273 sf (E)S f288 sf (LIMINATION)S 195 152 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 198 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 152 :M (84)S 78 188 :M f258 sf (4. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS)S 216 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 492 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 496 188 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 500 188 :M (87)S 78 212 :M f273 sf (4.1 B)S 100 212 :M f288 sf (EST )S f273 sf (C)S 123 212 :M f288 sf (ASE )S f273 sf (O)S f288 sf (VERHEAD)S 186 212 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 189 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 212 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 212 :M (88)S 78 236 :M (4.2 W)S f288 sf (ORST)S f273 sf (-C)S 132 236 :M f288 sf (ASE )S f273 sf (O)S f288 sf (VERHEAD)S 195 236 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 198 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 236 :M (88)S 78 260 :M (4.3 E)S f288 sf (XPECTED )S f273 sf (O)S f288 sf (VERHEAD)S 183 260 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 186 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 260 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 260 :M (89)S 90 278 :M f303 sf (4.3.1 Expected Overhead for HDLC)S 234 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 278 :M (90)S 90 296 :M (4.3.2 Expected Overhead for PPP)S 228 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 296 :M (91)S 90 314 :M (4.3.3 Expected Overhead for COBS)S 234 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 314 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 314 :M (92)S 90 332 :M (4.3.4 Expected Overhead for COBS/ZPE)S 255 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 332 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 332 :M (93)S 78 356 :M f273 sf (4.4 E)S f288 sf (NCODING )S 138 356 :M f273 sf (D)S f288 sf (ELAY)S 168 356 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 171 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 356 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 356 :M (94)S 90 374 :M f303 sf (4.4.1 Relationship Between Delay and Worst-Case Overhead)S 336 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 374 :M (95)S 90 392 :M (4.4.2 Units of Data for Encoding Algorithms)S 270 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 392 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 392 :M (96)S 78 416 :M f273 sf (4.5 S)S 99 416 :M f288 sf (UMMARY)S 138 416 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 141 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 416 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 416 :M (97)S 78 452 :M f258 sf (5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS)S 220 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 492 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 496 452 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 500 452 :M (99)S 78 476 :M f273 sf (5.1 T)S f288 sf (HREE)S 120 476 :M f273 sf (-D)S 131 476 :M f288 sf (AY )S 145 476 :M f273 sf (T)S f288 sf (RACE)S 174 476 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 177 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 476 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 476 :M (100)S 78 500 :M (5.2 MPEG T)S f288 sf (RACE)S 150 500 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 153 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 500 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 500 :M (101)S 78 536 :M f258 sf (6. EXTENDING COBS)S 180 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 456 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 460 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 464 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 468 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 472 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 476 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 480 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 484 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 488 536 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 495 536 :M (105)S 78 560 :M f273 sf (6.1 E)S f288 sf (LIMINATING A )S 157 560 :M f273 sf (V)S f288 sf (ALUE )S f273 sf (O)S f288 sf (THER )S 217 560 :M f273 sf (T)S f288 sf (HAN )S f273 sf (Z)S f288 sf (ERO)S 264 560 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 267 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 560 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 560 :M (105)S 90 578 :M f303 sf (6.1.1 COBS with a non-zero Search Value)S 261 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 578 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 578 :M (105)S 90 596 :M (6.1.2 COBS with Output Mapping)S 228 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 596 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 596 :M (107)S 78 620 :M f273 sf (6.2 U)S f288 sf (SING )S 121 620 :M f273 sf (O)S f288 sf (THER )S 151 620 :M f273 sf (W)S f288 sf (ORD )S 179 620 :M f273 sf (L)S f288 sf (ENGTHS)S 219 620 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 222 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 620 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 620 :M (108)S 78 644 :M (6.3 E)S f288 sf (LIMINATING )S 149 644 :M f273 sf (M)S 158 644 :M f288 sf (ULTIPLE )S f273 sf (V)S f288 sf (ALUES)S 225 644 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 228 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 644 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 644 :M (109)S 78 668 :M (6.4 L)S f288 sf (OWER)S 123 668 :M f273 sf (-L)S f288 sf (EVEL )S f273 sf (F)S 160 668 :M f288 sf (RAMING)S 192 668 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 195 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 668 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 668 :M (111)S endp showpage %%Page: 14 14 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 14 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 236 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xiv \321)S 42 56 :M f258 sf (7. APPLICATIONS)S 128 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 132 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 136 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 140 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 144 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 148 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 152 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 156 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 160 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 56 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 459 56 :M (115)S 42 80 :M f273 sf (7.1 C)S 64 80 :M f288 sf (ONVENTIONAL )S 124 80 :M f273 sf (S)S 130 80 :M f288 sf (ERIAL )S 156 80 :M f273 sf (L)S f288 sf (INE )S f273 sf (B)S 184 80 :M f288 sf (YTE )S 202 80 :M f273 sf (S)S 208 80 :M f288 sf (TUFFING)S 243 80 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 246 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 80 :M (115)S 42 104 :M (7.2 S)S 63 104 :M f288 sf (LOTTED )S f273 sf (M)S 105 104 :M f288 sf (EDIA )S f273 sf (A)S f288 sf (CCESS )S f273 sf (P)S 165 104 :M f288 sf (ROTOCOLS)S 207 104 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 210 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 104 :M (115)S 42 128 :M (7.3 S)S 63 128 :M f288 sf (IMPLIFIED )S 105 128 :M f273 sf (MACA P)S f288 sf (ROTOCOL)S 183 128 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 186 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 128 :M (116)S 42 152 :M (7.4 ISM P)S 83 152 :M f288 sf (ACKET )S 112 152 :M f273 sf (R)S 119 152 :M f288 sf (ADIO )S 141 152 :M f273 sf (B)S 148 152 :M f288 sf (YTE )S 166 152 :M f273 sf (S)S 172 152 :M f288 sf (TUFFING)S 207 152 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 210 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 152 :M (116)S 42 176 :M (7.5 I)S f288 sf (MPROVES )S 100 176 :M f273 sf (ATM E)S 131 176 :M f288 sf (FFICIENCY)S 174 176 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 177 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 176 :M (117)S 42 200 :M (7.6 F)S 63 200 :M f288 sf (ILE )S f273 sf (S)S 83 200 :M f288 sf (TORAGE)S 117 200 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 120 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 123 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 126 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 129 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 132 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 135 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 200 :M (118)S 54 218 :M f303 sf (7.6.1 MPEG Video Disks)S 156 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 218 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 218 :M (118)S 54 236 :M (7.6.2 Unix Maildrop Files)S 159 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 236 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 236 :M (118)S 54 254 :M (7.6.3 Backup Media)S 135 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 138 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 141 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 144 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 147 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 150 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 153 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 156 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 159 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 162 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 165 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 168 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 171 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 174 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 177 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 180 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 183 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 186 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 189 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 192 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 195 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 254 :M (119)S 42 278 :M f273 sf (7.7 A)S f288 sf (LLOWING )S f273 sf (N)S f288 sf (EW )S f273 sf (O)S f288 sf (BSERVERS TO )S f273 sf (J)S 190 278 :M f288 sf (OIN)S 204 278 :M .25 0 rm f273 sf (.)S 207 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 278 :M (120)S 42 314 :M f258 sf (8. CONCLUSIONS)S 128 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 132 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 136 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 140 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 144 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 148 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 152 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 156 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 160 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 314 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 459 314 :M (121)S 42 350 :M (9. BIBLIOGRAPHY)S 132 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 136 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 140 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 144 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 148 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 152 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 156 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 160 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 350 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 459 350 :M (123)S 42 386 :M (APPENDIX)S 96 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 100 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 104 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 108 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 112 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 116 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 120 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 124 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 128 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 132 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 136 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 140 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 144 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 148 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 152 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 156 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 160 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 164 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 168 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 172 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 176 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 180 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 184 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 188 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 192 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 196 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 200 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 204 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 208 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 212 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 216 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 220 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 224 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 228 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 232 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 236 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 240 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 244 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 248 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 252 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 256 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 260 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 264 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 268 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 272 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 276 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 280 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 284 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 288 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 292 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 296 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 300 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 304 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 308 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 312 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 316 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 320 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 324 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 328 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 332 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 336 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 340 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 344 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 348 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 352 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 356 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 360 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 364 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 368 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 372 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 376 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 380 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 384 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 388 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 392 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 396 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 400 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 404 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 408 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 412 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 416 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 420 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 424 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 428 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 432 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 436 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 440 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 444 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 448 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 452 386 :M .75 0 rm (.)S 459 386 :M (133)S endp showpage %%Page: 15 15 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 15 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xv \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (List of Tables)S 78 158 :M f273 sf (Table 1. Summary of Framing Properties for Ethernet)S 294 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 158 :M (27)S 78 182 :M (Table 2. Summary of Framing Properties for Token Ring)S 309 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 182 :M (28)S 78 206 :M (Table 3. 4b/5b Codes for FDDI)S 204 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 206 :M (30)S 78 230 :M (Table 4. Summary of Framing Properties for FDDI)S 282 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 230 :M (31)S 78 254 :M (Table 5. Summary of Framing Properties for Teletext)S 294 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 254 :M (32)S 78 278 :M (Table 6. Summary of Framing Properties for ISDN \324S\325 Reference Point)S 366 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 278 :M (34)S 78 302 :M (Table 7. Summary of Framing Properties for U.S. ISDN \324U\325 Reference Point)S 387 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 302 :M (36)S 78 326 :M (Table 8. Summary of Framing Properties for Non-U.S. ISDN \324U\325 Reference Point)S 408 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 326 :M (37)S 78 350 :M (Table 9. Summary of Framing Properties for MPEG)S 288 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 350 :M (39)S 78 374 :M (Table 10. Summary of Framing Properties for D4 Framing with AMI Line Coding)S 408 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 374 :M (42)S 78 398 :M (Table 11. Summary of Framing Properties for ESF with B8ZS Line Coding)S 381 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 398 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 398 :M (44)S 78 422 :M (Table 12. Summary of Framing Properties for Verilink Framing)S 336 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 422 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 422 :M (46)S 78 446 :M (Table 13. Summary of Framing Properties for Baudot Signalling)S 339 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 446 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 446 :M (48)S 78 470 :M (Table 14. Summary of Framing Properties for RS-232)S 297 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 470 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 470 :M (51)S 78 494 :M (Table 15. Summary of Framing Properties for SONET)S 297 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 494 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 494 :M (53)S 78 518 :M (Table 16. Summary of Framing Properties for Cambridge Ring)S 330 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 518 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 518 :M (55)S 78 542 :M (Table 17. Summary of Framing Properties for RATP)S 291 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 542 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 542 :M (56)S 78 566 :M (Table 18. Summary of Framing Properties for DDCMP)S 300 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 566 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 566 :M (57)S 78 590 :M (Table 19. Summary of Framing Properties for XMODEM)S 312 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 590 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 590 :M (58)S 78 614 :M (Table 20. Summary of Framing Properties for YMODEM)S 312 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 614 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 614 :M (60)S 78 638 :M (Table 21. Summary of Framing Properties for IBM BISYNC)S 324 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 638 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 638 :M (62)S 78 662 :M (Table 22. Summary of Framing Properties for Kermit)S 294 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 662 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 662 :M (64)S endp showpage %%Page: 16 16 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 16 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 236 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xvi \321)S 42 56 :M f273 sf (Table 23. Summary of Framing Properties for ZMODEM)S 273 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 56 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 56 :M (65)S 42 80 :M (Table 24. Summary of Framing Properties for SLIP/AX.25)S 279 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 80 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 80 :M (66)S 42 104 :M (Table 25. Summary of Framing Properties for PPP)S 246 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 104 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 104 :M (68)S 42 128 :M (Table 26. Summary of Framing Properties for Gill\325s Protocol)S 288 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 128 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 128 :M (69)S 42 152 :M (Table 27. Summary of Framing Properties for HDLC)S 255 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 152 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 152 :M (72)S 42 176 :M (Table 28. Summary of Table for all Framing Protocols)S 261 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 176 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 176 :M (73)S 42 200 :M (Table 29. Code Values used by Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing)S 312 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 200 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 200 :M (80)S 42 224 :M (Table 30. Code Values used by Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing with Zero-Pair Elimination)S 423 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 224 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 224 :M (84)S 42 248 :M (Table 31. Code Block Probabilities for Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing with Zero-Pair Elimination)S 450 248 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 248 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 248 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 248 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 464 248 :M (94)S 42 272 :M (Table 32. Code Values used by Consistent Overhead Word Stuffing)S 315 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 272 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 272 :M (108)S 42 296 :M (Table 33. Overhead Values for Consistent Overhead Word Stuffing)S 312 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 296 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 296 :M (109)S 42 320 :M (Table 34. COBS Code Values used to Eliminate a Pair of Byte Values)S 324 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 320 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 320 :M (110)S endp showpage %%Page: 17 17 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 17 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xvii)S 304 704 :M ( \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (List of Figures)S 78 158 :M f273 sf (Figure 1. Taxonomy of Framing Protocols)S 249 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 158 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 158 :M (24)S 78 182 :M (Figure 2. ISDN Terminology and Reference Points)S 282 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 182 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 182 :M (33)S 78 206 :M (Figure 3. RS-232 Character Framing)S 225 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 206 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 206 :M (49)S 78 230 :M (Figure 4. Example Code Blocks and the Data Chunks they Represent)S 354 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 230 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 230 :M (78)S 78 254 :M (Figure 5. Encoding Oversized Chunks)S 231 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 254 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 254 :M (79)S 78 278 :M (Figure 6. Example Encoding)S 195 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 198 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 201 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 204 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 207 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 210 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 213 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 216 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 219 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 222 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 225 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 228 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 231 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 234 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 237 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 240 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 243 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 246 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 249 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 252 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 255 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 258 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 261 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 264 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 267 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 270 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 273 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 276 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 279 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 282 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 285 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 278 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 278 :M (81)S 78 302 :M (Figure 7. Example Encoding with Zero-Pair Elimination)S 306 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 302 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 302 :M (85)S 78 326 :M (Figure 8. Encoding Overhead for 1500 Byte Packet)S 285 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 288 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 291 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 294 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 297 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 300 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 303 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 306 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 309 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 312 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 315 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 326 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 500 326 :M (97)S 78 350 :M (Figure 9. Encoding Overhead Distribution for 3-Day Trace)S 315 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 318 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 321 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 324 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 350 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 350 :M (102)S 78 374 :M (Figure 10. Encoding Overhead Distribution for MPEG Trace)S 324 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 327 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 330 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 333 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 336 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 339 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 342 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 345 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 348 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 351 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 354 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 357 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 360 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 363 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 366 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 369 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 372 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 375 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 378 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 381 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 384 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 387 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 390 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 393 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 396 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 399 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 402 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 405 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 408 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 411 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 414 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 417 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 420 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 423 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 426 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 429 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 432 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 435 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 438 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 441 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 444 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 447 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 450 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 453 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 456 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 459 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 462 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 465 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 468 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 471 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 474 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 477 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 480 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 483 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 486 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 489 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 492 374 :M .25 0 rm (.)S 495 374 :M (103)S endp showpage %%Page: 18 18 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 18 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 232 704 :M f165 sf (\321 xviii \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 19 19 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 19 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 276 704 :M f165 sf (\321 1 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter One)S 78 119 :M (Introduction)S 78 212 :M f165 sf .802 .08(This chapter explains why it is undesirable for a data stuffing algorithm to have highly)J 78 230 :M 1.466 .147(variable overhead, lists the major contributions of this Ph.D. thesis, and presents the)J 78 248 :M (outline of the dissertation.)S 78 284 :M f318 sf (1.1)S f360 sf ( )S 105 284 :M f318 sf (Problem Statement)S 78 314 :M f165 sf .45 .045(The purpose of byte stuffing is to convert data packets into a form suitable for transmi)J 503 314 :M (s)S 508 314 :M (-)S 78 332 :M 1.466 .147(sion over a serial medium like a telephone line. When packets are sent over a serial)J 78 350 :M .707 .071(medium there needs to be some way to tell where one packet ends and the next begins,)J 78 368 :M .196 .02(and this is typically done by using a special reserved value to indicate packet boundaries.)J 78 386 :M .515 .052(Byte stuffing ensures, at the cost of a potential increase in packet size, that this reserved)J 78 404 :M 1.046 .105(value does not inadvertently appear in the body of any transmitted packet. In general,)J 78 422 :M .306 .031(some )J f243 sf .103(overhead)A 152 422 :M f165 sf .712 .071( \(additional bytes transmitted over the serial medium\) is inevitable if we)J 78 440 :M (are to perform byte stuffing without loss of information.)S 78 470 :M .148 .015(Current byte stuffing algorithms, such as those used by Serial Line IP \(SLIP\) [RFC1055],)J 78 488 :M 2.439 .244(the Point-to-Point Protocol \(PPP\) [RFC1662] and AX.25 \(Amateur Packet Radio\))J 78 506 :M .428 .043([ARRL84], have high variance in per-packet overhead. For example, using conventional)J 78 524 :M .719 .072(PPP byte stuffing, the total overhead \(averaged over a large number of packets\) is typi-)J 78 542 :M .087 .009(cally 1% or less, but this overhead is not consistent for all packets. Some packets incur no)J 78 560 :M .09 .009(overhead at all, while others incur much more; in principle some could increase in size by)J 78 578 :M .957 .096(as much as 100%. High-level Data Link Control \(HDLC\) uses a bit stuffing technique)J 78 596 :M .54 .054([ECMA-40] that has a worst-case expansion of only 20%, but the drawback of bit stuf)J 504 596 :M (f)S 508 596 :M (-)S 78 614 :M .568 .057(ing is that algorithms that operate bit-by-bit are often harder to implement efficiently in)J 78 632 :M (software than alg)S 161 632 :M (orithms that operate byte-by-byte.)S endp showpage %%Page: 20 20 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 20 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 240 704 :M f165 sf (\321 2 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.198 .12(While large variability in overhead may add jitter and unpredictability to network b)J 467 56 :M (e-)S 42 74 :M 1.133 .113(haviour, it has only minor implications for running PPP over a telephone modem. An)J 42 92 :M .524 .052(Internet Protocol host \(IP host\) [RFC791] using standard PPP encapsulation [RFC1662])J 42 110 :M .514 .051(need only make its transmit and receive buffers twice as large as the largest IP packet it)J 42 128 :M .433 .043(expects to send or receive. The modem itself is a connection-oriented device and is only)J 42 146 :M .779 .078(concerned with transmitting an unstructured stream of byte values. It is unaware of the)J 42 164 :M .938 .094(concept of packet boundaries, so the size of the packets it is required to send does not)J 42 182 :M (have any direct design implications for the modem.)S 42 212 :M 1.802 .18(In contrast, new devices are now becoming available, particularly portable wireless)J 42 230 :M 1.151 .115(devices, that are packet-oriented, not circuit-oriented. Unlike telephone modems these)J 42 248 :M 1.282 .128(devices are aware of packets as distinct entities and consequently impose some finite)J 42 266 :M .549 .055(limit on the maximum packet size they can support. Channel-hopping packet radios that)J 42 284 :M .694 .069(operate in the unlicensed ISM \(Industrial/Scientific/Medical\) bands under the FCC Part)J 42 302 :M .717 .072(15 rules [US94-15] are constrained by a maximum transmission time that they may not)J 42 320 :M 1.281 .128(exceed. If the overhead of byte stuffing unexpectedly doubles the size of a packet, it)J 42 338 :M 1.358 .136(could result in a packet that is too large to transmit legally. Using conventional PPP)J 42 356 :M 1.07 .107(encoding [RFC1662], the only way to be certain that no packets will exceed the legal)J 42 374 :M .693 .069(limit is to set the IP maximum transmission unit \(MTU\) to half the device\325s true MTU,)J 42 392 :M .659 .066(despite the fact that it is exceedingly rare to encounter a packet that actually doubles in)J 42 410 :M (size when e)S 98 410 :M (ncoded.)S 42 440 :M 1.524 .152(Setting the MTU to only half the size that the underlying medium is capable of can)J 42 458 :M 1.893 .189(significantly degrade the performance seen by the end-user. Using small packets is)J 42 476 :M .587 .059(generally less efficient than using large packets. This is because there is some overhead)J 42 494 :M .862 .086(associated with every packet sent, in terms of: \(i\) extra data \(header bytes\) transmitted)J 42 512 :M 1.107 .111(over the medium, \(ii\) CPU cycles expended at the sender and receiver, and \(iii\) other)J 42 530 :M .511 .051(additional time delays that may be incurred depending on the medium in use. For exa)J 463 530 :M (m-)S 42 548 :M .274 .027(ple, for every packet sent over a Metricom packet radio, some time is expended in tuning)J 42 566 :M 1.863 .186(the transmitting and receiving circuitry and in exchanging preliminary handshaking)J 42 584 :M 2.023 .202(information before the actual packet transmission begins [Che96]. Using Metricom)J 42 602 :M .746 .075(packet radios, the time to send a packet is roughly 50ms of fixed overhead, plus 0.1ms)J 42 620 :M .238 .024(per byte of packet data. Thus the time it takes to send a 1000-byte packet containing a 40)J 42 638 :M 1.154 .115(byte header and 960 bytes of user data is roughly 50ms + 100ms = 150ms. Metricom)J 42 656 :M 1.078 .108(radios are half-duplex \(they cannot transmit and receive simultaneously\) so, assuming)J endp showpage %%Page: 21 21 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 21 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 276 704 :M f165 sf (\321 3 \321)S 78 56 :M .6 .06(one 40-byte Transmission Control Protocol \(TCP\) acknowledgement for every two data)J 78 74 :M .63 .063(packets [RFC1122], it takes 150ms + 150ms + 54ms = 354ms to transfer 1920 bytes of)J 78 92 :M .39 .039(user data, giving an end-user throughput of 5424 bytes per second. If we halve the MTU)J 78 110 :M .171 .017(to 500 bytes \(a 40 byte header and 460 bytes of user data\) then it takes 100ms + 100ms +)J 78 128 :M .467 .047(54ms = 254ms to transfer 920 bytes of user data, giving an end-user throughput of 3622)J 78 146 :M 1.433 .143(bytes per second. In this case halving the MTU unnecessarily reduces the maximum)J 78 164 :M (throughput by roughly 33%, which is a significant perfor)S 352 164 :M (mance penalty.)S 78 194 :M .737 .074(Although, as seen from experiments presented in this dissertation, packets that actually)J 78 212 :M .418 .042(double in size rarely occur naturally, it is not acceptable to ignore the possibility of their)J 78 230 :M .396 .04(occurrence. Without a factor-of-two safety margin, the network device would be open to)J 78 248 :M .645 .065(malicious attack through artificially constructed pathological packets. An attacker could)J 78 266 :M 1.88 .188(use such packets to exploit the device\325s inability to send and/or receive worst-case)J 78 284 :M .13 .013(packets, causing mischief ranging from simple denial of service attacks to the much more)J 78 302 :M .757 .076(serious potential for exploiting array-bounds errors such as the one in the Unix \324finger\325)J 78 320 :M (d\276mon exploited by the famous Internet Worm of 1989 [RFC1135].)S 78 350 :M .062 .006(One way to avoid the performance degradation of halving the MTU might be to set the IP)J 78 368 :M .241 .024(MTU closer to the underlying device MTU, and then use some kind of packet fragment)J 503 368 :M (a-)S 78 386 :M .111 .011(tion and reassembly to handle those packets that when encoded become too large to send.)J 78 404 :M 1.283 .128(One kind of packet fragmentation is link-layer fragmentation \(\324transparent fragmenta-)J 78 422 :M .26 .026(tion\325\). While this could work, requiring link-layer software to perform fragmentation and)J 78 440 :M 1.114 .111(reassembly is a substantial burden to impose on driver writers. In [Kent87], Kent and)J 78 458 :M .536 .054(Mogul wrote \322\311\312transparent fragmentation has many drawbacks \311 gateway implemen-)J 78 476 :M .363 .036(tations become more complex and require much more buffer memory\312\311\323 Fragmentation)J 78 494 :M 1.593 .159(and reassembly provides more opportunities for software bugs [CA-96.26] and adds)J 78 512 :M .208 .021(protocol overhead, because the link-layer packet headers have to contain additional fields)J 78 530 :M (to support the detection and reassembly of fragments at the receiving end.)S 78 560 :M .572 .057(A second way to use fragmentation would be to avoid adding a new layer of fragmenta-)J 78 578 :M .631 .063(tion and reassembly at the device level, and instead to use IP\325s own existing fragmenta-)J 78 596 :M 1.48 .148(tion and reassembly mechanisms, but this also has problems. One problem is that in)J 78 614 :M .563 .056(current networking software implementations IP fragmentation occurs before the packet)J 78 632 :M .501 .05(is handed to the device driver software for transmission. If, after encoding by the device)J 78 650 :M .075 .007(driver, a particular packet becomes too large to send, there is no mechanism for the driver)J 78 668 :M 1.141 .114(to hand the packet back to IP with a message saying, \322Sorry, I failed, can you please)J endp showpage %%Page: 22 22 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 22 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 240 704 :M f165 sf (\321 4 \321)S 42 56 :M .844 .084(refragment this packet into smaller pieces and try again?\323 Also, some software goes to)J 42 74 :M .76 .076(great lengths to select an optimal packet size. It would be difficult for such software to)J 42 92 :M 1.325 .132(cope with an IP implementation where the MTU of a device varies for every packet.)J 42 110 :M .099 .01(Finally, it is unclear, if we were to create such a mechanism, whether it should respect the)J 42 128 :M 1.725 .173(IP header\325s \324Don\325t Fragment\325 bit. Ignoring this bit violates the semantics that other)J 42 146 :M 1.022 .102(Internet hosts expect, but obeying it and rejecting oversized packets could result in an)J 42 164 :M .575 .058(infinite-loop livelock situation. Another host may send an unlucky packet which signifi-)J 42 182 :M .43 .043(cantly increases in size and is rejected, but when it performs a new path MTU discovery)J 42 200 :M .78 .078([RFC1191] using a probe packet containing some different pattern of data, it finds that)J 42 218 :M .553 .055(the packet size is apparently within the acceptable MTU, so it sends the unlucky packet)J 42 236 :M (again, and has it rejected again, and so on, potentially without end.)S 42 266 :M .458 .046(Given all these problems, we would prefer to use a byte stuffing algorithm that does not)J 42 284 :M 1.613 .161(have such inconsistent behaviour. This dissertation presents a new algorithm, called)J 42 302 :M 1.534 .153(Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing \(COBS\), which can be relied upon to encode all)J 42 320 :M 1.674 .167(packets efficiently, regardless of their contents. It is computationally cheap, easy to)J 42 338 :M .256 .026(implement in software, and has a bound on its worst-case performance that is better even)J 42 356 :M .263 .026(than HDLC\325s bit stuffing scheme. All packets up to 254 bytes in length are encoded with)J 42 374 :M .479 .048(an overhead of exactly one byte. For packets over 254 bytes in length the overhead is at)J 42 392 :M .863 .086(most one byte for every 254 bytes of packet data. The maximum overhead is therefore)J 42 410 :M (roughly 0.4% of the packet size, rounded up to a whole number of bytes.)S 42 440 :M .717 .072(Using Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing, the IP MTU may be set as high as 99.6% of)J 42 458 :M .958 .096(the underlying device\325s maximum packet size without fear of any packet inadvertently)J 42 476 :M 1.429 .143(exceeding that limit. Thus COBS provides better end-user performance than existing)J 42 494 :M .385 .038(mechanisms, because with COBS a given piece of hardware can consistently send larger)J 42 512 :M (IP packet payloads.)S 42 542 :M 1.439 .144(All the data stuffing algorithms discussed in this dissertation, including COBS, have)J 42 560 :M .826 .083(execution times that are O\(n\) with respect to the size of the data set being stuffed. The)J 42 578 :M 1.235 .124(constant factor varies depending on the algorithm and the implementation, but all the)J 42 596 :M (algorithms execute in linear time.)S endp showpage %%Page: 23 23 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 23 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 276 704 :M f165 sf (\321 5 \321)S 78 56 :M f318 sf (1.2)S f360 sf ( )S 105 56 :M f318 sf (Primary Contributions of this Ph.D. Thesis)S 78 86 :M f165 sf (The major contributions presented in this dissertation are:)S 96 116 :M f398 sf (\267)S f428 sf ( )S 105 116 :M f165 sf (A new algorithm for encoding packet data.)S 96 146 :M f398 sf (\267)S f428 sf ( )S 105 146 :M f165 sf (A new way of thinking about link-layer data encoding algorithms:)S 105 164 :M f398 sf (\267)S f428 sf ( )S 114 164 :M f165 sf (As well as the average case, the worst case also matters.)S 105 182 :M f398 sf .169(\267)A f428 sf .093 .009( )J f165 sf .639 .064(The problem of worst-case overhead is solvable. Having good ave)J 441 182 :M (r)S 445 182 :M (-)S 114 200 :M .11 .011(age performance and a low bound on worst-case performance are not)J 114 218 :M (incompatible goals. It is possible to achieve both simultaneously.)S 96 248 :M f398 sf 1.463(\267)A f428 sf .884 .088( )J 105 248 :M f165 sf 1.422 .142(An explicit enumeration of the properties required of a framing protocol, and a)J 105 266 :M .609 .061(thorough study of how existing framing protocols compare in terms of these pro)J 502 266 :M (p-)S 105 284 :M (erties.)S 96 314 :M f398 sf .147(\267)A f428 sf .081 .008( )J f165 sf .564 .056(A new class of encoding algorithms which maintain good worst-case bounds. This)J 105 332 :M .309 .031(dissertation explicitly presents basic COBS plus one variant called COBS/ZPE, but)J 105 350 :M .757 .076(these are just two examples of the COBS technique. By assigning different mean-)J 105 368 :M 1.429 .143(ings to some of the code bytes it is easy to create additional variants that have)J 105 386 :M .448 .045(slightly different properties, as appropriate for the intended usage, without sacrific-)J 105 404 :M (ing the guarantee of low worst-case overhead.)S 78 440 :M f318 sf (1.3)S f360 sf ( )S 105 440 :M f318 sf (Outline of Dissertation)S 78 470 :M f165 sf (The remainder of this dissertation proceeds as follows:)S 78 500 :M 2.759 .276(Chapter 2 gives more background on the problems of packet framing and data-)J 78 518 :M 1.566 .157(transparency, and briefly reviews historical approaches to solving these problems. It)J 78 536 :M .342 .034(identifies a set of desirable properties of framing schemes: Transparency, Reliability and)J 78 554 :M .432 .043(Locality, and shows how most existing framing schemes fail to meet these three require-)J 78 572 :M .252 .025(ments. Furthermore, of the few current protocols that do meet the requirements, none can)J 78 590 :M (guarantee to do so eff)S 182 590 :M (iciently for all packets.)S 78 620 :M .51 .051(Chapter 3 describes my new framing protocol called Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing)J 78 638 :M 1.608 .161(\(COBS\). COBS meets all of the requirements of a good framing protocol set out in)J 78 656 :M .497 .05(Chapter 2, while at the same time guaranteeing that for all packets, no matter what their)J endp showpage %%Page: 24 24 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 24 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 240 704 :M f165 sf (\321 6 \321)S 42 56 :M .833 .083(contents, the overhead will be small \(no more than one byte of overhead for every 254)J 42 74 :M .299 .03(bytes of packet data\). In addition to the basic algorithm, Chapter 3 also presents a simple)J 42 92 :M .864 .086(variant called Zero Pair Elimination \(COBS/ZPE\) which improves on straight COBS\325s)J 42 110 :M (average performance at the expense of a fractionally higher worst-case bound.)S 42 140 :M .1 .01(Chapters 4 and 5 compare the costs of HDLC, conventional PPP, and COBS for encoding)J 42 158 :M .575 .057(the same data packets. In the least favourable case for COBS, network traffic consisting)J 42 176 :M .273 .027(predominantly of small packets, COBS is found to add less than 0.5% additional average)J 42 194 :M .579 .058(overhead compared to conventional PPP. Although this is a small price for the perfor)J 463 194 :M (m-)S 42 212 :M .232 .023(ance benefit of being able to use much larger packets, it is possible to eliminate even this)J 42 230 :M .512 .051(cost. COBS/ZPE achieves an average overhead lower than PPP\325s, even for small-packet)J 42 248 :M .76 .076(traffic, without giving up COBS\325s advantage of also guaranteeing a very low bound on)J 42 266 :M .346 .035(worst-case overhead. Chapter 4 considers the expected overhead from a theoretical point)J 42 284 :M 2.042 .204(of view, for data consisting of uniformly distributed random eight-bit values. Real)J 42 302 :M .819 .082(network traffic often does not have a uniform distribution of byte values, so Chapter 5)J 42 320 :M .634 .063(presents experimental results comparing COBS with conventional PPP for real network)J 42 338 :M (traffic.)S 42 368 :M .184 .018(Chapter 6 presents four extensions to the basic consistent overhead byte stuffing concept,)J 42 386 :M .602 .06(and Chapter 7 presents a list of some of the applications that could benefit from COBS.)J 42 404 :M .308 .031(Although wireless communication was the initial motivating factor in developing consi)J 467 404 :M (s)S 472 404 :M (-)S 42 422 :M .284 .028(tent overhead byte stuffing, the encoding that COBS performs is not inherently related to)J 42 440 :M .595 .059(wireless technologies. There are other uses for COBS encoding, both inside and outside)J 42 458 :M .709 .071(the field of communications systems, and this chapter describes some of those possible)J 42 476 :M (future uses for COBS algorithms.)S 42 506 :M (Chapter 8 presents conclusions.)S endp showpage %%Page: 25 25 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 25 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 276 704 :M f165 sf (\321 7 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Two)S 78 119 :M (Prior Work)S 78 212 :M f165 sf .284 .028(This chapter gives background on the problems of packet framing and data transparency,)J 78 230 :M (and presents previous approaches to solving these problems.)S 78 260 :M 1.826 .183(It begins by introducing the concepts of packet framing and data stuffing and then)J 78 278 :M .994 .099(presents a quick history of the development of long-distance communication protocols)J 78 296 :M .128 .013(before the advent of computers. It explains how these early protocols were inadequate for)J 78 314 :M .82 .082(today\325s needs, and lists the desirable properties that we would like to see in a protocol)J 78 332 :M 1.199 .12(today. It explains how framing protocols are used simultaneously at many levels in a)J 78 350 :M 1.99 .199(communications hierarchy and then presents brief descriptions of current computer)J 78 368 :M (framing protocols, grouped roughly according to their mode of operation.)S 78 404 :M f318 sf (2.1)S f360 sf ( )S 105 404 :M f318 sf (Background: Packet Framing and Data Stuffing)S 78 434 :M f165 sf 1.573 .157(When packet data is sent over any serial medium, a protocol is needed by which to)J 78 452 :M .572 .057(demark packet boundaries. This demarcation is usually done by using a marker of some)J 78 470 :M .784 .078(kind, a special value or signal. That marker should be one that never occurs within the)J 78 488 :M 1.577 .158(body of any packet, so that when the receiver detects that special marker, it knows,)J 78 506 :M .207 .021(without any ambiguity, that it has indeed detected a boundary between packets. There are)J 78 524 :M 1.136 .114(two basic methods for producing the special value or signal used to mark boundaries,)J 78 542 :M 1.187 .119(\324out-of-band\325 signalling and \324in-band\325 signalling. A third possibility is not to use any)J 78 560 :M 1.569 .157(boundary marker at all, and instead provide a field in each packet that indicates the)J 78 578 :M .127 .013(packet\325s length \(or mandate one particular fixed length for all packets\), but this technique)J 78 596 :M (has a number of problems that limit its applicabi)S 311 596 :M (lity, which are discussed below.)S 78 626 :M .818 .082(An \324out-of-band\325 signal is a special unique signal, such as a different physical voltage,)J 78 644 :M .457 .046(that is outside the range of signals that payload data can generate. In low-level hardware)J 78 662 :M .481 .048(systems \324out-of-band\325 framing protocols are common. For example, in IBM Token Ring)J endp showpage %%Page: 26 26 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 26 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 240 704 :M f165 sf (\321 8 \321)S 42 56 :M .616 .062(the electrical signalling on the wire uses Differential Manchester Encoding [Sta94], and)J 42 74 :M .588 .059(packet boundaries are marked by a violation of these encoding rules [IEEE802.5]. Mak-)J 42 92 :M 1.092 .109(ing the packet delimiter an illegal signal value is a very simple way to ensure that no)J 42 110 :M .313 .031(packet payload can inadvertently generate the framing signal on the cable. This approach)J 42 128 :M .837 .084(is not a universal solution though, because not all hardware supports deliberate genera-)J 42 146 :M .354 .035(tion of protocol violations, and even on hardware that does, use of this facility is usually)J 42 164 :M .923 .092(restricted to the lowest levels of the driver firmware. It is also not a universal solution)J 42 182 :M 1.004 .1(because in general, an out-of-band framing protocol takes a medium that is capable of)J 42 200 :M .268 .027(transmitting )J 104 200 :M f243 sf .137(n)A f165 sf .376 .038( distinct signals, reserves one or more of those signals for use as a framing)J 42 218 :M .428 .043(marker, and allows the higher-level clients use of only )J f243 sf (m)S 321 218 :M f165 sf .422 .042( distinct values for communic)J 467 218 :M (a-)S 42 236 :M 1.146 .115(tion, where )J 103 236 :M f243 sf (m)S 112 236 :M f165 sf (<)S 119 236 :M f243 sf .382(n)A f165 sf 1.091 .109(. In this sense, out-of-band framing is a destructive process, in that it)J 42 254 :M .69 .069(reduces the alphabet of symbols available to the clients using it by at least one, and the)J 42 272 :M .086 .009(size of the alphabet limits the number of layers of out-of-band framing that can be used in)J 42 290 :M .244 .024(a single communications system. Using out-of-band signalling also makes inefficient use)J 42 308 :M .798 .08(of the communication capacity of the underlying medium; it wastes a signal that othe)J 468 308 :M (r)S 472 308 :M (-)S 42 326 :M .098 .01(wise could be used to communicate packet data itself, instead of just signalling \(relatively)J 42 344 :M (infrequent\) packet boundaries.)S 42 374 :M 1.109 .111(The second way of using a special value or signal to mark boundaries is an \324in-band\325)J 42 392 :M 1.408 .141(signal. This is a signal that could normally occur within payload data, but one takes)J 42 410 :M 1.134 .113(additional steps to ensure that it does not. One way to ensure that the signal does not)J 42 428 :M 1.224 .122(appear in the data is simply to prohibit that value from being used in the data of any)J 42 446 :M .314 .031(packet. For example, in the original version of Microsoft DOS, text files were prohibited)J 42 464 :M .834 .083(from containing the ASCII code 0x1A, because DOS used that ASCII code to indicate)J 42 482 :M .616 .062(\324end-of-file\325 [King83] [Wolv84]. This approach has the disadvantage that the communi-)J 42 500 :M .8 .08(cation protocol is no longer \324transparent\325 to the higher layers \321 the software using the)J 42 518 :M .173 .017(protocol has to be aware of which character values are permitted and which are not. Non-)J 42 536 :M 1.848 .185(transparent in-band framing is similar to out-of-band framing in that it reduces the)J 42 554 :M .31 .031(alphabet of symbols available to the clients using it. The difference is that in out-of-band)J 42 572 :M .082 .008(framing the commandeered symbols are not even in the client\325s alphabet of symbols, so it)J 42 590 :M .891 .089(has no way even to refer to the special values. In non-transparent in-band framing, the)J 42 608 :M .654 .065(commandeered symbols are actually in the client\325s alphabet of symbols, but the specif)J 469 608 :M (i-)S 42 626 :M 1.015 .102(cation of the software interface prohibits their use, and an attempt by the client to use)J 42 644 :M (those values is considered an error.)S endp showpage %%Page: 27 27 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 27 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 276 704 :M f165 sf (\321 9 \321)S 78 56 :M .36 .036(A more useful way of implementing in-band signalling is to allow the data to contain all)J 78 74 :M .621 .062(possible values, but to make the framing protocol software responsible for transforming)J 78 92 :M 1.114 .111(any data into a form that contains no reserved values and is suitable for transmission.)J 78 110 :M .376 .038(Whatever transformation the software performs must be reversible, so that the communi-)J 78 128 :M .607 .061(cations software at the receiving end can recover the original payload from the encoded)J 78 146 :M 1.591 .159(form that is transmitted. This kind of transmission is sometimes called \324transparent\325)J 78 164 :M .39 .039(transmission because any data values may be transmitted, without concern for the under)J 508 164 :M (-)S 78 182 :M .89 .089(lying transmission protocol. This dissertation concentrates on these \324transparent\325 tran)J 503 182 :M (s)S 508 182 :M (-)S 78 200 :M .985 .099(mission methods because they place no restrictions on the byte values or data patterns)J 78 218 :M .845 .084(that may be transmitted and therefore have the widest applicability. They use the same)J 78 236 :M 1.017 .102(alphabet of symbols for both their input and output, so they are non-destructive. They)J 78 254 :M 1.013 .101(may be used at any level in a communications hierarchy, and any number of layers of)J 78 272 :M .465 .046(transparent in-band framing may be used together in a single system without exhausting)J 78 290 :M 1.087 .109(the number of symbols available. The mechanisms generally used to perform the data)J 78 308 :M 1.115 .111(transformation necessary to enable transparent communication with in-band signalling)J 78 326 :M 1.001 .1(are called bit stuffing algorithms \(which operate on a bit-by-bit basis\) or byte stuffing)J 78 344 :M 1.603 .16(algorithms \(which operate on a byte at a time\). Two well-known examples of these)J 78 362 :M .824 .082(techniques are HDLC bit stuffing [ECMA-40] and PPP byte stuffing [RFC1662]. Both)J 78 380 :M 1.391 .139(bit stuffing and byte stuffing in general increase the size of the data being sent. The)J 78 398 :M .441 .044(amount of increase depends on the patterns of values that appear in the original data and)J 78 416 :M (can vary from no overhead at all to \(in the worst case for PPP\) doubling the packet size.)S 78 446 :M .808 .081(There are also \324transparent non-stuffing in-band\325 protocols that permit the client to use)J 78 464 :M .476 .048(any byte values, including the values used by the protocol itself as framing markers, but)J 78 482 :M 1.173 .117(perform no data stuffing operation to eliminate these values when they appear. These)J 78 500 :M 1.538 .154(framing protocols work well until an error occurs, but after an error the presence of)J 78 518 :M .382 .038(framing values within the client data may impede the resynchronization process, perhaps)J 78 536 :M (indefinitely.)S 78 566 :M 1.127 .113(The third possibility mentioned above is to use a length indication alone, without any)J 78 584 :M .545 .055(end-of-frame marker value. In this case each packet is prefixed with a length value \(e.g.)J 78 602 :M 1.347 .135(one or two bytes\) that tells the receiver how many bits or bytes of following data to)J 78 620 :M .036 .004(expect. This technique sounds attractive but has the disadvantage that, if used alone as the)J 78 638 :M .71 .071(sole framing mechanism, it is not guaranteed to resynchronize after an error. For exam-)J 78 656 :M .351 .035(ple, if the length value is corrupted or lost, then the receiver will misinterpret some other)J endp showpage %%Page: 28 28 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 28 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 10 \321)S 42 56 :M .155 .015(byte\(s\) of the packet payload as being the length, and will then read the wrong number of)J 42 74 :M .293 .029(bytes of data for the packet payload. After this the next bytes read will again most proba-)J 42 92 :M .16 .016(bly not be the correct length prefix for the next packet, and the problem continues. Hence)J 42 110 :M .431 .043(a single error results in an unbounded period before another packet is correctly received,)J 42 128 :M .87 .087(and an unbounded number of entirely correct packets may be lost due to the receiver\325s)J 42 146 :M .083 .008(inability to decode them properly. The receiver may resynchronize by chance, but there is)J 42 164 :M .287 .029(no guarantee that this will happen quickly, and indeed no guarantee that it will happen at)J 42 182 :M .887 .089(all. For similar reasons, there is no reliable way for a receiver who joins a data-stream)J 42 200 :M 1.714 .171(mid-flow to detect where the next packet boundary falls. Because of these kinds of)J 42 218 :M .426 .043(problems, it is generally preferable to use a stateless method of detecting packet bounda-)J 42 236 :M .295 .029(ries \321 using a special reserved value that reliably indicates a packet boundary regardless)J 42 254 :M .546 .055(of context \321 rather than using a stateful method that depends on having reliable knowl-)J 42 272 :M (edge of where the previous packet ended.)S 42 302 :M .427 .043(ASN.1 [ISO 8824] [ISO 8825] is an example of a length- or count-based protocol. Used)J 42 320 :M .373 .037(alone it would suffer the resynchronization problem described above, but in practice it is)J 42 338 :M .476 .048(not used alone. ASN.1 is used to encode the data fields that make up a packet, but some)J 42 356 :M .098 .01(other, stateless, framing protocol is used to determine where each packet begins and ends.)J 42 374 :M .49 .049(After an error, ASN.1 may not resynchronize until the stateless framing protocol detects)J 42 392 :M .708 .071(the beginning of the next packet and resets the ASN.1 decoder. In practice this is not a)J 42 410 :M .362 .036(problem, since decoding partial packets is usually not useful. Thus for independent units)J 42 428 :M .888 .089(of data, such as separate packets, a stateless framing protocol is preferable. For related)J 42 446 :M .07 .007(units of data, such as data fields within a single packet, where it is not especially useful to)J 42 464 :M (receive some without the others, a stateful count-based protocol is acceptable.)S 42 500 :M f318 sf (2.2)S f360 sf ( )S 69 500 :M f318 sf (Terminology)S 42 530 :M f165 sf .436 .044(This dissertation uses the term \324alphabet\325 to refer to the set of primitive symbols that are)J 42 548 :M .652 .065(available for communication. The \324vocabulary\325 of a protocol is the set of sentences that)J 42 566 :M .375 .037(can be constructed from zero or more symbols in the alphabet. This dissertation uses the)J 42 584 :M 1.158 .116(term \324signal\325 to refer to the broader signalling properties of the medium that may fall)J 42 602 :M .545 .055(outside those used for the usual communications alphabet. For example a large negative)J 42 620 :M .397 .04(voltage outside the normal allowable range is an electrical signal that the wire can carry,)J 42 638 :M .74 .074(but it is not used in any valid encoding of any symbol from the normal communication)J 42 656 :M (alphabet.)S endp showpage %%Page: 29 29 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 29 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 11 \321)S 78 56 :M f318 sf (2.3)S f360 sf ( )S 105 56 :M f318 sf (Background: Early History)S 78 86 :M f165 sf .725 .072(This section charts the evolution of communication techniques, from parallel communi-)J 78 104 :M 1.169 .117(cation channels, to serial communication channels with out-of-band framing, to serial)J 78 122 :M .208 .021(communication channels with unreliable in-band framing, and finally the development of)J 78 140 :M (reliable in-band serial framing protocols.)S 78 170 :M f318 sf (2.3.1)S f360 sf ( )S 109 170 :M f318 sf (Fire Beacons and Optical Telegraphs)S 78 200 :M f165 sf 1.171 .117(Since the beginning of recorded history, human civilizations have sought to solve the)J 78 218 :M .172 .017(problem of long distance communication. Gerard Holzmann catalogs these early attempts)J 78 236 :M .611 .061(in )J f243 sf 1.336 .134(The Early History of Data Networks)J f165 sf 1.549 .155( [Hol95]. Early communications systems used)J 78 254 :M .532 .053(runners, horse riders, and homing pigeons to carry written messages, and even chains of)J 78 272 :M .677 .068(men spaced at intervals shouting to each other to convey a message down the length of)J 78 290 :M .198 .02(the chain. To communicate more quickly over longer distances, messages were conveyed)J 78 308 :M .444 .044(using light instead of sound or physical movement of the message. There was signalling)J 78 326 :M .59 .059(by fire beacons on hilltops, by flashes of sunlight reflected off polished mirrors, and by)J 78 344 :M .125 .012(men waving coloured flags or burning torches, but these early systems were, in the words)J 78 362 :M .085 .008(of Gerard Holzmann, \322somewhat ad hoc, being primarily used to send a single predefined)J 78 380 :M (alarm, victory, or attack signal.\323)S 78 410 :M 1.184 .118(The invention of the telescope in the seventeenth century enabled advances in optical)J 78 428 :M 1.483 .148(communication techniques. In 1793 Claude Chappe built his semaphore telegraph in)J 78 446 :M .705 .07(France. It used two movable bars \(\324indicators\325\) attached to the ends of a larger bar \(the)J 78 464 :M 1.31 .131(\324regulator\325\). By placing the three bars in various prescribed orientations, 98 different)J 78 482 :M .274 .027(symbols could be communicated. Some of the symbols communicated message data, and)J 78 500 :M 1.502 .15(some were reserved for control information, so this system used out-of-band control)J 78 518 :M 2.016 .202(signalling. A year later Abraham Edelcrantz built his shutter telegraph in Sweden.)J 78 536 :M .964 .096(Edelcrantz\325s telegraph used ten shutters that could be either open or closed, forming a)J 78 554 :M .196 .02(ten-bit binary communication path. Like Chappe, Edelcrantz defined some codes to carry)J 78 572 :M .04 .004(message data and some to communicate control information, so this system also used out-)J 78 590 :M .376 .038(of-band control signalling. In both of these schemes each symbol carried multiple bits of)J 78 608 :M .39 .039(information, making them more like what today would be called a \324parallel\325 interface, as)J 78 626 :M .606 .061(opposed to a \324bitwise serial\325 interface. Having a large number of basic symbols, instead)J 78 644 :M 1.188 .119(of just the two of a binary serial interface, made it easy and relatively inexpensive to)J 78 662 :M (reserve some symbols for control signals.)S endp showpage %%Page: 30 30 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 30 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 12 \321)S 42 56 :M f318 sf (2.3.2)S f360 sf ( )S 73 56 :M f318 sf (Morse Code)S 42 86 :M f165 sf .405 .041(The next major breakthrough was the development of Morse Code in the mid-nineteenth)J 42 104 :M 2.025 .203(century. Morse Code allowed communication over a single electrical wire, a serial)J 42 122 :M .579 .058(medium, in contrast to the effectively parallel visual medium used by Chappe and Ede)J 469 122 :M (l-)S 42 140 :M 1.167 .117(crantz. Morse operators still had to be able to identify boundaries between letters, be-)J 42 158 :M .524 .052(tween words, and between sentences, but Morse\325s telegraph wire had only two states \321)J 42 176 :M 1.095 .109(on and off \321 so there were no values to spare for framing information. Morse had to)J 42 194 :M .382 .038(confront the problem of message framing a different way. Working within the constraint)J 42 212 :M 1.03 .103(of the wire\325s two states, Morse essentially used the time domain to provide an out-of-)J 42 230 :M .071 .007(band framing mechanism, using pauses of various lengths between the groups of dots and)J 42 248 :M 1.722 .172(dashes to indicate these boundaries. In [Vail1845] Samuel Morse\325s business partner)J 42 266 :M (Alfred Vail described it thus:)S 78 296 :M 1.161 .116(\322A single touch of the key, answers to a single dot on the paper of the)J 78 314 :M .999 .1(register; which represents the letter, E. One touch of the key prolonged,)J 78 332 :M 1.503 .15(that is, the contact at the key continued for about the time required to)J 78 350 :M .338 .034(make two dots, produces a short line, and represents T. A single touch for)J 78 368 :M .273 .027(about the time required to make four dots, is a long line, and represents L.)J 78 386 :M .039 .004(A single touch for about the time required to make six dots, is a still longer)J 78 404 :M 1.309 .131(line and represents the 0 of the numerals. If the use of the key be su)J 431 404 :M (s)S 436 404 :M (-)S 78 422 :M .57 .057(pended for about the time required to make three dots, it is a short space,)J 78 440 :M .493 .049(used between letters. If suspended for the time required to make six dots,)J 78 458 :M 1.248 .125(it is a long space, used between words, and a longer space is that used)J 78 476 :M (between sentences.\323)S 42 506 :M .334 .033(While Morse\325s telegraphic encoding scheme was a major step forward from fire beacons)J 42 524 :M 1.606 .161(and optical telegraphs, it still had shortcomings. Morse did use a digital rather than)J 42 542 :M .997 .1(analogue encoding \321 there are a small number of discrete allowable lengths for mark)J 42 560 :M 1.491 .149(\(dot or dash\) and space \(pause\) \321 but Morse Code was designed for use by human)J 42 578 :M 1.109 .111(operators, not computer equipment, so there was little incentive for Morse to take the)J 42 596 :M .409 .041(next step of further constraining the number of states still further to make a binary \(two-)J 42 614 :M 1.334 .133(state\) digital signalling system. While Morse Code did have a protocol for signalling)J 42 632 :M .847 .085(boundaries, it was not a reliable, unambiguous, protocol. In addition to variable length)J 42 650 :M 1.553 .155(dashes, the original Morse Code also used variable length pauses within letters. For)J 42 668 :M .456 .046(example, the letter \324E\325 is represented by a single dot. The letter \324I\325 is represented by two)J endp showpage %%Page: 31 31 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 31 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 13 \321)S 78 56 :M .415 .042(dots separated by a short pause \(the length of one dot\). The letter \324O\325 is called a \324spaced)J 78 74 :M 1.122 .112(letter\325 and is represented by two dots separated by a longer pause \(the length of three)J 78 92 :M .967 .097(dots\). Note the ambiguity between the encoding of the letter pair \324EE\325 \(dot-pause-dot\))J 78 110 :M 1.556 .156(and the single letter \324O\325 \(dot-pause-dot\). Problems resulting from this ambiguity are)J 78 128 :M 1.162 .116(covered in the \324Practical Notes to Beginners on Sending and Receiving by the Morse)J 78 146 :M (Code\325 in )S 123 146 :M f243 sf (American Telegr)S 204 146 :M (aphy)S f165 sf ( [Mav03]:)S 114 176 :M .462 .046(In words containing two or more spaced letters, space just enough, not so)J 114 194 :M 1.582 .158(much as between letters. Still, do not underspace them. Avoid, for i)J 466 194 :M (n-)S 114 212 :M (stance, making \322meet her,\323 \322mother,\323 or vice versa.)S 78 242 :M 1.196 .12(Modern Morse Code [Brit405-97] is a definite improvement over Morse\325s original. It)J 78 260 :M .243 .024(uses only two mark lengths, short \(\324dot\325\) and long \(\324dash\325\), and has no \324spaced letters\325 to)J 78 278 :M .629 .063(cause confusion. At the turn of the century it was just one of several competing \324Morse)J 78 296 :M 1.332 .133(Codes\325 \(William Maver, Jr. refers to it in [Mav03] as the \324Continental Code\325\), all of)J 78 314 :M .731 .073(which marked letter boundaries using long pauses which could never appear within the)J 78 332 :M 1.359 .136(encoding of any letter, and marked word boundaries using even longer pauses which)J 78 350 :M .353 .035(could never appear within the encoding of any word. Thus Morse Code messages have a)J 78 368 :M .938 .094(two-level hierarchical structure, using out-of-band framing at both levels. At the lower)J 78 386 :M .991 .099(level out-of-band framing is used to denote letter boundaries, and at the higher level a)J 78 404 :M 1.366 .137(different signal, that is in turn out-of-band with respect to word encoding, is used to)J 78 422 :M (denote word boundaries.)S 78 452 :M f318 sf (2.3.3)S f360 sf ( )S 109 452 :M f318 sf (The Cost of Out-Of-Band Framing)S 78 482 :M f165 sf .039 .004(In [Sch80] Robert Scholtz discusses why using an out-of-band signal is inefficient. It may)J 78 500 :M .563 .056(seem to cost us nothing, but the framing marker is one member of the finite alphabet of)J 78 518 :M .949 .095(signals that the medium is able to communicate. By removing that signal from service)J 78 536 :M .781 .078(and reserving it solely for use as a boundary marker, the rate at which the medium can)J 78 554 :M (communicate info)S 165 554 :M (r)S 169 554 :M (mation is reduced.)S 78 584 :M f318 sf (2.3.4)S f360 sf ( )S 109 584 :M f318 sf (Choice of In-Band Framing Marker)S 78 614 :M f165 sf 1.109 .111(The alternative to out-of-band signalling is in-band signalling. Chapter One described)J 78 632 :M 1.638 .164(simple in-band signalling in the context of a medium which has a large alphabet of)J 78 650 :M .991 .099(symbols, typically byte values in the range [0,255], where it is feasible to reserve one)J 78 668 :M .188 .019(single value for use as the framing marker. In general though, the framing marker may be)J endp showpage %%Page: 32 32 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 32 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 14 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.89 .189(some characteristic pattern of symbols, not just a single symbol alone, because the)J 42 74 :M .251 .025(alphabet of symbols the medium provides may not be large enough to spare a symbol for)J 42 92 :M .674 .067(use just as a framing marker. If the medium has only two symbols \(zero and one\), as is)J 42 110 :M 1.339 .134(common with computer communication channels, then it is definitely not possible to)J 42 128 :M .363 .036(spare one symbol for use as a framing marker because that would leave only one symbol)J 42 146 :M 1.141 .114(for communication of the packet payload, and one symbol is not enough for effective)J 42 164 :M 1.774 .177(communication. In this case, the framing marker \(\324message prefix\325\) has to be some)J 42 182 :M .446 .045(characteristic sequence of binary digits. By not removing any symbols from the comm)J 466 182 :M (u-)S 42 200 :M .668 .067(nications alphabet we leave the full alphabet available for data communication, but this)J 42 218 :M .622 .062(raises the issue that now there is no automatic protection against mis-framing. The data)J 42 236 :M .562 .056(could accidentally contain a sequence that happens to be identical to the pattern used as)J 42 254 :M .484 .048(the message prefix, which could confuse the receiver. The longer the message prefix the)J 42 272 :M .297 .03(lower the probability of accidental occurrences. When using a binary signalling medium,)J 42 290 :M 1.549 .155(if the message prefix is )J f243 sf .542(k)A f165 sf 1.62 .162( binary digits long, then the probability that a )J 416 290 :M f243 sf .229(k)A f165 sf 1.118 .112(-bit chunk,)J 42 308 :M .55 .055(chosen at random from a random message, will accidentally equal the prefix is 2)J 440 303 :M f443 sf (\320k)S 447 308 :M f165 sf .587 .059(. This)J 42 326 :M .353 .035(relationship suggests that we can make the probability of accidental occurrences arbitrar)J 472 326 :M (-)S 42 344 :M .287 .029(ily small just by making the prefix sufficiently long. This is only true if the message data)J 42 362 :M .294 .029(is random, which may not always be the case. However, even in cases where we do have)J 42 380 :M 1.184 .118(random message data, there is still a part of the transmitted data that is definitely not)J 42 398 :M (random at all \321 the message prefixes the)S 241 398 :M (mselves.)S 42 428 :M .208 .021(Because we know that the transmitted data will contain many occurrences of the message)J 42 446 :M 1.18 .118(prefix sequence, this sequence should be chosen carefully so that it does not interfere)J 42 464 :M .912 .091(with its own detection. If the pattern is not chosen wisely then the message prefix can)J 42 482 :M .432 .043(suffer from self-interference, which can make it impossible to tell where the exact frame)J 42 500 :M .916 .092(boundary is supposed to lie. Consider the case where the message prefix is simply ten)J 42 518 :M 1.162 .116(binary ones \(a poor choice\). The diagram below illustrates the tail end of one packet,)J 42 536 :M (followed by the message prefix and then the beginning of the next packet:)S 78 566 :M f482 sf -.203(. . . 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 . . .)A endp showpage %%Page: 33 33 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 33 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 15 \321)S 78 56 :M .62 .062(A receiver cannot tell what has been encoded here. The following interpretations are all)J 78 74 :M (equally correct:)S 114 104 :M f482 sf -.203(. . . 0 0 0 [-Message--Prefix-] 1 1 0 0 0 . . .)A 114 134 :M -.203(. . . 0 0 0 1 [-Message--Prefix-] 1 0 0 0 . . .)A 114 164 :M -.203(. . . 0 0 0 1 1 [-Message--Prefix-] 0 0 0 . . .)A 78 194 :M f165 sf 1.153 .115(The problem is that ten binary ones is a bit-pattern that has high auto-correlation: the)J 78 212 :M .707 .071(pattern is very similar to itself shifted left or right a few bits. It is very easy for the tail)J 78 230 :M .165 .016(portion of a message, concatenated with the start of the message prefix, \(or the tail end of)J 78 248 :M .117 .012(the message prefix, concatenated with the start of the next message\) to look exactly like a)J 78 266 :M 1.194 .119(message prefix. In this case, even though the probability of ten ones appearing som)J 503 266 :M (e-)S 78 284 :M .111 .011(where in the middle of a random message is only )J 319 279 :M f497 sf (1)S 323 284 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm .018(1024)A 0 -3 rm f165 sf .093 .009(, for mis-framing to happen right at)J 78 302 :M .066 .007(the end of the previous message requires only that the last bit of the message is a one \321 a)J 78 320 :M .288 .029(probability of )J 148 315 :M f497 sf (1)S 152 320 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (2)S 0 -3 rm 159 320 :M f165 sf .307 .031(. Even if the message prefix were a hundred binary ones, the probability)J 78 338 :M .623 .062(of mis-framing right at the end of the message would still be )J f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 386 338 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (2)S 0 -3 rm 393 338 :M f165 sf .616 .062(. A long message prefix)J 78 356 :M .623 .062(alone does not ensure that accidental occurrences will be rare. The message prefix must)J 78 374 :M (also have low auto-correlation.)S 78 404 :M f318 sf (2.3.5)S f360 sf ( )S 109 404 :M f318 sf (Barker Codes and Comma-Free Encoding)S 78 434 :M f165 sf .484 .048(In 1953 Barker studied the choice of in-band framing codes so as to minimize the poss)J 505 434 :M (i-)S 78 452 :M 1.423 .142(bility of self-interference, even in the presence of line noise [Bar53]. He made some)J 78 470 :M .27 .027(specific recommendations of useful patterns, now known as Barker Codes, that have low)J 78 488 :M 1.863 .186(auto-correlation, such as \324110\325, \3241110010\325, and \32411100010010\325. Using one of these)J 78 506 :M 1.382 .138(patterns reduces the likelihood of mis-synchronization at the beginning or end of the)J 78 524 :M .457 .046(message, but still doesn\325t guarantee that mis-synchronization cannot happen by accident)J 78 542 :M 1.588 .159(somewhere within a message. Barker stated that he \322assumes that the synchronizing)J 78 560 :M .354 .035(signal will consist of a pattern of digits which is sufficiently unlikely to occur by chance)J 78 578 :M 1.811 .181(in a random sequence or in a previous message.\323 Hence Barker made an important)J 78 596 :M 1.062 .106(contribution by showing that all framing patterns are not equally good, but he did not)J 78 614 :M .63 .063(completely answer the question of how to provide reliable unambiguous framing for all)J 78 632 :M 1.733 .173(messages, including unfortunate ones where the synchronizing signal does occur by)J 78 650 :M (chance.)S endp showpage %%Page: 34 34 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 34 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 16 \321)S 42 56 :M .38 .038(At the time that Barker was doing his work on in-band framing codes, the contemporary)J 42 74 :M .113 .011(literature [Gol58a] [Gol58b] [Kend62] [Gol63] [East65] [Sch69a] [Sch69b] referred to an)J 42 92 :M 1.348 .135(encoding that can provide reliable unambiguous identification of message boundaries)J 42 110 :M .039 .004(without resorting to an out-of-band framing marker as a \324comma-free\325 encoding, referring)J 42 128 :M .56 .056(to the fact that the encoding needs no special reserved character \(e.g. a comma\) to sepa-)J 42 146 :M .936 .094(rate multiple items/words/messages in a list. In a comma-free encoding the boundaries)J 42 164 :M .646 .065(between the messages are implicit in the encoding, and no additional boundary markers)J 42 182 :M .848 .085(are needed. In other words, no concatenation of symbols from the tail end of one me)J 467 182 :M (s)S 472 182 :M (-)S 42 200 :M .601 .06(sage, joined to symbols from the beginning of another message, may appear to be itself)J 42 218 :M (an instance of a valid message.)S 42 248 :M .657 .066(Surprisingly, the first serious study of comma-free codes came not from the mathemat)J 469 248 :M (i-)S 42 266 :M .612 .061(cal, communications, or computing communities, but from biologists attempting to gain)J 42 284 :M .847 .085(an understanding of how deoxyribonucleic acid \(DNA\) encodes the necessary informa-)J 42 302 :M .425 .043(tion for the synthesis of proteins. In 1958 Golomb, Welch & Delbr\237ck [Gol58a] asked a)J 42 320 :M .981 .098(most salient question, \322If it is true that groups of base pairs, say triplets, code for one)J 42 338 :M 1.436 .144(amino acid, and that these triplets are not overlapping, and if the message is formed)J 42 356 :M .485 .048(simply by tacking these triplets end to end, how do we know where one triplet ends and)J 42 374 :M .17 .017(where the next begins?\323 They go on to show how selection of an appropriate subset of 20)J 42 392 :M 1.292 .129(codes from the 64 possible triplets results in a comma-free encoding of amino acids.)J 42 410 :M 1.175 .117(While this result was useful in the study of DNA, it only solved the problem for one)J 42 428 :M .131 .013(particular set of short, fixed-size messages. It did not solve the general problem of how to)J 42 446 :M (comm)S 72 446 :M (unicate arbitrary variable sized messages.)S 42 476 :M .259 .026(A decade and a half after the biologists\325 work on comma-free codes, Artom expanded on)J 42 494 :M .613 .061(Barker\325s work on synchronizing prefixes and showed how to algorithmically generate a)J 42 512 :M 1.908 .191(comma-free encoding of any sequence of messages [Art72]. Artom showed that by)J 42 530 :M .556 .056(adding \324stuffing bits\325 to the message data, any accidental occurrences of the prefix code)J 42 548 :M 1.398 .14(could be eliminated. This stuffing process is reversible, so the receiver can correctly)J 42 566 :M .142 .014(reconstruct the original message upon reception. This means that an appropriate non-self-)J 42 584 :M .714 .071(interfering prefix, in conjunction with the use of stuffing bits, provides a programmatic)J 42 602 :M .762 .076(way to generate a comma-free encoding. Recall that in a comma-free encoding no co)J 466 602 :M (n-)S 42 620 :M 1.503 .15(catenation of symbols from the tail end of one message, joined to symbols from the)J 42 638 :M .443 .044(beginning of another message, may appear to be itself an instance of a valid message. In)J 42 656 :M .888 .089(Artom\325s scheme every message starts with exactly one instance of the prefix, and con-)J endp showpage %%Page: 35 35 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 35 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 17 \321)S 78 56 :M .639 .064(tains no other instances of the prefix. Hence any concatenation of symbols from the tail)J 78 74 :M .276 .028(end of one message, joined to symbols from the beginning of another message, could not)J 78 92 :M (begin with the correct prefix and could not appear to be a valid message.)S 78 122 :M .422 .042(Artom also showed how to minimize the number of stuffing bits that may be required in)J 78 140 :M .347 .035(the worst case. He expanded on Barker\325s constraints concerning the low auto-correlation)J 78 158 :M .578 .058(of the prefix code, stating that both the prefix, and the prefix with its final bit removed,)J 78 176 :M 1.588 .159(must be )J 123 176 :M f243 sf .893 .089(valid sequences)J 201 176 :M f165 sf 1.531 .153(. A sequence )J 273 176 :M f243 sf .719(X)A f165 sf .608 .061( is a )J f243 sf 2.899 .29(valid sequence)J f165 sf .544 .054( if )J f243 sf .719(X)A f165 sf 1.617 .162( cannot occur in any)J 78 194 :M .636 .064(overlap involving both )J 194 194 :M f243 sf .319(X)A f165 sf .722 .072( and a sequence of one or more random bits. For example, the)J 78 212 :M .506 .051(sequence )J f243 sf .15(X)A f165 sf .248 .025(=101 is not a )J f243 sf .63 .063(valid sequence,)J 275 212 :M f165 sf .416 .042( because prepending 10 to it yields the sequence)J 78 230 :M 1.544 .154(10101, which contains an overlapping instance of )J f243 sf .558(X)A f165 sf 1.291 .129(. The sequence )J 426 230 :M f243 sf .69(X)A f165 sf 1.108 .111(=110 is a )J f243 sf .565(valid)A 78 248 :M (sequence)S 122 248 :M f165 sf .876 .088( because there is no pattern of bits that can be prepended or appended to it to)J 78 266 :M .378 .038(result in an overlapping instance of the same sequence. Artom shows that when both the)J 78 284 :M .352 .035(prefix, and the prefix with its final bit removed, are )J f243 sf .661 .066(valid sequences)J f165 sf .306 .031(, the worst case for a)J 78 302 :M (prefix of length )S 156 302 :M f243 sf (k+1)S f165 sf ( is one stuffing bit for every )S 312 302 :M f243 sf (k\3201)S f165 sf ( useful message bits.)S 78 332 :M .255 .025(To give a concrete example using Artom\325s terminology, HDLC \(explained in more detail)J 78 350 :M .123 .012(later in this chapter\) uses the seven-bit message prefix 0111111. Both this prefix, and this)J 78 368 :M .328 .033(prefix with the final bit removed, are )J 262 368 :M f243 sf .375 .037(valid sequences)J f165 sf .247 .025( because appending bits after either)J 78 386 :M 1.389 .139(0111111 or 011111 results in an overlap region that does not begin with a zero, and)J 78 404 :M 1.548 .155(consequently cannot be mistaken for the sequence. Similarly, prepending bits before)J 78 422 :M .079 .008(either sequence results in an overlap region that contains a zero somewhere in the middle,)J 78 440 :M .818 .082(and consequently cannot be mistaken for the sequence. Hence both this prefix and this)J 78 458 :M .552 .055(prefix with the final bit removed are )J f243 sf 1.061 .106(valid sequences)J 340 458 :M f165 sf .582 .058(, and since )J f243 sf .293(k=6)A f165 sf .698 .07(, the worst case for)J 78 476 :M (HDLC is one stuffing bit for every five useful message bits.)S 78 506 :M .92 .092(Another decade and a half later, Papastavridis expanded on Artom\325s work by showing)J 78 524 :M 1.134 .113(that the number of stuffing bits required on average is much less than the pessimistic)J 78 542 :M .401 .04(worst case shown by Artom [Pap87]. Papastavridis shows that on average, for uniformly)J 78 560 :M .419 .042(distributed random data, with a prefix of length )J f243 sf .152(k+1)A f165 sf .382 .038(, the number of stuffing bits that has)J 78 578 :M .731 .073(to be added is approximately one stuffing bit for every 2)J 360 573 :M f443 sf .097(k)A f165 sf 0 5 rm .657 .066(\3202 useful message bits. Using)J 0 -5 rm 78 596 :M 1.564 .156(the example of HDLC again, where )J 267 596 :M f243 sf .552(k=6)A f165 sf 1.437 .144(, this gives us an expected overhead of one)J 78 614 :M (stuffing bit for every 62 useful message bits.)S endp showpage %%Page: 36 36 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 36 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 18 \321)S 42 56 :M .317 .032(In conclusion, it is only since the early 1970s that we have had communication protocols)J 42 74 :M 1.541 .154(that provide transparent data transmission, and reliable resynchronization after error,)J 42 92 :M (without requiring an out-of-band framing marker.)S 42 128 :M f318 sf (2.4)S f360 sf ( )S 69 128 :M f318 sf (Desirable Properties of a Framing Protocol)S 42 158 :M f165 sf .492 .049(This dissertation identifies four desirable properties of framing protocols: Transparency,)J 42 176 :M 1.929 .193(Reliability, Locality and Efficiency. The four properties are explained and justified)J 42 194 :M (below.)S 42 224 :M f318 sf (2.4.1)S f360 sf ( )S 73 224 :M f318 sf (Transparency)S 42 254 :M f165 sf .317 .032(A good framing protocol should be transparent to higher layers of software. They should)J 42 272 :M .462 .046(not have any restrictions placed upon what data values they are allowed to send. Out-of-)J 42 290 :M .603 .06(band framing protocols are necessarily transparent in that they use a framing signal that)J 42 308 :M .374 .037(by definition can never appear in the data. For in-band framing protocols transparency is)J 42 326 :M .541 .054(not automatic, so in-band framing protocols should use a data stuffing transformation to)J 42 344 :M (provide the necessary data transparency to higher layers of software.)S 42 374 :M 2.316 .232(Transparency is important because many data formats in common use, like JPEG)J 42 392 :M 1.819 .182([ISO10918] images, MPEG [ISO11172] video, and pkzip compressed files [Nel96],)J 42 410 :M .454 .045(make full use of the entire range of 256 possible eight-bit byte values. To transmit these)J 42 428 :M .527 .053(data types over a non-transparent medium would require the higher-layer software to be)J 42 446 :M .861 .086(aware of the particular quirks of the medium, and to construct its data so as to comply)J 42 464 :M 1.224 .122(with the restrictions imposed by the lower layer. Potentially, every application would)J 42 482 :M .813 .081(need to be prepared to handle the quirks of every different non-transparent medium, so)J 42 500 :M .385 .038(this is not a scaleable solution. This is an example of the )J 323 500 :M f243 sf (m)S 332 500 :M f398 sf (\264)S 339 500 :M f243 sf .077(n)A f165 sf .299 .03( problem [Pad83]. Instead,)J 42 518 :M .996 .1(the framing protocol should know its own quirks and should be responsible for seeing)J 42 536 :M .562 .056(that any data sent is first converted into a format that does not violate the restrictions of)J 42 554 :M (the lower layer.)S 42 584 :M 1.281 .128(Some data types, such as plain ASCII text, may not use the entire range of available)J 42 602 :M .661 .066(eight-bit byte values. In this case it might seem that some economy could be gained by)J 42 620 :M 1.296 .13(sending the data directly over the non-transparent lower-layer without the expense of)J 42 638 :M 1.612 .161(going through an unnecessary data stuffing step. This is a false economy because it)J 42 656 :M .302 .03(applies only in the limited cases where the set of byte values that are not used in the data)J endp showpage %%Page: 37 37 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 37 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 19 \321)S 78 56 :M .243 .024(happens to coincide with the particular set of byte values that are prohibited by the lower)J 78 74 :M 1.38 .138(layer. In other cases where the properties of the data do not match the details of the)J 78 92 :M .047 .005(underlying medium\325s particular mode of non-transparency, data-conversion would still be)J 78 110 :M .797 .08(required. In addition, any data type that never uses some of the available eight-bit byte)J 78 128 :M 1.623 .162(values is not making efficient use of the storage medium, and an algorithm such as)J 78 146 :M .267 .027(Huffman encoding [Huff52] [Knu85] which takes advantage of the non-uniformity in the)J 78 164 :M .183 .018(distribution could be used to compress the data to a smaller size. After such compression,)J 78 182 :M (the resulting data does not, in general, leave any eight-bit byte values unused.)S 78 212 :M f318 sf (2.4.2)S f360 sf ( )S 109 212 :M f318 sf (Reliability)S 78 242 :M f165 sf .037 .004(This dissertation judges the reliability of a framing protocol by whether it is guaranteed to)J 78 260 :M .771 .077(resynchronize after an error. All communications systems are subject to errors of some)J 78 278 :M .072 .007(kind, and although a single error may cause the loss of some amount of data, it should not)J 78 296 :M .758 .076(disable the communications system for an unbounded length of time. A similar issue is)J 78 314 :M .296 .03(that a new receiver joining an existing data stream already in progress \(such as a satellite)J 78 332 :M .449 .045(receiver tuning to a new MPEG video channel\) needs to be able to synchronize with the)J 78 350 :M (transmi)S 114 350 :M (tter and determine where each new packet begins in the data stream.)S 78 380 :M .525 .052(Out-of-band protocols have no trouble resynchronizing after an error, because by defini-)J 78 398 :M .722 .072(tion their framing marker cannot appear anywhere in any packet. Any time the receiver)J 78 416 :M 1.203 .12(detects a framing marker it serves as an unambiguous indication that a new packet is)J 78 434 :M .026 .003(beginning. In contrast, many in-band framing protocols do not guarantee to resynchronize)J 78 452 :M (after an error.)S 78 482 :M .527 .053(Edsger Dijkstra showed that it is not an unreasonable requirement to expect a communi-)J 78 500 :M .701 .07(cations system to guarantee resynchronization. In his studies of )J 396 500 :M f243 sf .364 .036(Self-Stabilizing Systems)J 78 518 :M f165 sf 1.485 .148([Dijk74] [Dijk86] he showed a very powerful result: a properly designed distributed)J 78 536 :M .577 .058(system can be guaranteed to arrive at a correctly synchronized state in a finite length of)J 78 554 :M .565 .056(time, even in a system with a large number of autonomous components and only sparse)J 78 572 :M 1.078 .108(communication between those components, no matter what the initial state of the sy)J 503 572 :M (s)S 508 572 :M (-)S 78 590 :M .793 .079(tem\325s components. Given this powerful general result, it seems a fairly modest require-)J 78 608 :M .364 .036(ment to say that a single receiver should guarantee to synchronize with a single transmit-)J 78 626 :M .95 .095(ter within some finite period of error-free communication. Nevertheless, many in-band)J 78 644 :M (framing protocols fail to achieve this simple capability.)S endp showpage %%Page: 38 38 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 38 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 20 \321)S 42 56 :M .735 .074(Many in-band framing protocols offer only the weaker guarantee that they are likely to)J 42 74 :M .554 .055(synchronize fairly quickly, most of the time, as long as the packet data does not contain)J 42 92 :M .559 .056(too many unfortunate patterns that are likely to confuse the receiver. Although this kind)J 42 110 :M .951 .095(of \324probabilistic\325 notion of reliability may be useful in some contexts, this dissertation)J 42 128 :M 1.772 .177(adopts the stronger requirement that a framing protocol should always guarantee to)J 42 146 :M (resynchronize, no matter what data the packet contains.)S 42 176 :M f318 sf (2.4.3)S f360 sf ( )S 73 176 :M f318 sf (Locality)S 42 206 :M f165 sf .454 .045(A good framing protocol should make it straightforward for the receiver to detect where)J 42 224 :M .236 .024(each packet begins in the data stream, both to simplify normal operation, and particularly)J 42 242 :M .954 .095(to allow rapid recovery after an error. In this dissertation a framing protocol is said to)J 42 260 :M .08 .008(have )J 68 260 :M f243 sf (locality)S 104 260 :M f165 sf .074 .007( if the only requirement for a packet to be received correctly is that the entire)J 42 278 :M .643 .064(packet and its immediately adjacent framing markers \(the ones preceding and following)J 42 296 :M .143 .014(it\) are received without error. In other words all the information that is required to decode)J 42 314 :M .816 .082(the packet data correctly is local to the packet \321 just the packet itself plus its immedi-)J 42 332 :M .46 .046(ately adjacent framing markers. For a framing protocol that has )J 357 332 :M f243 sf (locality,)S 396 332 :M f165 sf .441 .044( no combination)J 42 350 :M 1.089 .109(of insertion, deletion, or replacement errors preceeding the initial framing marker, nor)J 42 368 :M .215 .021(following the final framing marker, can prevent the receiver from receiving and decoding)J 42 386 :M (the packet correctly.)S 42 416 :M .767 .077(Many framing protocols do not have locality. In many framing protocols, after an error)J 42 434 :M .435 .043(the receiver has to examine a large amount of data before it is able to resynchronize and)J 42 452 :M 1.263 .126(start decoding packets again. During this resynchronization period, a large number of)J 42 470 :M 1.594 .159(packets may be received entirely correctly, only to be lost because of the receiver\325s)J 42 488 :M .423 .042(inability to recognize them. This lack of locality multiplies the effective error rate of the)J 42 506 :M (medium, because a single error results in several packets being lost instead of just one.)S 42 536 :M .313 .031(Another drawback of non-local framing is that it can make implementation more compl)J 469 536 :M (i-)S 42 554 :M 1.441 .144(cated. Because the information that encodes the synchronization signal is distributed)J 42 572 :M 1.233 .123(throughout the transmitted stream instead of being localized, the receiver may need a)J 42 590 :M 1.492 .149(complicated finite state machine or large memory buffers \(or both\) to recognize and)J 42 608 :M (decode this synchronization signal.)S endp showpage %%Page: 39 39 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 39 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 21 \321)S 78 56 :M f318 sf (2.4.4)S f360 sf ( )S 109 56 :M f318 sf (Efficiency)S 78 86 :M f165 sf 1.724 .172(A good framing protocol should not add excessive overhead to the data being sent,)J 78 104 :M .384 .038(because this makes inefficient use of the underlying medium. There are two components)J 78 122 :M 1.283 .128(of overhead that a framing protocol adds. One is the overhead of the framing marker)J 78 140 :M (itself, and the other is the overhead of providing the necessary data-transparency.)S 78 170 :M .385 .038(A large framing marker \(one that is many bits long\) may yield a low probability of false)J 78 188 :M .032 .003(detection in a bitstream that is subject to errors, but it also results in a high fixed overhead)J 78 206 :M .483 .048(per packet. If most packets are large then this fixed overhead may be a small percentage)J 78 224 :M .24 .024(of the medium\325s total bandwidth, but the smaller the average packet length, the larger the)J 78 242 :M (proportion of the bandwidth consumed by framing markers.)S 78 272 :M .675 .068(Out-of-band framing is by definition a transparent framing method, but as described by)J 78 290 :M .819 .082(Robert Scholtz in [Sch80], this transparency is not without cost, and this effective cost)J 78 308 :M .918 .092(increases with the packet length. The longer the packets, the longer the periods during)J 78 326 :M 1.136 .114(which the out-of-band framing signal never appears, and during those periods the full)J 78 344 :M (signalling capability of the medium is not being utilized to its full extent.)S 78 374 :M .809 .081(With in-band framing, transparency is provided by data stuffing rather than by making)J 78 392 :M .359 .036(incomplete use of the full signalling capabilities of the medium, but, as with out-of-band)J 78 410 :M .237 .024(framing, the cost of that transparency tends to increase as packet length increases. For in-)J 78 428 :M .829 .083(band framing the overhead also depends on the choice of framing marker, and tends to)J 78 446 :M .993 .099(increase as the length of the framing marker decreases. This is because the shorter the)J 78 464 :M .519 .052(framing marker, the more likely it is that that pattern will occur by chance in the data to)J 78 482 :M .389 .039(be sent, resulting in stuffing events which add overhead [Art72] [Pap87]. This creates an)J 78 500 :M .247 .025(interesting trade-off: For any given encoding algorithm, a short framing marker results in)J 78 518 :M 1.558 .156(low framing overhead but high data stuffing overhead, and a longer framing marker)J 78 536 :M (results in higher framing overhead but reduces data stuffing overhead.)S 78 566 :M .292 .029(The properties of Transparency, Reliability and Locality are all binary properties. That is)J 78 584 :M 1.498 .15(to say that a framing protocol either has the property, or it does not. In contrast the)J 78 602 :M .245 .024(property of Efficiency is harder to quantify. As well as a fixed cost per packet, there may)J 78 620 :M 1.255 .126(be a cost that varies depending on the size of the packet, and even depending on the)J 78 638 :M 1.949 .195(contents of the packet. In addition, making comparison even harder, some framing)J 78 656 :M .969 .097(protocols use only a single fixed frame size, some support variable-sized frames up to)J endp showpage %%Page: 40 40 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 40 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 22 \321)S 42 56 :M .483 .048(some maximum size, and some allow arbitrary-sized frames without limit. This dissert)J 467 56 :M (a-)S 42 74 :M .137 .014(tion quantifies the overhead using parameters )J 265 74 :M f398 sf (a)S 273 74 :M f165 sf .128 .013( \(average percentage overhead\), )J f398 sf (b)S 437 74 :M f165 sf .141 .014( \(worst-)J 42 92 :M .08 .008(case percentage overhead\) and )J 193 92 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf .076 .008( \(constant overhead\), as described below. The parameters)J 42 110 :M f398 sf (a)S 50 110 :M f165 sf 1.378 .138( and )J 77 110 :M f398 sf (b)S 84 110 :M f165 sf 1.043 .104( are expressed as a percentage of the unencoded packet size, and the constant)J 42 128 :M .198 .02(overhead )J f243 sf (k)S f165 sf .151 .015( is expressed in bits. How these parameters are calculated for fixed-size, finite-)J 42 146 :M (size, and arbitrary-size frames is explained below:)S 42 176 :M f318 sf (2.4.4.1)S f360 sf ( )S 82 176 :M f318 sf (Fixed-Size Frames)S 42 206 :M f165 sf .524 .052(For framing protocols that use a fixed size frame, this dissertation expresses the average)J 42 224 :M .09 .009(amount of overhead as a percentage )J f398 sf (a)S 226 224 :M f165 sf .101 .01( of the amount of the user data carried in the frame,)J 42 242 :M 1.711 .171(since this gives the most intuitive notion of how much of the underlying medium\325s)J 42 260 :M .989 .099(capacity is being wasted. In cases where the amount of overhead is not fixed, and can)J 42 278 :M 1.595 .16(vary depending on the contents of the frame \(as is often the case with data stuffing)J 42 296 :M .308 .031(algorithms\) both the average percentage overhead )J 289 296 :M f398 sf (a)S 297 296 :M f165 sf .346 .035( and the worst-case percentage )J 449 296 :M f398 sf (b)S 456 296 :M f165 sf .426 .043( are)J 42 314 :M (given.)S 42 344 :M f318 sf (2.4.4.2)S f360 sf ( )S 82 344 :M f318 sf (Finite-Size and Arbitrary-Size Frames)S 42 374 :M f165 sf .961 .096(Some framing protocols use a variable size frame but have some intrinsic limit on the)J 42 392 :M 1.65 .165(maximum frame length that can be encoded \(e.g. because they use a fixed one-byte)J 42 410 :M 1.292 .129(length field\). Other framing protocols allow arbitrarily large frames. For example, al-)J 42 428 :M .934 .093(though Ethernet [Tan88] [IEEE802.3] specifies a maximum packet size of 1514 bytes,)J 42 446 :M .936 .094(the )J 61 446 :M f243 sf .487 .049(framing protocol)J 144 446 :M f165 sf .807 .081( used by Ethernet has no such intrinsic limit, and could be used to)J 42 464 :M .716 .072(frame packets of any length we choose. For these kinds of framing protocol there is no)J 42 482 :M 1.813 .181(obvious canonical packet size at which to evaluate the protocol\325s efficiency. While)J 42 500 :M .229 .023(choosing the largest possible packet size might be fair in a theoretical sense, it would not)J 42 518 :M .683 .068(be very useful, because for some protocols that would be a hypothetical infinitely large)J 42 536 :M .742 .074(packet and in practice no network software or hardware uses infinitely large packets. It)J 42 554 :M 1.476 .148(would also ignore the important differences between different protocols\325 fixed costs,)J 42 572 :M .267 .027(because any fixed cost is reduced to zero when amortized over an arbitrarily large packet)J 42 590 :M .324 .032(size. Similarly, trying to choose one particular \324typical\325 size of network packet is equally)J 42 608 :M .434 .043(problematic, because network packet sizes vary widely, from 16 bits in Cambridge Ring)J 42 626 :M .644 .064(\(Section 2.9.6\) to 4608 bits in Extended Superframe \(Section )J 348 626 :M .661 .066(2.8.2\), and even higher in)J 42 644 :M 1.339 .134(protocols like Ethernet \(Section 2.7.1\) and Token Ring \(Section 2.7.2\). To avoid this)J 42 662 :M .319 .032(dilemma, the overhead is divided into a fixed component which is independent of packet)J endp showpage %%Page: 41 41 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 41 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 23 \321)S 78 56 :M .463 .046(size, and a variable component which varies linearly with packet size. The fixed compo-)J 78 74 :M 1.574 .157(nent of overhead is expressed as a number of bits )J f243 sf .526(k)A f165 sf 1.85 .185(, and the variable component is)J 78 92 :M .85 .085(expressed as above, as an average percentage )J 309 92 :M f398 sf (a)S 317 92 :M f165 sf .865 .086( and \(when different\) a worst-case pe)J 504 92 :M (r)S 508 92 :M (-)S 78 110 :M (centage )S 118 110 :M f398 sf (b)S 125 110 :M f165 sf (.)S 78 146 :M f318 sf (2.5)S f360 sf ( )S 105 146 :M f318 sf (The Framing Hierarchy)S 78 176 :M f165 sf 1.914 .191(Usually a communications system will have several levels of message framing, for)J 78 194 :M .972 .097(example the physical hardware level converting a continuous analogue signal into di)J 503 194 :M (s)S 508 194 :M (-)S 78 212 :M 1.092 .109(crete binary bits, the bits-to-bytes level, and the bytes-to-packets level. Some systems)J 78 230 :M .857 .086(combine all the levels, going directly from physical signals to packets in a single step,)J 78 248 :M (and others are more intricate, having even more than three layers of framing.)S 78 278 :M 1.708 .171(At the lowest level we often find out-of-band protocols. They use specific physical)J 78 296 :M 1.433 .143(properties, like voltages or timing information, that are outside the control of higher)J 78 314 :M (layers.)S 78 344 :M .564 .056(Moving higher up the protocol stack, other framing protocols operate in terms of binary)J 78 362 :M .309 .031(digits rather than directly in terms of physical properties. These framing protocols trust a)J 78 380 :M .957 .096(lower layer of the stack to convert physical measurements of the medium into abstract)J 78 398 :M .603 .06(digital values, and then operate using only those digital values. Since the alphabet these)J 78 416 :M 1.352 .135(protocols use, {0,1}, is the same alphabet that all their software clients at the higher)J 78 434 :M (layers also use, they are in-band framing protocols.)S 78 464 :M 1.095 .109(Moving still higher up the protocol stack, other framing protocols operate in terms of)J 78 482 :M .618 .062(units that are eight-bit bytes. These framing protocols trust a lower layer of the stack to)J 78 500 :M 1.087 .109(decode and present those eight-bit byte values correctly. In principle a single physical)J 78 518 :M .464 .046(measurement of the medium could yield an entire byte value, but it is far more common)J 78 536 :M .303 .03(for each measurement of the medium to yield a smaller quantity of information such as a)J 78 554 :M .344 .034(single one-bit binary value. When the underlying physical layer is delivering a stream of)J 78 572 :M .46 .046(bits, and the framing protocol operates in terms of a stream of bytes, there is an implicit)J 78 590 :M 1.238 .124(assumption that there is also some intermediate layer that is responsible for correctly)J 78 608 :M (dete)S 98 608 :M (r)S 102 608 :M 1.633 .163(mining where the boundaries between bytes should fall in the unstructured bit-)J 78 626 :M .226 .023(stream. This intermediate layer is itself a framing protocol \(bits-to-bytes\), and the correct)J 78 644 :M 1.157 .116(operation of all the higher layers depends on its correct operation. In many cases, the)J 78 662 :M .996 .1(layer that performs the bits-to-bytes framing is an RS-232 serial port. As explained in)J endp showpage %%Page: 42 42 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 42 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 24 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.079 .108(Section )J 83 56 :M 1.117 .112(2.9.3, RS-232 framing is not guaranteed to recover after an error, although in)J 42 74 :M (practice it will eventually resynchronize after enough bytes have passed.)S 42 104 :M 1.22 .122(Moving even higher, protocols like TCP could be considered to be elaborate framing)J 42 122 :M .748 .075(protocols, taking multiple IP packets and grouping them into units called \324TCP connec-)J 42 140 :M (tions\325, but such analysis goes beyond the scope of this dissertation.)S 42 176 :M f318 sf (2.6)S f360 sf ( )S 69 176 :M f318 sf (Review of Existing Framing Protocols)S 42 206 :M f165 sf .144 .014(The remainder of this chapter considers in more detail the practical framing and encoding)J 42 224 :M .245 .024(schemes that have been used in the past, or are in use today, for actual computer comm)J 466 224 :M (u-)S 42 242 :M .528 .053(nications systems. Because there are so many of them, it is useful to organize them into)J 42 260 :M .447 .045(four families: out-of-band framing, non-transparent in-band framing, transparent in-band)J 42 278 :M f243 sf .208(without)A f165 sf .776 .078( data stuffing, and transparent in-band framing )J f243 sf .279(with)A 337 278 :M f165 sf .992 .099( data stuffing. The relatio)J 466 278 :M (n-)S 42 296 :M (ships between the four families are illustrated in )S 276 296 :M (Figure 1.)S 92 323 333 153 rC 92.5 366.5 86 22 rS 93 367 85 21 rC 105 380 :M (O)S 113 380 :M (u)S 119 380 :M (t)S 122 380 :M (-)S 126 380 :M (O)S 134 380 :M (f)S 138 380 :M (-)S 142 380 :M (B)S 150 380 :M (a)S 155 380 :M (n)S 161 380 :M (d)S gR gS 92 323 333 153 rC 243.5 366.5 87 22 rS 244 367 86 21 rC 267 380 :M f165 sf (I)S 271 380 :M (n)S 277 380 :M (-)S 281 380 :M (B)S 289 380 :M (a)S 294 380 :M (n)S 300 380 :M (d)S gR gS 92 323 333 153 rC 157.5 323.5 101 22 rS 158 324 100 21 rC 164 337 :M f165 sf (F)S 171 337 :M (r)S 175 337 :M (a)S 180 337 :M (m)S 189 337 :M (i)S 192 337 :M (n)S 198 337 :M (g)S 204 337 :M ( )S 207 337 :M (P)S 214 337 :M (r)S 218 337 :M (o)S 224 337 :M (t)S 227 337 :M (o)S 233 337 :M (c)S 238 337 :M (o)S 244 337 :M (l)S 247 337 :M (s)S gR gS 92 323 333 153 rC 178.5 409.5 101 22 rS 179 410 100 21 rC 188 423 :M f165 sf (N)S 197 423 :M (o)S 203 423 :M (n)S 209 423 :M (-)S 213 423 :M (T)S 220 423 :M (r)S 224 423 :M (a)S 229 423 :M (n)S 235 423 :M (s)S 240 423 :M (p)S 246 423 :M (a)S 251 423 :M (r)S 255 423 :M (e)S 260 423 :M (n)S 266 423 :M (t)S gR gS 92 323 333 153 rC 294.5 409.5 100 22 rS 295 410 99 21 rC 317 423 :M f165 sf (T)S 324 423 :M (r)S 328 423 :M (a)S 333 423 :M (n)S 339 423 :M (s)S 344 423 :M (p)S 350 423 :M (a)S 355 423 :M (r)S 359 423 :M (e)S 364 423 :M (n)S 370 423 :M (t)S gR gS 92 323 333 153 rC 265.5 453.5 72 21 rS 266 454 71 20 rC 273 467 :M f165 sf (N)S 282 467 :M (o)S 288 467 :M ( )S 291 467 :M (S)S 298 467 :M (t)S 301 467 :M (u)S 307 467 :M (f)S 311 467 :M (f)S 315 467 :M (i)S 318 467 :M (n)S 324 467 :M (g)S gR gS 92 323 333 153 rC 351.5 453.5 72 21 rS 352 454 71 20 rC 356 467 :M f165 sf (D)S 364 467 :M (a)S 369 467 :M (t)S 372 467 :M (a)S 377 467 :M ( )S 380 467 :M (S)S 387 467 :M (t)S 390 467 :M (u)S 396 467 :M (f)S 400 467 :M (f)S 404 467 :M (i)S 407 467 :M (n)S 413 467 :M (g)S gR gS 92 323 333 153 rC -1 -1 136 367 1 1 207 345 @b 207 346 -1 1 287 366 1 207 345 @a -1 -1 230 410 1 1 286 388 @b -1 -1 302 454 1 1 344 431 @b 286 389 -1 1 345 409 1 286 388 @a 344 432 -1 1 388 453 1 344 431 @a gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 151 503 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 188 503 :M (1. Taxonomy of Framing Protocols)S 42 533 :M f165 sf .56 .056(The protocols are described in the following approximate order \(the term ISDN actually)J 42 551 :M .308 .031(encompasses several different protocols, which for simplicity are all described in the text)J 42 569 :M (under a single \324ISDN\325 heading\):)S 42 592 :M (1.)S 60 592 :M (Out-of-band framing \(Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, Teletext, ISDN-S\))S 42 615 :M (2.)S 60 615 :M (Non-transparent in-band)S 178 615 :M ( framing \(MPEG, T-1/AMI\))S endp showpage %%Page: 43 43 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 43 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 25 \321)S 78 56 :M (3.)S 96 56 :M .115 .011(Transparent in-band framing without data stuffing \(T-1/B8ZS, T-1/Verilink, ISDN-U,)J 96 74 :M 4.854 .485(Baudot, RS232, SONET, Cambridge Ring, RATP, DDCMP, XMODEM,)J 96 92 :M (YMODEM\))S 78 115 :M (4.)S 96 115 :M .61 .061(Transparent in-band framing with data stuffing \(IBM BISYNC, Kermit, ZMODEM,)J 96 133 :M (SLIP, AX.25, PPP, Gill\325s Protocol, HDLC\).)S 78 163 :M (For each of the different protocols I present a table summarizing:)S 82 187 :M (1. Whether it uses in-band framing)S 82 211 :M (2. Whether it offers data transparency)S 82 235 :M (3. Whether it reliably resynchronizes after an error)S 82 259 :M (4. Whether it has locality of framing information)S 82 283 :M (5. The underlying message unit which is being framed into higher level mes)S 447 283 :M (sages)S 82 307 :M (6. The size or size range of the higher level messages)S 82 331 :M (7. How much overhead the framing protocol adds to the message)S 78 361 :M .888 .089(Items 1-4 are desirable properties of a framing protocol. For item 5, protocols that can)J 78 379 :M 1.196 .12(frame individual bits or physical signals into packet are more versatile than ones that)J 78 397 :M 1.124 .112(work on bytes. Protocols that work on bytes either need to operate over an inherently)J 78 415 :M .132 .013(parallel medium at least one byte wide \(e.g. a SCSI interface [X3.131]\), or rely on having)J 78 433 :M .951 .095(some other framing protocol to frame individual bits or physical signals into bytes for)J 78 451 :M .408 .041(them, before they can frame those bytes into packets. Still, most framing protocols work)J 78 469 :M .347 .035(on bytes, so we cannot ignore byte-framing protocols. For item 6, framing protocols that)J 78 487 :M 1.612 .161(can be used to frame messages of any length are desirable because they have wider)J 78 505 :M .089 .009(applicability than protocols that have some inherent message size limit. For protocols that)J 78 523 :M .645 .064(meet all requirements of a particular application, item 7 is the tie-breaker that measures)J 78 541 :M (how efficiently they perform.)S endp showpage %%Page: 44 44 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 44 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 26 \321)S 42 74 :M f318 sf (2.7)S f360 sf ( )S 69 74 :M f318 sf (Out-Of-Band Framing Prot)S 211 74 :M (ocols)S 42 104 :M f165 sf (This section describes Ethernet, Token)S 42 122 :M (Ring, FDDI, Teletext, and ISDN.)S 42 152 :M f318 sf (2.7.1)S f360 sf ( )S 73 152 :M f318 sf (Ethernet)S 42 182 :M f165 sf 3.304 .33(Ethernet uses Manchester Encoding to encode the packet data [Sta94] [Tan88])J 42 200 :M .938 .094([IEEE802.3]. In Manchester Encoding, each bit in the packet is effectively encoded as)J 42 218 :M .919 .092(two bits on the wire. A binary one in the packet is encoded as a 01 on the wire, and a)J 42 236 :M (binary zero in the data is encoded as a 10.)S 42 266 :M 1.397 .14(Manchester Encoding has a potential framing ambiguity. If the receiver observes the)J 42 284 :M .621 .062(signal 010101010101010 on the wire, how can it tell if it is observing \31101, 01, 01, 01,)J 42 302 :M 1.214 .121(01, 01, 01, 0\311 \(a sequence of encoded ones\) or \3110, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10\311 \(a)J 42 320 :M (sequence of encoded zeroes\)?)S 42 350 :M .465 .047(A careful choice of transmitted data can help eliminate ambiguity in the received signal.)J 42 368 :M .939 .094(Ethernet takes advantage of this and begins each network packet with a preamble con-)J 42 386 :M .949 .095(sisting of the byte value 10101010 repeated seven times and then the value 10101011.)J 42 404 :M .553 .055(The value 10101010 encodes as 0110011001100110. Since we know that 00 and 11 are)J 42 422 :M .644 .064(not legal Manchester Encoded values, the interpretation \3110, 11, 00, 11, 00, 11, 00, 11,)J 42 440 :M .131 .013(0\311 is clearly invalid, so the receiver knows that the correct interpretation can only be 01,)J 42 458 :M (10, 01, 10, 01, 10, 01, 10, and this allows it to synchronize correctly.)S 42 488 :M .993 .099(Ethernet has no provision to prevent the preamble sequence from occurring within the)J 42 506 :M .036 .004(body of a packet. Ethernet solves this problem by enforcing a pause between packets. The)J 42 524 :M .762 .076(Ethernet framing marker is therefore not defined by just a preamble sequence, but by a)J 42 542 :M .09 .009(pause followed by a preamble sequence. Because every bit in the body of a packet always)J 42 560 :M .301 .03(encodes as a bit pair containing a transition \(either 01 or 10\) there is no way for any data)J 42 578 :M .488 .049(in the body of a packet to encode as a sequence with no transitions and masquerade as a)J 42 596 :M (pause.)S .8 G 254 41 220 101 rC 255 70 56 14 rF 0 G 254.5 69.5 56 15 rS 255 70 56 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 396.573 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 405.655 118.159 :M (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 411.71 118.159 :M (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 414.737 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 417.764 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 426.846 118.159 :M (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 429.873 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 434.414 118.159 :M (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 441.982 118.159 :M (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 446.523 118.159 :M (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 452.578 118.159 :M (d)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 354.5 69.5 57 15 rS 354 70 57 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 558.533 118.159 :M f165 sf (I)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 563.073 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 569.128 118.159 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 573.669 118.159 :M f165 sf (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 581.237 118.159 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 585.778 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 591.833 118.159 :M f165 sf (d)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 297.5 41.5 66 14 rS 298 42 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 455.605 75.743 :M f165 sf (F)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 463.173 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 467.714 75.743 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 472.255 75.743 :M f165 sf (m)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 481.337 75.743 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 484.364 75.743 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 490.419 75.743 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 496.473 75.743 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 499.501 75.743 :M f165 sf (P)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 505.555 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 510.096 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 516.151 75.743 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 519.178 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 525.233 75.743 :M f165 sf (c)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 529.773 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 535.828 75.743 :M f165 sf (l)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 538.855 75.743 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 311.5 98.5 66 14 rS 311 98 67 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 479.823 162.09 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 488.905 162.09 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 494.96 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 501.014 162.09 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 505.555 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 511.61 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 516.151 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 520.692 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 526.746 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 532.801 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 538.855 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 543.396 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 547.937 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 552.478 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 558.533 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 387.5 98.5 66 14 rS 388 98 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 608.483 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 616.051 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 620.592 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 625.133 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 631.187 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 635.728 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 641.783 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 647.837 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 650.864 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 656.919 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 661.46 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 368.5 127.5 48 13 rS 369 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 564.587 206.021 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 573.669 206.021 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 579.723 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 582.751 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 590.319 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 593.346 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 599.401 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 603.942 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 606.969 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 609.996 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 616.051 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 425.5 127.5 47 13 rS 426 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 647.837 206.021 :M f165 sf (D)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 656.919 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 661.46 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 664.487 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 669.028 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 672.055 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 679.624 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 682.651 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 688.705 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 691.733 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 696.274 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 699.301 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 705.355 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC -1 -1 283 70 1 1 330 56 @b 330 57 -1 1 383 69 1 330 56 @a -1 -1 346 99 1 1 382 84 @b -1 -1 393 128 1 1 420 112 @b 382 85 -1 1 421 98 1 382 84 @a 420 113 -1 1 450 127 1 420 112 @a endp showpage %%Page: 45 45 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 45 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 27 \321)S 128 54 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 55 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 41 @w 1.24 124 41.12 @c 121.24 125 41.12 @c 1.24 246 41.12 @c 246 41 1 1 rF 215.24 247 41.12 @c 1.24 462.12 41 @w 17.24 124.12 42 @w 246 42 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 42 @w 128 72 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 73 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 59 @w 124 59 122 1 rF 246 59 1 1 rF 247 59 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 59 @w 17.24 124.12 60 @w 246 60 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 60 @w 128 90 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 287 91 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 77 @w 124 77 122 1 rF 246 77 1 1 rF 247 77 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 77 @w 17.24 124.12 78 @w 246 78 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 78 @w 128 108 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 109 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 95 @w 124 95 122 1 rF 246 95 1 1 rF 247 95 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 95 @w 17.24 124.12 96 @w 246 96 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 96 @w 128 126 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 126 :M (Physical Signals)S .24 124.12 113 @w 124 113 122 1 rF 246 113 1 1 rF 247 113 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 113 @w 17.24 124.12 114 @w 246 114 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 114 @w 128 144 :M (Message Size)S 251 144 :M (Unlimited)S .24 124.12 131 @w 124 131 122 1 rF 246 131 1 1 rF 247 131 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 131 @w 17.24 124.12 132 @w 246 132 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 132 @w 128 162 :M (Overhead)S 251 166 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 166 :M f165 sf ( = 100%*)S 323 166 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 64 bits)S .24 124.12 149 @w 124 149 122 1 rF 246 149 1 1 rF 247 149 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 149 @w 22.24 124.12 150 @w 1.24 124 172.12 @c 121.24 125 172.12 @c 246 150 1 22 rF 1.24 246 172.12 @c 215.24 247 172.12 @c 22.24 462.12 150 @w 155 200 :M f318 sf (Table 1. Summary of Framing Properties for Ethernet)S 114 230 :M f165 sf .323 .032(* Since Manchester Encoding transmits two voltage levels for each single)J 114 248 :M .695 .069(bit, it is effectively using only half the raw data rate of the medium. The)J 114 266 :M 1.125 .112(benefit of accepting this low efficiency is simplicity in implementation.)J 114 284 :M (Clock recovery, for instance, is easy in Ma)S 320 284 :M (nchester Encoding.)S endp showpage %%Page: 46 46 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 46 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 28 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.7.2)S f360 sf ( )S 73 68 :M f318 sf (Token Ring)S 42 98 :M f165 sf 1.101 .11(Token Ring [IEEE802.5] uses Differential Manchester Encoding to encode the packet)J 42 116 :M .528 .053(data [Sta94] [Tan88]. Differential Manchester Encoding is similar to standard Manche)J 467 116 :M (s)S 472 116 :M (-)S 42 134 :M 1.227 .123(ter Encoding except that a zero-bit is indicated by repeating the previous two-bit pair)J 42 152 :M .993 .099(\(either 01 or 10\), and a one-bit is indicated by outputting the opposite of the previous)J 42 170 :M .374 .037(two-bit pair. This change of encoding rules gives the transmitted signal slightly different)J 42 188 :M .653 .065(properties which are thought to be beneficial in some circumstances [Sta94], but just as)J 42 206 :M .232 .023(with straight Manchester Encoding, every bit in the body of a packet always encodes as a)J 42 224 :M (bit pair contai)S 109 224 :M (ning a transition \(either 01 or 10\).)S 42 254 :M .48 .048(Rather than use a pause and a preamble like Ethernet, Token Ring uses a protocol viola-)J 42 272 :M .453 .045(tion \321 an out-of-band signal \321 to mark the start of the packet. Each packet is preceded)J 42 290 :M .771 .077(by a special sequence which is the same length as a normal eight-bit byte, but contains)J 42 308 :M .632 .063(pairs 11 and 00 which are normally invalid and can never appear in the encoding of the)J 42 326 :M (packet data itself.)S 92 372 :M (In-Band Framing)S 215 373 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 359 @w 1.24 88 359.12 @c 121.24 89 359.12 @c 1.24 210 359.12 @c 210 359 1 1 rF 215.24 211 359.12 @c 1.24 426.12 359 @w 17.24 88.12 360 @w 210 360 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 360 @w 92 390 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 391 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 377 @w 88 377 122 1 rF 210 377 1 1 rF 211 377 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 377 @w 17.24 88.12 378 @w 210 378 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 378 @w 92 408 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 409 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 395 @w 88 395 122 1 rF 210 395 1 1 rF 211 395 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 395 @w 17.24 88.12 396 @w 210 396 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 396 @w 92 426 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 427 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 413 @w 88 413 122 1 rF 210 413 1 1 rF 211 413 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 413 @w 17.24 88.12 414 @w 210 414 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 414 @w 92 444 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 444 :M (Physical Signals)S .24 88.12 431 @w 88 431 122 1 rF 210 431 1 1 rF 211 431 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 431 @w 17.24 88.12 432 @w 210 432 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 432 @w 92 462 :M (Message Size)S 215 462 :M (Unlimited)S .24 88.12 449 @w 88 449 122 1 rF 210 449 1 1 rF 211 449 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 449 @w 17.24 88.12 450 @w 210 450 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 450 @w 92 480 :M (Overhead)S 215 484 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 484 :M f165 sf ( = 100%*)S 287 484 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 8 bits)S .24 88.12 467 @w 88 467 122 1 rF 210 467 1 1 rF 211 467 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 467 @w 22.24 88.12 468 @w 1.24 88 490.12 @c 121.24 89 490.12 @c 210 468 1 22 rF 1.24 210 490.12 @c 215.24 211 490.12 @c 22.24 426.12 468 @w 112 518 :M f318 sf (Table 2. Summary of Framing Properties for Token Ring)S 78 548 :M f165 sf .323 .032(* Since Manchester Encoding transmits two voltage levels for each single)J 78 566 :M .695 .069(bit, it is effectively using only half the raw data rate of the medium. The)J 78 584 :M 1.125 .112(benefit of accepting this low efficiency is simplicity in implementation.)J 78 602 :M (Clock recovery, for instance, is easy in Ma)S 284 602 :M (nchester Encoding.)S endp showpage %%Page: 47 47 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 47 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 29 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.7.3)S f360 sf ( )S 109 68 :M f318 sf (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)S 78 98 :M f165 sf .364 .036(Fiber Distributed Data Interface \(FDDI\) is in many ways similar to Token Ring \(Section)J 78 116 :M 1.66 .166(2.7.2\) at the higher layers, but at the lower layers it is quite different. One obvious)J 78 134 :M .34 .034(difference is that the data rate is higher, but more significantly the framing and encoding)J 78 152 :M (are also different.)S 78 182 :M .463 .046(FDDI uses a 4b/5b block encoding, which means that each four bits of data are encoded)J 78 200 :M .383 .038(as a five-bit sequence transmitted over the medium [Shah93]. This 4b/5b encoding gives)J 78 218 :M .728 .073(FDDI an interesting two-tier framing problem to solve: The incoming bit-stream has to)J 78 236 :M .099 .01(be correctly framed into five-bit symbols, and the resulting stream of five-bit symbols has)J 78 254 :M 1.443 .144(to correctly framed into larger FDDI packets. Rather than solving these two framing)J 78 272 :M 1.642 .164(problems independently, which would be less efficient, FDDI uses an encoding that)J 78 290 :M (allows it to solve both in a single step.)S 78 320 :M .358 .036(Like T-1 \(Section 2.8.2\), FDDI needs a certain number of transitions in the data in order)J 78 338 :M .681 .068(to maintain clock synchronization. In the 4b/5b encoding, there are 32 different five-bit)J 78 356 :M .235 .023(symbols available, and since only 16 different four-bit values need to be represented, this)J 78 374 :M .094 .009(allows FDDI to be somewhat selective about which of the 32 possible symbols it uses. To)J 78 392 :M 1.184 .118(maintain a high rate of transitions FDDI encodes data values using only symbols that)J 78 410 :M 1.4 .14(have two, three, or four one-bits, and no more than two consecutive zero-bits. Other)J 78 428 :M .093 .009(symbols are either declared invalid and not used, or are used for special control functions,)J 78 446 :M .143 .014(such as error signalling and packet framing. Table 3)J 329 446 :M .148 .015( shows the meanings assigned to each)J 78 464 :M (of the 32 symbols.)S 78 494 :M (Framing in FDDI is performed using the following sequence:)S 78 524 :M 2.116 .212(Preamble \(16 Idle symbols\), Start Delimiter \(JK symbol\), Frame Control \(1 byte\),)J 78 542 :M 1.241 .124(Destination Address \(6 bytes\), Source Address \(6 bytes\), Payload \(up to 4478 bytes\),)J 78 560 :M (Frame Check Sequence \(4 bytes\), End Delimiter \(T symbol\), Frame Status \(3 symbols\).)S 78 590 :M 1.685 .169(FDDI data is transmitted over the physical medium using NRZI \(non return-to-zero)J 78 608 :M .627 .063(inverting\) encoding. NRZ means that the bits are transmitted continuously without gaps)J 78 626 :M .264 .026(between them \321 there is no pause between bits where the signal returns to zero. NRZI is)J 78 644 :M 1.067 .107(a modified form of NRZ where a one-bit is transmitted by inverting the output, and a)J 78 662 :M (zero-bit is transmitted by leaving the output unchanged [Sta94].)S endp showpage %%Page: 48 48 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 48 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 30 \321)S 73 41 51 17 rC 83 53 :M (Symbol)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 53 :M f165 sf (Meaning)S 268 41 50 17 rC 277 53 :M (Symbol)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 53 :M f165 sf (Meaning)S 73 58 51 17 rC 90 70 :M (00000)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 70 :M f165 sf (Code: Quiet)S 268 58 50 17 rC 284 70 :M (10000)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 70 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused/Halt)S 73 75 51 17 rC 90 87 :M (00001)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 87 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused/Halt)S 268 75 50 17 rC 284 87 :M (10001)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 87 :M f165 sf (Code: K)S 73 92 51 17 rC 90 104 :M (00010)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 104 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused/Halt)S 268 92 50 17 rC 284 104 :M (10010)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 104 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x8)S 73 109 51 17 rC 90 121 :M (00011)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 121 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused)S 268 109 50 17 rC 284 121 :M (10011)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 121 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x9)S 73 126 51 17 rC 90 138 :M (00100)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 138 :M f165 sf (Code: Halt)S 268 126 50 17 rC 284 138 :M (10100)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 138 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x2)S 73 143 51 17 rC 90 155 :M (00101)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 155 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused)S 268 143 50 17 rC 284 155 :M (10101)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 155 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x3)S 73 160 51 17 rC 90 172 :M (00110)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 172 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused)S 268 160 50 17 rC 284 172 :M (10110)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 172 :M f165 sf (Data: 0xA)S 73 177 51 17 rC 90 189 :M (00111)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 189 :M f165 sf (Code: R \(Reset\))S 268 177 50 17 rC 284 189 :M (10111)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 189 :M f165 sf (Data: 0xB)S 73 194 51 17 rC 90 206 :M (01000)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 206 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused/Halt)S 268 194 50 17 rC 284 206 :M (11000)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 206 :M f165 sf (Code: J)S 73 211 51 17 rC 90 223 :M (01001)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 223 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x1)S 268 211 50 17 rC 284 223 :M (11001)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 223 :M f165 sf (Code: S \(Set\))S 73 228 51 17 rC 90 240 :M (01010)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 240 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x4)S 268 228 50 17 rC 284 240 :M (11010)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 240 :M f165 sf (Data: 0xC)S 73 245 51 17 rC 90 257 :M (01011)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 257 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x5)S 268 245 50 17 rC 284 257 :M (11011)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 257 :M f165 sf (Data: 0xD)S 73 262 51 17 rC 90 274 :M (01100)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 274 :M f165 sf (Code: Unused)S 268 262 50 17 rC 284 274 :M (11100)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 274 :M f165 sf (Data: 0xE)S 73 279 51 17 rC 90 291 :M (01101)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 291 :M f165 sf (Code: T)S 268 279 50 17 rC 284 291 :M (11101)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 291 :M f165 sf (Data: 0xF)S 73 296 51 17 rC 90 308 :M (01110)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 308 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x6)S 268 296 50 17 rC 284 308 :M (11110)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 308 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x0)S 73 313 51 17 rC 90 325 :M (01111)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 130 325 :M f165 sf (Data: 0x7)S 268 313 50 17 rC 284 325 :M (11111)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 325 325 :M f165 sf (Code: Idle)S 179 357 :M f318 sf (Table 3. 4b/5b Codes for FDDI)S 42 387 :M f165 sf .53 .053(The FDDI preamble consists of 16 Idle symbols, which results in a long unbroken burst)J 42 405 :M .221 .022(of ones to be transmitted, which causes the output to be inverted for every bit. This high-)J 42 423 :M .132 .013(frequency stream of on-off pulses enables the receiver to reliably synchronise its bit-level)J 42 441 :M .577 .058(clock to the transmitter, and also serves as an out-of-band signal to reset the state of the)J 42 459 :M .252 .025(receiver in preparation for receiving a new packet. This preamble is followed by the start)J 42 477 :M 1.07 .107(delimiter, which is symbol J \(11000\) followed by symbol K \(10001\), which gives the)J 42 495 :M .111 .011(binary sequence 1100010001. Not only is the start delimiter preceded by a long stream of)J 42 513 :M 1.113 .111(binary ones, which can never occur inadvertently in a stream of data symbols, the JK)J 42 531 :M .887 .089(sequence itself is also a pattern that can never appear inadvertently in a stream of data)J 42 549 :M .329 .033(symbols. For a mis-framed series of data symbols to masquerade as the start delimiter, it)J 42 567 :M (would have to contain one of the following four sequences:)S 199 591 :M f482 sf -.211(x1100 01000 1xxxx)A 199 615 :M -.211(xx110 00100 01xxx)A 199 639 :M -.211(xxx11 00010 001xx)A 199 663 :M -.211(xxxx1 10001 0001x)A endp showpage %%Page: 49 49 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 49 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 31 \321)S 78 56 :M 1.408 .141(The first three sequences can never occur in valid data, because they contain invalid)J 78 74 :M .663 .066(\(unused\) symbols, and the fourth contains the K symbol, which also can never occur in)J 78 92 :M .748 .075(the body of a valid data packet. Hence, any time the receiver detects the start delimiter)J 78 110 :M .815 .081(sequence 1100010001, it can discard any packet partially received up to that point and)J 78 128 :M .628 .063(enter a state in which it is ready to receive the next complete FDDI frame. The JK start)J 78 146 :M .475 .048(delimiter simultaneously provides bit-level framing to identify symbol boundaries in the)J 78 164 :M .288 .029(data stream, and symbol-level framing to identify where a new FDDI frame begins in the)J 78 182 :M 1.324 .132(symbol stream. At the bit-level this JK pair can be thought of as an in-band framing)J 78 200 :M .535 .054(signal, applied to a payload that has had a reversible data transformation applied to it to)J 78 218 :M .395 .039(eliminate any inadvertent occurrences of the in-band framing signal. Equivalently, at the)J 78 236 :M .453 .045(symbol level, FDDI framing can be thought of as an out-of-band framing signal, using a)J 78 254 :M (special reserved symbol which is not available to the higher layers.)S 128 300 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 301 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 287 @w 1.24 124 287.12 @c 121.24 125 287.12 @c 1.24 246 287.12 @c 246 287 1 1 rF 215.24 247 287.12 @c 1.24 462.12 287 @w 17.24 124.12 288 @w 246 288 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 288 @w 128 318 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 319 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 305 @w 124 305 122 1 rF 246 305 1 1 rF 247 305 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 305 @w 17.24 124.12 306 @w 246 306 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 306 @w 128 336 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 287 337 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 323 @w 124 323 122 1 rF 246 323 1 1 rF 247 323 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 323 @w 17.24 124.12 324 @w 246 324 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 324 @w 128 354 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 355 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 341 @w 124 341 122 1 rF 246 341 1 1 rF 247 341 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 341 @w 17.24 124.12 342 @w 246 342 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 342 @w 128 372 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 372 :M (Physical Signals)S .24 124.12 359 @w 124 359 122 1 rF 246 359 1 1 rF 247 359 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 359 @w 17.24 124.12 360 @w 246 360 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 360 @w 128 390 :M (Message Size)S 251 390 :M (Unlimited)S .24 124.12 377 @w 124 377 122 1 rF 246 377 1 1 rF 247 377 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 377 @w 17.24 124.12 378 @w 246 378 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 378 @w 128 408 :M (Overhead)S 251 412 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 412 :M f165 sf ( = 25%)S 323 412 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 280 bits)S .24 124.12 395 @w 124 395 122 1 rF 246 395 1 1 rF 247 395 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 395 @w 22.24 124.12 396 @w 1.24 124 418.12 @c 121.24 125 418.12 @c 246 396 1 22 rF 1.24 246 418.12 @c 215.24 247 418.12 @c 22.24 462.12 396 @w 163 446 :M f318 sf (Table 4. Summary of Framing Properties for FDDI)S endp showpage %%Page: 50 50 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 50 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 32 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.7.4)S f360 sf ( )S 73 68 :M f318 sf (Teletext)S 42 98 :M f165 sf .231 .023(Teletext [Vei83] is a transmission mechanism that encodes textual information in unused)J 42 116 :M .926 .093(scan lines of television signals. Data is transmitted in fixed size packets which usually)J 42 134 :M .159 .016(contain a single line of text to be displayed on the viewer\325s screen. There are a number of)J 42 152 :M .851 .085(variants of Teletext in use around the world, but a typical Teletext packet is formed as)J 42 170 :M 1.128 .113(follows: It begins with the television\325s horizontal scan line synchronization pulse, fol-)J 42 188 :M .119 .012(lowed by the analogue \324colour burst\325 information \(used for colour television pictures\), the)J 42 206 :M 1.056 .106(bit synchronization pattern \(16 bits of alternating 1s and 0s\), the byte synchronization)J 42 224 :M .646 .065(pattern \(e.g. 11100111\), a five-byte prefix \(header\) and then 40 bytes of data \(the text\).)J 42 242 :M .39 .039(The transmission is synchronous \321 there are no start/stop bits around each byte as there)J 42 260 :M .379 .038(are with RS-232 \(see below\), nor is there any need for any bit- or byte stuffing. The line)J 42 278 :M 1.728 .173(synchronization pulse, which always precedes the beginning of a new Teletext data)J 42 296 :M 1.457 .146(packet, is a negative pulse that goes below the normal \324black\325 level that may appear)J 42 314 :M 1.005 .101(anywhere within the image portion of any scan line. Thus Teletext is using an out-of-)J 42 332 :M (band signal to mark packet boundaries.)S 92 378 :M (In-Band Framing)S 215 379 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 365 @w 1.24 88 365.12 @c 121.24 89 365.12 @c 1.24 210 365.12 @c 210 365 1 1 rF 215.24 211 365.12 @c 1.24 426.12 365 @w 17.24 88.12 366 @w 210 366 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 366 @w 92 396 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 397 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 383 @w 88 383 122 1 rF 210 383 1 1 rF 211 383 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 383 @w 17.24 88.12 384 @w 210 384 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 384 @w 92 414 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 415 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 401 @w 88 401 122 1 rF 210 401 1 1 rF 211 401 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 401 @w 17.24 88.12 402 @w 210 402 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 402 @w 92 432 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 433 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 419 @w 88 419 122 1 rF 210 419 1 1 rF 211 419 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 419 @w 17.24 88.12 420 @w 210 420 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 420 @w 92 450 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 450 :M (Physical Signals)S .24 88.12 437 @w 88 437 122 1 rF 210 437 1 1 rF 211 437 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 437 @w 17.24 88.12 438 @w 210 438 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 438 @w 92 468 :M (Message Size)S 215 468 :M (Fixed \(one line of text\))S .24 88.12 455 @w 88 455 122 1 rF 210 455 1 1 rF 211 455 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 455 @w 17.24 88.12 456 @w 210 456 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 456 @w 92 486 :M (Overhead)S 215 490 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 490 :M f165 sf ( = 20%)S .24 88.12 473 @w 88 473 122 1 rF 210 473 1 1 rF 211 473 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 473 @w 22.24 88.12 474 @w 1.24 88 496.12 @c 121.24 89 496.12 @c 210 474 1 22 rF 1.24 210 496.12 @c 215.24 211 496.12 @c 22.24 426.12 474 @w 121 524 :M f318 sf (Table 5. Summary of Framing Properties for Teletext)S endp showpage %%Page: 51 51 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 51 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 33 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.7.5)S f360 sf ( )S 109 68 :M f318 sf (ISDN)S 78 98 :M f165 sf 1.299 .13(Although ISDN is often thought of as a single international standard, the term ISDN)J 78 116 :M .887 .089(actually encompasses a whole suite of protocol standards [Helg91]. In its full form, an)J 78 134 :M .777 .078(ISDN connection consists of a Local Exchange \(LE\) connected via local loop to a Net-)J 78 152 :M 1.639 .164(work Terminator-1 \(NT1\) device in the customer premises, connected to a Network)J 78 170 :M 1.523 .152(Terminator-2 \(NT2\) device, connected to a Terminal Adapter \(TA\) connected to the)J 78 188 :M .51 .051(customer\325s Terminal Equipment \(TE\). The interface between TE and TA is called the R)J 78 206 :M .923 .092(reference point; the interface between TA and NT2 is called the S reference point; the)J 78 224 :M .15 .015(interface between NT2 and NT1 is called the T reference point; and the interface between)J 78 242 :M (NT1 and LE is called the U reference point. This architecture is shown in )S 433 242 :M (Figure 2.)S .25 lw 121 269 347 30 rC 121.5 269.5 29 29 rS 123 271 26 26 rC 129 288 :M (T)S 136 288 :M (E)S gR .25 lw gS 121 269 347 30 rC 179.5 269.5 28 29 rS 181 271 25 26 rC 186 288 :M f165 sf (T)S 193 288 :M (A)S gR gS 121 269 347 30 rC 265.5 269.5 29 29 rS 267 271 26 26 rC 269 288 :M f165 sf (N)S 279 288 :M (T)S 285 288 :M (2)S gR gS 121 269 347 30 rC 323.5 269.5 28 29 rS 325 271 25 26 rC 327 288 :M f165 sf (N)S 337 288 :M (T)S 343 288 :M (1)S gR gS 121 269 347 30 rC 438.5 269.5 29 29 rS 440 271 26 26 rC 446 288 :M f165 sf (L)S 453 288 :M (E)S gR gS 121 269 347 30 rC 29.25 150 283.125 @c 58.25 207 283.125 @c 29.25 294 283.125 @c 87.25 351 283.125 @c 158 270 13 13 rC 160 279 :M f165 sf (R)S gR gS 230 270 13 13 rC 232 279 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS 302 270 13 13 rC 304 279 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS 388 270 14 13 rC 389 279 :M f165 sf (U)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 165 326 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 202 326 :M (2. ISDN Terminology and Reference Points)S 78 386 :M (2.7.5.1)S f360 sf ( )S 118 386 :M f318 sf (ISDN \324R\325 Reference Point)S 78 416 :M f165 sf .571 .057(The ITU standards do not specify the R reference point, other than noting that it should)J 78 434 :M .683 .068(use the protocol appropriate for communicating with the attached Terminal Equipment,)J 78 452 :M .905 .091(usually RS-232. These days, when the attached device is more likely to be a computer)J 78 470 :M .969 .097(than a teletypewriter or dumb terminal, 10Base-T Ethernet is a better choice for the R)J 78 488 :M (reference point protocol.)S 78 518 :M f318 sf (2.7.5.2)S f360 sf ( )S 118 518 :M f318 sf (ISDN \324S\325 Reference Point)S 78 548 :M f165 sf 1.711 .171(The S reference point defines a local communications protocol within the customer)J 78 566 :M .727 .073(premises. The S reference point uses pseudoternary encoding, also known as bipolar or)J 78 584 :M .242 .024(modified alternate mark inversion encoding [Bea90]. Pseudoternary encoding is a bipolar)J 78 602 :M .526 .053(\(three-state\) encoding protocol where one-bits are encoded as zero volts on the line, and)J 78 620 :M .307 .031(zero-bits are encoded alternately as positive and negative pulses. This alternating voltage)J 78 638 :M .244 .024(encoding maintains the line\325s DC balance \(no net DC current\) which gives it good signal)J 78 656 :M 1.344 .134(properties, such as the ability to pass through transformer couplings. Long strings of)J endp showpage %%Page: 52 52 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 52 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 34 \321)S 42 56 :M .943 .094(zero-bits encode as alternating positive and negative pulses which give regular voltage)J 42 74 :M 1.134 .113(transitions for the receiver to synchronize on, but long strings of one-bits result in no)J 42 92 :M .817 .082(activity on the wire, which can cause the receiver to drift and lose bit-synchronization.)J 42 110 :M 1.503 .15(The S reference point avoids this problem by placing framing bits and other control)J 42 128 :M .738 .074(information after every eight-bits of user data, thereby limiting the time that can elapse)J 42 146 :M .024 .002(without any transitions on the wire. The framing is performed using a bipolar violation \321)J 42 164 :M .4 .04(two consecutive voltage pulses with the same sign. Since this pattern of signals is illegal)J 42 182 :M .297 .03(for normal data, this framing signal cannot occur inadvertently in the data stream, so this)J 42 200 :M (is an out-of-band framing mech)S 194 200 :M (anism.)S 42 230 :M .065 .006(Each frame consists of 48 bits, containing two eight-bit samples each from the B1 and B2)J 42 248 :M 1.546 .155(data channels, four bits of data from the D channel, and twelve other overhead bits,)J 42 266 :M .189 .019(including framing bits. Since in practice the 16kb/sec D channel is not used, this gives us)J 42 284 :M (32 bits of user-data and 16 bits of overhead per frame.)S 92 330 :M (In-Band Framing)S 215 331 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 317 @w 1.24 88 317.12 @c 121.24 89 317.12 @c 1.24 210 317.12 @c 210 317 1 1 rF 215.24 211 317.12 @c 1.24 426.12 317 @w 17.24 88.12 318 @w 210 318 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 318 @w 92 348 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 349 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 335 @w 88 335 122 1 rF 210 335 1 1 rF 211 335 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 335 @w 17.24 88.12 336 @w 210 336 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 336 @w 92 366 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 367 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 353 @w 88 353 122 1 rF 210 353 1 1 rF 211 353 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 353 @w 17.24 88.12 354 @w 210 354 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 354 @w 92 384 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 385 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 371 @w 88 371 122 1 rF 210 371 1 1 rF 211 371 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 371 @w 17.24 88.12 372 @w 210 372 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 372 @w 92 402 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 402 :M (Physical Signals)S .24 88.12 389 @w 88 389 122 1 rF 210 389 1 1 rF 211 389 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 389 @w 17.24 88.12 390 @w 210 390 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 390 @w 92 420 :M (Message Size)S 211 407 215 18 rC 215 420 :M (Fixed \(32 bits; four samples of 8 bits each\))S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw .24 88.12 407 @w 88 407 122 1 rF 210 407 1 1 rF 211 407 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 407 @w 17.24 88.12 408 @w 210 408 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 408 @w 92 438 :M f165 sf (Overhead)S 215 442 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 442 :M f165 sf ( = 50%)S .24 88.12 425 @w 88 425 122 1 rF 210 425 1 1 rF 211 425 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 425 @w 22.24 88.12 426 @w 1.24 88 448.12 @c 121.24 89 448.12 @c 210 426 1 22 rF 1.24 210 448.12 @c 215.24 211 448.12 @c 22.24 426.12 426 @w 76 476 :M f318 sf (Table 6. Summary of Framing Properties for ISDN \324S\325 Reference Point)S 42 536 :M (2.7.5.3)S f360 sf ( )S 82 536 :M f318 sf (ISDN \324T\325 Reference Point)S 42 566 :M f165 sf .984 .098(In most cases the NT1 and NT2 are combined into a single device, so the T reference)J 42 584 :M .555 .055(point has become redundant. When it does exist as a separate interface, it uses the same)J 42 602 :M (framing structure as the \324S\325 Reference Point [Sta95].)S endp showpage %%Page: 53 53 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 53 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 35 \321)S 78 56 :M f318 sf (2.7.5.4)S f360 sf ( )S 118 56 :M f318 sf (ISDN \324U\325 Reference Point)S 78 86 :M f165 sf 1.463 .146(The ITU standards also do not specify details of the U reference point [Kes96]. The)J 78 104 :M .642 .064(assumption in Europe was that the NT1 would be owned and operated by the telephone)J 78 122 :M .136 .014(company, so the details of how it interfaced with the LE would be of concern only to that)J 78 140 :M .839 .084(telephone company, and not subject to international standardization. The United States)J 78 158 :M 1.586 .159(government disagreed, wishing to promote competition and allow the subscriber the)J 78 176 :M (option of owning the NT1 if so desired [T1.601].)S 78 206 :M 1.529 .153(In the United States of America, ANSI defined a standard for the U reference point)J 78 224 :M .365 .037([T1.601]. The signalling scheme is called two binary, one quaternary \(2B1Q\). 2B1Q is a)J 78 242 :M .166 .017(four-level line code, with each quaternary symbol \(quat\) carrying two bits of information.)J 78 260 :M 1.335 .134(Framing is performed using a nine quat \324synchronization word\325 which appears at the)J 78 278 :M .851 .085(beginning of each frame. Representing the four quat values by \3203, \3201, +1, +3, the syn-)J 78 296 :M 1.042 .104(chronization word is the sequence +3 +3 \3203 \3203 \3203 +3 \3203 +3 +3. This synchronization)J 78 314 :M .945 .094(word is an in-band framing signal. No measures are taken to ensure that this sequence)J 78 332 :M .641 .064(does not inadvertently appear in the data payload, making this framing error prone, and)J 78 350 :M .555 .055(potentially vulnerable to malicious attack. Also, this encoding is not guaranteed to have)J 78 368 :M .288 .029(good DC balance. The ITU standards specify a scrambling procedure to be applied to the)J 78 386 :M .578 .058(data in an attempt to circumvent these problems. While this makes pathological packets)J 78 404 :M .636 .064(harder to construct deliberately, it does not fundamentally alter the fact that such patho-)J 78 422 :M (logical packets do still exist.)S 78 452 :M .315 .031(Following the nine quat \(18 bit\) synchronization word, there are 216 data bits containing)J 78 470 :M .477 .048(96 bits from each B channel and 24 bits of D channel information, followed by 6 bits of)J 78 488 :M 1.209 .121(the M \(network maintenance\) channel, making a total of 240 bits per frame. Since in)J 78 506 :M .11 .011(practice the 16kb/sec D channel is not used, this gives us 192 bits of user-data and 48 bits)J 78 524 :M (of overhead per frame, a 25% overhead.)S endp showpage %%Page: 54 54 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 54 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 36 \321)S 92 54 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 55 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 41 @w 1.24 88 41.12 @c 121.24 89 41.12 @c 1.24 210 41.12 @c 210 41 1 1 rF 215.24 211 41.12 @c 1.24 426.12 41 @w 17.24 88.12 42 @w 210 42 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 42 @w 92 72 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 73 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 59 @w 88 59 122 1 rF 210 59 1 1 rF 211 59 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 59 @w 17.24 88.12 60 @w 210 60 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 60 @w 92 90 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 215 91 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 77 @w 88 77 122 1 rF 210 77 1 1 rF 211 77 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 77 @w 17.24 88.12 78 @w 210 78 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 78 @w 92 108 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 109 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 95 @w 88 95 122 1 rF 210 95 1 1 rF 211 95 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 95 @w 17.24 88.12 96 @w 210 96 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 96 @w 92 126 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 126 :M (Quats \(2 bits per symbol\))S .24 88.12 113 @w 88 113 122 1 rF 210 113 1 1 rF 211 113 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 113 @w 17.24 88.12 114 @w 210 114 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 114 @w 92 144 :M (Message Size)S 215 144 :M (Fixed \(192 bits\))S .24 88.12 131 @w 88 131 122 1 rF 210 131 1 1 rF 211 131 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 131 @w 17.24 88.12 132 @w 210 132 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 132 @w 92 162 :M (Overhead)S 215 166 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 166 :M f165 sf ( = 25%)S .24 88.12 149 @w 88 149 122 1 rF 210 149 1 1 rF 211 149 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 149 @w 22.24 88.12 150 @w 1.24 88 172.12 @c 121.24 89 172.12 @c 210 150 1 22 rF 1.24 210 172.12 @c 215.24 211 172.12 @c 22.24 426.12 150 @w 63 200 :M f318 sf (Table 7. Summary of Framing Properties for U.S. ISDN \324U\325 Reference Point)S endp showpage %%Page: 55 55 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 55 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 37 \321)S 78 68 :M 1.181 .118(Outside the United States of America, a ternary encoding for the U reference point is)J 78 86 :M 1.277 .128(common [Kahl86]. Using MMS43 \(Modified Monitoring Sum / Modified Monitoring)J 78 104 :M 1.549 .155(State four binary three ternary\) groups of four binary digits are encoded using three)J 78 122 :M .561 .056(ternary symbols. Because three ternary symbols encode 27 different values, and only 16)J 78 140 :M .465 .047(are needed to encode four binary digits, this encoding has some redundancy. The encod-)J 78 158 :M .549 .055(ing is designed, taking advantage of that redundancy, to avoid sequences that have poor)J 78 176 :M 1.144 .114(DC balance. The eleven element Barker code +\312+\312+\312\320\312\320\312\320\312+\312\320\312\320\312+\312\320 is used as the sy)J 502 176 :M (n-)S 78 194 :M .161 .016(chronization word, and just as in the ANSI standard, no measures are taken to ensure that)J 78 212 :M .3 .03(this sequence does not inadvertently appear in the data payload. One might imagine that,)J 78 230 :M 1.839 .184(given the redundancy of the MMS43 encoding, the synchronization word would be)J 78 248 :M .653 .065(chosen to be one that could never appear as a result of encoding binary data, but this is)J 78 266 :M 2.227 .223(not the case. For example, the binary sequence 1100 1010 1100 1100 encodes as)J 78 284 :M (+\312+\312+\312+\312\320\312\320\312\320\312+\312\320\312\320\312+\312\320, which ina)S 241 284 :M (dvertently contains the synchronization word sequence.)S 78 314 :M .146 .015(Following the eleven element synchronization word, there are 216 data bits. The 216 data)J 78 332 :M .513 .051(bits are encoded using 162 ternary symbols, making a total of 173 ternary symbols. 216)J 78 350 :M .945 .095(data bits could be encoded using just 137 ternary symbols, meaning that this encoding)J 78 368 :M .603 .06(has an overhead of about 26.3%. However, this analysis ignores the factor that MMS43)J 78 386 :M 1.119 .112(encoding helps ensure DC balance, which is important. If we consider just the eleven)J 78 404 :M .896 .09(element synchronization word as overhead on 173 data symbols, this gives us an over)J 508 404 :M (-)S 78 422 :M (head of about 6.8%.)S 128 468 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 469 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 455 @w 1.24 124 455.12 @c 121.24 125 455.12 @c 1.24 246 455.12 @c 246 455 1 1 rF 215.24 247 455.12 @c 1.24 462.12 455 @w 17.24 124.12 456 @w 246 456 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 456 @w 128 486 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 487 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 473 @w 124 473 122 1 rF 246 473 1 1 rF 247 473 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 473 @w 17.24 124.12 474 @w 246 474 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 474 @w 128 504 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 505 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 124.12 491 @w 124 491 122 1 rF 246 491 1 1 rF 247 491 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 491 @w 17.24 124.12 492 @w 246 492 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 492 @w 128 522 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 523 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 509 @w 124 509 122 1 rF 246 509 1 1 rF 247 509 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 509 @w 17.24 124.12 510 @w 246 510 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 510 @w 128 540 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 540 :M (Bits)S .24 124.12 527 @w 124 527 122 1 rF 246 527 1 1 rF 247 527 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 527 @w 17.24 124.12 528 @w 246 528 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 528 @w 128 558 :M (Message Size)S 251 558 :M (Fixed \(192 bits\))S .24 124.12 545 @w 124 545 122 1 rF 246 545 1 1 rF 247 545 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 545 @w 17.24 124.12 546 @w 246 546 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 546 @w 128 576 :M (Overhead)S 251 580 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 580 :M f165 sf ( = 6.8%)S .24 124.12 563 @w 124 563 122 1 rF 246 563 1 1 rF 247 563 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 563 @w 22.24 124.12 564 @w 1.24 124 586.12 @c 121.24 125 586.12 @c 246 564 1 22 rF 1.24 246 586.12 @c 215.24 247 586.12 @c 22.24 462.12 564 @w 86 614 :M f318 sf (Table 8. Summary of Framing Properties for Non-U.S. ISDN \324U\325 Reference Point)S endp showpage %%Page: 56 56 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 56 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 38 \321)S 42 74 :M f318 sf (2.8)S f360 sf ( )S 69 74 :M f318 sf (Non-Transparent)S 69 92 :M (In-Band Framing Prot)S 185 92 :M (ocols)S 42 122 :M f165 sf (This section describes MPEG and T-1/AMI)S 42 140 :M (Framing.)S 42 170 :M f318 sf (2.8.1)S f360 sf ( )S 73 170 :M f318 sf (MPEG)S 42 200 :M f165 sf .8 .08(MPEG [ISO11172] is usually thought of as a video compression algorithm, but MPEG)J 42 218 :M 1.444 .144(was also designed to be used as a raw network protocol, even carrying other data in)J 42 236 :M (addition to audio and video frames.)S 42 266 :M .345 .034(MPEG frames its blocks using a start-of-block marker, and also has a length value in the)J 42 284 :M .876 .088(block header to indicate how long the block is. The start-of-block marker is three zero)J 42 302 :M .478 .048(bytes followed by a one-byte \324block designator\325 which indicates what kind of block it is)J 42 320 :M (\(video frame, audio frame, data frame, etc.\).)S 42 350 :M 1.778 .178(MPEG does not perform any kind of data stuffing to eliminate occurrences of zero)J 42 368 :M .603 .06(triplets from the data. Instead, the MPEG committee defined the MPEG video encoding)J 42 386 :M .359 .036(very carefully so that under no circumstances can three zero bytes ever appear anywhere)J 42 404 :M (in the body of an encoded video frame.)S 42 434 :M .108 .011(The issue of new receivers joining at arbitrary times is of particular importance to MPEG.)J 42 452 :M .563 .056(With satellite MPEG video broadcasts, new receivers join at arbitrary times and need to)J 42 470 :M .864 .086(be able to recognize where the next MPEG block begins in the transmission. They can)J 42 488 :M 1.355 .136(achieve this synchronization by observing the video data stream waiting for the next)J 42 506 :M 1.076 .108(appearance of three zeroes. Similarly, video CDs are simply a flat-file format with no)J 42 524 :M 1.454 .145(indexing to indicate where each MPEG data block begins on the disk. To perform a)J 42 542 :M .725 .073(random access seek to some place within the MPEG file, it is necessary first to seek to)J 42 560 :M .102 .01(some arbitrary location within the file and then to search linearly forward to find the three)J 42 578 :M (zeroes that indicate the beginning of the next video block [May96].)S 42 608 :M 1.11 .111(Unfortunately, while the MPEG committee defined the MPEG video encoding so that)J 42 626 :M .492 .049(three zero bytes never appear in the body of a video frame, they did not do the same for)J 42 644 :M .499 .05(audio blocks. In practice, it turns out that spurious occurrences of three zero bytes occur)J 42 662 :M .386 .039(surprisingly often in audio blocks [May96]. In audio-only MPEG streams the problem is)J 254 41 220 101 rC 254.5 69.5 56 15 rS 255 70 56 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 396.573 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 405.655 118.159 :M (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 411.71 118.159 :M (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 414.737 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 417.764 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 426.846 118.159 :M (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 429.873 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 434.414 118.159 :M (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 441.982 118.159 :M (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 446.523 118.159 :M (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 452.578 118.159 :M (d)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 354.5 69.5 57 15 rS 354 70 57 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 558.533 118.159 :M f165 sf (I)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 563.073 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 569.128 118.159 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 573.669 118.159 :M f165 sf (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 581.237 118.159 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 585.778 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 591.833 118.159 :M f165 sf (d)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 297.5 41.5 66 14 rS 298 42 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 455.605 75.743 :M f165 sf (F)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 463.173 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 467.714 75.743 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 472.255 75.743 :M f165 sf (m)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 481.337 75.743 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 484.364 75.743 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 490.419 75.743 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 496.473 75.743 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 499.501 75.743 :M f165 sf (P)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 505.555 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 510.096 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 516.151 75.743 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 519.178 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 525.233 75.743 :M f165 sf (c)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 529.773 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 535.828 75.743 :M f165 sf (l)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 538.855 75.743 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gR .8 G gS 254 41 220 101 rC 311 98 67 14 rF 0 G 311.5 98.5 66 14 rS 311 98 67 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 479.823 162.09 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 488.905 162.09 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 494.96 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 501.014 162.09 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 505.555 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 511.61 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 516.151 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 520.692 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 526.746 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 532.801 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 538.855 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 543.396 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 547.937 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 552.478 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 558.533 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR 0 G gS 254 41 220 101 rC 387.5 98.5 66 14 rS 388 98 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 608.483 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 616.051 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 620.592 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 625.133 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 631.187 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 635.728 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 641.783 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 647.837 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 650.864 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 656.919 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 661.46 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 368.5 127.5 48 13 rS 369 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 564.587 206.021 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 573.669 206.021 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 579.723 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 582.751 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 590.319 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 593.346 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 599.401 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 603.942 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 606.969 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 609.996 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 616.051 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC 425.5 127.5 47 13 rS 426 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 647.837 206.021 :M f165 sf (D)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 656.919 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 661.46 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 664.487 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 669.028 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 672.055 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 679.624 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 682.651 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 688.705 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 691.733 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 696.274 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 699.301 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 705.355 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR gS 254 41 220 101 rC -1 -1 283 70 1 1 330 56 @b 330 57 -1 1 383 69 1 330 56 @a -1 -1 346 99 1 1 382 84 @b -1 -1 393 128 1 1 420 112 @b 382 85 -1 1 421 98 1 382 84 @a 420 113 -1 1 450 127 1 420 112 @a endp showpage %%Page: 57 57 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 57 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 39 \321)S 78 56 :M 1.271 .127(especially acute. Simply detecting a sequence of three zero bytes does not give suffi-)J 78 74 :M 1.105 .111(ciently high confidence for the MPEG player to begin decoding immediately. To sy)J 502 74 :M (n-)S 78 92 :M .077 .008(chronize reliably, the MPEG player must not only find a sequence of three zero bytes, but)J 78 110 :M .375 .037(it must also read the length from the block header, read that entire block, and then exam-)J 78 128 :M .366 .037(ine the following block as well to see if that one also looks valid. Only then does it have)J 78 146 :M 1.299 .13(sufficiently high confidence that it has really decoded the MPEG data correctly. This)J 78 164 :M .272 .027(reading ahead requires extra memory buffers \(MPEG blocks can be up to 64kbytes each\))J 78 182 :M .203 .02(and takes extra time. In demanding applications it may be necessary to read ahead two or)J 78 200 :M .665 .066(three or even more blocks to get the required confidence, and even then there is still no)J 78 218 :M 1.59 .159(guarantee that the data is decoded correctly. There may be a whole stream of audio)J 78 236 :M 1.143 .114(blocks where an accidental run of zeros occurs in an unfortunate location within each)J 78 254 :M (block.)S 128 300 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 301 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 287 @w 1.24 124 287.12 @c 121.24 125 287.12 @c 1.24 246 287.12 @c 246 287 1 1 rF 215.24 247 287.12 @c 1.24 462.12 287 @w 17.24 124.12 288 @w 246 288 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 288 @w 128 318 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 319 :M f543 sf (8)S 262 319 :M f165 sf (*)S .24 124.12 305 @w 124 305 122 1 rF 246 305 1 1 rF 247 305 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 305 @w 18.24 124.12 306 @w 246 306 1 18 rF 18.24 462.12 306 @w 128 337 :M (Reliability)S 251 338 :M f543 sf (8)S 262 338 :M f165 sf (*)S .24 124.12 324 @w 124 324 122 1 rF 246 324 1 1 rF 247 324 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 324 @w 18.24 124.12 325 @w 246 325 1 18 rF 18.24 462.12 325 @w 128 356 :M (Locality)S 251 357 :M f543 sf (8)S 262 357 :M f165 sf (*)S .24 124.12 343 @w 124 343 122 1 rF 246 343 1 1 rF 247 343 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 343 @w 18.24 124.12 344 @w 246 344 1 18 rF 18.24 462.12 344 @w 128 375 :M (Underlying Unit)S 251 375 :M (Bytes)S .24 124.12 362 @w 124 362 122 1 rF 246 362 1 1 rF 247 362 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 362 @w 17.24 124.12 363 @w 246 363 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 363 @w 128 393 :M (Message Size)S 251 393 :M (Unlimited)S .24 124.12 380 @w 124 380 122 1 rF 246 380 1 1 rF 247 380 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 380 @w 17.24 124.12 381 @w 246 381 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 381 @w 128 411 :M (Overhead)S 251 415 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 415 :M f165 sf ( = 0%)S 323 415 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 32 bits)S .24 124.12 398 @w 124 398 122 1 rF 246 398 1 1 rF 247 398 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 398 @w 22.24 124.12 399 @w 1.24 124 421.12 @c 121.24 125 421.12 @c 246 399 1 22 rF 1.24 246 421.12 @c 215.24 247 421.12 @c 22.24 462.12 399 @w 160 449 :M f318 sf (Table 9. Summary of Framing Properties for MPEG)S 114 479 :M f165 sf .12 .012(* If MPEG data is not allowed to contain runs of three zeroes, then MPEG)J 114 497 :M .301 .03(framing is not transparent. If the data does happen to contain runs of three)J 114 515 :M .687 .069(zeroes, as audio blocks do, then MPEG framing is not reliable. If greater)J 114 533 :M .846 .085(reliability is to be achieved by making the framing algorithm look many)J 114 551 :M 1.311 .131(blocks into the future to get a reasonably high statistical confidence of)J 114 569 :M (proper framing, then MPEG framing lacks locality.)S endp showpage %%Page: 58 58 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 58 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 40 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.8.2)S f360 sf ( )S 73 68 :M f318 sf (T-1 / D4 Framing with AMI Line Coding)S 42 98 :M f165 sf .036 .004(Like \324ISDN\325, the term T-1, as it is commonly used, actually encompasses a whole suite of)J 42 116 :M 1.36 .136(standards. Strictly speaking, the term T-1 means just an unstructured full-duplex bit-)J 42 134 :M 1.606 .161(stream at a rate of 1.544Mb/sec running over two twisted pairs of copper wire. The)J 42 152 :M .7 .07(interface that is presented to the user of the T-1 service is called DS-1 \(\324Digital Signal,)J 42 170 :M .267 .027(level 1\325\) [Sta95]. The DS-1 service provides the user with 24 separate \324channels\325 of data,)J 42 188 :M .542 .054(which, in conventional use, correspond to 24 separate telephone calls. The DS-1 service)J 42 206 :M .613 .061(aggregates data from the 24 channels into fixed size frames which are sent over the T-1)J 42 224 :M .585 .059(line. Each frame consists of a single framing bit, and eight bits of data from each of the)J 42 242 :M .64 .064(24 channels, making a total of 193 bits. In some cases all eight bits of data per channel)J 42 260 :M 1.05 .105(are available for user data, giving a total usable transmission rate of 1.536 Mb/sec. In)J 42 278 :M .977 .098(older systems, only seven bits of data per channel are available for user data, giving a)J 42 296 :M .151 .015(usable transmission rate of only 1.344 Mb/sec. Two common ways of providing the DS-1)J 42 314 :M 1.704 .17(service over a T-1 line are \324D4\325 framing with AMI \(Alternate Mark Inversion\) line)J 42 332 :M 1.924 .192(coding, and ESF \(Extended Superframe\) framing with B8ZS \(Bipolar with 8-Zeros)J 42 350 :M (Substitution\) line coding [Mauf97].)S 42 380 :M .537 .054(In the simplest DS-1 framing, the framing bit is alternately a one-bit and then a zero-bit)J 42 398 :M .31 .031(in each successive frame [Mil87]. This alternating pattern is uniquely recognizable in the)J 42 416 :M .486 .049(telephone system, because for any of the voice channels in the DS-1 frame to generate a)J 42 434 :M .225 .022(pattern of alternating ones and zeroes in successive samples, it would have to be carrying)J 42 452 :M .793 .079(an audio tone of exactly 4kHz, and that is not possible because the analogue telephone)J 42 470 :M .343 .034(system filters out all tones of 3.4kHz or higher [Kes96,p18]. In the analogue context this)J 42 488 :M .6 .06(alternating zero/one pattern is an out-of-band framing signal. With the increasing use of)J 42 506 :M 1.537 .154(computer communications, this assumption is no longer safe. A computer can easily)J 42 524 :M .2 .02(generate any sequence of binary digits it desires, so in the digital context the T-1 framing)J 42 542 :M .684 .068(protocol is an in-band framing signal that could quite easily be mimicked by the traffic)J 42 560 :M (being carried.)S 42 590 :M .929 .093(In D4 framing, 12 basic frames are grouped into a \324superframe\325 [Held91]. Rather than)J 42 608 :M .086 .009(simply alternating between ones and zeros, the framing pattern for a 12-frame superframe)J 42 626 :M .551 .055(is the sequence 100010011101 \(sometimes described as being the sequence 101010 and)J 42 644 :M .207 .021(the sequence 000111 interleaved\). Just as with basic DS-1 framing, there is no protection)J 42 662 :M (against this framing pattern inadvertently appearing within the data of the frame.)S endp showpage %%Page: 59 59 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 59 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 41 \321)S 78 56 :M .228 .023(Alternate Mark Inversion encoding is a bipolar \(three-state\) line code where zero-bits are)J 78 74 :M 1.024 .102(encoded as zero volts on the line, and one-bits are encoded alternately as positive and)J 78 92 :M .864 .086(negative pulses. This alternating voltage encoding maintains the line\325s DC balance \(no)J 78 110 :M .371 .037(net DC current\) which gives it good signal properties, such as the ability to pass through)J 78 128 :M .632 .063(transformer couplings. Long strings of one-bits encode as alternating positive and neg)J 503 128 :M (a-)S 78 146 :M .555 .056(tive pulses which give regular voltage transitions for the receiver to synchronize on, but)J 78 164 :M .418 .042(long strings of zero-bits result in no activity on the wire, which can cause the receiver to)J 78 182 :M 1.455 .146(drift and lose bit-synchronization. For this reason, two rules must be followed when)J 78 200 :M .034 .003(sending data over a T-1 line using D4/AMI: there must never be more than 15 zero-bits in)J 78 218 :M .803 .08(a row, and in any sequence of 8)J 238 218 :M f243 sf .352(n)A f165 sf .781 .078( data bits there must be at least )J 405 218 :M f243 sf .201(n)A f165 sf .648 .065(\3201 one-bits. For this)J 78 236 :M .626 .063(condition to be satisfied it is sufficient to enforce a simpler channel-level constraint: no)J 78 254 :M 1.137 .114(channel may contain the value zero. If no channel contains the value zero, then every)J 78 272 :M .031 .003(channel must contain a value that has at least one bit set. If every channel contains at least)J 78 290 :M .665 .066(one one-bit, then it can contain at most seven zero-bits, and there can never be a run of)J 78 308 :M .549 .055(more than 14 zero-bits in a row, and the overall number of one-bits in the data will also)J 78 326 :M .715 .071(be sufficient. When sending audio data \(telephone calls\) this channel-level constraint is)J 78 344 :M .037 .004(easily met by simply setting the least-significant bit of any channel that contains the value)J 78 362 :M 1.29 .129(zero \(i.e. changing the byte value from 0 to 1\). This conversion of channels with the)J 78 380 :M .512 .051(value 0 to the value 1 imperceptibly degrades the audio quality, but ensures that the T-1)J 78 398 :M .875 .088(transmission rules are not violated. For computer data, this simplistic corruption of the)J 78 416 :M .59 .059(transmitted data is not acceptable, so it is common when using D4/AMI that only seven)J 78 434 :M .753 .075(of the eight bits in each channel are available for user data; the network interface hard-)J 78 452 :M .457 .046(ware \(CSU\) is able to set the least-significant bit of each channel to one, if necessary, to)J 78 470 :M (ensure that the above condition is satisfied [Held91].)S endp showpage %%Page: 60 60 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 60 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 42 \321)S 92 54 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 55 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 41 @w 1.24 88 41.12 @c 121.24 89 41.12 @c 1.24 210 41.12 @c 210 41 1 1 rF 215.24 211 41.12 @c 1.24 426.12 41 @w 17.24 88.12 42 @w 210 42 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 42 @w 92 72 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 215 73 :M f543 sf (8)S 226 73 :M f165 sf ( \(data must not violate AMI rules\)*)S .24 88.12 59 @w 88 59 122 1 rF 210 59 1 1 rF 211 59 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 59 @w 18.24 88.12 60 @w 210 60 1 18 rF 18.24 426.12 60 @w 92 91 :M (Reliability)S 215 92 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 78 @w 88 78 122 1 rF 210 78 1 1 rF 211 78 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 78 @w 17.24 88.12 79 @w 210 79 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 79 @w 92 109 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 215 110 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 96 @w 88 96 122 1 rF 210 96 1 1 rF 211 96 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 96 @w 17.24 88.12 97 @w 210 97 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 97 @w 92 127 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 127 :M (Bits)S .24 88.12 114 @w 88 114 122 1 rF 210 114 1 1 rF 211 114 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 114 @w 17.24 88.12 115 @w 210 115 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 115 @w 92 145 :M (Message Size)S 215 145 :M (Fixed \(192 bits\))S .24 88.12 132 @w 88 132 122 1 rF 210 132 1 1 rF 211 132 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 132 @w 17.24 88.12 133 @w 210 133 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 133 @w 92 163 :M (Overhead)S 215 167 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 167 :M f165 sf ( = 0.52%)S .24 88.12 150 @w 88 150 122 1 rF 210 150 1 1 rF 211 150 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 150 @w 22.24 88.12 151 @w 1.24 88 173.12 @c 121.24 89 173.12 @c 210 151 1 22 rF 1.24 210 173.12 @c 215.24 211 173.12 @c 22.24 426.12 151 @w 48 201 :M f318 sf (Table 10. Summary of Framing Properties for D4 Framing with AMI Line Coding)S 78 231 :M f165 sf .457 .046(* When adopting the convention that only seven of the eight bits per byte)J 78 249 :M 1.47 .147(may contain user data, D4 Framing with AMI Line Coding gains data)J 78 267 :M (transparency, but the overhead increases from 0.52% to 14.88%.)S 78 297 :M .868 .087(It is also arguable that there is some additional degree of inefficiency in)J 78 315 :M .296 .03(the fact that the line is capable of signalling tri-state information, but each)J 78 333 :M .507 .051(tri-state signal is only being used to communicate a bi-state \(binary\) sym-)J 78 351 :M .779 .078(bol of information. The exact extent of this inefficiency is debatable, be-)J 78 369 :M .6 .06(cause the need for DC balance and clock recovery means that every sym-)J 78 387 :M .284 .028(bol cannot be chosen without constraint from the ternary alphabet in order)J 78 405 :M .609 .061(to communicate log)J f497 sf 0 3 rm (2)S 0 -3 rm 179 405 :M f165 sf .744 .074(\(3\) bits of information per symbol. However, the a)J 432 405 :M (r)S 436 405 :M (-)S 78 423 :M .442 .044(gument that on most lines there is some additional signalling capacity u)J 430 423 :M (n-)S 78 441 :M 1.214 .121(tapped by D4/AMI is supported by the fact that on the same lines ESF)J 78 459 :M 1.132 .113(Framing with B8ZS Line Coding \(below\) is able to provide transparent)J 78 477 :M (communication without having to discard one bit in eight.)S endp showpage %%Page: 61 61 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 61 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 43 \321)S 78 74 :M f318 sf (2.9)S f360 sf ( )S 105 74 :M f318 sf (Transparent In-Band Framing)S 105 92 :M (Protocols Without Data Stuffing)S 78 122 :M f165 sf (This section describes T-1/B8ZS,)S 78 140 :M (T-1/Verilink, Baudot Code, RS232,)S 78 158 :M (SONET, Cambridge Ring, RATP,)S 78 176 :M (DDCMP, XMODEM and YMODEM.)S 78 206 :M .681 .068(Because these protocols perform no data stuffing, they have no component of overhead)J 78 224 :M 1.329 .133(that varies with packet size, and no component of overhead that varies depending on)J 78 242 :M .377 .038(packet contents. However, they all add some header information to every data packet, so)J 78 260 :M .473 .047(they all do have overhead. For the protocols that use fixed-size packets, this overhead is)J 78 278 :M .889 .089(expressed as the percentage )J 220 278 :M f398 sf (a)S 228 278 :M f165 sf .975 .097( of the packet size, and for the protocols that allow vari-)J 78 296 :M (able-size packets, this overhead is expressed as a constant overhead )S 406 296 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf (.)S 78 326 :M f318 sf (2.9.1)S f360 sf ( )S 109 326 :M f318 sf (T-1 / ESF Framing with B8ZS Line Coding)S 78 356 :M f165 sf 1.627 .163(The T-1 non-transparent AMI framing mechanism described above has largely been)J 78 374 :M .96 .096(supplanted by a newer transparent framing mechanism called ESF/B8ZS. An extended)J 78 392 :M 1.525 .152(superframe \(ESF\) is 24 consecutive 193-bit DS-1 frames [Held91]. The sequence of)J 78 410 :M (framing bits is:)S 130 440 :M f482 sf -.203(d c d 0 d c d 0 d c d 1 d c d 0 d c d 1 d c d 1)A 78 470 :M f165 sf .14 .014(The \324d\325 bits are used by the telephone company to perform network monitoring, set alarm)J 78 488 :M .103 .01(conditions, and perform other control operations. The \324c\325 bits contain a cyclic redundancy)J 78 506 :M .607 .061(check sequence. Only 6 bits out of 24 have fixed values in order to facilitate synchron)J 505 506 :M (i-)S 78 524 :M 1.189 .119(zation of the receiver with the sender. As with D4, no precautions are taken to guard)J 78 542 :M .389 .039(against this pattern appearing in the data stream. Furthermore, since some of the framing)J 78 560 :M 1.266 .127(bits are now used to carry network management control information, if the user does)J 78 578 :M .431 .043(construct a pathological pattern that inhibits re-synchronization after an error, the user is)J 78 596 :M 1.627 .163(also able to deliberately send data that masquerades as \324d\325 bits, thereby taking over)J 78 614 :M (control of that part the telephone system\325s switching fabric.)S 78 644 :M 1.159 .116(B8ZS is a bipolar line code like AMI, but with one significant difference. Like AMI,)J 78 662 :M .989 .099(zero-bits are encoded as zero volts on the line, and one-bits are encoded alternately as)J 290 41 220 101 rC 290.5 69.5 56 15 rS 291 70 56 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 451.064 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 460.146 118.159 :M (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 466.201 118.159 :M (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 469.228 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 472.255 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 481.337 118.159 :M (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 484.364 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 488.905 118.159 :M (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 496.473 118.159 :M (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 501.014 118.159 :M (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 507.069 118.159 :M (d)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 390.5 69.5 57 15 rS 390 70 57 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 613.024 118.159 :M f165 sf (I)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 617.564 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 623.619 118.159 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 628.16 118.159 :M f165 sf (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 635.728 118.159 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 640.269 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 646.324 118.159 :M f165 sf (d)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 333.5 41.5 66 14 rS 334 42 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 510.096 75.743 :M f165 sf (F)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 517.664 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 522.205 75.743 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 526.746 75.743 :M f165 sf (m)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 535.828 75.743 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 538.855 75.743 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 544.91 75.743 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 550.964 75.743 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 553.992 75.743 :M f165 sf (P)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 560.046 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 564.587 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 570.642 75.743 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 573.669 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 579.723 75.743 :M f165 sf (c)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 584.264 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 590.319 75.743 :M f165 sf (l)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 593.346 75.743 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 347.5 98.5 66 14 rS 347 98 67 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 534.314 162.09 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 543.396 162.09 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 549.451 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 555.505 162.09 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 560.046 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 566.101 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 570.642 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 575.183 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 581.237 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 587.292 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 593.346 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 597.887 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 602.428 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 606.969 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 613.024 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 423.5 98.5 66 14 rS 424 98 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 662.974 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 670.542 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 675.083 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 679.624 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 685.678 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 690.219 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 696.274 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 702.328 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 705.355 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 711.41 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 715.951 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR .8 G gS 290 41 220 101 rC 405 127 47 14 rF 0 G 404.5 127.5 48 13 rS 405 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 619.078 206.021 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 628.16 206.021 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 634.214 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 637.242 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 644.81 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 647.837 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 653.892 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 658.433 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 661.46 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 664.487 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 670.542 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR 0 G gS 290 41 220 101 rC 461.5 127.5 47 13 rS 462 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 702.328 206.021 :M f165 sf (D)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 711.41 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 715.951 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 718.978 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 723.519 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 726.546 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 734.115 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 737.142 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 743.196 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 746.224 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 750.765 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 753.792 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 759.846 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC -1 -1 319 70 1 1 366 56 @b 366 57 -1 1 419 69 1 366 56 @a -1 -1 382 99 1 1 418 84 @b -1 -1 429 128 1 1 456 112 @b 418 85 -1 1 457 98 1 418 84 @a 456 113 -1 1 486 127 1 456 112 @a endp showpage %%Page: 62 62 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 62 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 44 \321)S 42 56 :M .513 .051(positive and negative pulses. The difference is that in AMI long runs of zeroes cause no)J 42 74 :M 1.464 .146(signal on the line, potentially causing the receiver to lose bit-synchronization. B8ZS)J 42 92 :M 1.563 .156(avoids this problem by having an explicit encoding for a run of eight zeroes. B8ZS)J 42 110 :M (encodes a run of eight zeroes using the sequence:)S 78 140 :M (0 0 0 + \320 0 \320 + \(if the last one-bit was sent as a + signal\), or)S 78 170 :M (0 0 0 \320 + 0 + \320 \(if the last one-bit was sent as a \320 signal\).)S 42 200 :M 1.597 .16(Because the voltage pulses are normally supposed to alternate between positive and)J 42 218 :M 1.651 .165(negative, the receiver detects this double protocol violation and recognizes it as the)J 42 236 :M (special \324eight zeroes\325 code [Sta95].)S 92 282 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 283 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 269 @w 1.24 88 269.12 @c 121.24 89 269.12 @c 1.24 210 269.12 @c 210 269 1 1 rF 215.24 211 269.12 @c 1.24 426.12 269 @w 17.24 88.12 270 @w 210 270 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 270 @w 92 300 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 301 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 287 @w 88 287 122 1 rF 210 287 1 1 rF 211 287 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 287 @w 17.24 88.12 288 @w 210 288 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 288 @w 92 318 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 215 319 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 305 @w 88 305 122 1 rF 210 305 1 1 rF 211 305 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 305 @w 17.24 88.12 306 @w 210 306 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 306 @w 92 336 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 215 337 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 323 @w 88 323 122 1 rF 210 323 1 1 rF 211 323 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 323 @w 17.24 88.12 324 @w 210 324 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 324 @w 92 354 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 354 :M (Bits)S .24 88.12 341 @w 88 341 122 1 rF 210 341 1 1 rF 211 341 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 341 @w 17.24 88.12 342 @w 210 342 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 342 @w 92 372 :M (Message Size)S 215 372 :M (Fixed \(192 bits\))S .24 88.12 359 @w 88 359 122 1 rF 210 359 1 1 rF 211 359 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 359 @w 17.24 88.12 360 @w 210 360 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 360 @w 92 390 :M (Overhead)S 215 394 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 394 :M f165 sf ( = 0.52%)S .24 88.12 377 @w 88 377 122 1 rF 210 377 1 1 rF 211 377 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 377 @w 22.24 88.12 378 @w 1.24 88 400.12 @c 121.24 89 400.12 @c 210 378 1 22 rF 1.24 210 400.12 @c 215.24 211 400.12 @c 22.24 426.12 378 @w 66 428 :M f318 sf (Table 11. Summary of Framing Properties for ESF with B8ZS Line Coding)S endp showpage %%Page: 63 63 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 63 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 45 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.2)S f360 sf ( )S 109 68 :M f318 sf (Verilink Patent)S 78 98 :M f165 sf 1.723 .172(In 1986, Marc L. Schas and Steven C. Taylor patented a technique for transmitting)J 78 116 :M (arbitrary binary data over a D4/AMI T-1 telephone circuit [Ver86].)S 78 146 :M .419 .042(As described in Section )J 198 146 :M .424 .042(2.8.2, two rules must be followed when sending data over a T-1)J 78 164 :M 1.266 .127(line using D4/AMI: there must never be more than 15 zero-bits in a row, and in any)J 78 182 :M 2.272 .227(sequence of 8)J f243 sf .682(n)A f165 sf 1.515 .152( data bits there must be at least )J 326 182 :M f243 sf .441(n)A f165 sf 1.489 .149(\3201 one-bits. The mechanism in the)J 78 200 :M 1.2 .12(Verilink patent provides a way of performing a non-destructive transformation on the)J 78 218 :M (data to ensure that these conditions are met.)S 78 248 :M .767 .077(A T-1 frame carries 24 channels of data, one eight-bit byte per channel. In each frame,)J 78 266 :M .343 .034(the Verilink algorithm examines the 24 channels to see if any contain zero bytes. If none)J 78 284 :M .585 .058(does, then the T-1 frame is transmitted as normal. If any do contain zero bytes, then the)J 78 302 :M (frame is transformed as follows:)S 78 332 :M .761 .076(The first thing that is done is that the single T-1 framing bit is inverted to indicate that)J 78 350 :M .656 .066(this is a special frame. Then the channel numbers of the N channels that contained zero)J 78 368 :M .654 .065(bytes are stored in the first N channels of the outgoing T-1 frame. The most significant)J 78 386 :M .365 .036(bit of each byte in the first N\3201 channels is set to one, each indicating that the following)J 78 404 :M 1.337 .134(channel contains another similar channel number of a zero-containing channel, rather)J 78 422 :M .117 .012(than an actual data value. The most significant bit of the byte in the last of the N channels)J 78 440 :M .193 .019(is not set, indicating that it is the last of such channel-number channels in this frame. The)J 78 458 :M 1.286 .129(following 24\320N channels are filled with the values from the 24\320N channels that co)J 502 458 :M (n-)S 78 476 :M 1.74 .174(tained non-zero bytes. This encoding allows the receiver to reverse the process and)J 78 494 :M (reconstruct the original frame.)S 78 524 :M .773 .077(This algorithm has two drawbacks. The first is that it is only applicable to communic)J 503 524 :M (a-)S 78 542 :M .128 .013(tions systems using frames of 127 bytes or fewer. This constraint is not a problem for T-1)J 78 560 :M .965 .097(frames since they are never any size other than exactly 24 bytes long, but it limits the)J 78 578 :M 1.394 .139(Verilink algorithm\325s more general applicability to other protocols. The second, more)J 78 596 :M .299 .03(serious drawback, is that it corrupts the values of the T-1 frame\325s framing bits. When the)J 78 614 :M .285 .029(receiver is perfectly synchronized, it can interpret a framing error indication as an indica-)J 78 632 :M .82 .082(tion of a specially encoded frame, but if the framing bit is now serving this alternative)J 78 650 :M (purpose, no mechanism remains by which the receiver can synchronize in the first place.)S endp showpage %%Page: 64 64 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 64 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 46 \321)S 92 72 :M (In-Band Framing)S 215 72 :M (No framing at all *)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 59 @w 1.24 88 59.12 @c 121.24 89 59.12 @c 1.24 210 59.12 @c 210 59 1 1 rF 215.24 211 59.12 @c 1.24 426.12 59 @w 17.24 88.12 60 @w 210 60 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 60 @w 92 90 :M (Transparency)S 251 91 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 77 @w 88 77 122 1 rF 210 77 1 1 rF 211 77 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 77 @w 17.24 88.12 78 @w 210 78 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 78 @w 92 108 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 215 109 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 95 @w 88 95 122 1 rF 210 95 1 1 rF 211 95 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 95 @w 17.24 88.12 96 @w 210 96 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 96 @w 92 126 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 215 127 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 113 @w 88 113 122 1 rF 210 113 1 1 rF 211 113 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 113 @w 17.24 88.12 114 @w 210 114 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 114 @w 92 144 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 144 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 131 @w 88 131 122 1 rF 210 131 1 1 rF 211 131 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 131 @w 17.24 88.12 132 @w 210 132 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 132 @w 92 162 :M (Message Size)S 215 162 :M (Variable, up to 127 bytes)S .24 88.12 149 @w 88 149 122 1 rF 210 149 1 1 rF 211 149 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 149 @w 17.24 88.12 150 @w 210 150 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 150 @w 92 180 :M (Overhead)S 215 184 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 184 :M f165 sf ( = 0%)S 287 184 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 1 bits)S .24 88.12 167 @w 88 167 122 1 rF 210 167 1 1 rF 211 167 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 167 @w 22.24 88.12 168 @w 1.24 88 190.12 @c 121.24 89 190.12 @c 210 168 1 22 rF 1.24 210 190.12 @c 215.24 211 190.12 @c 22.24 426.12 168 @w 94 218 :M f318 sf (Table 12. Summary of Framing Properties for Verilink Framing)S 78 248 :M f165 sf .305 .031(* Verilink Framing has no framing at all. It takes over the DS-1\325s framing)J 78 266 :M .433 .043(bits for its own use, leaving the receiver no way to resynchronize after an)J 78 284 :M (error.)S endp showpage %%Page: 65 65 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 65 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 47 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.3)S f360 sf ( )S 109 68 :M f318 sf (Baudot Code)S 78 98 :M f165 sf .722 .072(Some 36 years after the invention of Morse Code in 1838, Jean-Maurice-\203mile Baudot)J 78 116 :M .54 .054(developed a new telegraphic code called the Baudot Code in 1874 [Brit56-97]. The two)J 78 134 :M .122 .012(key features of Baudot\325s method were that it used mechanical time division multiplexing,)J 78 152 :M 1.493 .149(and, unlike Morse Code, every symbol was represented using a fixed-length five-bit)J 78 170 :M (binary code [Cro08].)S 78 200 :M 1.263 .126(Baudot\325s equipment used a ring of metallic segments and a rapidly rotating armature)J 78 218 :M 1.557 .156(which made brief contact with each segment in turn. By setting up an appropriately)J 78 236 :M .763 .076(synchronized rotating armature at the receiving end, a voltage applied to any particular)J 78 254 :M 1.294 .129(metallic segment of the ring would be conducted only to the circuit connected to the)J 78 272 :M .519 .052(corresponding metallic segment of the receiving ring. By spinning the armatures rapidly)J 78 290 :M 1.615 .161(enough, and using capacitors and inductors to smooth out the rapid pulsation of the)J 78 308 :M .801 .08(signal, a single physical line was made to behave like multiple separate lines. With the)J 78 326 :M .608 .061(spinning armatures in proper synchronization, multiple Morse Code operators could use)J 78 344 :M (these logical lines simultaneously without interfering with each other.)S 78 374 :M 1.251 .125(To keep the receiving armature in correct synchronization with the sending armature,)J 78 392 :M .724 .072(\324Correcting Currents\325 were used. One special segment of the sending ring always had a)J 78 410 :M .833 .083(voltage applied to it. When the receiving ring was in perfect synchronization, this Cor)J 508 410 :M (-)S 78 428 :M .242 .024(recting Current would be delivered to a segment on the receiving ring that was connected)J 78 446 :M .632 .063(only to ground, and the Correcting Current would have no effect. The segment immed)J 505 446 :M (i-)S 78 464 :M .57 .057(ately following this grounded segment was connected to a magnetic brake which would)J 78 482 :M .228 .023(slightly slow the rotation of the armature. The rate of the receiving armature was set such)J 78 500 :M 1.073 .107(that, in the absence of any correcting influence, it would run slightly too fast. Thus it)J 78 518 :M .744 .074(would have a tendency to run ahead of the sending armature, and whenever it did so, a)J 78 536 :M .411 .041(brief current would be applied to the braking segment, slowing the armature down again)J 78 554 :M (to keep it in perfect synchronization with the sending armature.)S 78 584 :M .306 .031(Baudot went one step further than simply using his device to allow multiple Morse Code)J 78 602 :M .089 .009(operators to share a single line, by ganging together five logical lines into a single five-bit)J 78 620 :M 1.404 .14(wide parallel communication channel, over which five-bit binary codes were used to)J 78 638 :M .314 .031(represent letters of the alphabet, numbers and punctu)J 336 638 :M .322 .032(ation. There were actually two five-)J 78 656 :M .7 .07(bit alphabets, one containing letters, and one containing digits and punctuation. In both)J endp showpage %%Page: 66 66 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 66 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 48 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.066 .107(alphabets, the code 00010 indicated that the following values should be interpreted as)J 42 74 :M 1.079 .108(\324figure codes\325 and the code 00001 indicated that the following values should be inte)J 468 74 :M (r)S 472 74 :M (-)S 42 92 :M .522 .052(preted as \324letter codes\325. In neither alphabet was the value 00000 used, since this was the)J 42 110 :M (value that was transmitted when the device was simply idle, with no keys depressed.)S 42 140 :M .636 .064(While in the simple Morse Multiplexer the slow rate of Morse Code keying was deco)J 466 140 :M (u-)S 42 158 :M 1.522 .152(pled from the much faster rate of rotation of the armature, this was not the case for)J 42 176 :M .387 .039(Baudot Code signalling. In Baudot Code signalling one symbol was transmitted for each)J 42 194 :M .896 .09(rotation of the armature. If the keys were held down for two rotations of the armature,)J 42 212 :M .129 .013(two identical characters would be printed at the receiving end. Thus the Baudot apparatus)J 42 230 :M .153 .015(was essentially using the line in a synchronous bitwise serial fashion. The synchronizaton)J 42 248 :M .088 .009(was maintained by the \324Correcting Currents\325, but since these Correcting Currents were no)J 42 266 :M .837 .084(different from the currents that signalled the other five bits of information, it would be)J 42 284 :M (possible for the receiver to become mis-synchronized.)S 42 314 :M 1.965 .196(In practice the potential for mis-synchronization was not a problem because of the)J 42 332 :M .66 .066(availability of constant human supervision. When the machines were initially turned on)J 42 350 :M .823 .082(they would be allowed to run idle with no data being sent apart from the periodic Co)J 468 350 :M (r)S 472 350 :M (-)S 42 368 :M .58 .058(recting Currents for sufficiently long for the armatures to fall into synchronization. If at)J 42 386 :M .48 .048(any point in the day\325s work they were to fall out of synchronization the telegraph oper)J 467 386 :M (a-)S 42 404 :M .655 .066(tor would notice that the text no longer made any sense and could take action to rectify)J 42 422 :M (the problem.)S 92 468 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 469 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 455 @w 1.24 88 455.12 @c 121.24 89 455.12 @c 1.24 210 455.12 @c 210 455 1 1 rF 215.24 211 455.12 @c 1.24 426.12 455 @w 17.24 88.12 456 @w 210 456 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 456 @w 92 486 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 487 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 473 @w 88 473 122 1 rF 210 473 1 1 rF 211 473 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 473 @w 17.24 88.12 474 @w 210 474 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 474 @w 92 504 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 215 505 :M f543 sf (8)S 226 505 :M f165 sf ( \(relies on manual intervention\))S .24 88.12 491 @w 88 491 122 1 rF 210 491 1 1 rF 211 491 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 491 @w 18.24 88.12 492 @w 210 492 1 18 rF 18.24 426.12 492 @w 92 523 :M (Locality)S 251 524 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 510 @w 88 510 122 1 rF 210 510 1 1 rF 211 510 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 510 @w 17.24 88.12 511 @w 210 511 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 511 @w 92 541 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 541 :M (Physical Signals)S .24 88.12 528 @w 88 528 122 1 rF 210 528 1 1 rF 211 528 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 528 @w 17.24 88.12 529 @w 210 529 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 529 @w 92 559 :M (Message Size)S 215 559 :M (Fixed \(5-bit characters\))S .24 88.12 546 @w 88 546 122 1 rF 210 546 1 1 rF 211 546 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 546 @w 17.24 88.12 547 @w 210 547 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 547 @w 92 577 :M (Overhead)S 215 581 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 581 :M f165 sf ( = 20%)S .24 88.12 564 @w 88 564 122 1 rF 210 564 1 1 rF 211 564 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 564 @w 22.24 88.12 565 @w 1.24 88 587.12 @c 121.24 89 587.12 @c 210 565 1 22 rF 1.24 210 587.12 @c 215.24 211 587.12 @c 22.24 426.12 565 @w 93 615 :M f318 sf (Table 13. Summary of Framing Properties for Baudot Signalling)S endp showpage %%Page: 67 67 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 67 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 49 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.4)S f360 sf ( )S 109 68 :M f318 sf (RS-232)S 78 98 :M f165 sf .898 .09(RS-232 [RS-232-C] uses start and stop bits to mark the boundaries between individual)J 78 116 :M .277 .028(characters. Any larger-scale framing \(to group characters into blocks or packets\) must be)J 78 134 :M (done by a higher level protocol, such as SLIP, PPP, or consistent overhead byte stuffing.)S 78 164 :M .529 .053(In RS-232 a value of \3241\325 is called a \324mark\325 and is signalled by a negative voltage on the)J 78 182 :M .485 .048(line. A value of \3240\325 is called a \324space\325 and is signalled by a zero \(or positive\) voltage on)J 78 200 :M .82 .082(the line. Every character sent is preceded by a start bit and followed by a stop bit. The)J 78 218 :M .027 .003(start bit is a single bit with value \3240\325 \(a space\), and the stop bit is a \3241\325 signal \(a mark\) that)J 78 236 :M .834 .083(lasts for one bit-duration or more. The duration of the stop bit may be longer than one)J 78 254 :M .625 .062(standard bit-time, and need not even be an integral number of bit-times long. Idle times)J 78 272 :M .815 .082(between characters are filled with mark values \(\3241\325\), and a long stop bit can be equiva-)J 78 290 :M .144 .014(lently thought of as a single stop bit followed by some amount of idle time, or a period of)J 78 308 :M .02 .002(idle time may be thought of as being a very long stop bit. When the next character begins,)J 78 326 :M .982 .098(it will begin with a start bit \(a space\), and it is this transition from mark to space that)J 78 344 :M .584 .058(allows the receiver to detect where the next character begins. This framing is illustrated)J 78 362 :M (in Figure 3.)S 78 392 :M .164 .016(RS-232 start/stop framing is usually used to frame bits into eight-bit bytes. Although RS-)J 78 410 :M .109 .011(232 can also be used to frame bits into five-, six-, seven- or nine-bit units, those modes of)J 78 428 :M .175 .018(operation are less used today now that most computer architectures are based on eight-bit)J 78 446 :M (bytes.)S 78 473 445 128 rC 66 127 480.5 @c 58 192.5 480 @w 15 192 537.5 @c 4 206.5 480 @w 4 206.5 487 @w 4 206.5 494 @w 4 206.5 501 @w 4 206.5 508 @w 4 206.5 515 @w 4 206.5 522 @w 4 206.5 529 @w 2 206.5 536 @w 3 206 537.5 @c 4 212 537.5 @c 4 219 537.5 @c 4 226 537.5 @c 4 233 537.5 @c 4 240 537.5 @c 4 247 537.5 @c 4 254 537.5 @c 4 261 537.5 @c 4 268 537.5 @c 4 275 537.5 @c 4 282 537.5 @c 4 289 537.5 @c 4 296 537.5 @c 4 303 537.5 @c 4 310 537.5 @c 4 317 537.5 @c 4 321.5 531 @w 4 321.5 524 @w 4 321.5 517 @w 4 321.5 510 @w 4 321.5 503 @w 4 321.5 496 @w 4 321.5 489 @w 4 321.5 482 @w 4 316 480.5 @c 4 309 480.5 @c 4 302 480.5 @c 4 295 480.5 @c 4 288 480.5 @c 4 281 480.5 @c 4 274 480.5 @c 4 267 480.5 @c 4 260 480.5 @c 4 253 480.5 @c 4 246 480.5 @c 4 239 480.5 @c 4 232 480.5 @c 4 225 480.5 @c 4 218 480.5 @c 4 211 480.5 @c 2 206 480.5 @c 4 221.5 480 @w 4 221.5 487 @w 4 221.5 494 @w 4 221.5 501 @w 4 221.5 508 @w 4 221.5 515 @w 4 221.5 522 @w 4 221.5 529 @w 2 221.5 536 @w 4 235.5 480 @w 4 235.5 487 @w 4 235.5 494 @w 4 235.5 501 @w 4 235.5 508 @w 4 235.5 515 @w 4 235.5 522 @w 4 235.5 529 @w 2 235.5 536 @w 4 249.5 480 @w 4 249.5 487 @w 4 249.5 494 @w 4 249.5 501 @w 4 249.5 508 @w 4 249.5 515 @w 4 249.5 522 @w 4 249.5 529 @w 2 249.5 536 @w 4 264.5 480 @w 4 264.5 487 @w 4 264.5 494 @w 4 264.5 501 @w 4 264.5 508 @w 4 264.5 515 @w 4 264.5 522 @w 4 264.5 529 @w 2 264.5 536 @w 4 278.5 480 @w 4 278.5 487 @w 4 278.5 494 @w 4 278.5 501 @w 4 278.5 508 @w 4 278.5 515 @w 4 278.5 522 @w 4 278.5 529 @w 2 278.5 536 @w 4 293.5 480 @w 4 293.5 487 @w 4 293.5 494 @w 4 293.5 501 @w 4 293.5 508 @w 4 293.5 515 @w 4 293.5 522 @w 4 293.5 529 @w 2 293.5 536 @w 4 307.5 480 @w 4 307.5 487 @w 4 307.5 494 @w 4 307.5 501 @w 4 307.5 508 @w 4 307.5 515 @w 4 307.5 522 @w 4 307.5 529 @w 2 307.5 536 @w 37 321 480.5 @c 58 357.5 480 @w 16 357 537.5 @c 4 372 537.5 @c 4 379 537.5 @c 4 386 537.5 @c 4 372.5 480 @w 4 372.5 487 @w 4 372.5 494 @w 4 372.5 501 @w 4 372.5 508 @w 4 372.5 515 @w 4 372.5 522 @w 4 372.5 529 @w 2 372.5 536 @w 4 372 480.5 @c 4 379 480.5 @c 4 386 480.5 @c 4 386.5 480 @w 4 386.5 487 @w 4 386.5 494 @w 4 386.5 501 @w 4 386.5 508 @w 4 386.5 515 @w 4 386.5 522 @w 4 386.5 529 @w 2 386.5 536 @w 8 192.5 545 @w 8 206.5 545 @w 8 221.5 545 @w 8 235.5 545 @w 8 249.5 545 @w 8 264.5 545 @w 8 278.5 545 @w 8 293.5 545 @w 8 307.5 545 @w 8 321.5 545 @w 8 336.5 545 @w 8 350.5 545 @w 8 357.5 545 @w 8 372.5 545 @w 8 386.5 545 @w 116 206 552.5 @c -1 -1 163 543 1 1 169 487 @b 23 140 542.5 @c 78 530 57 23 rC 85 546 :M f584 sf (I)S 88 546 :M (d)S 95 546 :M (l)S 98 546 :M (e)S 105 546 :M ( )S 108 546 :M (T)S 115 546 :M (i)S 118 546 :M (m)S 128 546 :M (e)S gR gS 78 473 445 128 rC -1 -1 189 574 1 1 198 559 @b 26 163 573.5 @c 107 562 51 22 rC 114 578 :M f584 sf (S)S 123 578 :M (t)S 126 578 :M (a)S 133 578 :M (r)S 137 578 :M (t)S 140 578 :M ( )S 143 578 :M (B)S 151 578 :M (i)S 154 578 :M (t)S gR gS 78 473 445 128 rC -1 -1 253 586 1 1 257 559 @b 5 248 585.5 @c 185 573 58 23 rC 194 589 :M f584 sf (D)S 203 589 :M (a)S 210 589 :M (t)S 213 589 :M (a)S 220 589 :M ( )S 223 589 :M (B)S 231 589 :M (i)S 234 589 :M (t)S 237 589 :M (s)S gR gS 78 473 445 128 rC -1 -1 323 586 1 1 329 559 @b 9 314 585.5 @c 258 573 51 23 rC 265 589 :M f584 sf (S)S 274 589 :M (t)S 277 589 :M (o)S 284 589 :M (p)S 291 589 :M ( )S 294 589 :M (B)S 302 589 :M (i)S 305 589 :M (t)S gR gS 78 473 445 128 rC 365 560 -1 1 376 588 1 365 559 @a 12 375 588.5 @c 392 578 131 22 rC 392 594 :M f584 sf (N)S 401 594 :M (e)S 408 594 :M (x)S 414 594 :M (t)S 417 594 :M ( )S 420 594 :M (C)S 429 594 :M (h)S 436 594 :M (a)S 443 594 :M (r)S 447 594 :M (a)S 454 594 :M (c)S 460 594 :M (t)S 463 594 :M (e)S 470 594 :M (r)S 474 594 :M ( )S 477 594 :M (B)S 485 594 :M (e)S 492 594 :M (g)S 499 594 :M (i)S 502 594 :M (n)S 509 594 :M (s)S gR gS 408 473 80 15 rC 408 484 :M f584 sf (\324)S 411 484 :M (M)S 421 484 :M (a)S 428 484 :M (r)S 432 484 :M (k)S 438 484 :M (\325)S 441 484 :M ( )S 444 484 :M (l)S 447 484 :M (e)S 454 484 :M (v)S 460 484 :M (e)S 467 484 :M (l)S gR gS 408 530 80 16 rC 408 541 :M f584 sf (\324)S 411 541 :M (S)S 420 541 :M (p)S 427 541 :M (a)S 434 541 :M (c)S 440 541 :M (e)S 447 541 :M (\325)S 450 541 :M ( )S 453 541 :M (l)S 456 541 :M (e)S 463 541 :M (v)S 469 541 :M (e)S 476 541 :M (l)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 199 640 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 236 640 :M (3. RS-232 Character Framing)S endp showpage %%Page: 68 68 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 68 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 50 \321)S 42 56 :M .202 .02(RS-232 start/stop framing works well as long as there are no errors, but is not guaranteed)J 42 74 :M .829 .083(to resynchronize quickly after an error. For example, consider sending a sequence con-)J 42 92 :M .376 .038(sisting of the value 11110000 repeated continuously. With a start bit before and two end)J 42 110 :M .524 .052(bits after each character, the transmitted bit sequence looks like 01111000011. Below is)J 42 128 :M 1.884 .188(an example sequence beginning with four idle bits, followed by four repetitions of)J 42 146 :M 1.007 .101(11110000. Framing bits are shown in a slightly smaller font, in bold type. The spaces)J 42 164 :M .74 .074(between each character are added for clarity \321 there are no \324spaces\325 in the transmitted)J 42 182 :M (bit-sequence:)S 76 212 :M f616 sf -.111(1111 0)A f482 sf -.134(11110000)A f616 sf -.111(11 0)A f482 sf -.134(11110000)A f616 sf -.111(11 0)A f482 sf -.134(11110000)A f616 sf -.111(11 0)A f482 sf -.134(11110000)A f616 sf -.111(11)A f482 sf -.201(...)A 42 242 :M f165 sf .826 .083(When all is well, the receiver will detect the transition from one to zero that marks the)J 42 260 :M .179 .018(beginning of each byte. Now suppose that the first zero in the sequence, the first start bit,)J 42 278 :M .421 .042(is lost or corrupted to a one. The receiver will now detect the second transition from one)J 42 296 :M 1.212 .121(to zero as marking the beginning of a byte, and will incorrectly read the first byte as)J 42 314 :M .519 .052(having value 00011011, instead of 11110000. More significantly, it will also incorrectly)J 42 332 :M (read the second byte, and the third, and so on:)S 77 362 :M f616 sf -.103(1111X1111 0)A f482 sf -.123(00011011)A f616 sf -.103(11 0)A f482 sf -.123(00011011)A f616 sf -.103(11 0)A f482 sf -.123(00011011)A f616 sf -.103(11 0)A f482 sf -.141(00011...)A 42 392 :M f165 sf .485 .048(With this sequence of data, the receiver will never correctly resynchronize. The receiver)J 42 410 :M (will only resynchronize correctly when one of the following happens:)S 42 440 :M (1.)S 60 440 :M .281 .028(The sender sends a character value that contains no transitions from one to zero, such)J 60 458 :M (as 00000000, 11111111, or 00001111.)S 42 488 :M (2.)S 60 488 :M 1.302 .13(The sender pauses for at least eight mark \(idle\) bits between two characters. This)J 60 506 :M .72 .072(pause allows the receiver\325s input FIFO to clear, and then it should be able to detect)J 60 524 :M (the next one to zero start bit transition correctly.)S 42 554 :M (3.)S 60 554 :M (The sender sends at least ten space bits between two characters, indicating a \324break\325.)S 42 584 :M .603 .06(While these events do allow the receiver to resynchronize, it is important to realize that)J 42 602 :M 1.275 .127(the sender cannot know that the receiver needs to resynchronize unless there is some)J 42 620 :M .611 .061(other mechanism to communicate that information to it. In addition, even if the sending)J 42 638 :M .339 .034(software does know that it needs to insert a pause into the data stream, this is not easy to)J 42 656 :M .381 .038(achieve reliably on many kinds of current computer hardware. When a computer\325s serial)J endp showpage %%Page: 69 69 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 69 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 51 \321)S 78 56 :M .605 .061(hardware includes output buffering, pauses in the data stream generated by the software)J 78 74 :M .133 .013(may not necessarily be reflected by pauses in the transmitted output bit stream on the RS-)J 78 92 :M .528 .053(232 serial port. To be certain of generating a pause in the output bit stream the software)J 78 110 :M .556 .056(has to cease sending for a grossly pessimistic length of time, to ensure that even a large)J 78 128 :M .777 .078(output buffer will have had time to drain. This use of excessively long pauses is ineff)J 505 128 :M (i-)S 78 146 :M .481 .048(cient, and with the data buffers in devices like serial chips and modems getting larger as)J 78 164 :M .344 .034(time goes on, deciding what constitutes a sufficiently conservative length of pause is not)J 78 182 :M (easy.)S 128 228 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 229 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 215 @w 1.24 124 215.12 @c 121.24 125 215.12 @c 1.24 246 215.12 @c 246 215 1 1 rF 215.24 247 215.12 @c 1.24 462.12 215 @w 17.24 124.12 216 @w 246 216 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 216 @w 128 246 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 247 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 233 @w 124 233 122 1 rF 246 233 1 1 rF 247 233 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 233 @w 17.24 124.12 234 @w 246 234 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 234 @w 128 264 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 265 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 124.12 251 @w 124 251 122 1 rF 246 251 1 1 rF 247 251 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 251 @w 17.24 124.12 252 @w 246 252 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 252 @w 128 282 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 283 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 269 @w 124 269 122 1 rF 246 269 1 1 rF 247 269 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 269 @w 17.24 124.12 270 @w 246 270 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 270 @w 128 300 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 300 :M (Bits)S .24 124.12 287 @w 124 287 122 1 rF 246 287 1 1 rF 247 287 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 287 @w 17.24 124.12 288 @w 246 288 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 288 @w 128 318 :M (Message Size)S 251 318 :M (Fixed \(eight-bit characters\))S .24 124.12 305 @w 124 305 122 1 rF 246 305 1 1 rF 247 305 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 305 @w 17.24 124.12 306 @w 246 306 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 306 @w 128 336 :M (Overhead)S 251 340 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 340 :M f165 sf ( = 25%)S .24 124.12 323 @w 124 323 122 1 rF 246 323 1 1 rF 247 323 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 323 @w 22.24 124.12 324 @w 1.24 124 346.12 @c 121.24 125 346.12 @c 246 324 1 22 rF 1.24 246 346.12 @c 215.24 247 346.12 @c 22.24 462.12 324 @w 156 374 :M f318 sf (Table 14. Summary of Framing Properties for RS-232)S 110 404 :M f165 sf (\(Best case analysis, using eight bits per character, no parity bit, one stop bit\))S endp showpage %%Page: 70 70 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 70 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 52 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.5)S f360 sf ( )S 73 68 :M f318 sf (SONET)S 42 98 :M f165 sf .441 .044(The SONET \(Synchronous Optical Network\) standard defines a hierarchy of frame sizes)J 42 116 :M .105 .01(and data rates, called the SDH \(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy\). The basic building block)J 42 134 :M .092 .009(today is usually STS-3 \(Synchronous Transport Signal level 3\). When used exclusively in)J 42 152 :M 1.532 .153(an optical context, the STS-3 framing and data rate is also known as OC-3 \(Optical)J 42 170 :M 1.555 .156(Channel level 3\). The corresponding compatible European standard is called STM-1)J 42 188 :M (\(Synchronous Transport Module level 1\) [Sext92].)S 42 218 :M .422 .042(The structure of a STS-3/OC-3/STM-1 frame is a 2430 byte frame, which is convention-)J 42 236 :M .816 .082(ally drawn as nine rows of 270 bytes each. 8000 of these 2430 byte frames per second)J 42 254 :M .457 .046(give the familiar 155.52Mb/sec OC-3 data rate. On each of the rows, the first nine bytes)J 42 272 :M .419 .042(are overhead, and the remaining 261 bytes are payload data. The overhead section of the)J 42 290 :M .158 .016(first row of a frame contains the six-byte framing sequence and three bytes used for other)J 42 308 :M (purposes.)S 42 338 :M .743 .074(The framing sequence is the byte value 11110110 repeated three times followed by the)J 42 356 :M 1.091 .109(byte value 00101000 repeated three times. It is not signalled via any kind of protocol)J 42 374 :M 1.528 .153(violation, nor is it protected via any kind of data stuffing procedure to eliminate all)J 42 392 :M 2.066 .207(accidental occurrences from the packet data. STS-3 is therefore vulnerable to mis-)J 42 410 :M (framing after an error. [Sext92] describes it thus:)S 78 440 :M .28 .028(The reframe algorithm is not specified \311 reframe performance targets are)J 78 458 :M .905 .09(specified in terms of time to detect out of frame \(OOF\) condition, mean)J 78 476 :M .262 .026(time between false OOF detection in presence of defined error conditions,)J 78 494 :M .271 .027(maximum recovery time from instant when a good signal is available, and)J 78 512 :M (maximum probability of false reframing on a good signal.)S endp showpage %%Page: 71 71 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 71 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 53 \321)S 128 54 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 55 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 41 @w 1.24 124 41.12 @c 121.24 125 41.12 @c 1.24 246 41.12 @c 246 41 1 1 rF 215.24 247 41.12 @c 1.24 462.12 41 @w 17.24 124.12 42 @w 246 42 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 42 @w 128 72 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 73 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 59 @w 124 59 122 1 rF 246 59 1 1 rF 247 59 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 59 @w 17.24 124.12 60 @w 246 60 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 60 @w 128 90 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 91 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 124.12 77 @w 124 77 122 1 rF 246 77 1 1 rF 247 77 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 77 @w 17.24 124.12 78 @w 246 78 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 78 @w 128 108 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 109 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 95 @w 124 95 122 1 rF 246 95 1 1 rF 247 95 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 95 @w 17.24 124.12 96 @w 246 96 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 96 @w 128 126 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 126 :M (Bits)S .24 124.12 113 @w 124 113 122 1 rF 246 113 1 1 rF 247 113 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 113 @w 17.24 124.12 114 @w 246 114 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 114 @w 128 144 :M (Message Size)S 251 144 :M (Fixed \(2430 byte SONET frames\))S .24 124.12 131 @w 124 131 122 1 rF 246 131 1 1 rF 247 131 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 131 @w 17.24 124.12 132 @w 246 132 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 132 @w 128 162 :M (Overhead)S 251 166 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 166 :M f165 sf ( = 3.45%)S .24 124.12 149 @w 124 149 122 1 rF 246 149 1 1 rF 247 149 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 149 @w 22.24 124.12 150 @w 1.24 124 172.12 @c 121.24 125 172.12 @c 246 150 1 22 rF 1.24 246 172.12 @c 215.24 247 172.12 @c 22.24 462.12 150 @w 154 200 :M f318 sf (Table 15. Summary of Framing Properties for SONET)S endp showpage %%Page: 72 72 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 72 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 54 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.6)S f360 sf ( )S 73 68 :M f318 sf (Cambridge Ring)S 42 98 :M f165 sf 1.242 .124(Cambridge Ring transports all data in fixed-size \324minipackets\325. The format of a mini-)J 42 116 :M 1.533 .153(packet is: start of packet bit, full/empty bit, monitor passed bit, eight-bit destination)J 42 134 :M .179 .018(address, eight-bit source address, sixteen bits of data, two response bits, and a final parity)J 42 152 :M .904 .09(bit. Thus each minipacket is 38 bits long and contains 16 bits of user data. The ring is)J 42 170 :M .72 .072(populated with as many complete minipackets as will fit into the time delay around the)J 42 188 :M .887 .089(ring; any remaining time not large enough to hold an entire minipacket is unused. The)J 42 206 :M .179 .018(unused bits in the ring are filled with zeroes and form a \324gap\325 which is 0-37 bits in length)J 42 224 :M ([Hop86].)S 42 254 :M .99 .099(Unlike many other networking systems, the Cambridge Ring uses two twisted pairs in)J 42 272 :M .342 .034(tandem to provide a single unidirectional signal. A voltage transition on both pairs at the)J 42 290 :M .596 .06(same time signals a one-bit; a voltage transition on only one of the pairs signals a zero-)J 42 308 :M 1.725 .173(bit. This encoding enables both pairs to maintain regular transitions \(for easy clock)J 42 326 :M .495 .049(recovery\) and perfect DC balance, no matter what the data. However, it should be noted)J 42 344 :M .416 .042(that Manchester encoding also maintains regular transitions and perfect DC balance, and)J 42 362 :M .474 .047(although it uses twice the raw signalling rate over the wire, it only uses one twisted pair)J 42 380 :M (instead of two, so the total peak signalling rate remains the same.)S 42 410 :M .093 .009(The Cambridge Ring \324start of packet bit\325 is simply a single bit that has the value one. It is)J 42 428 :M .784 .078(not signalled via any kind of protocol violation, nor \(obviously\) can it be protected via)J 42 446 :M .313 .031(any kind of bit stuffing procedure to eliminate all one-bits from the packet data. Framing)J 42 464 :M (in Ca)S 68 464 :M (mbridge Ring is therefore rather )S f243 sf (ad hoc)S f165 sf (. [Hop86] describes it thus:)S 78 494 :M .087 .009(The framing logic can be in one of two states, )J 303 494 :M f318 sf .017(InGap)A f165 sf ( or )S f318 sf .019(NotInGap)A 404 494 :M f165 sf .085 .008(. When)J 78 512 :M 1.074 .107(a station powers up it may come on in either of these states at random.)J 78 530 :M .336 .034(While a station is in InGap it skips over bits 0 arriving at the input. When)J 78 548 :M .425 .043(a 1 arrives it takes this to be the start of the slot train and becomes NotI)J 430 548 :M (n-)S 78 566 :M .62 .062(Gap. In this state it counts 38 bits from the 1 it received and looks at the)J 78 584 :M .135 .014(next bit. If this is a 1 it remains in the NotInGap state and waits another 38)J 78 602 :M .272 .027(bits. If it is a 0 the station goes to the InGap state. Eventually, this process)J 78 620 :M (will get the station into synchronisation with the ring.)S endp showpage %%Page: 73 73 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 73 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 55 \321)S 78 56 :M 2.027 .203(This description of the algorithm assumes that this relatively slow synchronization)J 78 74 :M 1.087 .109(process only has to happen once, upon power-up, after which the ring operates nearly)J 78 92 :M (error-free. [Hop86] goes on to describe what happens after \324a serious error occurs\325:)S 114 122 :M .205 .021(Because stations will not synchronise immediately to these slot trains they)J 114 140 :M .957 .096(will probably become mutilated as they pass round the ring and stations)J 114 158 :M .203 .02(try to correct parity bits which are not really parity bits. Stations may even)J 114 176 :M (try to transmit in the slots.)S 78 206 :M .776 .078(While Cambridge Ring framing may have worked well in the low-error environment it)J 78 224 :M .529 .053(was designed for, it does not have great applicability as a good general-purpose framing)J 78 242 :M (algorithm.)S 128 288 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 289 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 275 @w 1.24 124 275.12 @c 121.24 125 275.12 @c 1.24 246 275.12 @c 246 275 1 1 rF 215.24 247 275.12 @c 1.24 462.12 275 @w 17.24 124.12 276 @w 246 276 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 276 @w 128 306 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 307 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 293 @w 124 293 122 1 rF 246 293 1 1 rF 247 293 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 293 @w 17.24 124.12 294 @w 246 294 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 294 @w 128 324 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 325 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 124.12 311 @w 124 311 122 1 rF 246 311 1 1 rF 247 311 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 311 @w 17.24 124.12 312 @w 246 312 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 312 @w 128 342 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 343 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 329 @w 124 329 122 1 rF 246 329 1 1 rF 247 329 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 329 @w 17.24 124.12 330 @w 246 330 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 330 @w 128 360 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 360 :M (Bits)S .24 124.12 347 @w 124 347 122 1 rF 246 347 1 1 rF 247 347 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 347 @w 17.24 124.12 348 @w 246 348 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 348 @w 128 378 :M (Message Size)S 251 378 :M (Fixed \(38 bit minipackets\))S .24 124.12 365 @w 124 365 122 1 rF 246 365 1 1 rF 247 365 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 365 @w 17.24 124.12 366 @w 246 366 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 366 @w 128 396 :M (Overhead)S 251 400 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 400 :M f165 sf ( = 137.5%*)S .24 124.12 383 @w 124 383 122 1 rF 246 383 1 1 rF 247 383 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 383 @w 22.24 124.12 384 @w 1.24 124 406.12 @c 121.24 125 406.12 @c 246 384 1 22 rF 1.24 246 406.12 @c 215.24 247 406.12 @c 22.24 462.12 384 @w 132 434 :M f318 sf (Table 16. Summary of Framing Properties for Cambridge Ring)S 114 464 :M f165 sf .954 .095(* If you take into account the fact that Cambrige ring actually used )J f243 sf .508(two)A 114 482 :M f165 sf .888 .089(10Mb/s twisted pairs to carry a single 10Mb/s signal, the effective ove)J 468 482 :M (r)S 472 482 :M (-)S 114 500 :M .368 .037(head is 375%. If you further take into account that a typical ring might be)J 114 518 :M .275 .027(100 bits long, which is enough to contain only two 38-bit minipackets and)J 114 536 :M .529 .053(a 24-bit gap, the effective overhead is 525%. To put this information into)J 114 554 :M 1.295 .13(perspective, using two twisted pairs carrying a combined 20Mb/s Cam-)J 114 572 :M .892 .089(bridge Ring achieves a raw throughput of no more than 3.2Mb/s, before)J 114 590 :M (taking other higher-layer headers and overhead into account.)S endp showpage %%Page: 74 74 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 74 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 56 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.7)S f360 sf ( )S 73 68 :M f318 sf (RATP)S 42 98 :M f165 sf 1.22 .122(RATP \(Reliable Asynchronous Transfer Protocol\) [)J 303 98 :M (RFC916)S 344 98 :M (])S 348 98 :M 2.151 .215( [)J 357 98 :M (RFC935)S 398 98 :M (])S 402 98 :M 1.651 .165( uses a packet)J 42 116 :M .036 .004(format that begins with the ASCII SOH \(Start of Heading\) character \(0x01\) followed by a)J 42 134 :M .301 .03(one-byte length count. Any data values can appear in the payload, and no data stuffing is)J 42 152 :M .387 .039(performed. Since character value 0x01 is allowed to appear in the payload of the packet,)J 42 170 :M (the protocol is not guaranteed to resynchronize rapidly after an error.)S 92 216 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 217 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 203 @w 1.24 88 203.12 @c 121.24 89 203.12 @c 1.24 210 203.12 @c 210 203 1 1 rF 215.24 211 203.12 @c 1.24 426.12 203 @w 17.24 88.12 204 @w 210 204 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 204 @w 92 234 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 235 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 221 @w 88 221 122 1 rF 210 221 1 1 rF 211 221 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 221 @w 17.24 88.12 222 @w 210 222 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 222 @w 92 252 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 215 253 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 239 @w 88 239 122 1 rF 210 239 1 1 rF 211 239 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 239 @w 17.24 88.12 240 @w 210 240 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 240 @w 92 270 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 271 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 257 @w 88 257 122 1 rF 210 257 1 1 rF 211 257 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 257 @w 17.24 88.12 258 @w 210 258 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 258 @w 92 288 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 288 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 275 @w 88 275 122 1 rF 210 275 1 1 rF 211 275 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 275 @w 17.24 88.12 276 @w 210 276 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 276 @w 92 306 :M (Message Size)S 215 306 :M (Variable, up to 255 bytes)S .24 88.12 293 @w 88 293 122 1 rF 210 293 1 1 rF 211 293 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 293 @w 17.24 88.12 294 @w 210 294 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 294 @w 92 324 :M (Overhead)S 215 328 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 328 :M f165 sf ( = 0%)S 287 328 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 16 bits)S .24 88.12 311 @w 88 311 122 1 rF 210 311 1 1 rF 211 311 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 311 @w 22.24 88.12 312 @w 1.24 88 334.12 @c 121.24 89 334.12 @c 210 312 1 22 rF 1.24 210 334.12 @c 215.24 211 334.12 @c 22.24 426.12 312 @w 122 362 :M f318 sf (Table 17. Summary of Framing Properties for RATP)S endp showpage %%Page: 75 75 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 75 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 57 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.8)S f360 sf ( )S 109 68 :M f318 sf (Digital Equipment Corporation DDCMP)S 78 98 :M f165 sf 2.065 .207(DDCMP \(Digital Data Communications Message Protocol\) [Held91] uses a packet)J 78 116 :M .442 .044(format that is similar to RATP. A packet begins with two ASCII SYN characters \(0x16\))J 78 134 :M .479 .048(followed by a one-byte type, followed by a two-byte count/flags field \(14 bit count, two)J 78 152 :M .825 .083(bit flags\) three more header bytes, a two-byte header CRC, the packet data, and a final)J 78 170 :M (two-byte data CRC.)S 78 200 :M 1.844 .184(As with RATP, no data stuffing is performed and since ASCII SYN characters are)J 78 218 :M .802 .08(allowed to appear in the payload of the packet, the protocol is not guaranteed to resyn-)J 78 236 :M (chronize after an error.)S 128 282 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 283 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 269 @w 1.24 124 269.12 @c 121.24 125 269.12 @c 1.24 246 269.12 @c 246 269 1 1 rF 215.24 247 269.12 @c 1.24 462.12 269 @w 17.24 124.12 270 @w 246 270 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 270 @w 128 300 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 301 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 287 @w 124 287 122 1 rF 246 287 1 1 rF 247 287 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 287 @w 17.24 124.12 288 @w 246 288 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 288 @w 128 318 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 319 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 124.12 305 @w 124 305 122 1 rF 246 305 1 1 rF 247 305 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 305 @w 17.24 124.12 306 @w 246 306 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 306 @w 128 336 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 337 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 323 @w 124 323 122 1 rF 246 323 1 1 rF 247 323 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 323 @w 17.24 124.12 324 @w 246 324 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 324 @w 128 354 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 354 :M (Bytes)S .24 124.12 341 @w 124 341 122 1 rF 246 341 1 1 rF 247 341 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 341 @w 17.24 124.12 342 @w 246 342 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 342 @w 128 372 :M (Message Size)S 251 372 :M (Variable, up to 16383 bytes)S .24 124.12 359 @w 124 359 122 1 rF 246 359 1 1 rF 247 359 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 359 @w 17.24 124.12 360 @w 246 360 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 360 @w 128 390 :M (Overhead)S 251 394 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 394 :M f165 sf ( = 0%)S 323 394 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 96 bits)S .24 124.12 377 @w 124 377 122 1 rF 246 377 1 1 rF 247 377 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 377 @w 22.24 124.12 378 @w 1.24 124 400.12 @c 121.24 125 400.12 @c 246 378 1 22 rF 1.24 246 400.12 @c 215.24 247 400.12 @c 22.24 462.12 378 @w 152 428 :M f318 sf (Table 18. Summary of Framing Properties for DDCMP)S endp showpage %%Page: 76 76 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 76 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 58 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.9)S f360 sf ( )S 73 68 :M f318 sf (XMODEM \(The Christensen Protocol\))S 42 98 :M f165 sf .033 .003(XMODEM )J 100 98 :M .031 .003([For88] )J 141 98 :M .032 .003(was written by Ward Christensen in 1977. Like DDCMP, XMODEM)J 42 116 :M .086 .009(uses a marker character to indicate the start of each block. The chosen marker character is)J 42 134 :M .773 .077(the ASCII SOH \(Start of heading\) character \(0x01\). The SOH is followed by the block)J 42 152 :M .726 .073(number, then the ones-complement of the block number, then a fixed size block of 128)J 42 170 :M .687 .069(data bytes, and then finally a one-byte checksum on the end. Since ASCII SOH charac-)J 42 188 :M .031 .003(ters are allowed to appear in the user data and no stuffing is performed, the protocol is not)J 42 206 :M (guaranteed to resynchronize after an error.)S 42 236 :M .271 .027(Since XMODEM is designed to be used by a human operator, it does have a kind of out-)J 42 254 :M 1.352 .135(of-band recovery mechanism. If modem line noise causes the protocol to go horribly)J 42 272 :M .793 .079(wrong, then the user simply cancels the transfer and waits for the software at the other)J 42 290 :M .474 .047(end to time out. Since the data bytes contained in the file being transferred can never be)J 42 308 :M .172 .017(encoded as \324a really long pause until the software at the other end times out\325 this pause is)J 42 326 :M .337 .034(effectively an out-of-band signal which cannot occur in any valid data transfer. It is a far)J 42 344 :M .849 .085(cruder signal than the brief pause that precedes an Ethernet packet, but it has the same)J 42 362 :M (effect of resynchronizing the sender and receiver.)S 92 408 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 409 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 395 @w 1.24 88 395.12 @c 121.24 89 395.12 @c 1.24 210 395.12 @c 210 395 1 1 rF 215.24 211 395.12 @c 1.24 426.12 395 @w 17.24 88.12 396 @w 210 396 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 396 @w 92 426 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 427 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 413 @w 88 413 122 1 rF 210 413 1 1 rF 211 413 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 413 @w 17.24 88.12 414 @w 210 414 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 414 @w 92 444 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 215 445 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 431 @w 88 431 122 1 rF 210 431 1 1 rF 211 431 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 431 @w 17.24 88.12 432 @w 210 432 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 432 @w 92 462 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 463 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 449 @w 88 449 122 1 rF 210 449 1 1 rF 211 449 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 449 @w 17.24 88.12 450 @w 210 450 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 450 @w 92 480 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 480 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 467 @w 88 467 122 1 rF 210 467 1 1 rF 211 467 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 467 @w 17.24 88.12 468 @w 210 468 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 468 @w 92 498 :M (Message Size)S 215 498 :M (Fixed \(128 bytes\))S .24 88.12 485 @w 88 485 122 1 rF 210 485 1 1 rF 211 485 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 485 @w 17.24 88.12 486 @w 210 486 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 486 @w 92 516 :M (Overhead)S 215 520 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 520 :M f165 sf ( = 3.125%)S .24 88.12 503 @w 88 503 122 1 rF 210 503 1 1 rF 211 503 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 503 @w 22.24 88.12 504 @w 1.24 88 526.12 @c 121.24 89 526.12 @c 210 504 1 22 rF 1.24 210 526.12 @c 215.24 211 526.12 @c 22.24 426.12 504 @w 110 554 :M f318 sf (Table 19. Summary of Framing Properties for XMODEM)S endp showpage %%Page: 77 77 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 77 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 59 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.9.10)S f360 sf ( )S 115 68 :M f318 sf (YMODEM)S 78 98 :M f165 sf .785 .079(YMODEM )J 137 98 :M .81 .081([For88] is a successor to XMODEM, and adds a number of small improv)J 503 98 :M (e-)S 78 116 :M 1.813 .181(ments. )J 116 116 :M 1.717 .172(YMODEM adds the option of sending 1024-byte blocks instead of 128-byte)J 78 134 :M .555 .056(blocks. It adds the option of a sixteen-bit CRC instead of an eight-bit checksum. It adds)J 78 152 :M 1.093 .109(user interface improvements like the ability to transfer multiple files in a single batch)J 78 170 :M .455 .046(transfer and the ability to specify the filename\(s\) of the file\(s\) being transferred. Despite)J 78 188 :M .232 .023(these improvements, the basic design philosophy of the protocol is otherwise unchanged.)J 78 206 :M 1.221 .122(It still uses an initial marker character, followed by the block number, then the ones-)J 78 224 :M .804 .08(complement of the block number, then a block of \(128 or 1024\) data bytes, and then a)J 78 242 :M .457 .046(\(one or two byte\) check value on the end, and it still performs no data stuffing. The size)J 78 260 :M .326 .033(of the block being sent is indicated by the initial marker character. If it is ASCII SOH, it)J 78 278 :M .347 .035(is an XMODEM-style 128-byte block, and if it is an ASCII STX \(Start of text\) character)J 78 296 :M (\(0x02\), it is a 1024-byte block.)S 78 326 :M .271 .027(Although YMODEM was supposed to be an improvement over XMODEM, the way it is)J 78 344 :M .438 .044(extended to support two block sizes actually makes YMODEM even more prone to mis-)J 78 362 :M .317 .032(synchronization after an error than XMODEM is, because now there are two valid initial)J 78 380 :M .919 .092(marker characters to look for instead of just one. Given data containing uniformly di)J 503 380 :M (s)S 508 380 :M (-)S 78 398 :M 1.775 .177(tributed values, when using XMODEM the probability that any particular byte will)J 78 416 :M .385 .038(accidentally be the marker character is )J 270 411 :M f497 sf (1)S 274 416 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 288 416 :M f165 sf .381 .038(. When using YMODEM, the probability that)J 78 434 :M (any particular byte will accidentally be a marker character is )S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (2)S 0 5 rm 375 434 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 389 434 :M f165 sf (.)S endp showpage %%Page: 78 78 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 78 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 60 \321)S 92 54 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 55 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 41 @w 1.24 88 41.12 @c 121.24 89 41.12 @c 1.24 210 41.12 @c 210 41 1 1 rF 215.24 211 41.12 @c 1.24 426.12 41 @w 17.24 88.12 42 @w 210 42 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 42 @w 92 72 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 73 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 59 @w 88 59 122 1 rF 210 59 1 1 rF 211 59 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 59 @w 17.24 88.12 60 @w 210 60 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 60 @w 92 90 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 215 91 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 77 @w 88 77 122 1 rF 210 77 1 1 rF 211 77 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 77 @w 17.24 88.12 78 @w 210 78 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 78 @w 92 108 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 109 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 95 @w 88 95 122 1 rF 210 95 1 1 rF 211 95 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 95 @w 17.24 88.12 96 @w 210 96 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 96 @w 92 126 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 126 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 113 @w 88 113 122 1 rF 210 113 1 1 rF 211 113 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 113 @w 17.24 88.12 114 @w 210 114 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 114 @w 92 144 :M (Message Size)S 211 131 215 18 rC 215 144 :M (Choice of two fixed sizes \(128/1024 bytes\))S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw .24 88.12 131 @w 88 131 122 1 rF 210 131 1 1 rF 211 131 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 131 @w 17.24 88.12 132 @w 210 132 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 132 @w 92 162 :M f165 sf (Overhead)S 215 166 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 166 :M f165 sf ( = 0.39% to 3.91%*)S .24 88.12 149 @w 88 149 122 1 rF 210 149 1 1 rF 211 149 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 149 @w 22.24 88.12 150 @w 1.24 88 172.12 @c 121.24 89 172.12 @c 210 150 1 22 rF 1.24 210 172.12 @c 215.24 211 172.12 @c 22.24 426.12 150 @w 110 200 :M f318 sf (Table 20. Summary of Framing Properties for YMODEM)S 78 230 :M f165 sf 1.116 .112(* The overhead of 0.39% is achieved when using a one-byte checksum)J 78 248 :M 1.737 .174(and 1024-byte blocks. The overhead is a marker character, two block)J 78 266 :M .333 .033(number characters, and a single checksum character \(four characters total\))J 78 284 :M .488 .049(per 1024 bytes of user data. The overhead of 3.91% is achieved when u)J 431 284 :M (s)S 436 284 :M (-)S 78 302 :M .531 .053(ing a two-byte CRC and 128-byte blocks. The overhead is a marker char)J 436 302 :M (-)S 78 320 :M .428 .043(acter, two block number characters, and two CRC characters \(five charac-)J 78 338 :M (ters total\) per 1024 bytes of user data.)S endp showpage %%Page: 79 79 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 79 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 61 \321)S 78 74 :M f318 sf (2.10)S f360 sf ( )S 106 74 :M f318 sf (Transparent In-Band Framing)S 105 92 :M (Protocols With Data Stuffing)S 78 122 :M f165 sf (This section describes IBM BISYNC,)S 78 140 :M (Kermit, ZMODEM, SLIP, AX.25, PPP,)S 78 158 :M (Gill\325s Protocol, and HDLC.)S 78 188 :M f318 sf (2.10.1)S f360 sf ( )S 115 188 :M f318 sf (IBM BISYNC)S 78 218 :M f165 sf 1.969 .197(The IBM Binary Synchronous protocol [Mil87] can operate in non-transparent and)J 78 236 :M (transpa)S 113 236 :M (r)S 117 236 :M (ent modes.)S 78 266 :M 1.152 .115(In non-transparent mode, the start of the block of data is indicated by an ASCII STX)J 78 284 :M 1.163 .116(\(Start of text\) character \(0x02\) and the end by an ASCII ETX \(End of text\) character)J 78 302 :M (\(0x03\). Obviously this framing will not work if the data itself contains an ETX character.)S 78 332 :M .48 .048(To remedy this problem sending raw \324binary\325 data, IBM BISYNC also has a transparent)J 78 350 :M .511 .051(mode which makes use of the ASCII DLE \(Data Link Escape\) character \(0x10\). Instead)J 78 368 :M .897 .09(of using just STX and ETX, the start of the block of data is indicated by the sequence)J 78 386 :M .294 .029([DLE, STX] and the end by a [DLE, ETX] sequence. An ETX character appearing on its)J 78 404 :M .203 .02(own has no special meaning, so it can be safely used in the packet data. If the packet data)J 78 422 :M 1.54 .154(contains a DLE character, then two DLE characters are transmitted to represent that)J 78 440 :M 1.523 .152(single DLE character. When the receiver sees two DLE characters, it interprets it as)J 78 458 :M .612 .061(representing a single DLE character in the data. When the receiver sees [DLE, ETX], it)J 78 476 :M (interprets it as indicating the end of the packet.)S 78 506 :M .067 .007(IBM BISYNC was one of the first protocols to incorporate features that are now common)J 78 524 :M .387 .039(in communication protocols. It is able to transmit reliably any data value, and to achieve)J 78 542 :M .744 .074(that transparency it uses data transformation \(variously called character prefixing, char)J 508 542 :M (-)S 78 560 :M .408 .041(acter escaping, or byte stuffing\), not out-of-band signalling. Just as with the well-known)J 78 578 :M .223 .022(protocols SLIP and PPP \(described below\), that transformation can double the size of the)J 78 596 :M .788 .079(data in the worst case \(a packet entirely containing DLE characters\). Just as with SLIP)J 78 614 :M .867 .087(and PPP, recovery after error is guaranteed to be rapid, no matter what data the packet)J 78 632 :M (payloads carry.)S 290 41 220 101 rC 290.5 69.5 56 15 rS 291 70 56 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 451.064 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 460.146 118.159 :M (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 466.201 118.159 :M (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 469.228 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 472.255 118.159 :M (O)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 481.337 118.159 :M (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 484.364 118.159 :M (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 488.905 118.159 :M (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 496.473 118.159 :M (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 501.014 118.159 :M (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 507.069 118.159 :M (d)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 390.5 69.5 57 15 rS 390 70 57 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 613.024 118.159 :M f165 sf (I)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 617.564 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 623.619 118.159 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 628.16 118.159 :M f165 sf (B)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 635.728 118.159 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 640.269 118.159 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 646.324 118.159 :M f165 sf (d)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 333.5 41.5 66 14 rS 334 42 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 510.096 75.743 :M f165 sf (F)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 517.664 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 522.205 75.743 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 526.746 75.743 :M f165 sf (m)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 535.828 75.743 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 538.855 75.743 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 544.91 75.743 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 550.964 75.743 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 553.992 75.743 :M f165 sf (P)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 560.046 75.743 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 564.587 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 570.642 75.743 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 573.669 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 579.723 75.743 :M f165 sf (c)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 584.264 75.743 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 590.319 75.743 :M f165 sf (l)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 593.346 75.743 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 347.5 98.5 66 14 rS 347 98 67 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 534.314 162.09 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 543.396 162.09 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 549.451 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 555.505 162.09 :M f165 sf (-)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 560.046 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 566.101 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 570.642 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 575.183 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 581.237 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 587.292 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 593.346 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 597.887 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 602.428 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 606.969 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 613.024 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 423.5 98.5 66 14 rS 424 98 66 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 662.974 162.09 :M f165 sf (T)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 670.542 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 675.083 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 679.624 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 685.678 162.09 :M f165 sf (s)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 690.219 162.09 :M f165 sf (p)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 696.274 162.09 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 702.328 162.09 :M f165 sf (r)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 705.355 162.09 :M f165 sf (e)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 711.41 162.09 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 715.951 162.09 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gR gS 290 41 220 101 rC 404.5 127.5 48 13 rS 405 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 619.078 206.021 :M f165 sf (N)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 628.16 206.021 :M f165 sf (o)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 634.214 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 637.242 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 644.81 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 647.837 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 653.892 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 658.433 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 661.46 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 664.487 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 670.542 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR .8 G gS 290 41 220 101 rC 462 127 47 14 rF 0 G 461.5 127.5 47 13 rS 462 127 47 14 rC gS .661 .66 scale 702.328 206.021 :M f165 sf (D)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 711.41 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 715.951 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 718.978 206.021 :M f165 sf (a)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 723.519 206.021 :M f165 sf ( )S gR gS .661 .66 scale 726.546 206.021 :M f165 sf (S)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 734.115 206.021 :M f165 sf (t)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 737.142 206.021 :M f165 sf (u)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 743.196 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 746.224 206.021 :M f165 sf (f)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 750.765 206.021 :M f165 sf (i)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 753.792 206.021 :M f165 sf (n)S gR gS .661 .66 scale 759.846 206.021 :M f165 sf (g)S gR gR 0 G gS 290 41 220 101 rC -1 -1 319 70 1 1 366 56 @b 366 57 -1 1 419 69 1 366 56 @a -1 -1 382 99 1 1 418 84 @b -1 -1 429 128 1 1 456 112 @b 418 85 -1 1 457 98 1 418 84 @a 456 113 -1 1 486 127 1 456 112 @a endp showpage %%Page: 80 80 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 80 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 62 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.149 .115(Unlike SLIP and PPP, IBM BISYNC does not use its escape character \(DLE\) consi)J 467 56 :M (s)S 472 56 :M (-)S 42 74 :M 1.201 .12(tently. When placed in front of another DLE character, it indicates that the following)J 42 92 :M .241 .024(character is to be treated as data. When placed in front of any other character, it indicates)J 42 110 :M (that the following character is to be treated as a control character.)S 42 140 :M .833 .083(The use of the escape character in this way means that IBM BISYNC fails to meet the)J 42 158 :M 1.727 .173(strict definition of framing locality as required in this dissertation. This dissertation)J 42 176 :M 1.947 .195(defines the property )J 151 176 :M f243 sf (locality)S 187 176 :M f165 sf 2.028 .203( to mean that no combination of insertion, deletion, or)J 42 194 :M .309 .031(replacement errors preceeding the initial framing marker, nor following the final framing)J 42 212 :M .558 .056(marker, can prevent the receiver from receiving and decoding the packet correctly. IBM)J 42 230 :M .103 .01(BISYNC fails to meet that requirement because an erroneous DLE character received just)J 42 248 :M 1.974 .197(before the initial framing marker will make the receiver ignore the following DLE)J 42 266 :M .995 .099(character and consequently the receiver will fail to recognize the DLE ETX mark co)J 468 266 :M (r)S 472 266 :M (-)S 42 284 :M (rectly, causing the next packet to be lost as well.)S 92 330 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 331 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 317 @w 1.24 88 317.12 @c 121.24 89 317.12 @c 1.24 210 317.12 @c 210 317 1 1 rF 215.24 211 317.12 @c 1.24 426.12 317 @w 17.24 88.12 318 @w 210 318 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 318 @w 92 348 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 349 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 335 @w 88 335 122 1 rF 210 335 1 1 rF 211 335 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 335 @w 17.24 88.12 336 @w 210 336 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 336 @w 92 366 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 367 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 353 @w 88 353 122 1 rF 210 353 1 1 rF 211 353 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 353 @w 17.24 88.12 354 @w 210 354 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 354 @w 92 384 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 215 385 :M f543 sf (8)S .24 88.12 371 @w 88 371 122 1 rF 210 371 1 1 rF 211 371 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 371 @w 17.24 88.12 372 @w 210 372 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 372 @w 92 402 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 402 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 389 @w 88 389 122 1 rF 210 389 1 1 rF 211 389 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 389 @w 17.24 88.12 390 @w 210 390 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 390 @w 92 420 :M (Message Size)S 215 420 :M (Unlimited)S .24 88.12 407 @w 88 407 122 1 rF 210 407 1 1 rF 211 407 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 407 @w 17.24 88.12 408 @w 210 408 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 408 @w 92 438 :M (Overhead)S 215 442 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 442 :M f165 sf ( = 0.39%)S 287 442 :M f398 sf (b)S 294 442 :M f165 sf ( = 100%)S 359 442 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 32 bits)S .24 88.12 425 @w 88 425 122 1 rF 210 425 1 1 rF 211 425 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 425 @w 22.24 88.12 426 @w 1.24 88 448.12 @c 121.24 89 448.12 @c 210 426 1 22 rF 1.24 210 448.12 @c 215.24 211 448.12 @c 22.24 426.12 426 @w 103 476 :M f318 sf (Table 21. Summary of Framing Properties for IBM BISYNC)S endp showpage %%Page: 81 81 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 81 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 63 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.10.2)S f360 sf ( )S 115 68 :M f318 sf (Kermit)S 78 98 :M f165 sf .64 .064(Kermit was designed to allow file transfer between Columbia University\325s central time-)J 78 116 :M .556 .056(sharing system and personal computers connected over serial lines [Cru78])J 447 116 :M .667 .067(. The desig)J 502 116 :M (n-)S 78 134 :M .378 .038(ers could not assume that the communications path between the )J 393 134 :M .289 .029(time-sharing system and)J 78 152 :M 1.348 .135(a personal computer would reliably transmit characters other than printable seven-bit)J 78 170 :M 1.292 .129(ASCII \(0x20-0x7F\) and the ASCII SOH \(Start of heading\) character \(0x01\). For this)J 78 188 :M .252 .025(reason, the Kermit protocol uses an escape prefix for all ASCII control characters and all)J 78 206 :M .5 .05(characters that have the top-bit set. Control characters \(ASCII codes less than 0x20, and)J 78 224 :M 1.607 .161(0x7F\) have bit six inverted \(exclusive OR with 0x40\) and are prefixed with the \324#\325)J 78 242 :M 1.557 .156(character. Thus character code 0x01 is encoded as the two-character sequence \324#A\325.)J 78 260 :M 1.157 .116(ASCII characters that have the top-bit set have bit seven )J 370 260 :M .973 .097(inverted \(exclusive OR with)J 78 278 :M .704 .07(0x80\) and are prefixed with the \324&\325 character. Thus character code 0xC1 is encoded as)J 78 296 :M .675 .067(the two-character sequence \324&A\325. If inverting bit )J 325 296 :M .702 .07(seven results in a control character as)J 78 314 :M .742 .074(described above, then the first rule is also applied to the resulting character. Thus char)J 508 314 :M (-)S 78 332 :M .721 .072(acter code 0x81 is encoded as the three-character sequence \324A\325. This gives Kermit a)J 78 350 :M (worst-case expansion of three to one for pathological data.)S 78 380 :M .472 .047(Even in the average case for uniformly distributed data, Kermit is not very efficient. All)J 78 398 :M .623 .062(characters that have the top bit set \(half of them, on average\) add one prefix byte to the)J 78 416 :M .272 .027(output. This transformation reduces us to a space of 128 valid characters, and 35 of those)J 78 434 :M .37 .037(\(characters 0x00 to 0x1F, \324#\325, \324&\325 and 0x7F\) also add one prefix byte to the output. This)J 78 452 :M (means that, with its default encoding rules, Kermit expands uniformly distributed data by:)S 242 467 104 28 rC 346 495 :M psb currentpoint pse 242 467 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 3328 div 896 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 40 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 0 405 moveto 235 0 rlineto stroke 638 405 moveto 974 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 21 261 sh (2) 21 799 sh (32) 654 261 sh (3) 1415 261 sh (128) 828 799 sh (77) 2047 504 sh (34) 2527 504 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (+) 332 504 sh (+) 1125 261 sh (=) 1728 504 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (.) 2431 504 sh (%) 2911 504 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 78 522 :M f165 sf 1.016 .102(Of course, Kermit was not designed for transferring uniformly distributed data. It was)J 78 540 :M 1.384 .138(designed for transferring printable ASCII text where the only non-printable character)J 78 558 :M (likely to appear was the carriage return at the end of each line.)S endp showpage %%Page: 82 82 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 82 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 64 \321)S 92 54 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 55 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 41 @w 1.24 88 41.12 @c 121.24 89 41.12 @c 1.24 210 41.12 @c 210 41 1 1 rF 215.24 211 41.12 @c 1.24 426.12 41 @w 17.24 88.12 42 @w 210 42 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 42 @w 92 72 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 73 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 59 @w 88 59 122 1 rF 210 59 1 1 rF 211 59 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 59 @w 17.24 88.12 60 @w 210 60 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 60 @w 92 90 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 91 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 77 @w 88 77 122 1 rF 210 77 1 1 rF 211 77 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 77 @w 17.24 88.12 78 @w 210 78 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 78 @w 92 108 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 109 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 95 @w 88 95 122 1 rF 210 95 1 1 rF 211 95 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 95 @w 17.24 88.12 96 @w 210 96 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 96 @w 92 126 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 126 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 113 @w 88 113 122 1 rF 210 113 1 1 rF 211 113 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 113 @w 17.24 88.12 114 @w 210 114 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 114 @w 92 144 :M (Message Size)S 215 144 :M (Unlimited)S .24 88.12 131 @w 88 131 122 1 rF 210 131 1 1 rF 211 131 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 131 @w 17.24 88.12 132 @w 210 132 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 132 @w 92 162 :M (Overhead)S 215 166 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 166 :M f165 sf ( = 77.34%)S 287 166 :M f398 sf (b)S 294 166 :M f165 sf ( = 200%)S 359 166 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 8 bits)S .24 88.12 149 @w 88 149 122 1 rF 210 149 1 1 rF 211 149 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 149 @w 22.24 88.12 150 @w 1.24 88 172.12 @c 121.24 89 172.12 @c 210 150 1 22 rF 1.24 210 172.12 @c 215.24 211 172.12 @c 22.24 426.12 150 @w 120 200 :M f318 sf (Table 22. Summary of Framing Properties for Kermit)S endp showpage %%Page: 83 83 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 83 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 65 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.10.3)S f360 sf ( )S 115 68 :M f318 sf (ZMODEM)S 78 98 :M f165 sf .573 .057(ZMODEM [For96] uses a reserved value, the ASCII CAN \(Cancel\) character \(0x18\), to)J 78 116 :M .194 .019(mark the end of a packet, and uses character escape sequences to replace any occurrences)J 78 134 :M .521 .052(of ASCII CAN in the body of the data. In addition to escaping ASCII CAN, ZMODEM)J 78 152 :M .268 .027(also escapes other characters that can cause pro)J 309 152 :M .285 .028(blems in dial-up networks, such as the X-)J 78 170 :M (On and X-Off flow-control characters.)S 78 200 :M .948 .095(ZMODEM has the advantage that it provides rapid recovery after error, and the disa)J 502 200 :M (d-)S 78 218 :M 1.364 .136(vantage that in the worst case, where every data byte has to be replaced with a two-)J 78 236 :M (character escape sequence, it can double the size of the data.)S 128 282 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 283 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 269 @w 1.24 124 269.12 @c 121.24 125 269.12 @c 1.24 246 269.12 @c 246 269 1 1 rF 215.24 247 269.12 @c 1.24 462.12 269 @w 17.24 124.12 270 @w 246 270 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 270 @w 128 300 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 301 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 287 @w 124 287 122 1 rF 246 287 1 1 rF 247 287 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 287 @w 17.24 124.12 288 @w 246 288 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 288 @w 128 318 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 287 319 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 305 @w 124 305 122 1 rF 246 305 1 1 rF 247 305 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 305 @w 17.24 124.12 306 @w 246 306 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 306 @w 128 336 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 337 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 323 @w 124 323 122 1 rF 246 323 1 1 rF 247 323 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 323 @w 17.24 124.12 324 @w 246 324 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 324 @w 128 354 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 354 :M (Bytes)S .24 124.12 341 @w 124 341 122 1 rF 246 341 1 1 rF 247 341 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 341 @w 17.24 124.12 342 @w 246 342 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 342 @w 128 372 :M (Message Size)S 251 372 :M (Unlimited)S .24 124.12 359 @w 124 359 122 1 rF 246 359 1 1 rF 247 359 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 359 @w 17.24 124.12 360 @w 246 360 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 360 @w 128 390 :M (Overhead)S 251 394 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 394 :M f165 sf ( = 0.78%*)S 323 394 :M f398 sf (b)S 330 394 :M f165 sf ( = 100%)S 395 394 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 8 bits)S .24 124.12 377 @w 124 377 122 1 rF 246 377 1 1 rF 247 377 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 377 @w 22.24 124.12 378 @w 1.24 124 400.12 @c 121.24 125 400.12 @c 246 378 1 22 rF 1.24 246 400.12 @c 215.24 247 400.12 @c 22.24 462.12 378 @w 146 428 :M f318 sf (Table 23. Summary of Framing Properties for ZMODEM)S 114 458 :M f165 sf .403 .04(* The average overhead of 0.78% assumes that only two characters, CAN)J 114 476 :M .197 .02(and the escape character itself, are replaced by two-byte escape sequences.)J 114 494 :M (When more characters are escaped, the average overhead is higher.)S endp showpage %%Page: 84 84 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 84 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 66 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.10.4)S f360 sf ( )S 79 68 :M f318 sf (SLIP and AX.25)S 42 98 :M f165 sf .384 .038(Serial Line IP [RFC1055] is a very simple and straightforward encoding of IP [RFC791])J 42 116 :M (packets, which probably accounts for its widespread use today.)S 42 146 :M .14 .014(Like BISYNC and ZMODEM, SLIP uses a reserved end-of-packet character, and uses an)J 42 164 :M (escape code to transform the data to eliminate that end-of-packet character.)S 42 194 :M .175 .017(In SLIP, the end-of-packet character is octal 300 \(0xC0\). Anywhere that octal 300 occurs)J 42 212 :M .794 .079(in the packet data, it is replaced with the sequence octal [333, 334], and anywhere that)J 42 230 :M 1.25 .125(octal 333 occurs in the packet data, it is replaced with the sequence octal [333, 335].)J 42 248 :M 1.609 .161(Octal 300 is called the SLIP END character, and Octal 333 is called the SLIP ESC)J 42 266 :M (character.)S 42 296 :M 1.076 .108(Like BISYNC and ZMODEM, SLIP has the advantage that it provides rapid recovery)J 42 314 :M .704 .07(after error, and the disadvantage that in the worst case, where every data byte has to be)J 42 332 :M (replaced with an two-character escape sequence, it can double the size of the data.)S 42 362 :M .425 .042(AX.25 [ARRL84] is very similar to SLIP. AX.25 adds a link-layer header to the packet,)J 42 380 :M .722 .072(but the byte stuffing algorithm used is identical, so in terms of reliability and overhead)J 42 398 :M (variability it has the same advantages and drawbacks as SLIP.)S 92 444 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 445 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 431 @w 1.24 88 431.12 @c 121.24 89 431.12 @c 1.24 210 431.12 @c 210 431 1 1 rF 215.24 211 431.12 @c 1.24 426.12 431 @w 17.24 88.12 432 @w 210 432 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 432 @w 92 462 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 463 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 449 @w 88 449 122 1 rF 210 449 1 1 rF 211 449 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 449 @w 17.24 88.12 450 @w 210 450 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 450 @w 92 480 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 481 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 467 @w 88 467 122 1 rF 210 467 1 1 rF 211 467 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 467 @w 17.24 88.12 468 @w 210 468 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 468 @w 92 498 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 499 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 485 @w 88 485 122 1 rF 210 485 1 1 rF 211 485 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 485 @w 17.24 88.12 486 @w 210 486 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 486 @w 92 516 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 516 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 503 @w 88 503 122 1 rF 210 503 1 1 rF 211 503 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 503 @w 17.24 88.12 504 @w 210 504 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 504 @w 92 534 :M (Message Size)S 215 534 :M (Unlimited)S .24 88.12 521 @w 88 521 122 1 rF 210 521 1 1 rF 211 521 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 521 @w 17.24 88.12 522 @w 210 522 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 522 @w 92 552 :M (Overhead)S 215 556 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 556 :M f165 sf ( = 0.78%)S 287 556 :M f398 sf (b)S 294 556 :M f165 sf ( = 100%)S 359 556 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 8 bits)S .24 88.12 539 @w 88 539 122 1 rF 210 539 1 1 rF 211 539 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 539 @w 22.24 88.12 540 @w 1.24 88 562.12 @c 121.24 89 562.12 @c 210 540 1 22 rF 1.24 210 562.12 @c 215.24 211 562.12 @c 22.24 426.12 540 @w 108 590 :M f318 sf (Table 24. Summary of Framing Properties for SLIP/AX.25)S endp showpage %%Page: 85 85 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 85 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 67 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.10.5)S f360 sf ( )S 115 68 :M f318 sf (PPP)S 78 98 :M f165 sf .237 .024(PPP, the Point-To-Point Protocol [RFC)J 269 98 :M .272 .027(1661] improves on SLIP by providing support for)J 78 116 :M 1.687 .169(sending other protocols in addition to IP. PPP also provides support for encryption,)J 78 134 :M .472 .047(authentication, and many other services, including the provision for optional negotiation)J 78 152 :M .89 .089(of future protocol extensions. However, in the context of this dissertation, the relevant)J 78 170 :M .576 .058(aspect of PPP is how it frames its packets, as specified in \324PPP in HDLC-like Framing\325)J 78 188 :M ([RFC)S 105 188 :M .505 .051(1662]. While PPP\325s Link Control Protocol, described in \324The Point-to-Point Prot)J 502 188 :M (o-)S 78 206 :M 1.829 .183(col \(PPP\)\325 [RFC1661] allows implementations of PPP to negotiate with their peers)J 78 224 :M 1.248 .125(regarding the use of new optional features, when this dissertation refers to \324PPP byte)J 78 242 :M .025 .002(stuffing\325, it is referring to this conventional implementation of PPP framing, which is also)J 78 260 :M .495 .049(referred to variously as \324AHDLC\325 \(when used on asynchronous links\) or \324octet synchr)J 502 260 :M (o-)S 78 278 :M .047 .005(nous\325 \(when used on synchronous links\), not some future PPP implementation augmented)J 78 296 :M (to use a new framing mechanism \(such as COBS\).)S 78 326 :M 1.474 .147(In its simplest form of operation, the standard PPP framing technique is identical to)J 78 344 :M .967 .097(SLIP\325s technique with different character values used in place of SLIP ESC and SLIP)J 78 362 :M .607 .061(END. PPP\325s end-of-packet character is ASCII \324~\325, \(0x7E\), which in binary is 01111110)J 78 380 :M .24 .024(\(the same as the HDLC frame delimiter\). PPP\325s escape character is 0x7D. Anywhere that)J 78 398 :M 1.652 .165(0x7E occurs in the packet data, it is replaced with the sequence [0x7D, 0x5E], and)J 78 416 :M .929 .093(anywhere that 0x7D occurs in the packet data, it is replaced with the sequence [0x7D,)J 78 434 :M .151 .015(0x5D]. However, instead of just defining these two specific substitutions as special cases,)J 78 452 :M 1.249 .125(PPP goes further to define a general rule of how characters are escaped: To escape a)J 78 470 :M .127 .013(character that should not appear in the transmitted packet data, PPP prefixes the character)J 78 488 :M .663 .066(with 0x7D and inverts bit five of the character \(i.e. it is exclusive or\325d with 0x20\). The)J 78 506 :M .328 .033(receiver performs the reverse process: whenever it sees the Control Escape value \(0x7D\))J 78 524 :M (it discards that byte and XORs the following byte with 0x20 to recreate the original input.)S 78 554 :M .275 .027(Unlike SLIP\325s specific substitutions, PPP\325s more general definition of character escaping)J 78 572 :M .794 .079(allows it to also escape other characters that may need to be eliminated from the tran)J 503 572 :M (s)S 508 572 :M (-)S 78 590 :M .139 .014(mitted packet data for other reasons. For example, if the packet is to be transmitted over a)J 78 608 :M 1.063 .106(non-transparent dial-up network it may be necessary to eliminate the X-On and X-Off)J 78 626 :M 1.413 .141(flow-control characters. In extreme cases, PPP is able to eliminate all ASCII control)J 78 644 :M .869 .087(characters \(0x00-0x1F\) from the transmitted packet data, by prefixing all of them with)J 78 662 :M .445 .045(0x7D and exclusive or\325ing with 0x20 to map those characters into the range 0x20-0x3F.)J endp showpage %%Page: 86 86 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 86 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 68 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.019 .102(It is equally possible to do this kind of multiple value elimination using a COBS-type)J 42 74 :M .958 .096(algorithm, but the subject of this dissertation is the minimal byte stuffing necessary to)J 42 92 :M .239 .024(facilitate reliable unambiguous packet framing, not extensive byte stuffing to compensate)J 42 110 :M (for non-transparency of the underlying network.)S 42 140 :M .336 .034(Like BISYNC, ZMODEM and SLIP, PPP has the advantage that it provides rapid reco)J 466 140 :M (v-)S 42 158 :M .54 .054(ery after error, and the disadvantage that in the worst case, where every data byte has to)J 42 176 :M 1.13 .113(be replaced with an two-character escape sequence, it can double the size of the data.)J 42 194 :M .562 .056(This overhead is much worse than HDLC\325s worst case of only 20%, but PPP byte stuff)J 472 194 :M (-)S 42 212 :M 1.341 .134(ing has the advantage that it can be implemented efficiently in software quite easily.)J 42 230 :M (HDLC is described below.)S 92 276 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 277 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 263 @w 1.24 88 263.12 @c 121.24 89 263.12 @c 1.24 210 263.12 @c 210 263 1 1 rF 215.24 211 263.12 @c 1.24 426.12 263 @w 17.24 88.12 264 @w 210 264 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 264 @w 92 294 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 295 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 281 @w 88 281 122 1 rF 210 281 1 1 rF 211 281 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 281 @w 17.24 88.12 282 @w 210 282 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 282 @w 92 312 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 313 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 299 @w 88 299 122 1 rF 210 299 1 1 rF 211 299 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 299 @w 17.24 88.12 300 @w 210 300 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 300 @w 92 330 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 331 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 317 @w 88 317 122 1 rF 210 317 1 1 rF 211 317 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 317 @w 17.24 88.12 318 @w 210 318 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 318 @w 92 348 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 348 :M (Bytes)S .24 88.12 335 @w 88 335 122 1 rF 210 335 1 1 rF 211 335 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 335 @w 17.24 88.12 336 @w 210 336 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 336 @w 92 366 :M (Message Size)S 215 366 :M (Unlimited)S .24 88.12 353 @w 88 353 122 1 rF 210 353 1 1 rF 211 353 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 353 @w 17.24 88.12 354 @w 210 354 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 354 @w 92 384 :M (Overhead)S 215 388 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 388 :M f165 sf ( = 0.78%)S 287 388 :M f398 sf (b)S 294 388 :M f165 sf ( = 100%)S 359 388 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 8 bits)S .24 88.12 371 @w 88 371 122 1 rF 210 371 1 1 rF 211 371 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 371 @w 22.24 88.12 372 @w 1.24 88 394.12 @c 121.24 89 394.12 @c 210 372 1 22 rF 1.24 210 394.12 @c 215.24 211 394.12 @c 22.24 426.12 372 @w 128 422 :M f318 sf (Table 25. Summary of Framing Properties for PPP)S endp showpage %%Page: 87 87 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 87 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 69 \321)S 78 68 :M f318 sf (2.10.6)S f360 sf ( )S 115 68 :M f318 sf (John Gill\325s XWindow Modem Protocol)S 78 98 :M f165 sf 1.702 .17(In 1991, John Gill at Stanford University devised a protocol for framing XWindow)J 78 116 :M .967 .097(protocol units over a modem connection or a 56kb/sec serial line, for the local Digital)J 78 134 :M (Equipment Corporation office in Palo Alto [Gill96].)S 78 164 :M .587 .059(John Gill\325s protocol uses byte value 0xFF as the framing character; hence it must elimi-)J 78 182 :M 1.582 .158(nate all occurrences of 0xFF from the packet payload. Gill does this elimination by)J 78 200 :M .138 .014(beginning each packet with a \324pointer byte\325. The pointer byte gives the address within the)J 78 218 :M .403 .04(packet of the first occurrence of 0xFF; if there is no occurrence, this pointer is zero. The)J 78 236 :M 1.09 .109(address pointed to by the first byte contains either a pointer to the next occurrence of)J 78 254 :M .656 .066(0xFF or a zero to mark the end of the chain, and so on. One of the nice features of this)J 78 272 :M 1.354 .135(scheme is that the escape bytes can be written back into their locations in the buffer)J 78 290 :M .568 .057(without moving data around; this is useful when data has been copied in by some dumb)J 78 308 :M (I/O device [Gill96].)S 78 338 :M .434 .043(This data transformation is elegant and easy to implement efficiently in software, but its)J 78 356 :M .089 .009(drawback is that it cannot encode packets of arbitrary size. The pointer bytes each have to)J 78 374 :M .547 .055(fit into one byte, and byte value 0xFF is reserved as the framing marker, so only values)J 78 392 :M .229 .023(0x00 to 0xFE can be used. This limitation means that the protocol cannot directly encode)J 78 410 :M .729 .073(packets longer than 254 bytes \(not including the initial pointer byte, which is added by)J 78 428 :M (the encoding\).)S 128 474 :M (In-Band Framing)S 287 475 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 124.12 461 @w 1.24 124 461.12 @c 121.24 125 461.12 @c 1.24 246 461.12 @c 246 461 1 1 rF 215.24 247 461.12 @c 1.24 462.12 461 @w 17.24 124.12 462 @w 246 462 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 462 @w 128 492 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 287 493 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 479 @w 124 479 122 1 rF 246 479 1 1 rF 247 479 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 479 @w 17.24 124.12 480 @w 246 480 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 480 @w 128 510 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 287 511 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 497 @w 124 497 122 1 rF 246 497 1 1 rF 247 497 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 497 @w 17.24 124.12 498 @w 246 498 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 498 @w 128 528 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 287 529 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 124.12 515 @w 124 515 122 1 rF 246 515 1 1 rF 247 515 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 515 @w 17.24 124.12 516 @w 246 516 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 516 @w 128 546 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 251 546 :M (Bytes)S .24 124.12 533 @w 124 533 122 1 rF 246 533 1 1 rF 247 533 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 533 @w 17.24 124.12 534 @w 246 534 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 534 @w 128 564 :M (Message Size)S 251 564 :M (Variable, up to 254 bytes)S .24 124.12 551 @w 124 551 122 1 rF 246 551 1 1 rF 247 551 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 551 @w 17.24 124.12 552 @w 246 552 1 17 rF 17.24 462.12 552 @w 128 582 :M (Overhead)S 251 586 :M f398 sf (a)S 259 586 :M f165 sf ( = 0%)S 323 586 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 8 bits)S .24 124.12 569 @w 124 569 122 1 rF 246 569 1 1 rF 247 569 215 1 rF 1.24 462.12 569 @w 22.24 124.12 570 @w 1.24 124 592.12 @c 121.24 125 592.12 @c 246 570 1 22 rF 1.24 246 592.12 @c 215.24 247 592.12 @c 22.24 462.12 570 @w 137 620 :M f318 sf (Table 26. Summary of Framing Properties for Gill\325s Prot)S 430 620 :M (ocol)S endp showpage %%Page: 88 88 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 88 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 70 \321)S 42 68 :M f318 sf (2.10.7)S f360 sf ( )S 79 68 :M f318 sf (HDLC)S 42 98 :M f165 sf .335 .033(Many of the protocols above operate on eight-bit bytes and assume that some underlying)J 42 116 :M 1.478 .148(hardware or software protocol will interpret the raw electrical signal, detect the byte)J 42 134 :M 1.968 .197(boundaries correctly, and present convenient eight-bit bytes for the packet framing)J 42 152 :M 1.676 .168(protocol to operate on. In contrast, HDLC [ECMA-40] is a bit stuffing scheme that)J 42 170 :M .457 .046(operates on the raw stream of binary digits. It uses the binary sequence 01111110 as the)J 42 188 :M .601 .06(frame delimiter. This delimiter appears immediately before and immediately after every)J 42 206 :M .352 .035(frame, and there can be no pause within the data of a frame. If two frames are sent back-)J 42 224 :M .567 .057(to-back, then the ending delimiter of one frame may also be the starting delimiter of the)J 42 242 :M .928 .093(next. If there is an extended pause between frames, then a continuous stream of frame)J 42 260 :M (delimiters may be sent to fill the idle time.)S 42 290 :M 1.001 .1(A binary sequence of seven or more ones in a row is the abort sequence. A binary se-)J 42 308 :M .125 .012(quence of fifteen or more ones in a row is the idle sequence, and may be used instead of a)J 42 326 :M 1.299 .13(continuous stream of frame delimiters. The idle sequence also implies abort; the idle)J 42 344 :M .871 .087(sequence may be used in spaces between packets, but it may not be used to generate a)J 42 362 :M (pause within a packet.)S 42 392 :M .406 .041(For HDLC to work properly, the frame delimiter, abort, and idle patterns must not occur)J 42 410 :M .873 .087(anywhere within the data of a frame. To eliminate these patterns from the data, HDLC)J 42 428 :M .281 .028(uses the following transformation: Whenever the transmitter observes five ones in a row,)J 42 446 :M .13 .013(it inserts a zero immediately following. This procedure eliminates the possibility of six or)J 42 464 :M 1.198 .12(more ones ever occurring inadvertently in the data. The receiver performs the reverse)J 42 482 :M .844 .084(process: After observing five ones in a row, it examines the next binary digit. If it is a)J 42 500 :M 1.246 .125(zero, the digit is deleted and reception of the frame continues. If it is a one, then the)J 42 518 :M .24 .024(receiver knows it is seeing a special control sequence and it examines the following digit)J 42 536 :M .322 .032(after that to determine what action to take. If it is a zero then this is a frame delimiter, so)J 42 554 :M 1.014 .101(the complete frame is handed up to the next protocol layer. If it is a one then it is the)J 42 572 :M 1.231 .123(abort sequence, and any current frame data that had been received up to that point is)J 42 590 :M (discarded.)S 42 620 :M .95 .095(HDLC has many good properties. After an error it always resynchronizes immediately)J 42 638 :M .381 .038(upon reception of the next frame delimiter, and it is transparent to higher layers. Even in)J endp showpage %%Page: 89 89 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 89 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 71 \321)S 78 56 :M .444 .044(the worst case \(frame data that is entirely binary ones\) HDLC\325s insertion of extra zeroes)J 78 74 :M (\(\324bit stuffing\325 or \324zero insertion\325\) adds only 20% to the tran)S 363 74 :M (s)S 368 74 :M (mitted size of the data.)S 78 104 :M .514 .051(The drawback of HDLC is that it requires bit-by-bit processing of the data. This kind of)J 78 122 :M .486 .049(bit-level manipulation is easy to implement in the hardware of a serial transmitter, but it)J 78 140 :M .159 .016(is not easy to implement efficiently in software. Software gets efficiency from working in)J 78 158 :M .54 .054(units of 8, 32, or more bits at a time, using on-chip registers and wide data buses. Algo-)J 78 176 :M .561 .056(rithms that are specified in terms of individual bits can be hard to implement efficiently)J 78 194 :M 1.14 .114(in software because the output byte-stream is not kept \324in-phase\325 with the input byte-)J 78 212 :M .254 .025(stream, making it difficult to take good advantage of the processor\325s ability to operate on)J 78 230 :M .429 .043(bytes or words at a time. A hardware implementation of HDLC typically reads a bit at a)J 78 248 :M 1.54 .154(time, and writes one or two bits in response, depending on whether a stuffing event)J 78 266 :M .088 .009(occurs. An efficient software HDLC implementation could be written that reads eight bits)J 78 284 :M .057 .006(at a time, but it would then have to write eight, nine, or ten bits in response, depending on)J 78 302 :M .728 .073(whether zero, one, or two stuffing events occur within those eight bits. Writing nine or)J 78 320 :M .869 .087(ten bits to memory is not an operation that is usually supported efficiently by memory)J 78 338 :M .196 .02(systems, and even if it were, it would mean that the following write would not be aligned)J 78 356 :M .747 .075(to an eight-bit boundary. An algorithm could be devised that wrote only eight bits, and)J 78 374 :M .06 .006(kept any additional bits stored in the form of internal state in the finite state machine until)J 78 392 :M 1.067 .107(sufficient stored bits had accumulated for it to write out an entire byte of stored state.)J 78 410 :M .751 .075(This approach is possible but it would result in a finite state machine with 251 internal)J 78 428 :M .354 .035(states, and in each state, 256 different one- or two-byte outputs and next-state transitions)J 78 446 :M 1.654 .165(depending on the value of the input. Such a finite state machine would not be very)J 78 464 :M .895 .09(amenable to efficient compact software implementation. It would require either a large)J 78 482 :M .358 .036(lookup table of state transitions, which would not be very compact, or it would require a)J 78 500 :M 1.024 .102(smaller state table in conjunction with shifting and masking of bits in registers, which)J 78 518 :M (would not be very efficient.)S endp showpage %%Page: 90 90 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 90 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 72 \321)S 92 54 :M (In-Band Framing)S 251 55 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 lw 1.24 88.12 41 @w 1.24 88 41.12 @c 121.24 89 41.12 @c 1.24 210 41.12 @c 210 41 1 1 rF 215.24 211 41.12 @c 1.24 426.12 41 @w 17.24 88.12 42 @w 210 42 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 42 @w 92 72 :M f165 sf (Transparency)S 251 73 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 59 @w 88 59 122 1 rF 210 59 1 1 rF 211 59 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 59 @w 17.24 88.12 60 @w 210 60 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 60 @w 92 90 :M f165 sf (Reliability)S 251 91 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 77 @w 88 77 122 1 rF 210 77 1 1 rF 211 77 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 77 @w 17.24 88.12 78 @w 210 78 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 78 @w 92 108 :M f165 sf (Locality)S 251 109 :M f543 sf (4)S .24 88.12 95 @w 88 95 122 1 rF 210 95 1 1 rF 211 95 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 95 @w 17.24 88.12 96 @w 210 96 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 96 @w 92 126 :M f165 sf (Underlying Unit)S 215 126 :M (Bits)S .24 88.12 113 @w 88 113 122 1 rF 210 113 1 1 rF 211 113 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 113 @w 17.24 88.12 114 @w 210 114 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 114 @w 92 144 :M (Message Size)S 215 144 :M (Unlimited)S .24 88.12 131 @w 88 131 122 1 rF 210 131 1 1 rF 211 131 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 131 @w 17.24 88.12 132 @w 210 132 1 17 rF 17.24 426.12 132 @w 92 162 :M (Overhead)S 215 166 :M f398 sf (a)S 223 166 :M f165 sf ( = 1.56%)S 287 166 :M f398 sf (b)S 294 166 :M f165 sf ( = 20%)S 359 166 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 8 bits)S .24 88.12 149 @w 88 149 122 1 rF 210 149 1 1 rF 211 149 215 1 rF 1.24 426.12 149 @w 22.24 88.12 150 @w 1.24 88 172.12 @c 121.24 89 172.12 @c 210 150 1 22 rF 1.24 210 172.12 @c 215.24 211 172.12 @c 22.24 426.12 150 @w 121 200 :M f318 sf (Table 27. Summary of Framing Properties for HDLC)S endp showpage %%Page: 91 91 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 91 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 73 \321)S 78 74 :M f318 sf (2.11)S f360 sf ( )S 106 74 :M f318 sf (Summary of Framing Protocols)S 78 104 :M f165 sf (The following table summarizes the properties of all the protocols described above:)S 177 150 :M f631 sf (In-)S 164 151 35 14 rC 173 161 :M (Band)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 205 150 :M f631 sf (Transp-)S 200 151 35 14 rC 206 161 :M (arency)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 244 150 :M f631 sf (Relia-)S 236 151 35 14 rC 245 161 :M (bility)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 279 150 :M f631 sf (Local-)S 285 161 :M (ity)S 312 150 :M (Underly-)S 312 161 :M (ing Unit)S 355 150 :M (Message)S 355 161 :M (Size)S 402 137 35 19 rC 413 151 :M f646 sf (a)S 419 151 :M f631 sf ( \(%\))S gR gS 438 137 35 19 rC 450 151 :M f646 sf (b)S 455 151 :M f631 sf ( \(%\))S gR gS 474 137 35 17 rC 482 150 :M f661 sf (k)S 486 150 :M f631 sf ( \(bits\))S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 163 137.12 @c 163 137 1 1 rF 35.24 164 137.12 @c 1.24 199.12 137 @w 1.24 199 137.12 @c 35.24 200 137.12 @c 1.24 235.12 137 @w 1.24 235 137.12 @c 35.24 236 137.12 @c 1.24 271.12 137 @w 1.24 271 137.12 @c 35.24 272 137.12 @c 1.24 307.12 137 @w 1.24 307 137.12 @c 43.24 308 137.12 @c 1.24 351.12 137 @w 1.24 351 137.12 @c 49.24 352 137.12 @c 1.24 401.12 137 @w 1.24 401 137.12 @c 35.24 402 137.12 @c 1.24 437.12 137 @w 1.24 437 137.12 @c 35.24 438 137.12 @c 1.24 473.12 137 @w 1.24 473 137.12 @c 35.24 474 137.12 @c 1.24 509.12 137 @w 163 138 1 27 rF 27.24 199.12 138 @w 27.24 235.12 138 @w 27.24 271.12 138 @w 27.24 307.12 138 @w 27.24 351.12 138 @w 27.24 401.12 138 @w 27.24 437.12 138 @w 27.24 473.12 138 @w 27.24 509.12 138 @w 82 178 :M f631 sf (Ethernet)S 214 176 :M f676 sf (4)S 250 176 :M (4)S 286 176 :M (4)S 312 178 :M f631 sf (Physical)S 355 178 :M (Unlimited)S 402 165 35 17 rC 421 178 :M (100)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 491 178 :M f631 sf (64)S .24 lw .24 77.12 165 @w 77 165 86 1 rF 163 165 1 1 rF 164 165 35 1 rF 199 165 1 1 rF 200 165 35 1 rF 235 165 1 1 rF 236 165 35 1 rF 271 165 1 1 rF 272 165 35 1 rF 307 165 1 1 rF 308 165 43 1 rF 351 165 1 1 rF 352 165 49 1 rF 401 165 1 1 rF 402 165 35 1 rF 437 165 1 1 rF 438 165 35 1 rF 473 165 1 1 rF 474 165 35 1 rF 1.24 509.12 165 @w 16.24 77.12 166 @w 163 166 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 166 @w 16.24 235.12 166 @w 16.24 271.12 166 @w 16.24 307.12 166 @w 16.24 351.12 166 @w 16.24 401.12 166 @w 16.24 437.12 166 @w 16.24 473.12 166 @w 16.24 509.12 166 @w 82 195 :M (Token Ring)S 214 193 :M f676 sf (4)S 250 193 :M (4)S 286 193 :M (4)S 312 195 :M f631 sf (Physical)S 355 195 :M (Unlimited)S 402 182 35 17 rC 421 195 :M (100)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 495 195 :M f631 sf (8)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 182 @w 1.24 77 182.12 @c 85.24 78 182.12 @c 163 182 1 1 rF 35.24 164 182.12 @c 1.24 199.12 182 @w 1.24 199 182.12 @c 35.24 200 182.12 @c 1.24 235.12 182 @w 1.24 235 182.12 @c 35.24 236 182.12 @c 1.24 271.12 182 @w 1.24 271 182.12 @c 35.24 272 182.12 @c 1.24 307.12 182 @w 1.24 307 182.12 @c 43.24 308 182.12 @c 1.24 351.12 182 @w 1.24 351 182.12 @c 49.24 352 182.12 @c 1.24 401.12 182 @w 1.24 401 182.12 @c 35.24 402 182.12 @c 1.24 437.12 182 @w 1.24 437 182.12 @c 35.24 438 182.12 @c 1.24 473.12 182 @w 1.24 473 182.12 @c 35.24 474 182.12 @c 1.24 509.12 182 @w 16.24 77.12 183 @w 163 183 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 183 @w 16.24 235.12 183 @w 16.24 271.12 183 @w 16.24 307.12 183 @w 16.24 351.12 183 @w 16.24 401.12 183 @w 16.24 437.12 183 @w 16.24 473.12 183 @w 16.24 509.12 183 @w 82 212 :M (FDDI)S 178 210 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 210 :M (4)S 250 210 :M (4)S 286 210 :M (4)S 312 212 :M f631 sf (Physical)S 355 212 :M (Unlimited)S 402 199 35 17 rC 426 212 :M (25)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 486 212 :M f631 sf (280)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 199 @w 1.24 77 199.12 @c 85.24 78 199.12 @c 163 199 1 1 rF 35.24 164 199.12 @c 1.24 199.12 199 @w 1.24 199 199.12 @c 35.24 200 199.12 @c 1.24 235.12 199 @w 1.24 235 199.12 @c 35.24 236 199.12 @c 1.24 271.12 199 @w 1.24 271 199.12 @c 35.24 272 199.12 @c 1.24 307.12 199 @w 1.24 307 199.12 @c 43.24 308 199.12 @c 1.24 351.12 199 @w 1.24 351 199.12 @c 49.24 352 199.12 @c 1.24 401.12 199 @w 1.24 401 199.12 @c 35.24 402 199.12 @c 1.24 437.12 199 @w 1.24 437 199.12 @c 35.24 438 199.12 @c 1.24 473.12 199 @w 1.24 473 199.12 @c 35.24 474 199.12 @c 1.24 509.12 199 @w 16.24 77.12 200 @w 163 200 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 200 @w 16.24 235.12 200 @w 16.24 271.12 200 @w 16.24 307.12 200 @w 16.24 351.12 200 @w 16.24 401.12 200 @w 16.24 437.12 200 @w 16.24 473.12 200 @w 16.24 509.12 200 @w 82 229 :M (Teletext)S 214 227 :M f676 sf (4)S 250 227 :M (4)S 286 227 :M (4)S 312 229 :M f631 sf (Physical)S 355 229 :M (40 chars)S 402 216 35 17 rC 426 229 :M (20)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 216 @w 1.24 77 216.12 @c 85.24 78 216.12 @c 163 216 1 1 rF 35.24 164 216.12 @c 1.24 199.12 216 @w 1.24 199 216.12 @c 35.24 200 216.12 @c 1.24 235.12 216 @w 1.24 235 216.12 @c 35.24 236 216.12 @c 1.24 271.12 216 @w 1.24 271 216.12 @c 35.24 272 216.12 @c 1.24 307.12 216 @w 1.24 307 216.12 @c 43.24 308 216.12 @c 1.24 351.12 216 @w 1.24 351 216.12 @c 49.24 352 216.12 @c 1.24 401.12 216 @w 1.24 401 216.12 @c 35.24 402 216.12 @c 1.24 437.12 216 @w 1.24 437 216.12 @c 35.24 438 216.12 @c 1.24 473.12 216 @w 1.24 473 216.12 @c 35.24 474 216.12 @c 1.24 509.12 216 @w 16.24 77.12 217 @w 163 217 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 217 @w 16.24 235.12 217 @w 16.24 271.12 217 @w 16.24 307.12 217 @w 16.24 351.12 217 @w 16.24 401.12 217 @w 16.24 437.12 217 @w 16.24 473.12 217 @w 16.24 509.12 217 @w 82 246 :M f631 sf (ISDN \324S\325)S 214 244 :M f676 sf (4)S 250 244 :M (4)S 286 244 :M (4)S 312 246 :M f631 sf (Physical)S 355 246 :M (32 bits)S 402 233 35 17 rC 426 246 :M (50)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 233 @w 1.24 77 233.12 @c 85.24 78 233.12 @c 163 233 1 1 rF 35.24 164 233.12 @c 1.24 199.12 233 @w 1.24 199 233.12 @c 35.24 200 233.12 @c 1.24 235.12 233 @w 1.24 235 233.12 @c 35.24 236 233.12 @c 1.24 271.12 233 @w 1.24 271 233.12 @c 35.24 272 233.12 @c 1.24 307.12 233 @w 1.24 307 233.12 @c 43.24 308 233.12 @c 1.24 351.12 233 @w 1.24 351 233.12 @c 49.24 352 233.12 @c 1.24 401.12 233 @w 1.24 401 233.12 @c 35.24 402 233.12 @c 1.24 437.12 233 @w 1.24 437 233.12 @c 35.24 438 233.12 @c 1.24 473.12 233 @w 1.24 473 233.12 @c 35.24 474 233.12 @c 1.24 509.12 233 @w 16.24 77.12 234 @w 163 234 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 234 @w 16.24 235.12 234 @w 16.24 271.12 234 @w 16.24 307.12 234 @w 16.24 351.12 234 @w 16.24 401.12 234 @w 16.24 437.12 234 @w 16.24 473.12 234 @w 16.24 509.12 234 @w 82 263 :M f631 sf (U.S. ISDN \324U\325)S 178 261 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 261 :M (4)S 286 261 :M (4)S 312 263 :M f631 sf (Quats)S 355 263 :M (192 bits)S 402 250 35 17 rC 426 263 :M (25)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 250 @w 1.24 77 250.12 @c 85.24 78 250.12 @c 163 250 1 1 rF 35.24 164 250.12 @c 1.24 199.12 250 @w 1.24 199 250.12 @c 35.24 200 250.12 @c 1.24 235.12 250 @w 1.24 235 250.12 @c 35.24 236 250.12 @c 1.24 271.12 250 @w 1.24 271 250.12 @c 35.24 272 250.12 @c 1.24 307.12 250 @w 1.24 307 250.12 @c 43.24 308 250.12 @c 1.24 351.12 250 @w 1.24 351 250.12 @c 49.24 352 250.12 @c 1.24 401.12 250 @w 1.24 401 250.12 @c 35.24 402 250.12 @c 1.24 437.12 250 @w 1.24 437 250.12 @c 35.24 438 250.12 @c 1.24 473.12 250 @w 1.24 473 250.12 @c 35.24 474 250.12 @c 1.24 509.12 250 @w 16.24 77.12 251 @w 163 251 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 251 @w 16.24 235.12 251 @w 16.24 271.12 251 @w 16.24 307.12 251 @w 16.24 351.12 251 @w 16.24 401.12 251 @w 16.24 437.12 251 @w 16.24 473.12 251 @w 16.24 509.12 251 @w 82 280 :M f631 sf (Non-U.S. ISDN \324U\325)S 178 278 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 278 :M (4)S 286 278 :M (4)S 312 280 :M f631 sf (Ternary)S 355 280 :M (192 bits)S 402 267 35 17 rC 424 280 :M (6.8)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 267 @w 1.24 77 267.12 @c 85.24 78 267.12 @c 163 267 1 1 rF 35.24 164 267.12 @c 1.24 199.12 267 @w 1.24 199 267.12 @c 35.24 200 267.12 @c 1.24 235.12 267 @w 1.24 235 267.12 @c 35.24 236 267.12 @c 1.24 271.12 267 @w 1.24 271 267.12 @c 35.24 272 267.12 @c 1.24 307.12 267 @w 1.24 307 267.12 @c 43.24 308 267.12 @c 1.24 351.12 267 @w 1.24 351 267.12 @c 49.24 352 267.12 @c 1.24 401.12 267 @w 1.24 401 267.12 @c 35.24 402 267.12 @c 1.24 437.12 267 @w 1.24 437 267.12 @c 35.24 438 267.12 @c 1.24 473.12 267 @w 1.24 473 267.12 @c 35.24 474 267.12 @c 1.24 509.12 267 @w 16.24 77.12 268 @w 163 268 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 268 @w 16.24 235.12 268 @w 16.24 271.12 268 @w 16.24 307.12 268 @w 16.24 351.12 268 @w 16.24 401.12 268 @w 16.24 437.12 268 @w 16.24 473.12 268 @w 16.24 509.12 268 @w 82 297 :M f631 sf (MPEG)S 178 295 :M f676 sf (4)S 312 297 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 355 297 :M (Unlimited)S 402 284 35 17 rC 430 297 :M (0)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 491 297 :M f631 sf (32)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 284 @w 1.24 77 284.12 @c 85.24 78 284.12 @c 163 284 1 1 rF 35.24 164 284.12 @c 1.24 199.12 284 @w 1.24 199 284.12 @c 35.24 200 284.12 @c 1.24 235.12 284 @w 1.24 235 284.12 @c 35.24 236 284.12 @c 1.24 271.12 284 @w 1.24 271 284.12 @c 35.24 272 284.12 @c 1.24 307.12 284 @w 1.24 307 284.12 @c 43.24 308 284.12 @c 1.24 351.12 284 @w 1.24 351 284.12 @c 49.24 352 284.12 @c 1.24 401.12 284 @w 1.24 401 284.12 @c 35.24 402 284.12 @c 1.24 437.12 284 @w 1.24 437 284.12 @c 35.24 438 284.12 @c 1.24 473.12 284 @w 1.24 473 284.12 @c 35.24 474 284.12 @c 1.24 509.12 284 @w 16.24 77.12 285 @w 163 285 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 285 @w 16.24 235.12 285 @w 16.24 271.12 285 @w 16.24 307.12 285 @w 16.24 351.12 285 @w 16.24 401.12 285 @w 16.24 437.12 285 @w 16.24 473.12 285 @w 16.24 509.12 285 @w 82 314 :M (T-1 D4/AMI)S 178 312 :M f676 sf (4)S 312 314 :M f631 sf (Bits)S 355 314 :M (192 bits)S 402 301 35 17 rC 419 314 :M (0.52)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 301 @w 1.24 77 301.12 @c 85.24 78 301.12 @c 163 301 1 1 rF 35.24 164 301.12 @c 1.24 199.12 301 @w 1.24 199 301.12 @c 35.24 200 301.12 @c 1.24 235.12 301 @w 1.24 235 301.12 @c 35.24 236 301.12 @c 1.24 271.12 301 @w 1.24 271 301.12 @c 35.24 272 301.12 @c 1.24 307.12 301 @w 1.24 307 301.12 @c 43.24 308 301.12 @c 1.24 351.12 301 @w 1.24 351 301.12 @c 49.24 352 301.12 @c 1.24 401.12 301 @w 1.24 401 301.12 @c 35.24 402 301.12 @c 1.24 437.12 301 @w 1.24 437 301.12 @c 35.24 438 301.12 @c 1.24 473.12 301 @w 1.24 473 301.12 @c 35.24 474 301.12 @c 1.24 509.12 301 @w 16.24 77.12 302 @w 163 302 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 302 @w 16.24 235.12 302 @w 16.24 271.12 302 @w 16.24 307.12 302 @w 16.24 351.12 302 @w 16.24 401.12 302 @w 16.24 437.12 302 @w 16.24 473.12 302 @w 16.24 509.12 302 @w 82 331 :M f631 sf (T-1 ESF/B8ZS)S 178 329 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 329 :M (4)S 312 331 :M f631 sf (Bits)S 355 331 :M (192 bits)S 402 318 35 17 rC 419 331 :M (0.52)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 318 @w 1.24 77 318.12 @c 85.24 78 318.12 @c 163 318 1 1 rF 35.24 164 318.12 @c 1.24 199.12 318 @w 1.24 199 318.12 @c 35.24 200 318.12 @c 1.24 235.12 318 @w 1.24 235 318.12 @c 35.24 236 318.12 @c 1.24 271.12 318 @w 1.24 271 318.12 @c 35.24 272 318.12 @c 1.24 307.12 318 @w 1.24 307 318.12 @c 43.24 308 318.12 @c 1.24 351.12 318 @w 1.24 351 318.12 @c 49.24 352 318.12 @c 1.24 401.12 318 @w 1.24 401 318.12 @c 35.24 402 318.12 @c 1.24 437.12 318 @w 1.24 437 318.12 @c 35.24 438 318.12 @c 1.24 473.12 318 @w 1.24 473 318.12 @c 35.24 474 318.12 @c 1.24 509.12 318 @w 16.24 77.12 319 @w 163 319 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 319 @w 16.24 235.12 319 @w 16.24 271.12 319 @w 16.24 307.12 319 @w 16.24 351.12 319 @w 16.24 401.12 319 @w 16.24 437.12 319 @w 16.24 473.12 319 @w 16.24 509.12 319 @w 82 348 :M f631 sf (Verilink)S 214 346 :M f676 sf (4)S 312 348 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 352 335 49 17 rC 355 348 :M cF f646 sf (\243)S setfont (127 Bytes)S gR gS 402 335 35 17 rC 430 348 :M f631 sf (0)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 495 348 :M f631 sf (1)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 335 @w 1.24 77 335.12 @c 85.24 78 335.12 @c 163 335 1 1 rF 35.24 164 335.12 @c 1.24 199.12 335 @w 1.24 199 335.12 @c 35.24 200 335.12 @c 1.24 235.12 335 @w 1.24 235 335.12 @c 35.24 236 335.12 @c 1.24 271.12 335 @w 1.24 271 335.12 @c 35.24 272 335.12 @c 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1.24 307 352.12 @c 43.24 308 352.12 @c 1.24 351.12 352 @w 1.24 351 352.12 @c 49.24 352 352.12 @c 1.24 401.12 352 @w 1.24 401 352.12 @c 35.24 402 352.12 @c 1.24 437.12 352 @w 1.24 437 352.12 @c 35.24 438 352.12 @c 1.24 473.12 352 @w 1.24 473 352.12 @c 35.24 474 352.12 @c 1.24 509.12 352 @w 16.24 77.12 353 @w 163 353 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 353 @w 16.24 235.12 353 @w 16.24 271.12 353 @w 16.24 307.12 353 @w 16.24 351.12 353 @w 16.24 401.12 353 @w 16.24 437.12 353 @w 16.24 473.12 353 @w 16.24 509.12 353 @w 82 382 :M f631 sf (RS-232)S 178 380 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 380 :M (4)S 286 380 :M (4)S 312 382 :M f631 sf (Bits)S 355 382 :M (8 bits)S 402 369 35 17 rC 426 382 :M (25)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 369 @w 1.24 77 369.12 @c 85.24 78 369.12 @c 163 369 1 1 rF 35.24 164 369.12 @c 1.24 199.12 369 @w 1.24 199 369.12 @c 35.24 200 369.12 @c 1.24 235.12 369 @w 1.24 235 369.12 @c 35.24 236 369.12 @c 1.24 271.12 369 @w 1.24 271 369.12 @c 35.24 272 369.12 @c 1.24 307.12 369 @w 1.24 307 369.12 @c 43.24 308 369.12 @c 1.24 351.12 369 @w 1.24 351 369.12 @c 49.24 352 369.12 @c 1.24 401.12 369 @w 1.24 401 369.12 @c 35.24 402 369.12 @c 1.24 437.12 369 @w 1.24 437 369.12 @c 35.24 438 369.12 @c 1.24 473.12 369 @w 1.24 473 369.12 @c 35.24 474 369.12 @c 1.24 509.12 369 @w 16.24 77.12 370 @w 163 370 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 370 @w 16.24 235.12 370 @w 16.24 271.12 370 @w 16.24 307.12 370 @w 16.24 351.12 370 @w 16.24 401.12 370 @w 16.24 437.12 370 @w 16.24 473.12 370 @w 16.24 509.12 370 @w 82 399 :M f631 sf (SONET)S 178 397 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 397 :M (4)S 286 397 :M (4)S 312 399 :M f631 sf (Bits)S 355 399 :M (2430 bits)S 402 386 35 17 rC 419 399 :M (3.45)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 386 @w 1.24 77 386.12 @c 85.24 78 386.12 @c 163 386 1 1 rF 35.24 164 386.12 @c 1.24 199.12 386 @w 1.24 199 386.12 @c 35.24 200 386.12 @c 1.24 235.12 386 @w 1.24 235 386.12 @c 35.24 236 386.12 @c 1.24 271.12 386 @w 1.24 271 386.12 @c 35.24 272 386.12 @c 1.24 307.12 386 @w 1.24 307 386.12 @c 43.24 308 386.12 @c 1.24 351.12 386 @w 1.24 351 386.12 @c 49.24 352 386.12 @c 1.24 401.12 386 @w 1.24 401 386.12 @c 35.24 402 386.12 @c 1.24 437.12 386 @w 1.24 437 386.12 @c 35.24 438 386.12 @c 1.24 473.12 386 @w 1.24 473 386.12 @c 35.24 474 386.12 @c 1.24 509.12 386 @w 16.24 77.12 387 @w 163 387 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 387 @w 16.24 235.12 387 @w 16.24 271.12 387 @w 16.24 307.12 387 @w 16.24 351.12 387 @w 16.24 401.12 387 @w 16.24 437.12 387 @w 16.24 473.12 387 @w 16.24 509.12 387 @w 82 416 :M f631 sf (Cambridge Ring)S 178 414 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 414 :M (4)S 286 414 :M (4)S 312 416 :M f631 sf (Bits)S 355 416 :M (38 bits)S 402 403 35 17 rC 415 416 :M (137.5)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 403 @w 1.24 77 403.12 @c 85.24 78 403.12 @c 163 403 1 1 rF 35.24 164 403.12 @c 1.24 199.12 403 @w 1.24 199 403.12 @c 35.24 200 403.12 @c 1.24 235.12 403 @w 1.24 235 403.12 @c 35.24 236 403.12 @c 1.24 271.12 403 @w 1.24 271 403.12 @c 35.24 272 403.12 @c 1.24 307.12 403 @w 1.24 307 403.12 @c 43.24 308 403.12 @c 1.24 351.12 403 @w 1.24 351 403.12 @c 49.24 352 403.12 @c 1.24 401.12 403 @w 1.24 401 403.12 @c 35.24 402 403.12 @c 1.24 437.12 403 @w 1.24 437 403.12 @c 35.24 438 403.12 @c 1.24 473.12 403 @w 1.24 473 403.12 @c 35.24 474 403.12 @c 1.24 509.12 403 @w 16.24 77.12 404 @w 163 404 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 404 @w 16.24 235.12 404 @w 16.24 271.12 404 @w 16.24 307.12 404 @w 16.24 351.12 404 @w 16.24 401.12 404 @w 16.24 437.12 404 @w 16.24 473.12 404 @w 16.24 509.12 404 @w 82 433 :M f631 sf (RATP)S 178 431 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 431 :M (4)S 286 431 :M (4)S 312 433 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 352 420 49 17 rC 355 433 :M cF f646 sf (\243)S setfont (255 Bytes)S gR gS 402 420 35 17 rC 430 433 :M f631 sf (0)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 491 433 :M f631 sf (16)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 420 @w 1.24 77 420.12 @c 85.24 78 420.12 @c 163 420 1 1 rF 35.24 164 420.12 @c 1.24 199.12 420 @w 1.24 199 420.12 @c 35.24 200 420.12 @c 1.24 235.12 420 @w 1.24 235 420.12 @c 35.24 236 420.12 @c 1.24 271.12 420 @w 1.24 271 420.12 @c 35.24 272 420.12 @c 1.24 307.12 420 @w 1.24 307 420.12 @c 43.24 308 420.12 @c 1.24 351.12 420 @w 1.24 351 420.12 @c 49.24 352 420.12 @c 1.24 401.12 420 @w 1.24 401 420.12 @c 35.24 402 420.12 @c 1.24 437.12 420 @w 1.24 437 420.12 @c 35.24 438 420.12 @c 1.24 473.12 420 @w 1.24 473 420.12 @c 35.24 474 420.12 @c 1.24 509.12 420 @w 16.24 77.12 421 @w 163 421 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 421 @w 16.24 235.12 421 @w 16.24 271.12 421 @w 16.24 307.12 421 @w 16.24 351.12 421 @w 16.24 401.12 421 @w 16.24 437.12 421 @w 16.24 473.12 421 @w 16.24 509.12 421 @w 82 450 :M (DDCMP)S 178 448 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 448 :M (4)S 286 448 :M (4)S 312 450 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 355 450 :M cF f646 sf (\243)S setfont (16383 B)S 402 437 35 17 rC 430 450 :M (0)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 491 450 :M f631 sf (96)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 437 @w 1.24 77 437.12 @c 85.24 78 437.12 @c 163 437 1 1 rF 35.24 164 437.12 @c 1.24 199.12 437 @w 1.24 199 437.12 @c 35.24 200 437.12 @c 1.24 235.12 437 @w 1.24 235 437.12 @c 35.24 236 437.12 @c 1.24 271.12 437 @w 1.24 271 437.12 @c 35.24 272 437.12 @c 1.24 307.12 437 @w 1.24 307 437.12 @c 43.24 308 437.12 @c 1.24 351.12 437 @w 1.24 351 437.12 @c 49.24 352 437.12 @c 1.24 401.12 437 @w 1.24 401 437.12 @c 35.24 402 437.12 @c 1.24 437.12 437 @w 1.24 437 437.12 @c 35.24 438 437.12 @c 1.24 473.12 437 @w 1.24 473 437.12 @c 35.24 474 437.12 @c 1.24 509.12 437 @w 16.24 77.12 438 @w 163 438 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 438 @w 16.24 235.12 438 @w 16.24 271.12 438 @w 16.24 307.12 438 @w 16.24 351.12 438 @w 16.24 401.12 438 @w 16.24 437.12 438 @w 16.24 473.12 438 @w 16.24 509.12 438 @w 82 467 :M (XMODEM)S 178 465 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 465 :M (4)S 286 465 :M (4)S 312 467 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 355 467 :M (128 Bytes)S 402 454 35 17 rC 415 467 :M (3.125)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 454 @w 1.24 77 454.12 @c 85.24 78 454.12 @c 163 454 1 1 rF 35.24 164 454.12 @c 1.24 199.12 454 @w 1.24 199 454.12 @c 35.24 200 454.12 @c 1.24 235.12 454 @w 1.24 235 454.12 @c 35.24 236 454.12 @c 1.24 271.12 454 @w 1.24 271 454.12 @c 35.24 272 454.12 @c 1.24 307.12 454 @w 1.24 307 454.12 @c 43.24 308 454.12 @c 1.24 351.12 454 @w 1.24 351 454.12 @c 49.24 352 454.12 @c 1.24 401.12 454 @w 1.24 401 454.12 @c 35.24 402 454.12 @c 1.24 437.12 454 @w 1.24 437 454.12 @c 35.24 438 454.12 @c 1.24 473.12 454 @w 1.24 473 454.12 @c 35.24 474 454.12 @c 1.24 509.12 454 @w 16.24 77.12 455 @w 163 455 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 455 @w 16.24 235.12 455 @w 16.24 271.12 455 @w 16.24 307.12 455 @w 16.24 351.12 455 @w 16.24 401.12 455 @w 16.24 437.12 455 @w 16.24 473.12 455 @w 16.24 509.12 455 @w 82 484 :M f631 sf (YMODEM)S 178 482 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 482 :M (4)S 286 482 :M (4)S 312 484 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 352 471 49 17 rC 355 484 :M (128/1024 B)S gR gS 402 471 35 17 rC 410 484 :M f631 sf (.39-3.9)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC .24 lw 1.24 77.12 471 @w 1.24 77 471.12 @c 85.24 78 471.12 @c 163 471 1 1 rF 35.24 164 471.12 @c 1.24 199.12 471 @w 1.24 199 471.12 @c 35.24 200 471.12 @c 1.24 235.12 471 @w 1.24 235 471.12 @c 35.24 236 471.12 @c 1.24 271.12 471 @w 1.24 271 471.12 @c 35.24 272 471.12 @c 1.24 307.12 471 @w 1.24 307 471.12 @c 43.24 308 471.12 @c 1.24 351.12 471 @w 1.24 351 471.12 @c 49.24 352 471.12 @c 1.24 401.12 471 @w 1.24 401 471.12 @c 35.24 402 471.12 @c 1.24 437.12 471 @w 1.24 437 471.12 @c 35.24 438 471.12 @c 1.24 473.12 471 @w 1.24 473 471.12 @c 35.24 474 471.12 @c 1.24 509.12 471 @w 16.24 77.12 472 @w 163 472 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 472 @w 16.24 235.12 472 @w 16.24 271.12 472 @w 16.24 307.12 472 @w 16.24 351.12 472 @w 16.24 401.12 472 @w 16.24 437.12 472 @w 16.24 473.12 472 @w 16.24 509.12 472 @w 82 501 :M f631 sf (IBM BISYNC)S 178 499 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 499 :M (4)S 250 499 :M (4)S 312 501 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 355 501 :M (Unlimited)S 402 488 35 17 rC 419 501 :M (0.39)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 450 501 :M f631 sf (100)S 491 501 :M (32)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 488 @w 1.24 77 488.12 @c 85.24 78 488.12 @c 163 488 1 1 rF 35.24 164 488.12 @c 1.24 199.12 488 @w 1.24 199 488.12 @c 35.24 200 488.12 @c 1.24 235.12 488 @w 1.24 235 488.12 @c 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35.24 164 539.12 @c 1.24 199.12 539 @w 1.24 199 539.12 @c 35.24 200 539.12 @c 1.24 235.12 539 @w 1.24 235 539.12 @c 35.24 236 539.12 @c 1.24 271.12 539 @w 1.24 271 539.12 @c 35.24 272 539.12 @c 1.24 307.12 539 @w 1.24 307 539.12 @c 43.24 308 539.12 @c 1.24 351.12 539 @w 1.24 351 539.12 @c 49.24 352 539.12 @c 1.24 401.12 539 @w 1.24 401 539.12 @c 35.24 402 539.12 @c 1.24 437.12 539 @w 1.24 437 539.12 @c 35.24 438 539.12 @c 1.24 473.12 539 @w 1.24 473 539.12 @c 35.24 474 539.12 @c 1.24 509.12 539 @w 16.24 77.12 540 @w 163 540 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 540 @w 16.24 235.12 540 @w 16.24 271.12 540 @w 16.24 307.12 540 @w 16.24 351.12 540 @w 16.24 401.12 540 @w 16.24 437.12 540 @w 16.24 473.12 540 @w 16.24 509.12 540 @w 82 569 :M (PPP)S 178 567 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 567 :M (4)S 250 567 :M (4)S 286 567 :M (4)S 312 569 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 355 569 :M (Unlimited)S 402 556 35 17 rC 419 569 :M (0.78)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 450 569 :M f631 sf (100)S 495 569 :M (8)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 556 @w 1.24 77 556.12 @c 85.24 78 556.12 @c 163 556 1 1 rF 35.24 164 556.12 @c 1.24 199.12 556 @w 1.24 199 556.12 @c 35.24 200 556.12 @c 1.24 235.12 556 @w 1.24 235 556.12 @c 35.24 236 556.12 @c 1.24 271.12 556 @w 1.24 271 556.12 @c 35.24 272 556.12 @c 1.24 307.12 556 @w 1.24 307 556.12 @c 43.24 308 556.12 @c 1.24 351.12 556 @w 1.24 351 556.12 @c 49.24 352 556.12 @c 1.24 401.12 556 @w 1.24 401 556.12 @c 35.24 402 556.12 @c 1.24 437.12 556 @w 1.24 437 556.12 @c 35.24 438 556.12 @c 1.24 473.12 556 @w 1.24 473 556.12 @c 35.24 474 556.12 @c 1.24 509.12 556 @w 16.24 77.12 557 @w 163 557 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 557 @w 16.24 235.12 557 @w 16.24 271.12 557 @w 16.24 307.12 557 @w 16.24 351.12 557 @w 16.24 401.12 557 @w 16.24 437.12 557 @w 16.24 473.12 557 @w 16.24 509.12 557 @w 82 586 :M (Gill\325s Protocol)S 178 584 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 584 :M (4)S 250 584 :M (4)S 286 584 :M (4)S 312 586 :M f631 sf (Bytes)S 352 573 49 17 rC 355 586 :M cF f646 sf (\243)S setfont (254 Bytes)S gR gS 402 573 35 17 rC 430 586 :M f631 sf (0)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 495 586 :M f631 sf (8)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 573 @w 1.24 77 573.12 @c 85.24 78 573.12 @c 163 573 1 1 rF 35.24 164 573.12 @c 1.24 199.12 573 @w 1.24 199 573.12 @c 35.24 200 573.12 @c 1.24 235.12 573 @w 1.24 235 573.12 @c 35.24 236 573.12 @c 1.24 271.12 573 @w 1.24 271 573.12 @c 35.24 272 573.12 @c 1.24 307.12 573 @w 1.24 307 573.12 @c 43.24 308 573.12 @c 1.24 351.12 573 @w 1.24 351 573.12 @c 49.24 352 573.12 @c 1.24 401.12 573 @w 1.24 401 573.12 @c 35.24 402 573.12 @c 1.24 437.12 573 @w 1.24 437 573.12 @c 35.24 438 573.12 @c 1.24 473.12 573 @w 1.24 473 573.12 @c 35.24 474 573.12 @c 1.24 509.12 573 @w 16.24 77.12 574 @w 163 574 1 16 rF 16.24 199.12 574 @w 16.24 235.12 574 @w 16.24 271.12 574 @w 16.24 307.12 574 @w 16.24 351.12 574 @w 16.24 401.12 574 @w 16.24 437.12 574 @w 16.24 473.12 574 @w 16.24 509.12 574 @w 82 603 :M (HDLC)S 178 601 :M f676 sf (4)S 214 601 :M (4)S 250 601 :M (4)S 286 601 :M (4)S 312 603 :M f631 sf (Bits)S 355 603 :M (Unlimited)S 402 590 35 17 rC 419 603 :M (1.56)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 455 603 :M f631 sf (20)S 495 603 :M (8)S .24 lw 1.24 77.12 590 @w 1.24 77 590.12 @c 85.24 78 590.12 @c 163 590 1 1 rF 35.24 164 590.12 @c 1.24 199.12 590 @w 1.24 199 590.12 @c 35.24 200 590.12 @c 1.24 235.12 590 @w 1.24 235 590.12 @c 35.24 236 590.12 @c 1.24 271.12 590 @w 1.24 271 590.12 @c 35.24 272 590.12 @c 1.24 307.12 590 @w 1.24 307 590.12 @c 43.24 308 590.12 @c 1.24 351.12 590 @w 1.24 351 590.12 @c 49.24 352 590.12 @c 1.24 401.12 590 @w 1.24 401 590.12 @c 35.24 402 590.12 @c 1.24 437.12 590 @w 1.24 437 590.12 @c 35.24 438 590.12 @c 1.24 473.12 590 @w 1.24 473 590.12 @c 35.24 474 590.12 @c 1.24 509.12 590 @w 16.24 77.12 591 @w 1.24 77 607.12 @c 85.24 78 607.12 @c 163 591 1 16 rF 1.24 163 607.12 @c 35.24 164 607.12 @c 16.24 199.12 591 @w 1.24 199 607.12 @c 35.24 200 607.12 @c 16.24 235.12 591 @w 1.24 235 607.12 @c 35.24 236 607.12 @c 16.24 271.12 591 @w 1.24 271 607.12 @c 35.24 272 607.12 @c 16.24 307.12 591 @w 1.24 307 607.12 @c 43.24 308 607.12 @c 16.24 351.12 591 @w 1.24 351 607.12 @c 49.24 352 607.12 @c 16.24 401.12 591 @w 1.24 401 607.12 @c 35.24 402 607.12 @c 16.24 437.12 591 @w 1.24 437 607.12 @c 35.24 438 607.12 @c 16.24 473.12 591 @w 1.24 473 607.12 @c 35.24 474 607.12 @c 16.24 509.12 591 @w 155 635 :M f318 sf (Table 28. Summary of Table for all Framing Protocols)S endp showpage %%Page: 92 92 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 92 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 74 \321)S 42 56 :M .636 .064(The conclusion reached in this dissertation, that many current framing protocols are not)J 42 74 :M 1.195 .119(reliable, may seem unduly pessimistic, considering that they are apparently used very)J 42 92 :M .581 .058(widely without trouble. However, the truth is that although the problems are not widely)J 42 110 :M .176 .018(publicized, they do exist. One example is that unfortunate patterns in PPP data frequently)J 42 128 :M (disrupt SONET links, \322even when interleaved with other traffic.\323 [Tay97])S 42 158 :M 1.476 .148(The only protocols that meet all four requirements of in-band framing, transparency,)J 42 176 :M 1.38 .138(reliability and locality are FDDI, Kermit, ZMODEM, SLIP, PPP, Gill\325s protocol and)J 42 194 :M (HDLC.)S 42 224 :M .468 .047(Of these protocols, FDDI has a fixed overhead for all packets of 25% plus 280 bits, and)J 42 242 :M 1.859 .186(Kermit has an average overhead of 77.34%. These are both very much higher than)J 42 260 :M (COBS\325s overhead.)S 42 290 :M 1.068 .107(ZMODEM, SLIP and PPP are all two-for-one substitution protocols and have average)J 42 308 :M .334 .033(overheads under 1%. Although they have low average overheads, their behaviour is very)J 42 326 :M .571 .057(variable. Sometimes they add no overhead at all, and sometimes they double the size of)J 42 344 :M .742 .074(the packet. These three protocols use different byte values for their escape and framing)J 42 362 :M (characters, but otherwise their two-for-one substitution behaviour is identical.)S 42 392 :M .153 .015(Gill\325s protocol has very low overhead, adding under 0.4% overhead for 254-byte packets,)J 42 410 :M .243 .024(but cannot encode any packet larger than this. While very useful for X Windows packets,)J 42 428 :M (this limitation makes it unsuitable for use as a general purpose framing protocol.)S 42 458 :M .68 .068(HDLC is in many ways the best of the protocols. It adds an average of only 1.56% and)J 42 476 :M .613 .061(guarantees at worst to add at most than 20% overhead, a guarantee that the two-for-one)J 42 494 :M .225 .022(substitution protocols cannot match. However, HDLC requires bit-level processing of the)J 42 512 :M .542 .054(data which can be hard to do efficiently in software \(see Section 2.10.7\); for this reason)J 42 530 :M .314 .031(many protocol designers and implementers have shied away from it, preferring the easier)J 42 548 :M (byte-oriented approach.)S endp showpage %%Page: 93 93 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 93 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 75 \321)S 78 56 :M (In contrast to all the previous protocols, Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing:)S 87 80 :M f398 sf (\267)S f428 sf ( )S 96 80 :M f165 sf (meets all four requirements of in-band framing, transparency, reliability and locality)S 87 104 :M f398 sf (\267)S f428 sf ( )S 96 104 :M f165 sf (can encode arbitrary-sized frames)S 87 128 :M f398 sf (\267)S f428 sf ( )S 96 128 :M f165 sf (has low average overhead \(0.23%\))S 87 152 :M f398 sf (\267)S f428 sf ( )S 96 152 :M f165 sf (has low worst-case overhead \(0.4%\))S 78 182 :M 1.693 .169(This dissertation makes a detailed comparison between COBS and two of the other)J 78 200 :M 1.039 .104(protocols, PPP and HDLC. PPP was chosen as a representative example of one of the)J 78 218 :M .845 .085(two-for-one substitution protocols. Any of the two-for-one substitution protocols could)J 78 236 :M 1.258 .126(have been selected, but PPP was chosen because it is very widely used today, and in)J 78 254 :M .711 .071(many people\325s minds PPP is the \324modern\325 replacement for SLIP. HDLC was chosen as)J 78 272 :M .405 .04(the other protocol with which to compare COBS, because it is the only protocol that has)J 78 290 :M (an even remotely competitive worst-case overhead bound.)S endp showpage %%Page: 94 94 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 94 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 76 \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 95 95 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 95 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 77 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Three)S 78 119 :M (Algorithms)S 78 212 :M f165 sf 1.725 .173(This chapter begins by describing the data encoding format used by COBS and the)J 78 230 :M .654 .065(procedure for converting packet data to and from that encoded format. It then describes)J 78 248 :M .163 .016(some of the properties and implications of using COBS encoding, and describes a variant)J 78 266 :M (of COBS called COBS/ZPE in which has slightly different properties.)S 78 302 :M f318 sf (3.1)S f360 sf ( )S 105 302 :M f318 sf (COBS Syntax and Semantics)S 78 332 :M f165 sf .895 .09(COBS performs a reversible transformation on a data packet to eliminate a single byte)J 78 350 :M .6 .06(value from it. Once eliminated from the data, that byte value can then safely be used as)J 78 368 :M (the framing marker without risk of ambiguity.)S 78 398 :M .624 .062(For the description that follows, zero was chosen as the framing value to be eliminated.)J 78 416 :M .122 .012(In practice zero is a good value to choose for a real-world implementation because zeroes)J 78 434 :M .417 .042(are common in binary computer data, and COBS performs marginally better when it has)J 78 452 :M 1.319 .132(many bytes to eliminate. However, elimination of some value other than zero can be)J 78 470 :M (achieved with only trivial changes to the algorithm \(Section 6.1\).)S 78 500 :M .47 .047(COBS first takes its input data and logically appends a single zero byte. \(It is not nece)J 503 500 :M (s)S 508 500 :M (-)S 78 518 :M 1.352 .135(sary actually to add this zero byte to the end of the packet in memory; the encoding)J 78 536 :M (routine simply has to behave as if the added zero were there.\))S 78 566 :M .26 .026(COBS then locates all the zero bytes in the packet \(including the added one\), and divides)J 78 584 :M .782 .078(the packet data into one or more )J 244 584 :M f243 sf 1.088 .109(zero-terminated chunks)J f165 sf .505 .051( so that every chunk ends with)J 78 602 :M .147 .015(one of these zero bytes, and contains no other zeroes \321 every chunk contains exactly one)J 78 620 :M .665 .066(zero byte, and that zero is always the last byte of the chunk. Every chunk is therefore a)J 78 638 :M .087 .009(sequence of zero or more non-zero bytes, followed by a single zero byte. A chunk may be)J endp showpage %%Page: 96 96 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 96 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 78 \321)S 42 56 :M .378 .038(as short as one byte \(i.e. a chunk containing just a solitary zero byte\) or when the packet)J 42 74 :M (contains no zeroes, a chunk may be as long as an entire packet.)S 42 104 :M 1.42 .142(COBS encodes each zero-terminated chunk using one or more variable length )J 445 104 :M f243 sf (COBS)S 42 122 :M .718 .072(code blocks)J 100 122 :M f165 sf .957 .096(. Chunks of 254 bytes or fewer are encoded as a single COBS code block.)J 42 140 :M .562 .056(Chunks longer than 254 bytes are encoded using two or more code blocks, as described)J 42 158 :M 1.07 .107(later in this section. After all the chunks which make up the packet have been e)J 466 158 :M (n-)S 42 176 :M .07 .007(coded using COBS code blocks, the entire resulting aggregate block of data is completely)J 42 194 :M .753 .075(free of zero bytes, so zero bytes can then be placed around the encoded packet to mark)J 42 212 :M (clearly where it begins and ends.)S 42 242 :M .362 .036(A COBS code block consists of a single code byte, followed by zero or more data bytes.)J 42 260 :M .161 .016(The number of data bytes is determined by the code byte. )J 324 260 :M .145 .014(Figure 4 shows some examples)J 42 278 :M 1.509 .151(of valid COBS code blocks and the corresponding zero-terminated data chunks they)J 42 296 :M (represent.)S .8 G 70 323 376 81 rC 71 324 14 13 rF 0 G .75 lw 70.5 323.5 15 14 rS 71 324 14 13 rC 71 335 :M f482 sf (0)S 78 335 :M (1)S gR .8 G gS 70 323 376 81 rC 71 346 14 13 rF 0 G .75 lw 70.5 345.5 15 14 rS 71 346 14 13 rC 71 357 :M f482 sf (0)S 78 357 :M (2)S gR 0 G .75 lw gS 70 323 376 81 rC 85.5 345.5 14 14 rS 86 346 13 13 rC 89 357 :M f482 sf (x)S gR .8 G gS 70 323 376 81 rC 71 367 14 14 rF 0 G 70.5 366.5 15 15 rS 71 367 14 14 rC 71 378 :M f482 sf (0)S 78 378 :M (3)S gR 0 G gS 70 323 376 81 rC 85.5 366.5 14 15 rS 86 367 13 14 rC 89 378 :M f482 sf (x)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 99.5 366.5 14 15 rS 100 367 13 14 rC 103 378 :M f482 sf (y)S gR .8 G gS 70 323 376 81 rC 71 389 14 13 rF 0 G 70.5 388.5 15 14 rS 71 389 14 13 rC 71 400 :M f482 sf (0)S 78 400 :M (C)S gR 0 G gS 70 323 376 81 rC 85.5 388.5 14 14 rS 86 389 13 13 rC 89 400 :M f482 sf (H)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 99.5 388.5 14 14 rS 100 389 13 13 rC 103 400 :M f482 sf (e)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 113.5 388.5 15 14 rS 114 389 14 13 rC 117 400 :M f482 sf (l)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 128.5 388.5 14 14 rS 129 389 13 13 rC 132 400 :M f482 sf (l)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 142.5 388.5 15 14 rS 143 389 14 13 rC 146 400 :M f482 sf (o)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 157.5 388.5 14 14 rS 171.5 388.5 14 14 rS 172 389 13 13 rC 175 400 :M f482 sf (W)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 185.5 388.5 15 14 rS 186 389 14 13 rC 189 400 :M f482 sf (o)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 200.5 388.5 14 14 rS 201 389 13 13 rC 204 400 :M f482 sf (r)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 214.5 388.5 15 14 rS 215 389 14 13 rC 218 400 :M f482 sf (l)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 229.5 388.5 14 14 rS 230 389 13 13 rC 233 400 :M f482 sf (d)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 272.5 323.5 14 14 rS 273 324 13 13 rC 273 335 :M f482 sf (0)S 280 335 :M (0)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 272.5 345.5 14 14 rS 273 346 13 13 rC 276 357 :M f482 sf (x)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 272.5 366.5 14 15 rS 273 367 13 14 rC 276 378 :M f482 sf (x)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 286.5 366.5 15 15 rS 287 367 14 14 rC 290 378 :M f482 sf (y)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 272.5 388.5 14 14 rS 273 389 13 13 rC 276 400 :M f482 sf (H)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 286.5 388.5 15 14 rS 287 389 14 13 rC 290 400 :M f482 sf (e)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 301.5 388.5 14 14 rS 302 389 13 13 rC 305 400 :M f482 sf (l)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 315.5 388.5 14 14 rS 316 389 13 13 rC 319 400 :M f482 sf (l)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 329.5 388.5 15 14 rS 330 389 14 13 rC 333 400 :M f482 sf (o)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 344.5 388.5 14 14 rS 358.5 388.5 15 14 rS 359 389 14 13 rC 362 400 :M f482 sf (W)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 373.5 388.5 14 14 rS 374 389 13 13 rC 377 400 :M f482 sf (o)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 387.5 388.5 14 14 rS 388 389 13 13 rC 391 400 :M f482 sf (r)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 401.5 388.5 15 14 rS 402 389 14 13 rC 405 400 :M f482 sf (l)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 416.5 388.5 14 14 rS 417 389 13 13 rC 420 400 :M f482 sf (d)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 286.5 345.5 15 14 rS 287 346 14 13 rC 287 357 :M f482 sf (0)S 294 357 :M (0)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 301.5 366.5 14 15 rS 302 367 13 14 rC 302 378 :M f482 sf (0)S 309 378 :M (0)S gR gS 70 323 376 81 rC 430.5 388.5 15 14 rS 431 389 14 13 rC 431 400 :M f482 sf (0)S 438 400 :M (0)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 82 431 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 119 431 :M (4. Example Code Blocks and the Data Chunks they Represent)S 78 461 :M f165 sf 1.036 .104(Each COBS code block begins with a single code byte \(shown shaded\),)J 78 479 :M (followed by zero or more data bytes.)S 42 509 :M .021 .002(For codes 0x01 to 0xFE, the meaning of each code block is that it represents the sequence)J 42 527 :M .182 .018(of data bytes contained within the code block, )J 268 527 :M f243 sf .185 .018(followed by an implicit zero byte)J f165 sf .163 .016(. The zero)J 42 545 :M .981 .098(byte is implicit \321 it is not actually contained within the sequence of data bytes in the)J 42 563 :M (code block.)S 42 593 :M 1.092 .109(These code blocks encode data without adding any overhead. Each code block begins)J 42 611 :M .22 .022(with one code byte followed by )J 199 611 :M f243 sf .073(n)A f165 sf .2 .02( data bytes, and represents )J f243 sf .073(n)A f165 sf .21 .021( data bytes followed by one)J 42 629 :M .029 .003(trailing zero byte. Thus the code block adds no overhead to the data: an )J 389 629 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf .027 .003(+1 byte chunk is)J 42 647 :M (encoded using a 1+)S f243 sf (n)S f165 sf ( byte code block.)S endp showpage %%Page: 97 97 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 97 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 79 \321)S 78 56 :M .957 .096(These basic codes are suitable for encoding zero-terminated chunks up to 254 bytes in)J 78 74 :M .274 .027(length, but the zero-terminated chunks that make up a packet may be longer that that. To)J 78 92 :M .463 .046(cope with these chunks, code 0xFF is defined slightly differently. Code 0xFF represents)J 78 110 :M .041 .004(the sequence of 254 data bytes contained within the code block, )J f243 sf .052 .005(without any implicit zero)J 508 110 :M f165 sf (.)S 78 128 :M .338 .034(Defining the maximum length code \(0xFF\) as an exception this way allows us to encode)J 78 146 :M .787 .079(chunks that are too long to be encoded as a single code block. Chunks longer than 254)J 78 164 :M 1.508 .151(bytes are encoded using one or more of these special maximum length code blocks,)J 78 182 :M .897 .09(followed by a single normal code block, as shown in )J 348 182 :M .785 .079(Figure 5. Each special maximum)J 78 200 :M 1.001 .1(length code block has no implied trailing zero, but the final \(normal\) code block does)J 78 218 :M 1.326 .133(include an implied trailing zero at the end, so this sequence of code blocks correctly)J 78 236 :M 1.323 .132(encodes the required long chunk of non-zero data with a single zero byte at the end.)J 78 254 :M .513 .051(Unlike the other code blocks, this maximum length code block does add some overhead)J 78 272 :M .033 .003(to the encoded data. 254 bytes of packet data are encoded using 255 bytes, an overhead of)J 78 290 :M (just under 0.4%.)S .8 G 106 317 376 38 rC 107 340 14 13 rF 0 G 106.5 339.5 15 14 rS 107 340 14 13 rC 107 351 :M f482 sf (F)S 114 351 :M (F)S gR gS 106 317 376 38 rC 121.5 339.5 129 14 rS 122 340 128 13 rC 123 351 :M f482 sf (x)S 130 351 :M (x)S 137 351 :M (x)S 144 351 :M (x)S 151 351 :M (x)S 158 351 :M (x)S 165 351 :M (x)S 172 351 :M (x)S 179 351 :M (x)S 186 351 :M (x)S 193 351 :M (x)S 200 351 :M (x)S 207 351 :M (x)S 214 351 :M (x)S 221 351 :M (x)S 228 351 :M (x)S 235 351 :M (x)S 242 351 :M (x)S gR gS 106 317 376 38 rC 106.5 317.5 331 14 rS 107 318 330 13 rC 108 329 :M f482 sf (x)S 115 329 :M (x)S 122 329 :M (x)S 129 329 :M (x)S 136 329 :M (x)S 143 329 :M (x)S 150 329 :M (x)S 157 329 :M (x)S 164 329 :M (x)S 171 329 :M (x)S 178 329 :M (x)S 185 329 :M (x)S 192 329 :M (x)S 199 329 :M (x)S 206 329 :M (x)S 213 329 :M (x)S 220 329 :M (x)S 227 329 :M (x)S 234 329 :M (x)S 241 329 :M (x)S 248 329 :M (x)S 255 329 :M (x)S 262 329 :M (x)S 269 329 :M (x)S 276 329 :M (x)S 283 329 :M (x)S 290 329 :M (x)S 297 329 :M (x)S 304 329 :M (x)S 311 329 :M (x)S 318 329 :M (x)S 325 329 :M (x)S 332 329 :M (x)S 339 329 :M (x)S 346 329 :M (x)S 353 329 :M (x)S 360 329 :M (x)S 367 329 :M (x)S 374 329 :M (x)S 381 329 :M (x)S 388 329 :M (x)S 395 329 :M (x)S 402 329 :M (x)S 409 329 :M (x)S 416 329 :M (x)S 423 329 :M (x)S 430 329 :M (x)S gR gS 106 317 376 38 rC 437.5 317.5 15 14 rS 438 318 14 13 rC 438 329 :M f482 sf (0)S 445 329 :M (0)S gR .8 G gS 106 317 376 38 rC 251 340 14 13 rF 0 G 250.5 339.5 15 14 rS 251 340 14 13 rC 251 351 :M f482 sf (F)S 258 351 :M (F)S gR 0 G gS 106 317 376 38 rC 265.5 339.5 129 14 rS 266 340 128 13 rC 267 351 :M f482 sf (x)S 274 351 :M (x)S 281 351 :M (x)S 288 351 :M (x)S 295 351 :M (x)S 302 351 :M (x)S 309 351 :M (x)S 316 351 :M (x)S 323 351 :M (x)S 330 351 :M (x)S 337 351 :M (x)S 344 351 :M (x)S 351 351 :M (x)S 358 351 :M (x)S 365 351 :M (x)S 372 351 :M (x)S 379 351 :M (x)S 386 351 :M (x)S gR .8 G gS 106 317 376 38 rC 395 340 14 13 rF 0 G 394.5 339.5 15 14 rS 395 340 14 13 rC 395 351 :M f482 sf (A)S 402 351 :M (C)S gR 0 G gS 106 317 376 38 rC 409.5 339.5 72 14 rS 410 340 71 13 rC 410 351 :M f482 sf (x)S 417 351 :M (x)S 424 351 :M (x)S 431 351 :M (x)S 438 351 :M (x)S 445 351 :M (x)S 452 351 :M (x)S 459 351 :M (x)S 466 351 :M (x)S 473 351 :M (x)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 197 382 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 234 382 :M (5. Encoding Oversized Chunks)S 114 412 :M f165 sf 1.277 .128(In this example, a 680-byte zero-terminated chunk \(679 non-zero bytes)J 114 430 :M .308 .031(and one zero\) is encoded using three COBS code blocks. The first two are)J 114 448 :M 1.262 .126(special maximum-length \(254 data bytes, no implied zero\) COBS code)J 114 466 :M .141 .014(blocks, and the final code block is a standard 172-byte \(171 data bytes and)J 114 484 :M 1.333 .133(an implied zero\) COBS code block. Thus 680 bytes of user data is e)J 466 484 :M (n-)S 114 502 :M (coded using 682 bytes, an overhead of just under 0.3%.)S 78 562 :M (The meanings of the various COBS code values are summarized in )S 403 562 :M (Table 29.)S 78 592 :M .469 .047(COBS has the property that the byte value zero is never used as a code byte, nor does it)J 78 610 :M .538 .054(ever appear in the data section of any code block. This means that COBS takes an input)J 78 628 :M 1.709 .171(consisting of characters in the range [0,0xFF] and produces an output consisting of)J 78 646 :M .667 .067(characters only in the range [1,0xFF]. Having eliminated all zero bytes from the data, a)J 78 664 :M 1.199 .12(zero byte can now be used unambiguously to mark boundaries between packets. This)J endp showpage %%Page: 98 98 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 98 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 80 \321)S 42 56 :M .663 .066(allows the receiver to resynchronize reliably with the beginning of the next packet after)J 42 74 :M .689 .069(an error. It also allows new listeners to join a broadcast stream at any time and reliably)J 42 92 :M (detect where the next packet begins.)S 69 139 :M (Code)S 112 139 :M (Followed by)S 206 139 :M (Meaning)S 63 125 2 2 rF 63 125 2 2 rF 65 125 41 2 rF 106 125 2 2 rF 108 125 91 2 rF 199 125 2 2 rF 201 125 250 2 rF 451 125 2 2 rF 451 125 2 2 rF 63 127 2 17 rF 106 127 1 17 rF 199 127 1 17 rF 451 127 2 17 rF 69 157 :M (0x00)S 112 157 :M (\(not applicable\))S 206 157 :M (\(not allowed\))S 63 144 2 1 rF 65 144 41 1 rF 106 144 1 1 rF 107 144 92 1 rF 199 144 1 1 rF 200 144 251 1 rF 451 144 2 1 rF 63 145 2 17 rF 106 145 1 17 rF 199 145 1 17 rF 451 145 2 17 rF 69 175 :M (0x01)S 112 175 :M (no data bytes)S 206 175 :M (A single zero byte)S 63 162 2 1 rF 65 162 41 1 rF 106 162 1 1 rF 107 162 92 1 rF 199 162 1 1 rF 200 162 251 1 rF 451 162 2 1 rF 63 163 2 17 rF 106 163 1 17 rF 199 163 1 17 rF 451 163 2 17 rF 69 193 :M (0x02)S 112 193 :M (one data byte)S 206 193 :M (The single data byte, followed by a single zero)S 63 180 2 1 rF 65 180 41 1 rF 106 180 1 1 rF 107 180 92 1 rF 199 180 1 1 rF 200 180 251 1 rF 451 180 2 1 rF 63 181 2 17 rF 106 181 1 17 rF 199 181 1 17 rF 451 181 2 17 rF 69 211 :M (0x03)S 112 211 :M (two data bytes)S 206 211 :M (The pair of data bytes, followed by a single zero)S 63 198 2 1 rF 65 198 41 1 rF 106 198 1 1 rF 107 198 92 1 rF 199 198 1 1 rF 200 198 251 1 rF 451 198 2 1 rF 63 199 2 17 rF 106 199 1 17 rF 199 199 1 17 rF 451 199 2 17 rF 69 229 :M (0x04)S 112 229 :M (three data bytes)S 206 229 :M (The three data bytes, followed by a single zero)S 63 216 2 1 rF 65 216 41 1 rF 106 216 1 1 rF 107 216 92 1 rF 199 216 1 1 rF 200 216 251 1 rF 451 216 2 1 rF 63 217 2 17 rF 106 217 1 17 rF 199 217 1 17 rF 451 217 2 17 rF 69 247 :M f243 sf (n)S 112 247 :M f165 sf <28>S 116 247 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\3201\) data bytes)S 206 247 :M (The \()S 232 247 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\3201\) data bytes, followed by a single zero)S 63 234 2 1 rF 65 234 41 1 rF 106 234 1 1 rF 107 234 92 1 rF 199 234 1 1 rF 200 234 251 1 rF 451 234 2 1 rF 63 235 2 17 rF 106 235 1 17 rF 199 235 1 17 rF 451 235 2 17 rF 69 265 :M (0xFD)S 112 265 :M (252 data bytes)S 206 265 :M (The 252 data bytes, followed by a single zero)S 63 252 2 1 rF 65 252 41 1 rF 106 252 1 1 rF 107 252 92 1 rF 199 252 1 1 rF 200 252 251 1 rF 451 252 2 1 rF 63 253 2 17 rF 106 253 1 17 rF 199 253 1 17 rF 451 253 2 17 rF 69 283 :M (0xFE)S 112 283 :M (253 data bytes)S 206 283 :M (The 253 data bytes, followed by a single zero)S 63 270 2 1 rF 65 270 41 1 rF 106 270 1 1 rF 107 270 92 1 rF 199 270 1 1 rF 200 270 251 1 rF 451 270 2 1 rF 63 271 2 17 rF 106 271 1 17 rF 199 271 1 17 rF 451 271 2 17 rF 69 301 :M (0xFF)S 112 301 :M (254 data bytes)S 206 301 :M (The 254 data bytes, )S 303 301 :M f318 sf (not)S 320 301 :M f165 sf ( followed by a zero)S 63 288 2 1 rF 65 288 41 1 rF 106 288 1 1 rF 107 288 92 1 rF 199 288 1 1 rF 200 288 251 1 rF 451 288 2 1 rF 63 289 2 17 rF 63 306 2 2 rF 63 306 2 2 rF 65 306 41 2 rF 106 289 1 17 rF 106 306 2 2 rF 108 306 91 2 rF 199 289 1 17 rF 199 306 2 2 rF 201 306 250 2 rF 451 289 2 17 rF 451 306 2 2 rF 451 306 2 2 rF 89 335 :M f318 sf (Table 29. Code Values used by Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing)S 78 365 :M f165 sf 1.019 .102(For codes 0x01 to 0xFE, a code byte value of )J 314 365 :M f243 sf .372(n)A f165 sf .891 .089( represents a series of )J f243 sf (n)S 78 383 :M f165 sf .333 .033(bytes where the final byte \(and only the final byte\) a zero. The \()J 392 383 :M f243 sf .064(n)A f165 sf .256 .026(\3201\) non-)J 78 401 :M .626 .063(zero bytes are placed immediately after the code byte; the trailing zero is)J 78 419 :M .114 .011(implicit. The one exception is code byte 0xFF, which represents a series of)J 78 437 :M <28>S 82 437 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\3201\) bytes without any trailing zero.)S 42 473 :M f318 sf (3.2)S f360 sf ( )S 69 473 :M f318 sf (COBS Encoding Procedure)S 42 503 :M f165 sf .729 .073(The job of the COBS encoder is to translate the raw packet data into a series of COBS)J 42 521 :M 1.206 .121(code blocks. Breaking the packet into zero-terminated chunks as described above is a)J 42 539 :M .344 .034(useful way to understand the logic of COBS encoding, but in practice it is more efficient)J 42 557 :M .137 .014(to write an encoder that translates from packet data directly to code blocks, without going)J 42 575 :M (through an intermediate data format.)S 42 605 :M .804 .08(The encoding routine searches through the first 254 bytes of the packet looking for the)J 42 623 :M .983 .098(first occurrence of a zero byte. If no zero is found, then a code of 0xFF is output, fol-)J 42 641 :M .4 .04(lowed by the 254 non-zero bytes. If a zero is found, then the number of bytes examined,)J 42 659 :M f243 sf .055(n)A f165 sf .138 .014(, is output as the code byte, followed by the actual values of the \()J f243 sf .055(n)A f165 sf .194 .019(\3201\) non-zero bytes up)J endp showpage %%Page: 99 99 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 99 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 81 \321)S 78 56 :M .394 .039(to, but not including, the zero byte. The zero is then skipped and this process is repeated)J 78 74 :M .719 .072(until all the bytes of the packet \(including the final zero which is logically appended to)J 78 92 :M (every packet\) have been encoded. Figure 6 shows an exa)S 350 92 :M (mple of packet encoding.)S 1 G 178 119 232 38 rC 394.5 119.5 15 14 rS 395 120 14 13 rC 395 131 :M 0 G f482 sf (0)S 402 131 :M (0)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 221.5 119.5 15 14 rS 222 120 14 13 rC 222 131 :M f482 sf (4)S 229 131 :M (5)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 236.5 119.5 14 14 rS 237 120 13 13 rC 237 131 :M f482 sf (0)S 244 131 :M (0)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 250.5 119.5 15 14 rS 251 120 14 13 rC 251 131 :M f482 sf (0)S 258 131 :M (0)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 265.5 119.5 14 14 rS 266 120 13 13 rC 266 131 :M f482 sf (2)S 273 131 :M (C)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 279.5 119.5 14 14 rS 280 120 13 13 rC 280 131 :M f482 sf (4)S 287 131 :M (C)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 293.5 119.5 15 14 rS 294 120 14 13 rC 294 131 :M f482 sf (7)S 301 131 :M (9)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 308.5 119.5 14 14 rS 309 120 13 13 rC 309 131 :M f482 sf (0)S 316 131 :M (0)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 322.5 119.5 15 14 rS 323 120 14 13 rC 323 131 :M f482 sf (0)S 330 131 :M (0)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 337.5 119.5 14 14 rS 338 120 13 13 rC 338 131 :M f482 sf (4)S 345 131 :M (0)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 351.5 119.5 14 14 rS 352 120 13 13 rC 352 131 :M f482 sf (0)S 359 131 :M (6)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 365.5 119.5 15 14 rS 366 120 14 13 rC 366 131 :M f482 sf (4)S 373 131 :M (F)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 380.5 119.5 14 14 rS 381 120 13 13 rC 381 131 :M f482 sf (3)S 388 131 :M (7)S gR gS 178 141 44 15 rC 178 153 :M f165 sf (O)S 187 153 :M (u)S 193 153 :M (t)S 196 153 :M (p)S 202 153 :M (u)S 208 153 :M (t)S 211 153 :M (:)S gR gS 178 119 44 15 rC 178 131 :M f165 sf (I)S 182 131 :M (n)S 188 131 :M (p)S 194 131 :M (u)S 200 131 :M (t)S 203 131 :M (:)S gR .8 G gS 178 119 232 38 rC 222 142 14 13 rF 0 G 221.5 141.5 15 14 rS 222 142 14 13 rC 222 153 :M f482 sf (0)S 229 153 :M (2)S gR 0 G gS 178 119 232 38 rC 236.5 141.5 14 14 rS 237 142 13 13 rC 237 153 :M f482 sf (4)S 244 153 :M (5)S gR .8 G gS 178 119 232 38 rC 251 142 14 13 rF 0 G 250.5 141.5 15 14 rS 251 142 14 13 rC 251 153 :M f482 sf (0)S 258 153 :M (1)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 266 142 13 13 rF 0 G 265.5 141.5 14 14 rS 266 142 13 13 rC 266 153 :M f482 sf (0)S 273 153 :M (4)S gR 0 G gS 178 119 232 38 rC 279.5 141.5 14 14 rS 280 142 13 13 rC 280 153 :M f482 sf (2)S 287 153 :M (C)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 293.5 141.5 15 14 rS 294 142 14 13 rC 294 153 :M f482 sf (4)S 301 153 :M (C)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 308.5 141.5 14 14 rS 309 142 13 13 rC 309 153 :M f482 sf (7)S 316 153 :M (9)S gR .8 G gS 178 119 232 38 rC 323 142 14 13 rF 0 G 322.5 141.5 15 14 rS 323 142 14 13 rC 323 153 :M f482 sf (0)S 330 153 :M (1)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 338 142 13 13 rF 0 G 337.5 141.5 14 14 rS 338 142 13 13 rC 338 153 :M f482 sf (0)S 345 153 :M (5)S gR 0 G gS 178 119 232 38 rC 351.5 141.5 14 14 rS 352 142 13 13 rC 352 153 :M f482 sf (4)S 359 153 :M (0)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 365.5 141.5 15 14 rS 366 142 14 13 rC 366 153 :M f482 sf (0)S 373 153 :M (6)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 380.5 141.5 14 14 rS 381 142 13 13 rC 381 153 :M f482 sf (4)S 388 153 :M (F)S gR gS 178 119 232 38 rC 394.5 141.5 15 14 rS 395 142 14 13 rC 395 153 :M f482 sf (3)S 402 153 :M (7)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 221 184 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 258 184 :M (6. Example Encoding)S 114 214 :M f165 sf 1.112 .111(The input data is shown with a phantom zero logically appended to the)J 114 232 :M .31 .031(end. The encoded form is shown below the input, with code bytes shaded.)J 114 250 :M .889 .089(Note that the encoded form contains no zeroes and that it is exactly one)J 114 268 :M (byte longer than the input \(not counting the phantom zero\).)S 78 298 :M 1.173 .117(The implementation of COBS is very simple. The Appendix gives complete C source)J 78 316 :M (code listings to perform both COBS encoding and decoding.)S 78 346 :M 1.385 .139(There is a small optimization that may be performed in one particular situation. The)J 78 364 :M .496 .05(reason for logically appending a zero to every packet before encoding is that all but one)J 78 382 :M .388 .039(of the code blocks represent a block of data that ends with an implied zero. If the data to)J 78 400 :M .226 .023(be encoded did not actually end with a zero it might not be possible to encode it properly)J 78 418 :M .428 .043(using COBS code blocks. However, there is one code block, code block 0xFF, that does)J 78 436 :M 1.032 .103(not end with an implied zero. If by chance the packet happens naturally to end with a)J 78 454 :M 1.12 .112(maximum length 0xFF code block then there is no need to logically append a zero in)J 78 472 :M 1.747 .175(order to make it encodable. This optimization can be performed without ambiguity,)J 78 490 :M .655 .066(because the receiver will observe that the decoded packet does not end with a zero, and)J 78 508 :M 1.074 .107(hence will realize that in this case there is no trailing zero to be discarded in order to)J 78 526 :M .208 .021(recreate the original input data. In practice, the gain achieved by this optimization is very)J 78 544 :M 1.228 .123(slight, but it is useful from a theoretical standpoint. It simplifies analysis of the alg)J 502 544 :M (o-)S 78 562 :M 1.041 .104(rithm\325s behaviour by allowing us to say that COBS encoding adds \322no more than one)J 78 580 :M 1.239 .124(byte of overhead for every 254 bytes of packet data.\323 Without this optimization, that)J 78 598 :M .303 .03(statement would not be true for packets containing an exact multiple of 254 bytes and no)J 78 616 :M (zeroes; these packets would incur one extra byte of overhead.)S endp showpage %%Page: 100 100 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 100 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 82 \321)S 42 56 :M f318 sf (3.3)S f360 sf ( )S 69 56 :M f318 sf (Behaviour of COBS)S 42 86 :M f165 sf .308 .031(COBS encoding has low overhead \(on average 0.23% of the packet size, rounded up to a)J 42 104 :M .511 .051(whole number of bytes\) and furthermore, for packets of any given length, the amount of)J 42 122 :M 1.374 .137(overhead is almost constant, regardless of the packet contents. This section offers an)J 42 140 :M .571 .057(intuitive understanding of why the overhead of COBS is so uniform, in marked contrast)J 42 158 :M .13 .013(to the overhead of PPP and other two-for-one byte stuffing schemes, which are extremely)J 42 176 :M (variable.)S 42 206 :M .42 .042(COBS encoding has low overhead because, in most cases, the size of each code block is)J 42 224 :M .836 .084(exactly the same as the size of the data sequence it encodes. For all of the code blocks)J 42 242 :M .336 .034(0x01 to 0xFE, the code block contains one code byte and \()J 329 242 :M f243 sf .085(n)A f165 sf .29 .029(\3201\) non-zero data bytes. The)J 42 260 :M .281 .028(data represented by that code block is the \()J f243 sf .102(n)A f165 sf .295 .029(\3201\) data bytes followed by a single zero byte)J 42 278 :M .681 .068(at the end. Hence )J f243 sf .275(n)A f165 sf .783 .078( input bytes are encoded using exactly )J f243 sf .275(n)A f165 sf .773 .077( output bytes, so the output)J 42 296 :M .53 .053(size is the same as the input size. For code block 0xFF, there is no implied zero byte on)J 42 314 :M .36 .036(the end, so for those code blocks 254 input bytes are encoded using 255 output bytes, an)J 42 332 :M 1.477 .148(overhead of just under 0.4%. In the best case where no maximum length 0xFF code)J 42 350 :M .699 .07(blocks are required to encode the packet, COBS encoding adds no overhead apart from)J 42 368 :M .519 .052(the trailing zero which is logically appended to every packet, giving an overhead of just)J 42 386 :M (one byte, regardless of how large the packet is.)S 42 416 :M 1.979 .198(COBS encoding overhead has very low variability compared to other byte stuffing)J 42 434 :M 1.699 .17(algorithms like PPP. To see why this is so we need to understand how overhead is)J 42 452 :M .241 .024(generated in byte stuffing algorithms. For any byte stuffing algorithm like PPP or COBS,)J 42 470 :M .123 .012(each byte in the packet either generates no overhead, or it generates some fixed amount )J f243 sf (x)S f165 sf (.)S 42 488 :M .024 .002(In a given packet of length )J 174 488 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf .021 .002( bytes, if the proportion of bytes that are overhead-generating)J 42 506 :M .845 .085(is )J f243 sf .599(p)A f165 sf 1.509 .151(, then the total overhead for the packet will be )J 307 506 :M f243 sf .401(npx)A f165 sf 1.23 .123( bytes. For each byte stuffing)J 42 524 :M .137 .014(algorithm, )J 95 524 :M f243 sf .066(x)A f165 sf .184 .018( has some fixed value, but the values of )J 296 524 :M f243 sf .074(n)A f165 sf .115 .012( and )J f243 sf .074(p)A f165 sf .197 .02( are determined by the size of)J 42 542 :M (the packet being encoded and the nature of the data in that packet.)S 42 572 :M .779 .078(For PPP, overhead is incurred whenever a byte has one of the reserved values 0x7D or)J 42 590 :M .091 .009(0x7E. On average for uniformly distributed data, one byte in 128 is a reserved value. This)J 42 608 :M .369 .037(occurrence is relatively rare \321 less than 0.8% of the bytes \321 but when it does occur the)J 42 626 :M .542 .054(cost is relatively high \321 an encoding overhead of 100% for that particular byte. All the)J 42 644 :M .693 .069(other byte values \321 the vast majority \321 incur no overhead. Thus for PPP )J f243 sf .218(x)A f165 sf .725 .073(=1 and, for)J 42 662 :M (the average packet, )S f243 sf (p)S f165 sf (=)S 150 657 :M f497 sf (1)S 154 662 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (128)S 0 -3 rm 168 662 :M f165 sf (.)S endp showpage %%Page: 101 101 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 101 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 83 \321)S 78 56 :M .452 .045(For COBS, the behaviour has the opposite characteristics. Overhead is not the rare case;)J 78 74 :M .243 .024(it is the common case. Overhead is not generated by occurrences of the reserved value, it)J 78 92 :M .687 .069(is generated by the large majority of bytes that are )J f243 sf .22(not)A f165 sf .731 .073( the reserved value zero: If more)J 78 110 :M .035 .003(than 254 bytes are encountered without finding a single zero, then one byte of overhead is)J 78 128 :M .382 .038(generated. Fortunately, although overhead is the common case, the one byte of overhead)J 78 146 :M 1.212 .121(generated is amortized over 254 bytes, making the cost per-byte very small. The rare)J 78 164 :M .616 .062(event of encountering a zero can be viewed as an occasional lucky bonus: both the zero)J 78 182 :M .178 .018(and the series of non-zero bytes that preceded it are then encoded with no overhead at all.)J 78 200 :M .807 .081(Thus for COBS the proportion of bytes that are overhead-generating is high \321 usually)J 78 218 :M .209 .021(the majority of the bytes in the packet \321 but the amount of overhead each one generates,)J 78 236 :M f243 sf (x)S f165 sf (, is only )S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 128 236 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (254)S 0 -3 rm 142 236 :M f165 sf (.)S 78 266 :M .513 .051(Because of these two opposite kinds of behaviour, PPP and COBS generate overhead in)J 78 284 :M .175 .018(opposite ways. The encoding overhead of PPP can be characterized as the sum of a series)J 78 302 :M .379 .038(of high cost low probability events, whereas the overhead of COBS can be characterized)J 78 320 :M 1.257 .126(as a series of high probability low cost events. For PPP to encode a packet with low)J 78 338 :M 1 .1(overhead, it is dependent on the proportion of overhead-generating bytes in the packet)J 78 356 :M 1.456 .146(being small. In the pathological case where every byte in the packet is an overhead-)J 78 374 :M 1.595 .159(generating byte, )J 163 374 :M f243 sf .599(p)A f165 sf 1.791 .179(=1 and the size of the packet doubles. In contrast, COBS already)J 78 392 :M .412 .041(assumes that most bytes are overhead-generating bytes, so the worst possible case where)J 78 410 :M .619 .062(every byte is overhead-generating is hardly any different from the average case. For the)J 78 428 :M 1.279 .128(same reason, the best case for COBS is also hardly any better than the average case.)J 78 446 :M .346 .035(Because )J 122 446 :M f243 sf .133(x)A f165 sf .385 .038( is so small, the final encoded size of the data is very insensitive to the propor)J 508 446 :M (-)S 78 464 :M (tion )S 100 464 :M f243 sf (p)S f165 sf ( of bytes that are overhead-generating.)S 78 494 :M 1.082 .108(A related observation is that the worst cases for PPP and for COBS occur in opposite)J 78 512 :M .822 .082(circumstances. The rare case where every byte is a reserved value is the worst case for)J 78 530 :M .212 .021(PPP and results in the maximum overhead. For COBS the rare case where every byte is a)J 78 548 :M (reserved byte is the best case and results in the minimum overhead.)S 78 578 :M .103 .01(The overhead incurred by encoding a packet using COBS is at least one byte, and at most)J 78 596 :M .905 .09(one byte for every 254 bytes of packet data. This is good for large packets, but has an)J 78 614 :M 1.708 .171(unfortunate side-effect for small packets. Every packet 254 bytes or smaller always)J 78 632 :M (incurs exactly one byte of overhead, no more, no less.)S endp showpage %%Page: 102 102 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 102 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 84 \321)S 42 56 :M .695 .069(I regard one byte of overhead for small IP packets a small price to pay in exchange for)J 42 74 :M .882 .088(vastly more predictable overhead and the consequent significant performance gains we)J 42 92 :M 1.226 .123(get from the ability to send much larger IP packets. However, there could be circum-)J 42 110 :M 1.403 .14(stances where any cost, however small, is unacceptable. To address this concern this)J 42 128 :M .55 .055(dissertation also presents a minor modification to basic COBS called Zero Pair Elimina-)J 42 146 :M .359 .036(tion \(ZPE\), which exhibits better performance for small packets, as described in the next)J 42 164 :M (section.)S 42 200 :M f318 sf (3.4)S f360 sf ( )S 69 200 :M f318 sf (Zero Pair Elimination)S 42 230 :M f165 sf 1.451 .145(In experiments on real-world data \(see Chapter 5\) I observed not only that zero is a)J 42 248 :M 1.116 .112(common value in Internet traffic, but furthermore that adjacent pairs of zeros are also)J 42 266 :M .743 .074(very common, especially in the headers of small TCP/IP packets. To take advantage of)J 42 284 :M 1.586 .159(this property of real-world traffic, I created a variant of COBS where the maximum)J 42 302 :M 1.575 .158(encodable sequence length is slightly shortened, freeing some of the high-numbered)J 42 320 :M .212 .021(codes for other uses. These codes are reassigned to indicate sequences ending with a )J f243 sf .078(pair)A 42 338 :M f165 sf .678 .068(of implicit zeroes. Any reduction in the maximum sequence length increases the worst-)J 42 356 :M .217 .022(case overhead, so the maximum length should not be reduced by too much. Empirically I)J 42 374 :M .399 .04(found that reassigning 31 codes gives good performance without sacrificing too much of)J 42 392 :M (the good worst-case bound that makes COBS useful.)S 91 439 :M (Code)S 163 439 :M (Followed by)S 263 439 :M (Meaning)S 84 425 2 2 rF 84 425 2 2 rF 86 425 70 2 rF 156 425 2 2 rF 158 425 99 2 rF 257 425 2 2 rF 259 425 171 2 rF 430 425 2 2 rF 430 425 2 2 rF 84 427 2 17 rF 156 427 1 17 rF 257 427 1 17 rF 430 427 2 17 rF 91 457 :M (0x00)S 163 457 :M (\(not applicable\))S 263 457 :M (\(not allowed\))S 84 444 2 1 rF 86 444 70 1 rF 156 444 1 1 rF 157 444 100 1 rF 257 444 1 1 rF 258 444 172 1 rF 430 444 2 1 rF 84 445 2 29 rF 156 445 1 29 rF 257 445 1 29 rF 430 445 2 29 rF 91 487 :M (0x01-0xDF)S 163 487 :M <28>S 167 487 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\3201\) data bytes)S 263 487 :M (The \()S 289 487 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\3201\) data bytes,)S 263 499 :M (followed by a single zero)S 84 474 2 1 rF 86 474 70 1 rF 156 474 1 1 rF 157 474 100 1 rF 257 474 1 1 rF 258 474 172 1 rF 430 474 2 1 rF 84 475 2 29 rF 156 475 1 29 rF 257 475 1 29 rF 430 475 2 29 rF 91 517 :M (0xE0)S 163 517 :M (223 data bytes)S 263 517 :M (The 223 data bytes,)S 263 529 :M f318 sf (not)S 280 529 :M f165 sf ( followed by a zero)S 84 504 2 1 rF 86 504 70 1 rF 156 504 1 1 rF 157 504 100 1 rF 257 504 1 1 rF 258 504 172 1 rF 430 504 2 1 rF 84 505 2 29 rF 156 505 1 29 rF 257 505 1 29 rF 430 505 2 29 rF 91 547 :M (0xE1-0xFF)S 157 534 100 18 rC 163 547 :M <28>S 167 547 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\320225\) data bytes)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 263 547 :M f165 sf (The \()S 289 547 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\320225\) data bytes,)S 263 559 :M (followed by a )S 332 559 :M f318 sf (pair)S f165 sf ( of zero bytes)S 84 534 2 1 rF 86 534 70 1 rF 156 534 1 1 rF 157 534 100 1 rF 257 534 1 1 rF 258 534 172 1 rF 430 534 2 1 rF 84 535 2 29 rF 84 564 2 2 rF 84 564 2 2 rF 86 564 70 2 rF 156 535 1 29 rF 156 564 2 2 rF 158 564 99 2 rF 257 535 1 29 rF 257 564 2 2 rF 259 564 171 2 rF 430 535 2 29 rF 430 564 2 2 rF 430 564 2 2 rF 235 593 :M f318 sf (Table 30.)S 43 611 :M (Code Values used by Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing with Zero-Pair Elimination)S 78 641 :M f165 sf .352 .035(Codes 0x01 to 0xDF have the same meaning as in basic COBS, but codes)J 78 659 :M (0xE0 to 0xFF are reassigned to have new meanings.)S endp showpage %%Page: 103 103 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 103 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 85 \321)S 78 56 :M .508 .051(In COBS/ZPE codes 0x00 to 0xDF have the same meaning as in basic COBS, and code)J 78 74 :M .594 .059(0xE0 encodes the new maximum length sequence of 223 bytes without an implicit zero)J 78 92 :M .418 .042(on the end. This change in code assignments gives COBS/ZPE a worst-case overhead of)J 78 110 :M .187 .019(one byte in 223, or about 0.45%. Codes 0xE1 to 0xFF encode sequences that end with an)J 78 128 :M .604 .06(implicit pair of zeroes, containing, respectively, 0 to 30 non-zero data bytes. These new)J 78 146 :M (code meanings are summarized in Table 30.)S 78 176 :M .088 .009(Reassigning some of the codes to indicate sequences ending with a )J 404 176 :M f243 sf .02(pair)A f165 sf .071 .007( of implicit zeroes)J 78 194 :M .841 .084(has the good property that now some of the code blocks are )J 382 194 :M f243 sf (smaller)S 418 194 :M f165 sf .861 .086( than the data they)J 78 212 :M .478 .048(encode, which helps mitigate the one-byte overhead that COBS adds. )J 422 212 :M .467 .047(Figure 7)J 462 212 :M .567 .057( shows an)J 78 230 :M .439 .044(example of a small packet \(actually the beginning of a real IPv4 packet header\) that gets)J 78 248 :M 1.021 .102(one byte smaller as a result of encoding using COBS/ZPE. The disadvantage of using)J 78 266 :M .215 .022(COBS/ZPE is a slightly poorer worst-case overhead \321 about 0.45% instead of 0.40% \321)J 78 284 :M .232 .023(but this is still a very small worst-case overhead. In fact, as described in Chapter 5, when)J 78 302 :M .564 .056(a typical mix of real-world network traffic is encoded using COBS/ZPE, it actually gets)J 78 320 :M .323 .032(smaller by about 1%. PPP byte stuffing cannot compete with this since PPP never makes)J 78 338 :M (any packet smaller.)S 1 G 178 365 232 38 rC 394.5 365.5 15 14 rS 395 366 14 13 rC 395 377 :M 0 G f482 sf (0)S 402 377 :M (0)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 221.5 365.5 15 14 rS 222 366 14 13 rC 222 377 :M f482 sf (4)S 229 377 :M (5)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 236.5 365.5 14 14 rS 237 366 13 13 rC 237 377 :M f482 sf (0)S 244 377 :M (0)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 250.5 365.5 15 14 rS 251 366 14 13 rC 251 377 :M f482 sf (0)S 258 377 :M (0)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 265.5 365.5 14 14 rS 266 366 13 13 rC 266 377 :M f482 sf (2)S 273 377 :M (C)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 279.5 365.5 14 14 rS 280 366 13 13 rC 280 377 :M f482 sf (4)S 287 377 :M (C)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 293.5 365.5 15 14 rS 294 366 14 13 rC 294 377 :M f482 sf (7)S 301 377 :M (9)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 308.5 365.5 14 14 rS 309 366 13 13 rC 309 377 :M f482 sf (0)S 316 377 :M (0)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 322.5 365.5 15 14 rS 323 366 14 13 rC 323 377 :M f482 sf (0)S 330 377 :M (0)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 337.5 365.5 14 14 rS 338 366 13 13 rC 338 377 :M f482 sf (4)S 345 377 :M (0)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 351.5 365.5 14 14 rS 352 366 13 13 rC 352 377 :M f482 sf (0)S 359 377 :M (6)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 365.5 365.5 15 14 rS 366 366 14 13 rC 366 377 :M f482 sf (4)S 373 377 :M (F)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 380.5 365.5 14 14 rS 381 366 13 13 rC 381 377 :M f482 sf (3)S 388 377 :M (7)S gR gS 178 387 44 15 rC 178 399 :M f165 sf (O)S 187 399 :M (u)S 193 399 :M (t)S 196 399 :M (p)S 202 399 :M (u)S 208 399 :M (t)S 211 399 :M (:)S gR gS 178 365 44 15 rC 178 377 :M f165 sf (I)S 182 377 :M (n)S 188 377 :M (p)S 194 377 :M (u)S 200 377 :M (t)S 203 377 :M (:)S gR .8 G gS 178 365 232 38 rC 222 388 14 13 rF 0 G 221.5 387.5 15 14 rS 222 388 14 13 rC 222 399 :M f482 sf (E)S 229 399 :M (2)S gR 0 G gS 178 365 232 38 rC 236.5 387.5 14 14 rS 237 388 13 13 rC 237 399 :M f482 sf (4)S 244 399 :M (5)S gR .8 G gS 178 365 232 38 rC 251 388 14 13 rF 0 G 250.5 387.5 15 14 rS 251 388 14 13 rC 251 399 :M f482 sf (E)S 258 399 :M (4)S gR 0 G gS 178 365 232 38 rC 265.5 387.5 14 14 rS 266 388 13 13 rC 266 399 :M f482 sf (2)S 273 399 :M (C)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 279.5 387.5 14 14 rS 280 388 13 13 rC 280 399 :M f482 sf (4)S 287 399 :M (C)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 293.5 387.5 15 14 rS 294 388 14 13 rC 294 399 :M f482 sf (7)S 301 399 :M (9)S gR .8 G gS 178 365 232 38 rC 309 388 13 13 rF 0 G 308.5 387.5 14 14 rS 309 388 13 13 rC 309 399 :M f482 sf (0)S 316 399 :M (5)S gR 0 G gS 178 365 232 38 rC 322.5 387.5 15 14 rS 323 388 14 13 rC 323 399 :M f482 sf (4)S 330 399 :M (0)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 337.5 387.5 14 14 rS 338 388 13 13 rC 338 399 :M f482 sf (0)S 345 399 :M (6)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 351.5 387.5 14 14 rS 352 388 13 13 rC 352 399 :M f482 sf (4)S 359 399 :M (F)S gR gS 178 365 232 38 rC 365.5 387.5 15 14 rS 366 388 14 13 rC 366 399 :M f482 sf (3)S 373 399 :M (7)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 150 430 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 187 430 :M (7. Example Encoding with Zero-Pair Elimination)S 114 460 :M f165 sf 1.658 .166(The first line shows the input data, with a phantom zero logically a)J 466 460 :M (p-)S 114 478 :M 2.765 .277(pended to the end. The second line shows the data encoded using)J 114 496 :M 1.58 .158(COBS/ZPE, with code bytes shaded for clarity. Note that the encoded)J 114 514 :M .398 .04(form contains no zeroes, and that it is one byte shorter than the input \(not)J 114 532 :M (counting the phantom zero\).)S 78 562 :M .972 .097(COBS/ZPE is useful because pairs of zeroes are common in packet headers. Also, the)J 78 580 :M .547 .055(trend towards aligning packet fields on 64-bit boundaries in high-performance protocols)J 78 598 :M .144 .014(sometimes results in padding zeroes between fields. These padding zeroes waste precious)J 78 616 :M .321 .032(bandwidth on slow wireless links. Using COBS/ZPE as the link-layer encoding for these)J 78 634 :M .616 .062(slower links can help to mitigate this effect by encoding these patterns more efficiently.)J 78 652 :M .709 .071(This increased efficiency for zero pairs makes it more attractive to use the same packet)J endp showpage %%Page: 104 104 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 104 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 86 \321)S 42 56 :M .96 .096(formats regardless of network speed, instead of having to design different application-)J 42 74 :M (layer protocol formats for different speeds of network.)S 42 104 :M .141 .014(The reason that reassignment of 31 codes was found to be a sensible cut-off point for this)J 42 122 :M .921 .092(particular performance evaluation is that runs of 30 non-zero bytes followed by a zero)J 42 140 :M 1.386 .139(pair were found to be common in our IPv4 traces. One factor that contributed to the)J 42 158 :M 1.214 .121(frequent occurrence of this pattern is that IPv4 packet headers often contain a zero at)J 42 176 :M .641 .064(offset 7 in the IP packet \(the low byte of the fragment offset\) and the TCP header often)J 42 194 :M .107 .011(contains a pair of zeroes at offset 38 in the IP packet \(the urgent pointer\). This means that)J 42 212 :M .229 .023(at offset 8 in the packet there is often a run of 30 non-zero bytes, followed by a zero pair.)J 42 230 :M .342 .034(For other protocols and traffic mixes the \324optimum\325 cut-off point may be different, but it)J 42 248 :M .611 .061(should be remembered that the benefit of COBS \(and COBS/ZPE\) encoding is that it is)J 42 266 :M .226 .023(extremely insensitive to the nature of the data being encoded. The penalty for picking the)J 42 284 :M (\324wrong\325 cut-off point is very slight.)S 42 314 :M 3.003 .3(Although for certain packets COBS/ZPE does result in some reduction in size,)J 42 332 :M .48 .048(COBS/ZPE should not be thought of as a general purpose compression algorithm, and it)J 42 350 :M 1.105 .111(is not intended to compete with more sophisticated \(and more computationally expe)J 466 350 :M (n-)S 42 368 :M .602 .06(sive\) compression algorithms such as Huffman encoding [Huff52] [Knu85] and Lempel)J 42 386 :M .605 .061(Ziv [LZ77] [Wel84]. Although, like PPP, these compression algorithms may have good)J 42 404 :M .721 .072(average performance, for some data they can make the packet bigger instead of smaller)J 42 422 :M .901 .09([Hum81], and that is contrary to our goal of ensuring a tight bound on worst-case pe)J 468 422 :M (r)S 472 422 :M (-)S 42 440 :M .77 .077(formance. It is also not clear that there is a great benefit to applying heavyweight com-)J 42 458 :M 1.032 .103(pression at the link layer, since the majority of compressible data is much more effec-)J 42 476 :M .327 .033(tively compressed before it even reaches the IP layer using data-specific algorithms such)J 42 494 :M .936 .094(as JPEG [ISO10918] for images and MPEG [ISO11172] for video. In the case of data)J 42 512 :M .67 .067(that has been encrypted, it is not possible to apply heavyweight compression at the link)J 42 530 :M .167 .017(layer because data that has been properly encrypted is not compressible [Pra97]. ZPE is a)J 42 548 :M .734 .073(lightweight technique that works well for small packets that contain zero pairs, without)J 42 566 :M .906 .091(sacrificing the primary benefit of COBS: an aggressive bound on worst-case overhead,)J 42 584 :M (even for packets that may be large and contain no zero pairs.)S endp showpage %%Page: 105 105 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 105 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 87 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Four)S 78 119 :M (Theoretical Analysis)S 78 212 :M f165 sf .336 .034(This chapter presents a theoretical analysis of the behaviour of COBS and COBS/ZPE in)J 78 230 :M .955 .095(comparison to two other techniques, HDLC bit stuffing and PPP byte stuffing. It com-)J 78 248 :M 1.139 .114(pares the best case, worst case, and average case encoding overhead, given uniformly)J 78 266 :M (distributed random data.)S 78 296 :M 1.164 .116(HDLC and PPP were chosen for comparison because both work reliably and are rela-)J 78 314 :M .43 .043(tively efficient, and as a result both are widely used in today\325s software. They are argua-)J 78 332 :M (bly the canonical examples respe)S 237 332 :M (ctively of bit and byte stuffing.)S 78 362 :M .404 .04(It is useful to calculate the expected performance for uniform random data, because data)J 78 380 :M .769 .077(that is properly compressed and/or encrypted has a uniform distribution of byte values.)J 78 398 :M .469 .047(Data that is well-compressed must in general have a uniform distribution of byte values,)J 78 416 :M .213 .021(because if it did not then Huffman encoding [Huff52] could be used trivially to compress)J 78 434 :M .264 .026(the data further, contradicting the description of the data as being \324well compressed\325. For)J 78 452 :M .657 .066(similar reasons encryption algorithms seek to maximize the entropy of the data so as to)J 78 470 :M .948 .095(maximize the strength of the encryption [Pra97]. Compressed data already makes up a)J 78 488 :M .405 .04(large part of Internet traffic: For example, World-Wide Web traffic has grown to exceed)J 78 506 :M 1.448 .145(all other Internet traffic sources combined, whether measured by number of packets,)J 78 524 :M 1.565 .157(number of bytes, or number of flows [Braun94] [Thom97] and furthermore, 65% of)J 78 542 :M .606 .061(World-Wide Web traffic is compressed GIF or JPEG image data [Gwert96]. I expect to)J 78 560 :M .421 .042(see an increasing awareness of security issues on the Internet in the future, resulting in a)J 78 578 :M 1.116 .112(similar increase in encrypted data. However, at the present time not all traffic is com-)J 78 596 :M 1.476 .148(pressed and/or encrypted, so actual performance on today\325s real packets is shown in)J 78 614 :M (Chapter 5.)S 78 644 :M .493 .049(The chapter concludes with a discussion of the trade-off between minimizing the enco)J 502 644 :M (d-)S 78 662 :M (ing overhead and minimizing the delay imposed on the stream of data being encoded.)S endp showpage %%Page: 106 106 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 106 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 88 \321)S 42 56 :M f318 sf (4.1)S f360 sf ( )S 69 56 :M f318 sf (Best Case Overhead)S 42 86 :M f165 sf 1.365 .137(The best case for HDLC bit stuffing is a packet that contains no occurrences of five)J 42 104 :M (binary ones in a row. In this case, HDLC encoding adds no overhead to the packet at all.)S 42 134 :M 1.07 .107(The best case for PPP byte stuffing is a packet that contains no occurrences of the re-)J 42 152 :M .934 .093(served \(0x7D or 0x7E\) characters. In this case, PPP encoding adds no overhead to the)J 42 170 :M (packet at all.)S 42 200 :M .068 .007(The best case for COBS is a packet with plenty of zeroes, so that nowhere in the packet is)J 42 218 :M .39 .039(there any contiguous sequence of more than 254 non-zero bytes. In this case, each block)J 42 236 :M .842 .084(is encoded with no overhead at all. Counting the phantom zero that has to be added to)J 42 254 :M .074 .007(every packet before encoding, this results in a best-case overhead of a single byte, for any)J 42 272 :M (size of packet.)S 42 302 :M .559 .056(The best case for COBS/ZPE is a packet composed entirely of zeroes. In this case, each)J 42 320 :M .412 .041(pair of zeroes is encoded as a one-byte code, 0xE1, resulting in a net compression effect)J 42 338 :M .245 .025(\(a \324negative overhead\325\). As with basic COBS, a phantom zero is still appended to the tail)J 42 356 :M .775 .077(of every packet, so the best-case encoded size is half of the length )J f243 sf .29(n)A f165 sf .733 .073( of the packet plus)J 42 374 :M (one byte, rounded up to an integer number of bytes:)S 60 389 74 30 rC 134 419 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 389 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 2368 div 960 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 38 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 160 439 moveto 748 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 184 293 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (+) 461 293 sh (\351) 0 355 sh (\352) 0 848 sh (\352) 0 724 sh (\371) 930 355 sh (\372) 930 848 sh (\372) 930 724 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 725 293 sh (2) 438 836 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (bytes) 1465 538 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 42 446 :M f165 sf (This case of an all-zeroes packet gives a best case )S 284 446 :M f243 sf (saving)S f165 sf ( of:)S 60 461 154 30 rC 214 491 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 461 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 4928 div 960 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 42 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 725 435 moveto 740 0 rlineto stroke 2755 435 moveto 738 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) -8 534 sh (n) 749 293 sh (n) 2779 293 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (-) 264 534 sh (+) 1022 293 sh (\351) 565 355 sh (\352) 565 840 sh (\352) 565 724 sh (\371) 1487 355 sh (\372) 1487 840 sh (\372) 1487 724 sh (=) 2005 534 sh (-) 3051 293 sh (\352) 2595 355 sh (\353) 2595 840 sh (\352) 2595 724 sh (\372) 3516 355 sh (\373) 3516 840 sh (\372) 3516 724 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 1282 293 sh (2) 999 827 sh (1) 3310 293 sh (2) 3028 827 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (bytes) 4035 534 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 42 524 :M f318 sf (4.2)S f360 sf ( )S 69 524 :M f318 sf (Worst-Case Overhead)S 42 554 :M f165 sf .075 .007(The worst case for HDLC bit stuffing is a packet that contains nothing but binary ones. In)J 42 572 :M (this case, HDLC encoding adds one bit for every five, giving an overhead of 20%.)S 42 602 :M .525 .053(The worst case for PPP byte stuffing is a packet that consists entirely of reserved \(0x7D)J 42 620 :M 1.54 .154(or 0x7E\) characters. In this case, encoding doubles the size of the packet, giving an)J 42 638 :M (overhead of 100%.)S endp showpage %%Page: 107 107 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 107 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 89 \321)S 78 56 :M .404 .04(The worst case for both COBS and COBS/ZPE is a packet that contains no zeroes at all.)J 78 74 :M .649 .065(In the case of basic COBS, each sequence of 254 bytes of packet data is encoded using)J 78 92 :M .276 .028(255 bytes of output data, giving one byte of overhead for every 254 bytes of packet data.)J 78 110 :M .334 .033(The maximum overhead is )J f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 215 110 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (254)S 0 -3 rm 229 110 :M f165 sf .363 .036( \(roughly 0.4%\) of the packet size, rounded up to a whole)J 78 128 :M 1.004 .1(number of bytes. For example, a maximum size IP packet over Ethernet is 1500 bytes)J 78 146 :M .296 .03(long, and in the worst possible case COBS would add an overhead of 6 bytes to a packet)J 78 164 :M 1.357 .136(of this size. In the case of COBS/ZPE, each sequence of 223 bytes of packet data is)J 78 182 :M .319 .032(encoded using 224 bytes of output data, giving one byte of overhead for every 223 bytes)J 78 200 :M 1.825 .183(of packet data. The maximum overhead is )J f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 307 200 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (223)S 0 -3 rm 321 200 :M f165 sf 1.842 .184( \(roughly 0.45%\) of the packet size,)J 78 218 :M 2.314 .231(rounded up to a whole number of bytes. For example, in the worst possible case)J 78 236 :M (COBS/ZPE would add an overhead of 7 bytes to a maximum size Ethernet packet.)S 78 272 :M f318 sf (4.3)S f360 sf ( )S 105 272 :M f318 sf (Expected Overhead)S 78 302 :M f165 sf .134 .013(The best and worst cases for each algorithm are easy to calculate, but they do not give the)J 78 320 :M .089 .009(whole picture. It would be useful also to know the overall efficiency we expect to achieve)J 78 338 :M 1.342 .134(over a large number of packets, in terms of what percentage of transmitted bytes we)J 78 356 :M .155 .015(expect to contain useful data and what percentage we expect to be consumed by encoding)J 78 374 :M 1.645 .164(overhead. Since byte stuffing is a process that takes as input a packet composed of)J 78 392 :M .736 .074(characters from an alphabet of 256 possible symbols and gives as output a packet co)J 499 392 :M (m-)S 78 410 :M .199 .02(posed of characters from an alphabet of only 255 possible symbols, in general there must)J 78 428 :M .111 .011(be some overhead. Exactly how much longer a particular packet becomes may or may not)J 78 446 :M .127 .013(depend on the contents of that packet, depending on the algorithm being used. With some)J 78 464 :M .591 .059(algorithms there may be fortunate packets that incur no overhead at all, but information)J 78 482 :M .107 .011(theory tells us that, in general, over all packets, there must be some overhead. \(Otherwise,)J 78 500 :M .343 .034(if this were not the case, alphabet reduction could be applied repeatedly to compress any)J 78 518 :M (data indefinitely, without limit.\))S 78 548 :M .937 .094(To encode a packet of )J f243 sf .371(n)A f165 sf .909 .091( bytes, we need to encode )J f243 sf .371(n)A f165 sf 1.097 .11( symbols from an alphabet of 256)J 78 566 :M 1.751 .175(characters using some number of symbols, )J 304 566 :M f243 sf (m)S 313 566 :M f165 sf 1.927 .193(, from a smaller alphabet of only 255)J 78 584 :M .312 .031(characters. We know that )J 205 584 :M f243 sf .101(n)A f165 sf .312 .031( symbols from an alphabet of 256 characters can encode 256)J 507 579 :M f443 sf (n)S 78 602 :M f165 sf 1.248 .125(different values and )J f243 sf (m)S 192 602 :M f165 sf 1.47 .147( symbols from an alphabet of 255 characters can encode 255)J 506 597 :M f443 sf (m)S 78 620 :M f165 sf (different values, so we need to find )S 250 620 :M f243 sf (m)S 259 620 :M f165 sf ( such that: 255)S f443 sf 0 -5 rm (m)S 0 5 rm f165 sf ( )S cF f398 sf (\263)S setfont ( 256)S 365 615 :M f443 sf (n)S endp showpage %%Page: 108 108 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 108 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 90 \321)S 60 41 62 14 rC 122 55 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 41 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 1984 div 448 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 60 translate /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (255) -11 324 sh (256) 1162 324 sh 224 /Times-Italic f1 (m) 571 152 sh (n) 1752 152 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\263) 860 324 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 60 67 116 14 rC 176 81 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 67 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 3712 div 448 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 56 translate /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (m) -4 264 sh (n) 2032 264 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (log\() 321 264 sh (\)) 1517 264 sh (log\() 2269 264 sh (\)) 3476 264 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (255) 946 264 sh (256) 2894 264 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\263) 1727 264 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 60 93 68 30 rC 128 123 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 93 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 2176 div 960 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 39 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 914 406 moveto 1151 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (m) -4 505 sh (n) 670 505 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\263) 365 505 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (log) 939 264 sh (log) 944 798 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (256) 1470 264 sh (255) 1475 798 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 60 135 92 12 rC 152 147 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 135 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 2944 div 384 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 59 translate /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (m) -4 261 sh (n) 2658 261 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\263) 365 261 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 636 261 sh (000706319) 924 261 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (.) 828 261 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 42 174 :M f165 sf .673 .067(Thus, in general, over all possible inputs, any encoding of symbols from an alphabet of)J 42 192 :M 1.741 .174(256 characters using symbols from an alphabet of 255 characters must increase the)J 42 210 :M (number of symbols by a ratio of at least:)S 60 225 39 30 rC 99 255 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 225 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 1248 div 960 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 39 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 0 406 moveto 1151 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (log) 25 264 sh (log) 30 798 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (256) 556 264 sh (255) 561 798 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 42 282 :M f165 sf .95 .095(This theoretical bound gives us a metric against which to judge different byte stuffing)J 42 300 :M .448 .045(schemes. Some algorithms may be able to beat this bound for some packets, but there is)J 42 318 :M .812 .081(no algorithm whose average performance over all packets can beat this bound. Perhaps)J 42 336 :M .252 .025(more significantly, this bound on average performance tells us that no algorithm can ever)J 42 354 :M .836 .084(have a worst-case bound better than 0.07063%. If any algorithm did have a worst-case)J 42 372 :M .373 .037(bound better than this, that would necessarily mean that its average performance over all)J 42 390 :M (inputs would also be better than 0.07063%, and we know that cannot be the case.)S 42 420 :M .084 .008(In practice we can take advantage of the fact that our network traffic is not purely random)J 42 438 :M .805 .08(data, by recognising that certain patterns of data occur more frequently than others and)J 42 456 :M 1.496 .15(devising an algorithm that encodes this particular mix of data more efficiently. This)J 42 474 :M .342 .034(allows us to improve our average performance for typical network traffic, but it does not)J 42 492 :M (change the fact that the worst case can never be improved beyond the theoretical limit.)S 42 522 :M f318 sf (4.3.1)S f360 sf ( )S 73 522 :M f318 sf (Expected Overhead for HDLC)S 42 552 :M f165 sf 2.152 .215(In [Pap87] Papastavridis shows that the mean number of stuffing bits in a prefix-)J 42 570 :M (synchronized code such as HDLC is approximately:)S 251 585 32 28 rC 283 613 :M psb currentpoint pse 251 585 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 1024 div 896 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 42 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 0 403 moveto 901 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 356 261 sh 224 ns (k) 232 623 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (2) 21 795 sh (1) 718 795 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (-) 459 795 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 42 640 :M f165 sf .57 .057(where the data is )J 130 640 :M f243 sf .237(n)A f165 sf .509 .051( bits long, the prefix is )J f243 sf .21(k)A f165 sf .58 .058(+1 bits long, and )J 344 640 :M f243 sf .152(n)A f165 sf .152(\310)A f243 sf .135(k)A f165 sf .461 .046(. For HDLC, the prefix)J 42 658 :M 1.168 .117(referred to is the sequence 0111111, so )J f243 sf .359(k)A f165 sf 1.404 .14(=6. Thus Papastavridis shows that the mean)J endp showpage %%Page: 109 109 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 109 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 91 \321)S 78 56 :M .854 .085(number of stuffing bits in HDLC encoded data is roughly 1 bit in 63. Note that Papa)J 503 56 :M (s)S 508 56 :M (-)S 78 74 :M 1.154 .115(tavridis shows his result in terms of the proportion of stuffing bits expected to be )J 496 74 :M f243 sf (ob-)S 78 92 :M .724 .072(served in the final output data)J f165 sf .662 .066(, not in terms of the number of stuffing bits the encoding)J 78 110 :M .197 .02(algorithm is expected to )J 199 110 :M f243 sf .287 .029(add to the input data)J f165 sf .205 .021(. If in the output 1 bit in 63 is found to be a)J 78 128 :M 1.082 .108(stuffing bit, that is equivalent to saying that the encoding algorithm added one bit for)J 78 146 :M .106 .011(every 62 bits of input data. Hence, in terms consistent with those used throughout the rest)J 78 164 :M .352 .035(of this dissertation, HDLC bit stuffing adds an average overhead of 1 bit in 62, or a little)J 78 182 :M (over 1.6%.)S 78 212 :M .335 .034(One way to understand HDLC\325s average overhead intuitively is as follows: Given a long)J 78 230 :M .761 .076(sequence of bits that has not yet generated a stuffing event, what is the probability that)J 78 248 :M .354 .035(the next bit will generate a stuffing event? The necessary and sufficient condition for the)J 78 266 :M .373 .037(next bit to generate a stuffing event is that the last five bits of the sequence are currently)J 78 284 :M 1.363 .136(01111 and the new bit added is a 1, resulting in a new sequence that now ends with)J 78 302 :M .753 .075(011111. Only when a sequence ends with this pattern does a stuffing event occur. This)J 78 320 :M .793 .079(particular six-bit pattern that we are interested in is only one of many possible patterns)J 78 338 :M .525 .052(that could terminate a sequence. A sequence can end with any of the 64 possible combi-)J 78 356 :M .484 .048(nations of six bits, )J 172 356 :M f243 sf (except)S 203 356 :M f165 sf .473 .047( for 111110 and 111111. A sequence cannot end with either of)J 78 374 :M .316 .032(these patterns, because we are calculating probability )J 341 374 :M f243 sf .357 .036(given that the sequence has not yet)J 78 392 :M .269 .027(generated a stuffing event)J f165 sf .202 .02(, and if the sequence ended with either of these two patterns we)J 78 410 :M .441 .044(know it would have already generated a stuffing event previously. Thus only one six-bit)J 78 428 :M .772 .077(pattern out of the 62 allowable six-bit patterns generates a stuffing event, meaning that)J 78 446 :M (each bit has a )S 146 441 :M f497 sf (1)S 150 446 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (62)S 0 -3 rm f165 sf ( chance that it will cause a stuffing event.)S 78 476 :M .995 .099(This simple analysis ignores boundary effects near the start of a sequence, such as the)J 78 494 :M .257 .026(fact that the first four bits of a sequence can never generate a stuffing event, and the fifth)J 78 512 :M .94 .094(bit has a disproportionately high )J f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 248 512 :M f165 sf .177(/)A f497 sf 0 3 rm .186(32)A 0 -3 rm f165 sf .959 .096( probability of causing a stuffing event, but neve)J 504 512 :M (r)S 508 512 :M (-)S 78 530 :M .52 .052(theless it is useful to see that the result produced by this simplified analysis of the pro)J 502 530 :M (b-)S 78 548 :M (lem supports Papastavridis\325s far more rigorous \(and perhaps less intuitive\) solution.)S 78 578 :M f318 sf (4.3.2)S f360 sf ( )S 109 578 :M f318 sf (Expected Overhead for PPP)S 78 608 :M f165 sf .437 .044(For PPP the expected overhead is easy to calculate. PPP has only two distinct behaviour)J 78 626 :M .237 .024(patterns: it either reads a single byte and writes a single byte, or it reads a single byte and)J 78 644 :M .736 .074(writes a pair of bytes. In uniformly distributed data, the probability that any given byte)J 78 662 :M .063 .006(will be one of PPP\325s two reserved values, causing PPP to output two bytes instead of one,)J endp showpage %%Page: 110 110 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 110 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 92 \321)S 42 56 :M .62 .062(is )J 54 51 :M f497 sf (2)S 58 56 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 72 56 :M f165 sf .481 .048(. In a packet of length )J f243 sf .225(n)A f165 sf .543 .054(, there will be on average )J 319 56 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\312)S f398 sf (\264)S 335 56 :M f165 sf (\312)S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (2)S 0 5 rm 342 56 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 356 56 :M f165 sf .421 .042( occurrences of reserved)J 42 74 :M (values and )S 96 74 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\312)S f398 sf (\264)S 112 74 :M f165 sf (\312)S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (254)S 0 5 rm 126 74 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 140 74 :M f165 sf ( occurrences of other values, giving an expected output length of:)S 60 89 195 16 rC 255 105 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 89 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 6240 div 512 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 56 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 1123 197 moveto 386 0 rlineto stroke 3219 197 moveto 387 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) -8 296 sh (n) 2150 296 sh (n) 5940 296 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\264) 262 296 sh (\264) 823 296 sh (+) 1696 296 sh (\264) 2420 296 sh (\264) 2919 296 sh (=) 3874 296 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (2) 551 296 sh (1) 2678 296 sh (1) 4310 296 sh (0078125) 4598 296 sh 224 ns (2) 1260 157 sh (256) 1149 391 sh (254) 3245 154 sh (256) 3245 391 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 ( ) 1573 296 sh ( ) 1998 296 sh ( ) 3670 296 sh ( ) 4192 296 sh (.) 4502 296 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 42 132 :M f165 sf .419 .042(An expected output length 1.0078125 times the input length gives an expected overhead)J 42 150 :M (of 0.78125%, about 11 times worse than the theoretical optimum.)S 42 180 :M f318 sf (4.3.3)S f360 sf ( )S 73 180 :M f318 sf (Expected Overhead for COBS)S 42 210 :M f165 sf .49 .049(For COBS the average overhead is a little harder to calculate than for PPP, since COBS)J 42 228 :M .483 .048(has 255 different behaviours, rather than just the two that PPP has. In addition, not only)J 42 246 :M .531 .053(does each behaviour write a different number of output bytes, each behaviour also reads)J 42 264 :M .43 .043(different numbers of input bytes. Since the number of input bytes read is not always one)J 42 282 :M .355 .035(as it is for PPP, we must also calculate the average number of bytes read per code block,)J 42 300 :M 1.564 .156(and divide the average output by the average input to determine the overall average)J 42 318 :M (overhead.)S 42 348 :M 1.139 .114(First we calculate the average input per code block. If the first byte the algorithm en-)J 42 366 :M 1.475 .148(counters is a zero, then that single byte is encoded as a code block. The probability)J 42 384 :M .019 .002(p\(0x01\) of this happening is )J 181 379 :M f497 sf (1)S 185 384 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 199 384 :M f165 sf .021 .002(. If the first byte is not a zero, but the second byte is, then)J 42 402 :M .714 .071(the algorithm reads two bytes and outputs a block. The probability p\(0x02\) of this ha)J 466 402 :M (p-)S 42 420 :M .946 .095(pening is )J f497 sf 0 -5 rm .319(255)A 0 5 rm 103 420 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 117 420 :M f165 sf (\312)S f398 sf (\264)S 127 420 :M f165 sf (\312)S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 134 420 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 148 420 :M f165 sf 1.374 .137(. The probability p\()J f243 sf .442(n)A f165 sf .883 .088(\) that it reads )J 325 420 :M f243 sf .259(n)A f165 sf .946 .095(\3201 non-zeroes \()J 410 420 :M f243 sf .584(n)A f165 sf 1.187 .119( )J cF f398 sf .119(\243)A setfont 1.187 .119( 254\) fo)J 469 420 :M (l-)S 42 438 :M (lowed by a zero is:)S 60 453 87 32 rC 147 485 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 453 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 2784 div 1024 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 46 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 182 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke 2067 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (255) 209 353 sh (256) 203 887 sh (1) 2279 353 sh (256) 2088 887 sh 224 ns (1) 1269 152 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\346) -15 412 sh (\350) -15 821 sh (\366) 808 412 sh (\370) 808 821 sh (\264) 1479 594 sh 224 ns (-) 1142 152 sh 224 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 1007 152 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 42 512 :M f165 sf 1.518 .152(The longest code block, code 0xFF, occurs when the algorithm encounters 254 non-)J 42 530 :M 2.227 .223(zeroes without seeing a single zero. The probability p\(0xFF\) of this happening is)J 42 548 :M <28>S 46 543 :M f497 sf (255)S 57 548 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 71 548 :M f165 sf <29>S 75 543 :M f497 sf (254)S 86 548 :M f165 sf (, and in this case the algorithm reads 254 bytes and outputs a block of 255 bytes.)S 42 578 :M (The average input per code block is therefore:)S 60 593 140 34 rC 200 627 :M psb currentpoint pse 60 593 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 4480 div 1088 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 35 translate /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 630 605 sh (n) 1530 605 sh 224 ns (n) 200 978 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\264) 900 605 sh (\346) -15 355 sh (\350) -15 900 sh (\347) -15 681 sh (\366) 1848 355 sh (\370) 1848 900 sh (\367) 1848 681 sh (+) 2113 605 sh (\264) 3059 605 sh 224 ns (=) 335 978 sh 576 ns (\345) 174 692 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (p\() 1200 605 sh (\)) 1729 605 sh (p\() 3359 605 sh (\)) 4257 605 sh 224 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 463 978 sh (254) 211 203 sh 384 ns (254) 2404 605 sh (255) 3686 605 sh end MTsave restore pse endp showpage %%Page: 111 111 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 111 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 93 \321)S 78 56 :M .561 .056(Now we calculate the average output per code block. The probabilities of each different)J 78 74 :M .862 .086(behaviour remain the same, and for all codes except one the number of bytes output is)J 78 92 :M .735 .073(also exactly the same as the number of bytes input. The exception is code 0xFF, where)J 78 110 :M (the number of bytes input is 254 but the number of bytes output is 255.)S 78 140 :M (The average output per code block is therefore:)S 96 155 140 34 rC 236 189 :M psb currentpoint pse 96 155 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 4480 div 1088 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 35 translate /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 630 605 sh (n) 1530 605 sh 224 ns (n) 200 978 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\264) 900 605 sh (\346) -15 355 sh (\350) -15 900 sh (\347) -15 681 sh (\366) 1848 355 sh (\370) 1848 900 sh (\367) 1848 681 sh (+) 2113 605 sh (\264) 3046 605 sh 224 ns (=) 335 978 sh 576 ns (\345) 174 692 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (p\() 1200 605 sh (\)) 1729 605 sh (p\() 3346 605 sh (\)) 4244 605 sh 224 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 463 978 sh (254) 211 203 sh 384 ns (255) 2404 605 sh (255) 3673 605 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 78 216 :M f165 sf (The ratio of average output divided by average input is:)S 96 231 215 69 rC 311 300 :M psb currentpoint pse 96 231 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 6880 div 2208 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 60 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 0 1057 moveto 4405 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 679 605 sh (n) 1567 605 sh (n) 673 1707 sh (n) 1561 1707 sh 224 ns (n) 240 978 sh (n) 234 2080 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\264) 943 605 sh (\346) 23 355 sh (\350) 23 900 sh (\347) 23 681 sh (\366) 1885 355 sh (\370) 1885 900 sh (\367) 1885 681 sh (+) 2144 605 sh (\264) 3065 605 sh (\264) 937 1707 sh (\346) 17 1457 sh (\350) 17 2002 sh (\347) 17 1783 sh (\366) 1879 1457 sh (\370) 1879 2002 sh (\367) 1879 1783 sh (+) 2138 1707 sh (\264) 3072 1707 sh (\273) 4790 1156 sh 224 ns (=) 373 978 sh (=) 367 2080 sh 576 ns (\345) 212 692 sh (\345) 206 1794 sh 384 /Times-Roman f1 (p\() 1237 605 sh (\)) 1766 605 sh (p\() 3359 605 sh (\)) 4257 605 sh (p\() 1231 1707 sh (\)) 1760 1707 sh (p\() 3366 1707 sh (\)) 4264 1707 sh (.) 5532 1156 sh 224 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 499 978 sh (254) 249 203 sh (1) 493 2080 sh (254) 243 1305 sh 384 ns (255) 2429 605 sh (255) 3686 605 sh (254) 2423 1707 sh (255) 3693 1707 sh (1) 5340 1156 sh (002295) 5628 1156 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 78 327 :M f165 sf 1.148 .115(The theoretical average overhead for COBS on random data is therefore a little under)J 78 345 :M .099 .01(0.23%. This is about 3)J f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 190 345 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (4)S 0 -3 rm 197 345 :M f165 sf .097 .01( times worse than the theoretical optimum, more than three times)J 78 363 :M (better than PPP\325s average.)S 78 393 :M f318 sf (4.3.4)S f360 sf ( )S 109 393 :M f318 sf (Expected Overhead for COBS/ZPE)S 78 423 :M f165 sf .277 .028(As with basic COBS, we calculate the probability of each code block, and the number of)J 78 441 :M .426 .043(bytes of input and output for each code block. The probability p\(0x01\) that the first byte)J 78 459 :M .488 .049(is a zero and the second is not, resulting in a code 0x01 block, is )J 401 454 :M f497 sf (1)S 405 459 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 419 459 :M f165 sf (\312)S f398 sf (\264)S 429 459 :M f165 sf (\312)S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (255)S 0 5 rm 443 459 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 457 459 :M f165 sf .471 .047(. The prob-)J 78 477 :M .314 .031(ability p\(0xE1\) that both the first and the second bytes are zero, resulting in a code 0xE1)J 78 495 :M .455 .045(block, is )J f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 127 495 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 141 495 :M f165 sf (\312)S f398 sf (\264)S 151 495 :M f165 sf (\312)S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (1)S 0 5 rm 158 495 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (256)S 0 -3 rm 172 495 :M f165 sf .67 .067(. )J 179 495 :M .46 .046(Table 31 enumerates, for each code of the form )J f243 sf .146(k)A f165 sf (+)S 428 495 :M f243 sf .107(n)A f165 sf .379 .038(, the probability)J 78 513 :M 1.206 .121(of code block )J f243 sf .414(k)A f165 sf (+)S 164 513 :M f243 sf .465(n)A f165 sf 1.325 .133( occurring, and the number of input and output bytes for that code)J 78 531 :M (block.)S 78 561 :M (The ratio of average output divided by average input is:)S 96 576 155 64 rC 251 640 :M psb currentpoint pse 96 576 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 4960 div 2048 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 45 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 0 976 moveto 2472 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (p\() 499 556 sh (\)) 1028 556 sh (out\() 1504 556 sh (\)) 2331 556 sh (p\() 594 1577 sh (\)) 1123 1577 sh (in\() 1602 1577 sh (\)) 2237 1577 sh (.) 3599 1075 sh 384 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 829 556 sh (n) 2132 556 sh (n) 924 1577 sh (n) 2038 1577 sh 224 ns (n) 52 929 sh (n) 147 1950 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\264) 1221 556 sh (\264) 1316 1577 sh (\273) 2857 1075 sh 224 ns (=) 185 929 sh (=) 280 1950 sh 576 ns (\345) 24 643 sh (\345) 119 1664 sh 224 /Times-Roman f1 (1) 311 929 sh (255) 64 154 sh (1) 406 1950 sh (255) 159 1175 sh 384 ns (1) 3407 1075 sh (002800) 3695 1075 sh end MTsave restore pse endp showpage %%Page: 112 112 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 112 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 94 \321)S 61 41 63 17 rC 65 55 :M (Base Code)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 65 67 :M f243 sf (k)S 130 55 :M f165 sf (Offset)S 130 67 :M f243 sf (n)S 217 55 :M f165 sf (Probability)S 217 67 :M (p\()S 227 67 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf (+)S 239 67 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf <29>S 346 55 :M (Input)S 346 67 :M (in\()S f243 sf (k)S f165 sf (+)S 371 67 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf <29>S 404 55 :M (Output)S 404 67 :M (out\()S f243 sf (k)S f165 sf (+)S 435 67 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf <29>S 59 41 2 2 rF 59 41 2 2 rF 61 41 63 2 rF 124 41 2 2 rF 126 41 84 2 rF 210 41 2 2 rF 212 41 128 2 rF 340 41 2 2 rF 342 41 55 2 rF 397 41 2 2 rF 399 41 56 2 rF 455 41 2 2 rF 455 41 2 2 rF 59 43 2 29 rF 124 43 1 29 rF 210 43 1 29 rF 340 43 1 29 rF 397 43 1 29 rF 455 43 2 29 rF 65 85 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( = 0x00)S 130 85 :M (1)S cF f398 sf (\243)S setfont 143 85 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (<0x20)S 217 76 111 32 rC 328 108 :M psb currentpoint pse 217 76 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 3552 div 1024 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 46 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 182 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke 1795 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke 2833 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (255) 209 353 sh (256) 203 887 sh (1) 2007 353 sh (256) 1816 887 sh (255) 2860 353 sh (256) 2854 887 sh 224 ns (1) 1269 152 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\346) -15 412 sh (\350) -15 821 sh (\366) 808 412 sh (\370) 808 821 sh (\264) 1479 594 sh (\264) 2517 594 sh 224 ns (-) 1142 152 sh 224 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 1007 152 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 346 85 :M f243 sf (n)S 404 85 :M (n)S 59 72 2 1 rF 61 72 63 1 rF 124 72 1 1 rF 125 72 85 1 rF 210 72 1 1 rF 211 72 129 1 rF 340 72 1 1 rF 341 72 56 1 rF 397 72 1 1 rF 398 72 57 1 rF 455 72 2 1 rF 59 73 2 37 rF 124 73 1 37 rF 210 73 1 37 rF 340 73 1 37 rF 397 73 1 37 rF 455 73 2 37 rF 65 123 :M (k)S f165 sf ( = 0x00)S 130 123 :M (0x20)S cF f398 sf (\243)S setfont 161 123 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (<0xE0)S 217 114 79 32 rC 296 146 :M psb currentpoint pse 217 114 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 2528 div 1024 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 46 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 182 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke 1795 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (255) 209 353 sh (256) 203 887 sh (1) 2007 353 sh (256) 1816 887 sh 224 ns (1) 1269 152 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\346) -15 412 sh (\350) -15 821 sh (\366) 808 412 sh (\370) 808 821 sh (\264) 1479 594 sh 224 ns (-) 1142 152 sh 224 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 1007 152 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 346 123 :M f243 sf (n)S 404 123 :M (n)S 59 110 2 1 rF 61 110 63 1 rF 124 110 1 1 rF 125 110 85 1 rF 210 110 1 1 rF 211 110 129 1 rF 340 110 1 1 rF 341 110 56 1 rF 397 110 1 1 rF 398 110 57 1 rF 455 110 2 1 rF 59 111 2 37 rF 124 111 1 37 rF 210 111 1 37 rF 340 111 1 37 rF 397 111 1 37 rF 455 111 2 37 rF 65 161 :M (k)S f165 sf ( = 0x00)S 130 161 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf ( = 0xE0)S 217 152 46 32 rC 263 184 :M psb currentpoint pse 217 152 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 1472 div 1024 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 46 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 182 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (255) 209 353 sh (256) 203 887 sh 224 ns (1) 1269 152 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\346) -15 412 sh (\350) -15 821 sh (\366) 808 412 sh (\370) 808 821 sh 224 ns (-) 1142 152 sh 224 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 1007 152 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 346 161 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf ( - 1)S 404 161 :M f243 sf (n)S 59 148 2 1 rF 61 148 63 1 rF 124 148 1 1 rF 125 148 85 1 rF 210 148 1 1 rF 211 148 129 1 rF 340 148 1 1 rF 341 148 56 1 rF 397 148 1 1 rF 398 148 57 1 rF 455 148 2 1 rF 59 149 2 37 rF 124 149 1 37 rF 210 149 1 37 rF 340 149 1 37 rF 397 149 1 37 rF 455 149 2 37 rF 65 199 :M (k)S f165 sf ( = 0xE0)S 130 199 :M (1)S cF f398 sf (\243)S setfont 143 199 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (<0x20)S 217 190 111 32 rC 328 222 :M psb currentpoint pse 217 190 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 3552 div 1024 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 46 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 182 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke 1795 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke 2833 495 moveto 616 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (255) 209 353 sh (256) 203 887 sh (1) 2007 353 sh (256) 1816 887 sh (1) 3045 353 sh (256) 2854 887 sh 224 ns (1) 1269 152 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (\346) -15 412 sh (\350) -15 821 sh (\366) 808 412 sh (\370) 808 821 sh (\264) 1479 594 sh (\264) 2517 594 sh 224 ns (-) 1142 152 sh 224 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 1007 152 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 346 199 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf ( + 1)S 404 199 :M f243 sf (n)S 59 186 2 1 rF 61 186 63 1 rF 124 186 1 1 rF 125 186 85 1 rF 210 186 1 1 rF 211 186 129 1 rF 340 186 1 1 rF 341 186 56 1 rF 397 186 1 1 rF 398 186 57 1 rF 455 186 2 1 rF 59 187 2 37 rF 59 224 2 2 rF 59 224 2 2 rF 61 224 63 2 rF 124 187 1 37 rF 124 224 2 2 rF 126 224 84 2 rF 210 187 1 37 rF 210 224 2 2 rF 212 224 128 2 rF 340 187 1 37 rF 340 224 2 2 rF 342 224 55 2 rF 397 187 1 37 rF 397 224 2 2 rF 399 224 56 2 rF 455 187 2 37 rF 455 224 2 2 rF 455 224 2 2 rF 160 253 :M f318 sf (Table 31. Code Block Probabilities for)S 98 271 :M (Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing with Zero-Pair Elimination)S 42 301 :M f165 sf 1.763 .176(The theoretical average overhead for COBS/ZPE on random data is therefore about)J 42 319 :M 1.034 .103(0.28%, which is consistent with what we would intuitively expect: Compared to basic)J 42 337 :M .286 .029(COBS, COBS/ZPE reduces the maximum code block length by about 12%, so we would)J 42 355 :M 1.178 .118(expect the average code block length also to reduce by about 12%. Also, because the)J 42 373 :M .917 .092(maximum code block length is reduced by about 12%, we would expect that the pro)J 466 373 :M (b-)S 42 391 :M .414 .041(ability that any particular byte sequence reaches that maximum length, thereby incurring)J 42 409 :M .291 .029(a byte of overhead, would increase by about 12%. Hence, the average code block is 12%)J 42 427 :M 1.096 .11(shorter, and the probability that it will incur a byte of overhead is 12% higher, which)J 42 445 :M .353 .035(would suggest that the overall average overhead would go up by 24%. This approximate)J 42 463 :M .858 .086(intuitive result is consistent with the result given by the numerical calculation, that the)J 42 481 :M (over)S 63 481 :M (head increases from about 0.23% to 0.28%.)S 42 517 :M f318 sf (4.4)S f360 sf ( )S 69 517 :M f318 sf (Encoding Delay)S 42 547 :M f165 sf .24 .024(One possible criticism of COBS encoding is that it appears to add delay to data transmi)J 467 547 :M (s)S 472 547 :M (-)S 42 565 :M .185 .018(sion, whereas HDLC and PPP do not. The argument is that as each bit is fed to an HDLC)J 42 583 :M .381 .038(encoder, the encoder immediately generates its corresponding output, namely that bit, or)J 42 601 :M .517 .052(that bit followed by a zero stuffing bit, as appropriate. Likewise, as each byte is fed to a)J 42 619 :M .921 .092(PPP encoder, the encoder immediately generates its corresponding output, namely that)J 42 637 :M 1.13 .113(byte, or a pair of bytes, as appropriate. In both cases, for each unit of data the output)J 42 655 :M .092 .009(generation is immediate. The encoder does not have to wait until it has seen some amount)J endp showpage %%Page: 113 113 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 113 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 95 \321)S 78 56 :M .072 .007(of subsequent input before it is able to decide what its output will be. In contrast, a COBS)J 78 74 :M 1.217 .122(encoder may have to buffer up to 254 bytes of data internally before it generates any)J 78 92 :M .762 .076(output, which suggests that COBS encoding could add a significant amount of delay to)J 78 110 :M (the data transmission pipeline.)S 78 140 :M .314 .031(This section addresses this possible criticism in two ways. The first is to show that delay)J 78 158 :M .533 .053(and worst-case overhead are intrinsically linked, so any delay in the COBS algorithm is)J 78 176 :M 1.296 .13(not so much a flaw peculiar to the COBS algorithm, but a necessary consequence of)J 78 194 :M .566 .057(achieving a low bound on worst-case overhead. The second is that the apparent depen)J 502 194 :M (d-)S 78 212 :M .454 .045(ency on future data, and the consequent apparent encoding delay, are due to considering)J 78 230 :M .152 .015(bytes as the basic unit of data. If we consider the network packet as the basic unit of data,)J 78 248 :M (then there is no dependency on future data, and thus no encoding delay.)S 78 278 :M f318 sf (4.4.1)S f360 sf ( )S 109 278 :M f318 sf (Relationship Between Delay and Worst-Case Overhead)S 78 308 :M f165 sf .691 .069(Any data stuffing algorithm is effectively a finite state machine that reads input, unde)J 504 308 :M (r)S 508 308 :M (-)S 78 326 :M .86 .086(goes state changes, and writes output. Since in the worst case the output is necessarily)J 78 344 :M .542 .054(longer than the input, for each )J 231 344 :M f243 sf .212(n)A f165 sf .549 .055( units of data read some number )J 400 344 :M f243 sf (m)S 409 344 :M f165 sf (>)S 416 344 :M f243 sf .215(n)A f165 sf .539 .054( units of data may)J 78 362 :M 1.161 .116(have to be written. To minimize worst-case overhead, we should make )J f243 sf (m)S 450 362 :M f165 sf 1.41 .141( as small as)J 78 380 :M .329 .033(possible. Unless we plan to allow writing of fractional units of data, which is beyond the)J 78 398 :M .298 .03(scope of this dissertation, )J 205 398 :M f243 sf (m)S 214 398 :M f165 sf .334 .033( must be an integer, and the smallest integer greater than )J f243 sf .124(n)A f165 sf .189 .019( is)J 78 416 :M f243 sf .411(n)A f165 sf 1.171 .117(+1. Thus the worst-case encoding ratio can be no better than )J f443 sf 0 -5 rm (n)S 0 5 rm 401 411 :M f497 sf (+1)S f165 sf 0 5 rm (/)S 0 -5 rm f443 sf 0 8 rm (n)S 0 -8 rm 415 416 :M f165 sf 1.175 .118( . Consequently, to)J 78 434 :M .751 .075(minimize worst-case overhead, we should make )J 320 434 :M f243 sf .301(n)A f165 sf .824 .082( as large as possible. The smaller the)J 78 452 :M .214 .021(value of )J 121 452 :M f243 sf .061(n)A f165 sf .185 .019(, the larger the worst-case encoding overhead. For PPP the amount of data read)J 78 470 :M 1.035 .104(before an output is generated is always one byte, so )J 344 470 :M f243 sf .235(n)A f165 sf .866 .087(=1, and the worst-case encoding)J 78 488 :M .504 .05(ratio is 2:1. For COBS the amount of data read before an output is generated may be up)J 78 506 :M (to 254 bytes, so )S f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (=254, and the worst-case encoding ratio is 255:254.)S 78 536 :M .615 .062(Upon casual inspection it may appear that HDLC is able to beat this performance limit,)J 78 554 :M .448 .045(since its worst-case overhead is only 20%, yet it is always able to generate an output for)J 78 572 :M 1.607 .161(every single bit of input. However, this interpretation is misleading, because HDLC)J 78 590 :M 1.849 .185(encoding transfers the delay to the receiving end of the pipeline. While the HDLC)J 78 608 :M .333 .033(encoder is able to process individual bits with no delay, the HDLC decoder is not. When)J 78 626 :M .533 .053(the HDLC decoder observes a series of one-bits, it is not able to say whether those one-)J 78 644 :M 1.086 .109(bits are data bits or the end-of-frame marker until it has examined the sixth bit to see)J 78 662 :M .362 .036(whether it is a zero or a one. Hence in the case where it receives five ones followed by a)J endp showpage %%Page: 114 114 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 114 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 96 \321)S 42 56 :M .602 .06(zero, the HDLC decoder has to read six bits before it can generate any output, at which)J 42 74 :M .707 .071(time it can then immediately generate five bits of output. Thus HDLC has a worst-case)J 42 92 :M .24 .024(encoding ratio of 6:5, and at the receiving end there is a decoding delay of up to five bits)J 42 110 :M (before the meaning of a particular bit can be properly decoded.)S 42 140 :M .381 .038(To have low overhead we need to have a large value of )J 317 140 :M f243 sf .179(n)A f165 sf .384 .038(, and to have a large value of )J 469 140 :M f243 sf (n)S 42 158 :M f165 sf .551 .055(we need to add delay, either at the transmitting side or at the receiving side, or a combi-)J 42 176 :M .829 .083(nation of the two. This suggests the unhappy conclusion that it is impossible to have a)J 42 194 :M 1.078 .108(small worst-case overhead without also adding a large amount of delay but, as shown)J 42 212 :M (below, this apparent problem may not matter at all.)S 42 242 :M f318 sf (4.4.2)S f360 sf ( )S 73 242 :M f318 sf (Units of Data for Encoding Algorithms)S 42 272 :M f165 sf 1.196 .12(At the beginning of this section, I stated that both HDLC and PPP encoders generate)J 42 290 :M .62 .062(immediate output for each unit of input they are given. However, for HDLC the unit of)J 42 308 :M .857 .086(input was a single bit, while for PPP the unit of input was the byte. If we consider the)J 42 326 :M 1.2 .12(input to the PPP encoder to be a stream of bits instead of bytes, then its output is no)J 42 344 :M .617 .062(longer always immediate. Upon being presented with the first bit, the PPP encoder may)J 42 362 :M .341 .034(be unable to generate any output. It may have to wait until it has received the next seven)J 42 380 :M .271 .027(bits to complete the entire byte before it knows what output it should generate. However,)J 42 398 :M .032 .003(in practice, PPP encoders are not presented with data one bit at a time. They are presented)J 42 416 :M .367 .037(with data at least a byte at a time. In fact, in most networking software, the PPP encoder)J 42 434 :M .792 .079(is not even presented with single bytes; it is presented with an entire packet to encode,)J 42 452 :M .304 .03(and the entire packet is encoded in a single )J 255 452 :M f243 sf (while)S 281 452 :M f165 sf .291 .029( loop. One of the reasons for processing)J 42 470 :M 1.847 .185(data a packet at a time is that popular network protocols such as Ethernet [Tan88])J 42 488 :M .063 .006([IEEE802.3] and IP [RFC791] do not carry data as an unstructured stream of bits or bytes)J 42 506 :M .24 .024(over virtual \(or physical\) circuits, but as packets, and packets are the atomic units of data)J 42 524 :M (delivery. Sending or receiving a partial packet is rarely a useful operation.)S 42 554 :M .461 .046(In the same way that PPP encoding is more usefully applied at a per-byte level than at a)J 42 572 :M .257 .026(per-bit level, COBS encoding is more usefully applied at a per-packet level than at a per-)J 42 590 :M .094 .009(byte level. Although the COBS encoding of a given byte in general depends on the values)J 42 608 :M .212 .021(of other nearby bytes, the encoding of any given packet is idempotent, and is not depen)J 466 608 :M (d-)S 42 626 :M 1.016 .102(ent on knowledge of any previous or subsequent packets. Since the kinds of networks)J 42 644 :M .198 .02(considered in this dissertation use packets as their basic units, it is reasonable to relax the)J 42 662 :M .765 .077(restriction that the byte stuffing process must be an idempotent per-byte operation, and)J endp showpage %%Page: 115 115 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 115 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 97 \321)S 78 56 :M .192 .019(this ability to consider more information at once is what allows COBS to achieve a much)J 78 74 :M (better worst-case bound than HDLC or PPP.)S 78 110 :M f318 sf (4.5)S f360 sf ( )S 105 110 :M f318 sf (Summary)S 78 140 :M f165 sf .646 .065(Figure 8 shows a comparison of the results for PPP and for COBS, to illustrate visually)J 78 158 :M .566 .057(the dramatic difference between the narrow range of overheads generated by COBS and)J 78 176 :M (the wide range of overheads that can be generated by PPP.)S 171 203 246 145 rC 217 185 318.5 @c 16 185.5 318 @w 171 333 29 15 rC 176 343 :M f631 sf (0)S 181 343 :M (.)S 183 343 :M (0)S 188 343 :M (%)S gR gS 171 203 246 145 rC 16 228.5 318 @w 16 315.5 318 @w 16 401.5 318 @w 214 333 30 15 rC 219 343 :M f631 sf (0)S 224 343 :M (.)S 226 343 :M (2)S 231 343 :M (%)S gR gS 343 333 30 15 rC 348 343 :M f631 sf (0)S 353 343 :M (.)S 355 343 :M (8)S 360 343 :M (%)S gR gS 387 333 29 15 rC 390 343 :M f631 sf (1)S 395 343 :M (0)S 400 343 :M (0)S 405 343 :M (%)S gR gS 171 203 29 30 rC 179 212 :M f288 sf (P)S 183 212 :M (P)S 187 212 :M (P)S 178 220 :M (B)S 183 220 :M (e)S 187 220 :M (s)S 190 220 :M (t)S 177 228 :M <28>S 180 228 :M (0)S 184 228 :M (%)S 191 228 :M <29>S gR gS 336 203 30 30 rC 344 212 :M f288 sf (P)S 348 212 :M (P)S 352 212 :M (P)S 336 220 :M (A)S 342 220 :M (v)S 346 220 :M (e)S 350 220 :M (r)S 353 220 :M (a)S 357 220 :M (g)S 361 220 :M (e)S 337 228 :M <28>S 340 228 :M (0)S 344 228 :M (.)S 346 228 :M (7)S 350 228 :M (8)S 354 228 :M (%)S 361 228 :M <29>S gR gS 387 203 29 30 rC 395 212 :M f288 sf (P)S 399 212 :M (P)S 403 212 :M (P)S 391 220 :M (W)S 399 220 :M (o)S 403 220 :M (r)S 406 220 :M (s)S 409 220 :M (t)S 389 228 :M <28>S 392 228 :M (1)S 396 228 :M (0)S 400 228 :M (0)S 404 228 :M (%)S 411 228 :M <29>S gR gS 185 253 30 30 rC 189 262 :M f288 sf (C)S 194 262 :M (O)S 200 262 :M (B)S 205 262 :M (S)S 192 270 :M (B)S 197 270 :M (e)S 201 270 :M (s)S 204 270 :M (t)S 186 278 :M <28>S 189 278 :M (0)S 193 278 :M (.)S 195 278 :M (0)S 199 278 :M (7)S 203 278 :M (%)S 210 278 :M <29>S gR gS 171 203 246 145 rC 80 351.5 232 @w 8 207.5 318 @w 8 250.5 318 @w 8 293.5 318 @w 8 336.5 318 @w 80 401.5 232 @w 221 253 30 30 rC 225 262 :M f288 sf (C)S 230 262 :M (O)S 236 262 :M (B)S 241 262 :M (S)S 221 270 :M (A)S 227 270 :M (v)S 231 270 :M (e)S 235 270 :M (r)S 238 270 :M (a)S 242 270 :M (g)S 246 270 :M (e)S 222 278 :M <28>S 225 278 :M (0)S 229 278 :M (.)S 231 278 :M (2)S 235 278 :M (3)S 239 278 :M (%)S 246 278 :M <29>S gR gS 257 253 30 30 rC 261 262 :M f288 sf (C)S 266 262 :M (O)S 272 262 :M (B)S 277 262 :M (S)S 261 270 :M (W)S 269 270 :M (o)S 273 270 :M (r)S 276 270 :M (s)S 279 270 :M (t)S 258 278 :M <28>S 261 278 :M (0)S 265 278 :M (.)S 267 278 :M (4)S 271 278 :M (0)S 275 278 :M (%)S 282 278 :M <29>S gR gS 171 203 246 145 rC 30 235.5 282 @w 1 G np 372 347 :M 379 340 :L 372 333 :L 379 325 :L 372 318 :L 379 311 :L 372 304 :L 379 297 :L 372 289 :L 379 282 :L 372 275 :L 379 268 :L 372 261 :L 379 253 :L 372 246 :L 379 239 :L 372 232 :L 379 225 :L 372 217 :L 379 210 :L 387 210 :L 379 217 :L 387 225 :L 379 232 :L 387 239 :L 379 246 :L 387 253 :L 379 261 :L 387 268 :L 379 275 :L 387 282 :L 379 289 :L 387 297 :L 379 304 :L 387 311 :L 379 318 :L 387 325 :L 379 333 :L 387 340 :L 379 347 :L 372 347 :L eofill np 372 347 :M 379 340 :L 372 333 :L 379 325 :L 372 318 :L 379 311 :L 372 304 :L 379 297 :L 372 289 :L 379 282 :L 372 275 :L 379 268 :L 372 261 :L 379 253 :L 372 246 :L 379 239 :L 372 232 :L 379 225 :L 372 217 :L 379 210 :L 372 347 :L eofill 0 G -1 -1 373 348 1 1 379 340 @b 372 334 -1 1 380 340 1 372 333 @a -1 -1 373 334 1 1 379 325 @b 372 319 -1 1 380 325 1 372 318 @a -1 -1 373 319 1 1 379 311 @b 372 305 -1 1 380 311 1 372 304 @a -1 -1 373 305 1 1 379 297 @b 372 290 -1 1 380 297 1 372 289 @a -1 -1 373 290 1 1 379 282 @b 372 276 -1 1 380 282 1 372 275 @a -1 -1 373 276 1 1 379 268 @b 372 262 -1 1 380 268 1 372 261 @a -1 -1 373 262 1 1 379 253 @b 372 247 -1 1 380 253 1 372 246 @a -1 -1 373 247 1 1 379 239 @b 372 233 -1 1 380 239 1 372 232 @a -1 -1 373 233 1 1 379 225 @b 372 218 -1 1 380 225 1 372 217 @a -1 -1 373 218 1 1 379 210 @b 1 G np 379 347 :M 387 340 :L 379 333 :L 387 325 :L 379 318 :L 387 311 :L 379 304 :L 387 297 :L 379 289 :L 387 282 :L 379 275 :L 387 268 :L 379 261 :L 387 253 :L 379 246 :L 387 239 :L 379 232 :L 387 225 :L 379 217 :L 387 210 :L 379 347 :L eofill 0 G -1 -1 380 348 1 1 387 340 @b 379 334 -1 1 388 340 1 379 333 @a -1 -1 380 334 1 1 387 325 @b 379 319 -1 1 388 325 1 379 318 @a -1 -1 380 319 1 1 387 311 @b 379 305 -1 1 388 311 1 379 304 @a -1 -1 380 305 1 1 387 297 @b 379 290 -1 1 388 297 1 379 289 @a -1 -1 380 290 1 1 387 282 @b 379 276 -1 1 388 282 1 379 275 @a -1 -1 380 276 1 1 387 268 @b 379 262 -1 1 388 268 1 379 261 @a -1 -1 380 262 1 1 387 253 @b 379 247 -1 1 388 253 1 379 246 @a -1 -1 380 247 1 1 387 239 @b 379 233 -1 1 388 239 1 379 232 @a -1 -1 380 233 1 1 387 225 @b 379 218 -1 1 388 225 1 379 217 @a -1 -1 380 218 1 1 387 210 @b 30 199.5 282 @w 16 271.5 318 @w 257 333 30 15 rC 262 343 :M f631 sf (0)S 267 343 :M (.)S 269 343 :M (4)S 274 343 :M (%)S gR gS 300 333 30 15 rC 305 343 :M f631 sf (0)S 310 343 :M (.)S 312 343 :M (6)S 317 343 :M (%)S gR gS 171 203 246 145 rC 16 358.5 318 @w 30 271.5 282 @w 80 185.5 232 @w gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 164 375 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 201 375 :M (8. Encoding Overhead for 1500 Byte Packet)S 114 405 :M f165 sf 1.283 .128(PPP\325s best, average, and worst cases vary widely. In contrast, COBS\325s)J 114 423 :M 1.113 .111(best, average and worst cases all fall within a narrow range, and are all)J 114 441 :M (better than PPP\325s average case.)S 78 471 :M .735 .074(These average results hold for well-compressed packets which contain a uniform distri-)J 78 489 :M .365 .036(bution of byte values, but not all Internet traffic is well-compressed. In addition, it is not)J 78 507 :M 1.222 .122(possible to have fractional bytes of overhead. In theory a 40-byte IPv4 TCP ackno)J 499 507 :M (w)S 508 507 :M (-)S 78 525 :M .483 .048(ledgement packet encoded with COBS may average an overhead of 40\312)J f398 sf (\264)S 435 525 :M f165 sf .493 .049(\3120.23% = 0.092)J 78 543 :M .434 .043(bytes, but in practice that fraction is rounded up to an entire byte of overhead. For small)J 78 561 :M .156 .016(packets this rounding up may be a more dominant contributor to overhead than the actual)J 78 579 :M 1.316 .132(underlying properties of the algorithm. To investigate how much effect this potential)J 78 597 :M .193 .019(problem might have, I encoded traces of real-world network traffic using both COBS and)J 78 615 :M (PPP byte stuffing, and these results are presented in the next chapter.)S endp showpage %%Page: 116 116 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 116 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 237 704 :M f165 sf (\321 98 \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 117 117 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 117 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 273 704 :M f165 sf (\321 99 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Five)S 78 119 :M (Experimental Results)S 78 212 :M f165 sf .17 .017(This chapter presents the encoding behaviour of COBS and other protocols for real-world)J 78 230 :M .377 .038(network traffic. Real-world network traffic may not behave the same way as Chapter 4\325s)J 78 248 :M 1.167 .117(theoretical traffic. In real-world traffic, small packets are common, and not all data is)J 78 266 :M .524 .052(compressed and/or encrypted. To see how these factors affect the algorithms, I gathered)J 78 284 :M 1.56 .156(traces of network traffic using tcpdump [Jac89] and compared how efficiently those)J 78 302 :M (packets were encoded by HDLC, PPP, COBS and COBS/ZPE.)S 78 332 :M .603 .06(I captured traces of traffic sent both over Metricom packet radio interfaces [Che96] and)J 78 350 :M .523 .052(over Ethernet [Tan88] [IEEE802.3]. The reason for studying packet radio traffic as well)J 78 368 :M 1.022 .102(as Ethernet traffic was because unlicensed FCC Part 15 radio devices were one of the)J 78 386 :M 1.697 .17(main motivations behind the development of consistent overhead byte stuffing. The)J 78 404 :M .551 .055(performance of wide-area radio interfaces is dramatically worse than that of an Ethernet)J 78 422 :M .896 .09(\(both in bandwidth and in latency\) and this performance difference may have an infl)J 502 422 :M (u-)S 78 440 :M 1.125 .112(ence on the way people use their network connection. Consequently, I wanted also to)J 78 458 :M .64 .064(study traffic patterns in that environment as well as in the more common Ethernet env)J 505 458 :M (i-)S 78 476 :M (ronment.)S 78 506 :M .404 .04(Two traces are presented here. The first is a wireless traffic trace, consisting of predomi-)J 78 524 :M .394 .039(nantly small packets. Just over half of the packets \(51%\) in this trace are either TCP ack)J 78 542 :M .88 .088(packets containing no data, or single-character TCP data packets, such as a single key-)J 78 560 :M .664 .066(stroke on a remote login connection. The second trace is a large file transfer containing)J 78 578 :M .309 .031(roughly two thirds maximum-sized TCP data packets and one third TCP acks. \(63.6% of)J 78 596 :M (the IP packets were maximum-sized TCP data packets and 36.3% were TCP acks.\))S 78 626 :M .282 .028(For each trace, the packets were encoded using HDLC, PPP, COBS and COBS/ZPE. For)J 78 644 :M .405 .04(each method a histogram shows overheads in the range )J cF f398 sf .04(\261)A setfont .405 .04(30 bytes on the horizontal axis,)J 78 662 :M .512 .051(and for each of those overheads, the percentage of packets incurring that overhead. This)J endp showpage %%Page: 118 118 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 118 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 100 \321)S 42 56 :M .575 .057(percentage is plotted on a log scale to show more detail at the low end. For these traces)J 42 74 :M 1.057 .106(0.001% of the packets amounts to less than one packet, and since the only number of)J 42 92 :M (packets less than one is zero packets, 0.001% is chosen as the base line of the log scale.)S 42 122 :M 1.535 .154(In all of our traces, PPP\325s worst-case encoding was always significantly higher than)J 42 140 :M 1.811 .181(COBS\325s worst case. Even so, PPP never came close to using the full factor-of-two)J 42 158 :M .918 .092(overhead that is possible. However, the fact that we never observed these pathological)J 42 176 :M .277 .028(packets does not mean that it is safe to engineer a PPP implementation that does not take)J 42 194 :M .979 .098(them into account. There is at least one example of real-world traffic that exhibits fre-)J 42 212 :M 1.475 .148(quent reproducible pathological PPP encoding behaviour: voice over IP using G.721)J 42 230 :M .168 .017([G721]. During periods of near-silence, this encoding can sometimes transmit data that is)J 42 248 :M (almost entirely 0x7E byte values, causing pathological PPP data expansion [Carl97].)S 42 284 :M f318 sf (5.1)S f360 sf ( )S 69 284 :M f318 sf (Three-Day Trace)S 42 314 :M f165 sf .232 .023(One of my colleagues frequently works at home, and his sole Internet connection is via a)J 42 332 :M .37 .037(portable ISM-band packet radio attached to his laptop computer. I collected a trace of all)J 42 350 :M .743 .074(his packets for a period of three days. The goal was to capture a representative trace of)J 42 368 :M .521 .052(packets from a user who makes extensive use of a wireless interface. The trace contains)J 42 386 :M .954 .095(36,744 IP packets, totalling 10,060,268 bytes of data \(including IP headers and higher)J 42 404 :M 1.118 .112(layers; not including the link-level header\). The MTU of the wireless interface in this)J 42 422 :M (case was 1024 bytes, giving a worst-case COBS overhead for large packets of 5 bytes.)S 42 452 :M .645 .065(However, most of the packets captured were not large; 69% of the packets were shorter)J 42 470 :M .302 .03(than 254 bytes and necessarily incurred exactly one byte of overhead when encoded with)J 42 488 :M .093 .009(COBS. Moreover, 41% of the packets were exactly 40 bytes long, which is just the length)J 42 506 :M .195 .02(of a TCP acknowledgement containing no data. Another 10% of the packets were exactly)J 42 524 :M .414 .041(41 bytes long, which is the length of a TCP packet containing just one data byte. Taking)J 42 542 :M .919 .092(these two numbers together, this means that over half the packets were 40 or 41 bytes)J 42 560 :M (long. Only 15% of the packets were maximum-sized 1024-byte packets.)S 42 590 :M .529 .053(The three-day trace is a particularly challenging test case with which to evaluate COBS,)J 42 608 :M 1.052 .105(because it contains so many small packets. The results for this trace file are shown in)J 42 626 :M (Figure 9.)S endp showpage %%Page: 119 119 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 119 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 101 \321)S 78 56 :M 1.739 .174(HDLC incurred a total overhead of 703,607 bits \(0.87%\). Over 75% of the packets)J 78 74 :M .427 .043(incurred from one to ten bits of overhead, but a few packets incurred over three hundred)J 78 92 :M (bits of overhead.)S 78 122 :M .648 .065(PPP incurred a total overhead of 36,069 bytes \(0.36%\). 74% of the packets incurred no)J 78 140 :M 1.25 .125(overhead, but some packets incurred a significant amount. More than 100 packets i)J 502 140 :M (n-)S 78 158 :M 1.259 .126(curred fifteen bytes of overhead or more, and one packet fell beyond the scale of the)J 78 176 :M .696 .07(graph with an overhead of fifty-three bytes. In this trace no packets incurred more than)J 78 194 :M .964 .096(fifty-three bytes of overhead, supporting the belief that most real packets do not come)J 78 212 :M (close to the factor-of-two overhead that conventional byte stuffing forces us to design for.)S 78 242 :M 1.517 .152(For COBS the overhead is concentrated in a tight spike in the middle: every packet)J 78 260 :M .541 .054(incurred one to four bytes of overhead. COBS incurred a total overhead of 57,005 bytes)J 78 278 :M .508 .051(\(0.57%\), meaning that even in this unfavourable test case COBS costs only 0.21% extra)J 78 296 :M 1.055 .105(compared to PPP, for the benefit of having a tight bound on the worst-case overhead.)J 78 314 :M .805 .081(74% of the packets had exactly one byte of overhead, 7% had two bytes, 8% had three)J 78 332 :M (bytes, and 11% had four.)S 78 362 :M .307 .031(COBS/ZPE maintained a tight bound on worst-case performance while doing on average)J 78 380 :M 1.096 .11(much better than either PPP or COBS. For a 1024-byte packet the maximum possible)J 78 398 :M .516 .052(COBS/ZPE overhead is five bytes, but in fact in this trace no packet incurred more than)J 78 416 :M .31 .031(four. In addition COBS/ZPE )J f243 sf .095(reduced)A 259 416 :M f165 sf .435 .044( the overall size of the data by 26,238 bytes, giving)J 78 434 :M (a net overall saving of 0.26%.)S 78 470 :M f318 sf (5.2)S f360 sf ( )S 105 470 :M f318 sf (MPEG Trace)S 78 500 :M f165 sf 1.138 .114(With the increasing popularity of the World Wide Web, we might expect to see large)J 78 518 :M .903 .09(packets and compressed data \(particularly image data\) becoming more common on the)J 78 536 :M .111 .011(Internet. To see how COBS would perform under these conditions I captured a large bulk)J 78 554 :M 1.308 .131(transfer of compressed image data. The data file was MIRV.MPG, a 15.3MB MPEG)J 78 572 :M .306 .031([ISO11172] file of an MTV music video, and it was transferred using ftp [RFC959]. The)J 78 590 :M 1.23 .123(trace contains 25,858 IP packets, totalling 18,269,430 bytes of data. The MTU of the)J 78 608 :M .381 .038(wireless interface was 1088 bytes, giving a worst-case COBS overhead for large packets)J 78 626 :M (of 5 bytes.)S endp showpage %%Page: 120 120 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 120 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 102 \321)S 87 30 367 110 rC .004 lw 367.004 87 116.002 @c 367.004 87 95.002 @c 367.004 87 75.002 @c 367.004 87 54.002 @c 367.004 87 34.002 @c gR .75 G gS 87 33 368 103 rC np 87 136 :M 88 136 :L 89 136 :L 89 136 :L 90 136 :L 91 136 :L 92 136 :L 92 136 :L 93 136 :L 94 136 :L 95 136 :L 95 136 :L 96 136 :L 97 136 :L 98 136 :L 98 136 :L 99 136 :L 100 136 :L 101 136 :L 102 136 :L 102 136 :L 103 136 :L 104 136 :L 105 136 :L 105 136 :L 106 136 :L 107 136 :L 108 136 :L 108 136 :L 109 136 :L 110 136 :L 111 136 :L 111 136 :L 112 136 :L 113 136 :L 114 136 :L 115 136 :L 115 136 :L 116 136 :L 117 136 :L 118 136 :L 118 136 :L 119 136 :L 120 136 :L 121 136 :L 121 136 :L 122 136 :L 123 136 :L 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@w 2.004 435.002 136 @w 2.004 436.002 136 @w 2.004 436.002 136 @w 2.004 437.002 136 @w 2.004 438.002 136 @w 2.004 439.002 136 @w 2.004 439.002 136 @w 2.004 440.002 136 @w 2.004 441.002 136 @w 2.004 442.002 136 @w 2.004 443.002 136 @w 2.004 443.002 136 @w 2.004 444.002 136 @w 2.004 445.002 136 @w 2.004 446.002 136 @w 2.004 446.002 136 @w 2.004 447.002 136 @w 2.004 448.002 136 @w 2.004 449.002 136 @w 2.004 449.002 136 @w 2.004 450.002 136 @w 2.004 451.002 136 @w 2.004 452.002 136 @w 2.004 452.002 136 @w 2.004 453.002 136 @w 2.004 454.002 136 @w 68 138 :M f691 sf .62(0.00)A 68 118 :M .62(0.01)A 68 97 :M .62(0.10)A 68 77 :M .62(1.00)A 64 56 :M .598(10.00)A 60 36 :M .584(100.00)A 82 148 :M f706 sf .199(-240)A 113 148 :M .199(-200)A 143 148 :M .199(-160)A 174 148 :M .199(-120)A 205 148 :M .244(-80)A 236 148 :M .244(-40)A 270 148 :M (0)S 298 148 :M .219(40)A 329 148 :M .219(80)A 358 148 :M .164(120)A 389 148 :M .164(160)A 419 148 :M .164(200)A 450 148 :M .164(240)A 253 150 47 12 rC 254 159 :M f691 sf .549 .055(Overhead \(Bits\))J gR .004 lw gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 63 140 :T 270 rotate -63 -140 :T 63 140 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 90 33 360 21 rC 427 47 :M f721 sf -.825(HDLC)A gR gS 87 173 373 110 rC 373.004 87 259.002 @c 373.004 87 238.002 @c 373.004 87 218.002 @c 373.004 87 197.002 @c 373.004 87 177.002 @c gR .75 G gS 87 175 375 104 rC np 270 180 :M 277 180 :L 277 279 :L 270 279 :L 270 180 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 270 180.002 @c 99.004 277.002 180 @w 7.004 270 279.002 @c 99.004 270.002 180 @w .75 G np 277 197 :M 283 197 :L 283 279 :L 277 279 :L 277 197 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 277 197.002 @c 82.004 283.002 197 @w 6.004 277 279.002 @c 82.004 277.002 197 @w .75 G np 283 208 :M 289 208 :L 289 279 :L 283 279 :L 283 208 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 283 208.002 @c 71.004 289.002 208 @w 6.004 283 279.002 @c 71.004 283.002 208 @w .75 G np 289 210 :M 295 210 :L 295 279 :L 289 279 :L 289 210 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 289 210.002 @c 69.004 295.002 210 @w 6.004 289 279.002 @c 69.004 289.002 210 @w .75 G np 295 211 :M 301 211 :L 301 279 :L 295 279 :L 295 211 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 295 211.002 @c 68.004 301.002 211 @w 6.004 295 279.002 @c 68.004 295.002 211 @w .75 G np 301 213 :M 307 213 :L 307 279 :L 301 279 :L 301 213 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 301 213.002 @c 66.004 307.002 213 @w 6.004 301 279.002 @c 66.004 301.002 213 @w .75 G np 307 215 :M 313 215 :L 313 279 :L 307 279 :L 307 215 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 307 215.002 @c 64.004 313.002 215 @w 6.004 307 279.002 @c 64.004 307.002 215 @w .75 G np 313 217 :M 319 217 :L 319 279 :L 313 279 :L 313 217 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 313 217.002 @c 62.004 319.002 217 @w 6.004 313 279.002 @c 62.004 313.002 217 @w .75 G np 319 217 :M 325 217 :L 325 279 :L 319 279 :L 319 217 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 319 217.002 @c 62.004 325.002 217 @w 6.004 319 279.002 @c 62.004 319.002 217 @w .75 G np 325 220 :M 332 220 :L 332 279 :L 325 279 :L 325 220 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 325 220.002 @c 59.004 332.002 220 @w 7.004 325 279.002 @c 59.004 325.002 220 @w .75 G np 332 222 :M 338 222 :L 338 279 :L 332 279 :L 332 222 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 332 222.002 @c 57.004 338.002 222 @w 6.004 332 279.002 @c 57.004 332.002 222 @w .75 G np 338 225 :M 344 225 :L 344 279 :L 338 279 :L 338 225 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 338 225.002 @c 54.004 344.002 225 @w 6.004 338 279.002 @c 54.004 338.002 225 @w .75 G np 344 229 :M 350 229 :L 350 279 :L 344 279 :L 344 229 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 344 229.002 @c 50.004 350.002 229 @w 6.004 344 279.002 @c 50.004 344.002 229 @w .75 G np 350 231 :M 356 231 :L 356 279 :L 350 279 :L 350 231 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 350 231.002 @c 48.004 356.002 231 @w 6.004 350 279.002 @c 48.004 350.002 231 @w .75 G np 356 235 :M 362 235 :L 362 279 :L 356 279 :L 356 235 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 356 235.002 @c 44.004 362.002 235 @w 6.004 356 279.002 @c 44.004 356.002 235 @w .75 G np 362 240 :M 368 240 :L 368 279 :L 362 279 :L 362 240 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 362 240.002 @c 39.004 368.002 240 @w 6.004 362 279.002 @c 39.004 362.002 240 @w .75 G np 368 246 :M 374 246 :L 374 279 :L 368 279 :L 368 246 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 368 246.002 @c 33.004 374.002 246 @w 6.004 368 279.002 @c 33.004 368.002 246 @w .75 G np 374 249 :M 381 249 :L 381 279 :L 374 279 :L 374 249 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 374 249.002 @c 30.004 381.002 249 @w 7.004 374 279.002 @c 30.004 374.002 249 @w .75 G np 381 246 :M 387 246 :L 387 279 :L 381 279 :L 381 246 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 381 246.002 @c 33.004 387.002 246 @w 6.004 381 279.002 @c 33.004 381.002 246 @w .75 G np 387 256 :M 393 256 :L 393 279 :L 387 279 :L 387 256 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 387 256.002 @c 23.004 393.002 256 @w 6.004 387 279.002 @c 23.004 387.002 256 @w .75 G np 393 260 :M 399 260 :L 399 279 :L 393 279 :L 393 260 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 393 260.002 @c 19.004 399.002 260 @w 6.004 393 279.002 @c 19.004 393.002 260 @w .75 G np 399 256 :M 405 256 :L 405 279 :L 399 279 :L 399 256 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 399 256.002 @c 23.004 405.002 256 @w 6.004 399 279.002 @c 23.004 399.002 256 @w .75 G np 405 260 :M 411 260 :L 411 279 :L 405 279 :L 405 260 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 405 260.002 @c 19.004 411.002 260 @w 6.004 405 279.002 @c 19.004 405.002 260 @w .75 G np 411 260 :M 417 260 :L 417 279 :L 411 279 :L 411 260 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 411 260.002 @c 19.004 417.002 260 @w 6.004 411 279.002 @c 19.004 411.002 260 @w .75 G np 417 264 :M 423 264 :L 423 279 :L 417 279 :L 417 264 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 417 264.002 @c 15.004 423.002 264 @w 6.004 417 279.002 @c 15.004 417.002 264 @w .75 G np 423 270 :M 429 270 :L 429 279 :L 423 279 :L 423 270 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 423 270.002 @c 9.004 429.002 270 @w 6.004 423 279.002 @c 9.004 423.002 270 @w .75 G np 429 264 :M 436 264 :L 436 279 :L 429 279 :L 429 264 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 429 264.002 @c 15.004 436.002 264 @w 7.004 429 279.002 @c 15.004 429.002 264 @w gR 0 G gS 52 166 413 143 rC 102.004 87.002 177 @w 2.004 85 279.002 @c 2.004 85 259.002 @c 2.004 85 238.002 @c 2.004 85 218.002 @c 2.004 85 197.002 @c 2.004 85 177.002 @c 373.004 87 279.002 @c 4.004 87.002 277 @w 4.004 93.002 277 @w 4.004 99.002 277 @w 4.004 105.002 277 @w 4.004 111.002 277 @w 4.004 118.002 277 @w 4.004 124.002 277 @w 4.004 130.002 277 @w 4.004 136.002 277 @w 4.004 142.002 277 @w 4.004 148.002 277 @w 4.004 154.002 277 @w 4.004 160.002 277 @w 4.004 166.002 277 @w 4.004 173.002 277 @w 4.004 179.002 277 @w 4.004 185.002 277 @w 4.004 191.002 277 @w 4.004 197.002 277 @w 4.004 203.002 277 @w 4.004 209.002 277 @w 4.004 215.002 277 @w 4.004 222.002 277 @w 4.004 228.002 277 @w 4.004 234.002 277 @w 4.004 240.002 277 @w 4.004 246.002 277 @w 4.004 252.002 277 @w 4.004 258.002 277 @w 4.004 264.002 277 @w 4.004 270.002 277 @w 4.004 277.002 277 @w 4.004 283.002 277 @w 4.004 289.002 277 @w 4.004 295.002 277 @w 4.004 301.002 277 @w 4.004 307.002 277 @w 4.004 313.002 277 @w 4.004 319.002 277 @w 4.004 325.002 277 @w 4.004 332.002 277 @w 4.004 338.002 277 @w 4.004 344.002 277 @w 4.004 350.002 277 @w 4.004 356.002 277 @w 4.004 362.002 277 @w 4.004 368.002 277 @w 4.004 374.002 277 @w 4.004 381.002 277 @w 4.004 387.002 277 @w 4.004 393.002 277 @w 4.004 399.002 277 @w 4.004 405.002 277 @w 4.004 411.002 277 @w 4.004 417.002 277 @w 4.004 423.002 277 @w 4.004 429.002 277 @w 4.004 436.002 277 @w 4.004 442.002 277 @w 4.004 448.002 277 @w 4.004 454.002 277 @w 4.004 460.002 277 @w 68 281 :M f691 sf .62(0.00)A 68 261 :M .62(0.01)A 68 240 :M .62(0.10)A 68 220 :M .62(1.00)A 64 199 :M .598(10.00)A 60 179 :M .584(100.00)A 86 291 :M f706 sf .244(-30)A 117 291 :M .244(-25)A 147 291 :M .244(-20)A 178 291 :M .244(-15)A 208 291 :M .244(-10)A 241 291 :M .379(-5)A 273 291 :M (0)S 303 291 :M (5)S 332 291 :M .219(10)A 362 291 :M .219(15)A 393 291 :M .219(20)A 423 291 :M .219(25)A 454 291 :M .219(30)A 253 293 52 12 rC 254 302 :M f691 sf .446 .045(Overhead \(Bytes\))J gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 63 283 :T 270 rotate -63 -283 :T 63 283 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 90 176 368 21 rC 440 190 :M f721 sf -.365(PPP)A gR gS 87 316 373 110 rC 373.004 87 402.002 @c 373.004 87 381.002 @c 373.004 87 361.002 @c 373.004 87 340.002 @c 373.004 87 320.002 @c gR .75 G gS 87 318 375 104 rC np 277 323 :M 283 323 :L 283 422 :L 277 422 :L 277 323 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 277 323.002 @c 99.004 283.002 323 @w 6.004 277 422.002 @c 99.004 277.002 323 @w .75 G np 283 344 :M 289 344 :L 289 422 :L 283 422 :L 283 344 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 283 344.002 @c 78.004 289.002 344 @w 6.004 283 422.002 @c 78.004 283.002 344 @w .75 G np 289 343 :M 295 343 :L 295 422 :L 289 422 :L 289 343 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 289 343.002 @c 79.004 295.002 343 @w 6.004 289 422.002 @c 79.004 289.002 343 @w .75 G np 295 340 :M 301 340 :L 301 422 :L 295 422 :L 295 340 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 295 340.002 @c 82.004 301.002 340 @w 6.004 295 422.002 @c 82.004 295.002 340 @w gR 0 G gS 52 309 413 143 rC 102.004 87.002 320 @w 2.004 85 422.002 @c 2.004 85 402.002 @c 2.004 85 381.002 @c 2.004 85 361.002 @c 2.004 85 340.002 @c 2.004 85 320.002 @c 373.004 87 422.002 @c 4.004 87.002 420 @w 4.004 93.002 420 @w 4.004 99.002 420 @w 4.004 105.002 420 @w 4.004 111.002 420 @w 4.004 118.002 420 @w 4.004 124.002 420 @w 4.004 130.002 420 @w 4.004 136.002 420 @w 4.004 142.002 420 @w 4.004 148.002 420 @w 4.004 154.002 420 @w 4.004 160.002 420 @w 4.004 166.002 420 @w 4.004 173.002 420 @w 4.004 179.002 420 @w 4.004 185.002 420 @w 4.004 191.002 420 @w 4.004 197.002 420 @w 4.004 203.002 420 @w 4.004 209.002 420 @w 4.004 215.002 420 @w 4.004 222.002 420 @w 4.004 228.002 420 @w 4.004 234.002 420 @w 4.004 240.002 420 @w 4.004 246.002 420 @w 4.004 252.002 420 @w 4.004 258.002 420 @w 4.004 264.002 420 @w 4.004 270.002 420 @w 4.004 277.002 420 @w 4.004 283.002 420 @w 4.004 289.002 420 @w 4.004 295.002 420 @w 4.004 301.002 420 @w 4.004 307.002 420 @w 4.004 313.002 420 @w 4.004 319.002 420 @w 4.004 325.002 420 @w 4.004 332.002 420 @w 4.004 338.002 420 @w 4.004 344.002 420 @w 4.004 350.002 420 @w 4.004 356.002 420 @w 4.004 362.002 420 @w 4.004 368.002 420 @w 4.004 374.002 420 @w 4.004 381.002 420 @w 4.004 387.002 420 @w 4.004 393.002 420 @w 4.004 399.002 420 @w 4.004 405.002 420 @w 4.004 411.002 420 @w 4.004 417.002 420 @w 4.004 423.002 420 @w 4.004 429.002 420 @w 4.004 436.002 420 @w 4.004 442.002 420 @w 4.004 448.002 420 @w 4.004 454.002 420 @w 4.004 460.002 420 @w 68 424 :M f691 sf .62(0.00)A 68 404 :M .62(0.01)A 68 383 :M .62(0.10)A 68 363 :M .62(1.00)A 64 342 :M .598(10.00)A 60 322 :M .584(100.00)A 86 434 :M f706 sf .244(-30)A 117 434 :M .244(-25)A 147 434 :M .244(-20)A 178 434 :M .244(-15)A 208 434 :M .244(-10)A 241 434 :M .379(-5)A 273 434 :M (0)S 303 434 :M (5)S 332 434 :M .219(10)A 362 434 :M .219(15)A 393 434 :M .219(20)A 423 434 :M .219(25)A 454 434 :M .219(30)A 253 436 52 12 rC 254 445 :M f691 sf .446 .045(Overhead \(Bytes\))J gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 63 426 :T 270 rotate -63 -426 :T 63 426 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 90 319 368 21 rC 434 333 :M f721 sf -.841(COBS)A gR gS 87 459 373 110 rC 373.004 87 545.002 @c 373.004 87 524.002 @c 373.004 87 504.002 @c 373.004 87 483.002 @c 373.004 87 463.002 @c gR .75 G gS 87 461 375 104 rC np 93 556 :M 99 556 :L 99 565 :L 93 565 :L 93 556 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 93 556.002 @c 9.004 99.002 556 @w 6.004 93 565.002 @c 9.004 93.002 556 @w .75 G np 99 556 :M 105 556 :L 105 565 :L 99 565 :L 99 556 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 99 556.002 @c 9.004 105.002 556 @w 6.004 99 565.002 @c 9.004 99.002 556 @w .75 G np 148 556 :M 154 556 :L 154 565 :L 148 565 :L 148 556 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 148 556.002 @c 9.004 154.002 556 @w 6.004 148 565.002 @c 9.004 148.002 556 @w .75 G np 154 533 :M 160 533 :L 160 565 :L 154 565 :L 154 533 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 154 533.002 @c 32.004 160.002 533 @w 6.004 154 565.002 @c 32.004 154.002 533 @w .75 G np 160 556 :M 166 556 :L 166 565 :L 160 565 :L 160 556 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 160 556.002 @c 9.004 166.002 556 @w 6.004 160 565.002 @c 9.004 160.002 556 @w .75 G np 166 550 :M 173 550 :L 173 565 :L 166 565 :L 166 550 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 166 550.002 @c 15.004 173.002 550 @w 7.004 166 565.002 @c 15.004 166.002 550 @w .75 G np 173 534 :M 179 534 :L 179 565 :L 173 565 :L 173 534 :L eofill 0 G 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577 :M .244(-20)A 178 577 :M .244(-15)A 208 577 :M .244(-10)A 241 577 :M .379(-5)A 273 577 :M (0)S 303 577 :M (5)S 332 577 :M .219(10)A 362 577 :M .219(15)A 393 577 :M .219(20)A 423 577 :M .219(25)A 454 577 :M .219(30)A 253 579 52 12 rC 254 588 :M f691 sf .446 .045(Overhead \(Bytes\))J gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 63 569 :T 270 rotate -63 -569 :T 63 569 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 90 462 368 21 rC 412 476 :M f721 sf -.19(COBS/ZPE)A gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 107 622 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 144 622 :M (9. Encoding Overhead Distribution for 3-Day Trace)S 78 652 :M f165 sf .221 .022(Histograms showing, for each amount of overhead indicated on horizontal)J 78 670 :M .171 .017(axis, the percentage of packets that incur that overhead. All histograms are)J 78 688 :M (drawn to the same scale and labelled in bits or bytes as appropriate.)S endp showpage %%Page: 121 121 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 121 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 103 \321)S 123 30 367 110 rC .004 lw 367.004 123 116.002 @c 367.004 123 95.002 @c 367.004 123 75.002 @c 367.004 123 54.002 @c 367.004 123 34.002 @c gR .75 G gS 123 33 368 103 rC np 123 136 :M 124 136 :L 125 136 :L 125 136 :L 126 136 :L 127 136 :L 128 136 :L 128 136 :L 129 136 :L 130 136 :L 131 136 :L 131 136 :L 132 136 :L 133 136 :L 134 136 :L 134 136 :L 135 136 :L 136 136 :L 137 136 :L 138 136 :L 138 136 :L 139 136 :L 140 136 :L 141 136 :L 141 136 :L 142 136 :L 143 136 :L 144 136 :L 144 136 :L 145 136 :L 146 136 :L 147 136 :L 147 136 :L 148 136 :L 149 136 :L 150 136 :L 151 136 :L 151 136 :L 152 136 :L 153 136 :L 154 136 :L 154 136 :L 155 136 :L 156 136 :L 157 136 :L 157 136 :L 158 136 :L 159 136 :L 160 136 :L 160 136 :L 161 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426.002 136 @w 2.004 427.002 136 @w 2.004 427.002 136 @w 2.004 428.002 136 @w 2.004 429.002 136 @w 2.004 430.002 136 @w 2.004 430.002 136 @w 2.004 431.002 136 @w 2.004 432.002 136 @w 2.004 433.002 136 @w 2.004 433.002 136 @w 2.004 434.002 136 @w 2.004 435.002 136 @w 2.004 436.002 136 @w 2.004 436.002 136 @w 2.004 437.002 136 @w 2.004 438.002 136 @w 2.004 439.002 136 @w 2.004 440.002 136 @w 2.004 440.002 136 @w 2.004 441.002 136 @w 2.004 442.002 136 @w 2.004 443.002 136 @w 2.004 443.002 136 @w 2.004 444.002 136 @w 2.004 445.002 136 @w 2.004 446.002 136 @w 2.004 446.002 136 @w 2.004 447.002 136 @w 2.004 448.002 136 @w 2.004 449.002 136 @w 2.004 449.002 136 @w 2.004 450.002 136 @w 2.004 451.002 136 @w 2.004 452.002 136 @w 2.004 453.002 136 @w 2.004 453.002 136 @w 2.004 454.002 136 @w 2.004 455.002 136 @w 2.004 456.002 136 @w 2.004 456.002 136 @w 2.004 457.002 136 @w 2.004 458.002 136 @w 2.004 459.002 136 @w 2.004 459.002 136 @w 2.004 460.002 136 @w 2.004 461.002 136 @w 2.004 462.002 136 @w 2.004 462.002 136 @w 2.004 463.002 136 @w 2.004 464.002 136 @w 2.004 465.002 136 @w 2.004 466.002 136 @w 2.004 466.002 136 @w 2.004 467.002 136 @w 2.004 468.002 136 @w 2.004 469.002 136 @w 2.004 469.002 136 @w 2.004 470.002 136 @w 2.004 471.002 136 @w 2.004 472.002 136 @w 2.004 472.002 136 @w 2.004 473.002 136 @w 2.004 474.002 136 @w 2.004 475.002 136 @w 2.004 475.002 136 @w 2.004 476.002 136 @w 2.004 477.002 136 @w 2.004 478.002 136 @w 2.004 479.002 136 @w 2.004 479.002 136 @w 2.004 480.002 136 @w 2.004 481.002 136 @w 2.004 482.002 136 @w 2.004 482.002 136 @w 2.004 483.002 136 @w 2.004 484.002 136 @w 2.004 485.002 136 @w 2.004 485.002 136 @w 2.004 486.002 136 @w 2.004 487.002 136 @w 2.004 488.002 136 @w 2.004 488.002 136 @w 2.004 489.002 136 @w 2.004 490.002 136 @w 104 138 :M f691 sf .62(0.00)A 104 118 :M .62(0.01)A 104 97 :M .62(0.10)A 104 77 :M .62(1.00)A 100 56 :M .598(10.00)A 96 36 :M .584(100.00)A 118 148 :M f706 sf .199(-240)A 149 148 :M .199(-200)A 179 148 :M .199(-160)A 210 148 :M .199(-120)A 241 148 :M .244(-80)A 272 148 :M .244(-40)A 306 148 :M (0)S 334 148 :M .219(40)A 365 148 :M .219(80)A 394 148 :M .164(120)A 425 148 :M .164(160)A 455 148 :M .164(200)A 486 148 :M .164(240)A 289 150 47 12 rC 290 159 :M f691 sf .549 .055(Overhead \(Bits\))J gR .004 lw gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 99 140 :T 270 rotate -99 -140 :T 99 140 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 126 33 360 21 rC 463 47 :M f721 sf -.825(HDLC)A gR gS 123 173 373 110 rC 373.004 123 259.002 @c 373.004 123 238.002 @c 373.004 123 218.002 @c 373.004 123 197.002 @c 373.004 123 177.002 @c gR .75 G gS 123 175 375 104 rC np 306 186 :M 313 186 :L 313 279 :L 306 279 :L 306 186 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 306 186.002 @c 93.004 313.002 186 @w 7.004 306 279.002 @c 93.004 306.002 186 @w .75 G np 313 209 :M 319 209 :L 319 279 :L 313 279 :L 313 209 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 313 209.002 @c 70.004 319.002 209 @w 6.004 313 279.002 @c 70.004 313.002 209 @w .75 G np 319 207 :M 325 207 :L 325 279 :L 319 279 :L 319 207 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 319 207.002 @c 72.004 325.002 207 @w 6.004 319 279.002 @c 72.004 319.002 207 @w .75 G np 325 202 :M 331 202 :L 331 279 :L 325 279 :L 325 202 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 325 202.002 @c 77.004 331.002 202 @w 6.004 325 279.002 @c 77.004 325.002 202 @w .75 G np 331 199 :M 337 199 :L 337 279 :L 331 279 :L 331 199 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 331 199.002 @c 80.004 337.002 199 @w 6.004 331 279.002 @c 80.004 331.002 199 @w .75 G np 337 198 :M 343 198 :L 343 279 :L 337 279 :L 337 198 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 337 198.002 @c 81.004 343.002 198 @w 6.004 337 279.002 @c 81.004 337.002 198 @w .75 G np 343 198 :M 349 198 :L 349 279 :L 343 279 :L 343 198 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 343 198.002 @c 81.004 349.002 198 @w 6.004 343 279.002 @c 81.004 343.002 198 @w .75 G np 349 199 :M 355 199 :L 355 279 :L 349 279 :L 349 199 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 349 199.002 @c 80.004 355.002 199 @w 6.004 349 279.002 @c 80.004 349.002 199 @w .75 G np 355 202 :M 361 202 :L 361 279 :L 355 279 :L 355 202 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 355 202.002 @c 77.004 361.002 202 @w 6.004 355 279.002 @c 77.004 355.002 202 @w .75 G np 361 205 :M 368 205 :L 368 279 :L 361 279 :L 361 205 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 361 205.002 @c 74.004 368.002 205 @w 7.004 361 279.002 @c 74.004 361.002 205 @w .75 G np 368 208 :M 374 208 :L 374 279 :L 368 279 :L 368 208 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 368 208.002 @c 71.004 374.002 208 @w 6.004 368 279.002 @c 71.004 368.002 208 @w .75 G np 374 212 :M 380 212 :L 380 279 :L 374 279 :L 374 212 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 374 212.002 @c 67.004 380.002 212 @w 6.004 374 279.002 @c 67.004 374.002 212 @w .75 G np 380 217 :M 386 217 :L 386 279 :L 380 279 :L 380 217 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 380 217.002 @c 62.004 386.002 217 @w 6.004 380 279.002 @c 62.004 380.002 217 @w .75 G np 386 221 :M 392 221 :L 392 279 :L 386 279 :L 386 221 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 386 221.002 @c 58.004 392.002 221 @w 6.004 386 279.002 @c 58.004 386.002 221 @w .75 G np 392 226 :M 398 226 :L 398 279 :L 392 279 :L 392 226 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 392 226.002 @c 53.004 398.002 226 @w 6.004 392 279.002 @c 53.004 392.002 226 @w .75 G np 398 231 :M 404 231 :L 404 279 :L 398 279 :L 398 231 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 398 231.002 @c 48.004 404.002 231 @w 6.004 398 279.002 @c 48.004 398.002 231 @w .75 G np 404 237 :M 410 237 :L 410 279 :L 404 279 :L 404 237 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 404 237.002 @c 42.004 410.002 237 @w 6.004 404 279.002 @c 42.004 404.002 237 @w .75 G np 410 244 :M 417 244 :L 417 279 :L 410 279 :L 410 244 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 410 244.002 @c 35.004 417.002 244 @w 7.004 410 279.002 @c 35.004 410.002 244 @w .75 G np 417 251 :M 423 251 :L 423 279 :L 417 279 :L 417 251 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 417 251.002 @c 28.004 423.002 251 @w 6.004 417 279.002 @c 28.004 417.002 251 @w .75 G np 423 255 :M 429 255 :L 429 279 :L 423 279 :L 423 255 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 423 255.002 @c 24.004 429.002 255 @w 6.004 423 279.002 @c 24.004 423.002 255 @w .75 G np 429 267 :M 435 267 :L 435 279 :L 429 279 :L 429 267 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 429 267.002 @c 12.004 435.002 267 @w 6.004 429 279.002 @c 12.004 429.002 267 @w gR 0 G gS 88 166 413 143 rC 102.004 123.002 177 @w 2.004 121 279.002 @c 2.004 121 259.002 @c 2.004 121 238.002 @c 2.004 121 218.002 @c 2.004 121 197.002 @c 2.004 121 177.002 @c 373.004 123 279.002 @c 4.004 123.002 277 @w 4.004 129.002 277 @w 4.004 135.002 277 @w 4.004 141.002 277 @w 4.004 147.002 277 @w 4.004 154.002 277 @w 4.004 160.002 277 @w 4.004 166.002 277 @w 4.004 172.002 277 @w 4.004 178.002 277 @w 4.004 184.002 277 @w 4.004 190.002 277 @w 4.004 196.002 277 @w 4.004 202.002 277 @w 4.004 209.002 277 @w 4.004 215.002 277 @w 4.004 221.002 277 @w 4.004 227.002 277 @w 4.004 233.002 277 @w 4.004 239.002 277 @w 4.004 245.002 277 @w 4.004 251.002 277 @w 4.004 258.002 277 @w 4.004 264.002 277 @w 4.004 270.002 277 @w 4.004 276.002 277 @w 4.004 282.002 277 @w 4.004 288.002 277 @w 4.004 294.002 277 @w 4.004 300.002 277 @w 4.004 306.002 277 @w 4.004 313.002 277 @w 4.004 319.002 277 @w 4.004 325.002 277 @w 4.004 331.002 277 @w 4.004 337.002 277 @w 4.004 343.002 277 @w 4.004 349.002 277 @w 4.004 355.002 277 @w 4.004 361.002 277 @w 4.004 368.002 277 @w 4.004 374.002 277 @w 4.004 380.002 277 @w 4.004 386.002 277 @w 4.004 392.002 277 @w 4.004 398.002 277 @w 4.004 404.002 277 @w 4.004 410.002 277 @w 4.004 417.002 277 @w 4.004 423.002 277 @w 4.004 429.002 277 @w 4.004 435.002 277 @w 4.004 441.002 277 @w 4.004 447.002 277 @w 4.004 453.002 277 @w 4.004 459.002 277 @w 4.004 465.002 277 @w 4.004 472.002 277 @w 4.004 478.002 277 @w 4.004 484.002 277 @w 4.004 490.002 277 @w 4.004 496.002 277 @w 104 281 :M f691 sf .62(0.00)A 104 261 :M .62(0.01)A 104 240 :M .62(0.10)A 104 220 :M .62(1.00)A 100 199 :M .598(10.00)A 96 179 :M .584(100.00)A 122 291 :M f706 sf .244(-30)A 153 291 :M .244(-25)A 183 291 :M .244(-20)A 214 291 :M .244(-15)A 244 291 :M .244(-10)A 277 291 :M .379(-5)A 309 291 :M (0)S 339 291 :M (5)S 368 291 :M .219(10)A 398 291 :M .219(15)A 429 291 :M .219(20)A 459 291 :M .219(25)A 490 291 :M .219(30)A 289 293 52 12 rC 290 302 :M f691 sf .446 .045(Overhead \(Bytes\))J gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 99 283 :T 270 rotate -99 -283 :T 99 283 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 126 176 368 21 rC 476 190 :M f721 sf -.365(PPP)A gR gS 123 316 373 110 rC 373.004 123 402.002 @c 373.004 123 381.002 @c 373.004 123 361.002 @c 373.004 123 340.002 @c 373.004 123 320.002 @c gR .75 G gS 123 318 375 104 rC np 313 322 :M 319 322 :L 319 422 :L 313 422 :L 313 322 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 313 322.002 @c 100.004 319.002 322 @w 6.004 313 422.002 @c 100.004 313.002 322 @w .75 G np 319 338 :M 325 338 :L 325 422 :L 319 422 :L 319 338 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 319 338.002 @c 84.004 325.002 338 @w 6.004 319 422.002 @c 84.004 319.002 338 @w .75 G np 325 344 :M 331 344 :L 331 422 :L 325 422 :L 325 344 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 325 344.002 @c 78.004 331.002 344 @w 6.004 325 422.002 @c 78.004 325.002 344 @w .75 G np 331 351 :M 337 351 :L 337 422 :L 331 422 :L 331 351 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 331 351.002 @c 71.004 337.002 351 @w 6.004 331 422.002 @c 71.004 331.002 351 @w .75 G np 337 385 :M 343 385 :L 343 422 :L 337 422 :L 337 385 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 337 385.002 @c 37.004 343.002 385 @w 6.004 337 422.002 @c 37.004 337.002 385 @w gR 0 G gS 88 309 413 143 rC 102.004 123.002 320 @w 2.004 121 422.002 @c 2.004 121 402.002 @c 2.004 121 381.002 @c 2.004 121 361.002 @c 2.004 121 340.002 @c 2.004 121 320.002 @c 373.004 123 422.002 @c 4.004 123.002 420 @w 4.004 129.002 420 @w 4.004 135.002 420 @w 4.004 141.002 420 @w 4.004 147.002 420 @w 4.004 154.002 420 @w 4.004 160.002 420 @w 4.004 166.002 420 @w 4.004 172.002 420 @w 4.004 178.002 420 @w 4.004 184.002 420 @w 4.004 190.002 420 @w 4.004 196.002 420 @w 4.004 202.002 420 @w 4.004 209.002 420 @w 4.004 215.002 420 @w 4.004 221.002 420 @w 4.004 227.002 420 @w 4.004 233.002 420 @w 4.004 239.002 420 @w 4.004 245.002 420 @w 4.004 251.002 420 @w 4.004 258.002 420 @w 4.004 264.002 420 @w 4.004 270.002 420 @w 4.004 276.002 420 @w 4.004 282.002 420 @w 4.004 288.002 420 @w 4.004 294.002 420 @w 4.004 300.002 420 @w 4.004 306.002 420 @w 4.004 313.002 420 @w 4.004 319.002 420 @w 4.004 325.002 420 @w 4.004 331.002 420 @w 4.004 337.002 420 @w 4.004 343.002 420 @w 4.004 349.002 420 @w 4.004 355.002 420 @w 4.004 361.002 420 @w 4.004 368.002 420 @w 4.004 374.002 420 @w 4.004 380.002 420 @w 4.004 386.002 420 @w 4.004 392.002 420 @w 4.004 398.002 420 @w 4.004 404.002 420 @w 4.004 410.002 420 @w 4.004 417.002 420 @w 4.004 423.002 420 @w 4.004 429.002 420 @w 4.004 435.002 420 @w 4.004 441.002 420 @w 4.004 447.002 420 @w 4.004 453.002 420 @w 4.004 459.002 420 @w 4.004 465.002 420 @w 4.004 472.002 420 @w 4.004 478.002 420 @w 4.004 484.002 420 @w 4.004 490.002 420 @w 4.004 496.002 420 @w 104 424 :M f691 sf .62(0.00)A 104 404 :M .62(0.01)A 104 383 :M .62(0.10)A 104 363 :M .62(1.00)A 100 342 :M .598(10.00)A 96 322 :M .584(100.00)A 122 434 :M f706 sf .244(-30)A 153 434 :M .244(-25)A 183 434 :M .244(-20)A 214 434 :M .244(-15)A 244 434 :M .244(-10)A 277 434 :M .379(-5)A 309 434 :M (0)S 339 434 :M (5)S 368 434 :M .219(10)A 398 434 :M .219(15)A 429 434 :M .219(20)A 459 434 :M .219(25)A 490 434 :M .219(30)A 289 436 52 12 rC 290 445 :M f691 sf .446 .045(Overhead \(Bytes\))J gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 99 426 :T 270 rotate -99 -426 :T 99 426 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 126 319 368 21 rC 470 333 :M f721 sf -.841(COBS)A gR gS 123 459 373 110 rC 373.004 123 545.002 @c 373.004 123 524.002 @c 373.004 123 504.002 @c 373.004 123 483.002 @c 373.004 123 463.002 @c gR .75 G gS 123 461 375 104 rC np 123 508 :M 129 508 :L 129 565 :L 123 565 :L 123 508 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 123 508.002 @c 57.004 129.002 508 @w 6.004 123 565.002 @c 57.004 123.002 508 @w .75 G np 129 508 :M 135 508 :L 135 565 :L 129 565 :L 129 508 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 129 508.002 @c 57.004 135.002 508 @w 6.004 129 565.002 @c 57.004 129.002 508 @w .75 G np 135 507 :M 141 507 :L 141 565 :L 135 565 :L 135 507 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 135 507.002 @c 58.004 141.002 507 @w 6.004 135 565.002 @c 58.004 135.002 507 @w .75 G np 141 507 :M 147 507 :L 147 565 :L 141 565 :L 141 507 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 141 507.002 @c 58.004 147.002 507 @w 6.004 141 565.002 @c 58.004 141.002 507 @w .75 G np 147 508 :M 154 508 :L 154 565 :L 147 565 :L 147 508 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 147 508.002 @c 57.004 154.002 508 @w 7.004 147 565.002 @c 57.004 147.002 508 @w .75 G np 154 507 :M 160 507 :L 160 565 :L 154 565 :L 154 507 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 154 507.002 @c 58.004 160.002 507 @w 6.004 154 565.002 @c 58.004 154.002 507 @w .75 G np 160 507 :M 166 507 :L 166 565 :L 160 565 :L 160 507 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 160 507.002 @c 58.004 166.002 507 @w 6.004 160 565.002 @c 58.004 160.002 507 @w .75 G np 166 506 :M 172 506 :L 172 565 :L 166 565 :L 166 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 166 506.002 @c 59.004 172.002 506 @w 6.004 166 565.002 @c 59.004 166.002 506 @w .75 G np 172 506 :M 178 506 :L 178 565 :L 172 565 :L 172 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 172 506.002 @c 59.004 178.002 506 @w 6.004 172 565.002 @c 59.004 172.002 506 @w .75 G np 178 507 :M 184 507 :L 184 565 :L 178 565 :L 178 507 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 178 507.002 @c 58.004 184.002 507 @w 6.004 178 565.002 @c 58.004 178.002 507 @w .75 G np 184 506 :M 190 506 :L 190 565 :L 184 565 :L 184 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 184 506.002 @c 59.004 190.002 506 @w 6.004 184 565.002 @c 59.004 184.002 506 @w .75 G np 190 508 :M 196 508 :L 196 565 :L 190 565 :L 190 508 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 190 508.002 @c 57.004 196.002 508 @w 6.004 190 565.002 @c 57.004 190.002 508 @w .75 G np 196 506 :M 202 506 :L 202 565 :L 196 565 :L 196 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 196 506.002 @c 59.004 202.002 506 @w 6.004 196 565.002 @c 59.004 196.002 506 @w .75 G np 202 507 :M 209 507 :L 209 565 :L 202 565 :L 202 507 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 202 507.002 @c 58.004 209.002 507 @w 7.004 202 565.002 @c 58.004 202.002 507 @w .75 G np 209 506 :M 215 506 :L 215 565 :L 209 565 :L 209 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 209 506.002 @c 59.004 215.002 506 @w 6.004 209 565.002 @c 59.004 209.002 506 @w .75 G np 215 506 :M 221 506 :L 221 565 :L 215 565 :L 215 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 215 506.002 @c 59.004 221.002 506 @w 6.004 215 565.002 @c 59.004 215.002 506 @w .75 G np 221 506 :M 227 506 :L 227 565 :L 221 565 :L 221 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 221 506.002 @c 59.004 227.002 506 @w 6.004 221 565.002 @c 59.004 221.002 506 @w .75 G np 227 507 :M 233 507 :L 233 565 :L 227 565 :L 227 507 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 227 507.002 @c 58.004 233.002 507 @w 6.004 227 565.002 @c 58.004 227.002 507 @w .75 G np 233 506 :M 239 506 :L 239 565 :L 233 565 :L 233 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 233 506.002 @c 59.004 239.002 506 @w 6.004 233 565.002 @c 59.004 233.002 506 @w .75 G np 239 506 :M 245 506 :L 245 565 :L 239 565 :L 239 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 239 506.002 @c 59.004 245.002 506 @w 6.004 239 565.002 @c 59.004 239.002 506 @w .75 G np 245 506 :M 251 506 :L 251 565 :L 245 565 :L 245 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 245 506.002 @c 59.004 251.002 506 @w 6.004 245 565.002 @c 59.004 245.002 506 @w .75 G np 251 506 :M 258 506 :L 258 565 :L 251 565 :L 251 506 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 251 506.002 @c 59.004 258.002 506 @w 7.004 251 565.002 @c 59.004 251.002 506 @w .75 G np 258 506 :M 264 506 :L 264 565 :L 258 565 :L 258 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 258 506.002 @c 59.004 264.002 506 @w 6.004 258 565.002 @c 59.004 258.002 506 @w .75 G np 264 506 :M 270 506 :L 270 565 :L 264 565 :L 264 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 264 506.002 @c 59.004 270.002 506 @w 6.004 264 565.002 @c 59.004 264.002 506 @w .75 G np 270 503 :M 276 503 :L 276 565 :L 270 565 :L 270 503 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 270 503.002 @c 62.004 276.002 503 @w 6.004 270 565.002 @c 62.004 270.002 503 @w .75 G np 276 499 :M 282 499 :L 282 565 :L 276 565 :L 276 499 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 276 499.002 @c 66.004 282.002 499 @w 6.004 276 565.002 @c 66.004 276.002 499 @w .75 G np 282 491 :M 288 491 :L 288 565 :L 282 565 :L 282 491 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 282 491.002 @c 74.004 288.002 491 @w 6.004 282 565.002 @c 74.004 282.002 491 @w .75 G np 288 486 :M 294 486 :L 294 565 :L 288 565 :L 288 486 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 288 486.002 @c 79.004 294.002 486 @w 6.004 288 565.002 @c 79.004 288.002 486 @w .75 G np 294 483 :M 300 483 :L 300 565 :L 294 565 :L 294 483 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 294 483.002 @c 82.004 300.002 483 @w 6.004 294 565.002 @c 82.004 294.002 483 @w .75 G np 300 470 :M 306 470 :L 306 565 :L 300 565 :L 300 470 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 300 470.002 @c 95.004 306.002 470 @w 6.004 300 565.002 @c 95.004 300.002 470 @w .75 G np 306 490 :M 313 490 :L 313 565 :L 306 565 :L 306 490 :L eofill 0 G 7.004 306 490.002 @c 75.004 313.002 490 @w 7.004 306 565.002 @c 75.004 306.002 490 @w .75 G np 313 497 :M 319 497 :L 319 565 :L 313 565 :L 313 497 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 313 497.002 @c 68.004 319.002 497 @w 6.004 313 565.002 @c 68.004 313.002 497 @w .75 G np 319 506 :M 325 506 :L 325 565 :L 319 565 :L 319 506 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 319 506.002 @c 59.004 325.002 506 @w 6.004 319 565.002 @c 59.004 319.002 506 @w .75 G np 325 516 :M 331 516 :L 331 565 :L 325 565 :L 325 516 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 325 516.002 @c 49.004 331.002 516 @w 6.004 325 565.002 @c 49.004 325.002 516 @w .75 G np 331 553 :M 337 553 :L 337 565 :L 331 565 :L 331 553 :L eofill 0 G 6.004 331 553.002 @c 12.004 337.002 553 @w 6.004 331 565.002 @c 12.004 331.002 553 @w gR 0 G gS 88 452 413 143 rC 102.004 123.002 463 @w 2.004 121 565.002 @c 2.004 121 545.002 @c 2.004 121 524.002 @c 2.004 121 504.002 @c 2.004 121 483.002 @c 2.004 121 463.002 @c 373.004 123 565.002 @c 4.004 123.002 563 @w 4.004 129.002 563 @w 4.004 135.002 563 @w 4.004 141.002 563 @w 4.004 147.002 563 @w 4.004 154.002 563 @w 4.004 160.002 563 @w 4.004 166.002 563 @w 4.004 172.002 563 @w 4.004 178.002 563 @w 4.004 184.002 563 @w 4.004 190.002 563 @w 4.004 196.002 563 @w 4.004 202.002 563 @w 4.004 209.002 563 @w 4.004 215.002 563 @w 4.004 221.002 563 @w 4.004 227.002 563 @w 4.004 233.002 563 @w 4.004 239.002 563 @w 4.004 245.002 563 @w 4.004 251.002 563 @w 4.004 258.002 563 @w 4.004 264.002 563 @w 4.004 270.002 563 @w 4.004 276.002 563 @w 4.004 282.002 563 @w 4.004 288.002 563 @w 4.004 294.002 563 @w 4.004 300.002 563 @w 4.004 306.002 563 @w 4.004 313.002 563 @w 4.004 319.002 563 @w 4.004 325.002 563 @w 4.004 331.002 563 @w 4.004 337.002 563 @w 4.004 343.002 563 @w 4.004 349.002 563 @w 4.004 355.002 563 @w 4.004 361.002 563 @w 4.004 368.002 563 @w 4.004 374.002 563 @w 4.004 380.002 563 @w 4.004 386.002 563 @w 4.004 392.002 563 @w 4.004 398.002 563 @w 4.004 404.002 563 @w 4.004 410.002 563 @w 4.004 417.002 563 @w 4.004 423.002 563 @w 4.004 429.002 563 @w 4.004 435.002 563 @w 4.004 441.002 563 @w 4.004 447.002 563 @w 4.004 453.002 563 @w 4.004 459.002 563 @w 4.004 465.002 563 @w 4.004 472.002 563 @w 4.004 478.002 563 @w 4.004 484.002 563 @w 4.004 490.002 563 @w 4.004 496.002 563 @w 104 567 :M f691 sf .62(0.00)A 104 547 :M .62(0.01)A 104 526 :M .62(0.10)A 104 506 :M .62(1.00)A 100 485 :M .598(10.00)A 96 465 :M .584(100.00)A 122 577 :M f706 sf .244(-30)A 153 577 :M .244(-25)A 183 577 :M .244(-20)A 214 577 :M .244(-15)A 244 577 :M .244(-10)A 277 577 :M .379(-5)A 309 577 :M (0)S 339 577 :M (5)S 368 577 :M .219(10)A 398 577 :M .219(15)A 429 577 :M .219(20)A 459 577 :M .219(25)A 490 577 :M .219(30)A 289 579 52 12 rC 290 588 :M f691 sf .446 .045(Overhead \(Bytes\))J gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC gS 99 569 :T 270 rotate -99 -569 :T 99 569 :M f706 sf 1.01 .101(Percentage of Packets \(log scale\))J gR 126 462 368 21 rC 448 476 :M f721 sf -.19(COBS/ZPE)A gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 138 622 :M f318 sf (Figure )S 175 622 :M (10. Encoding Overhead Distribution for MPEG Trace)S 114 652 :M f165 sf .221 .022(Histograms showing, for each amount of overhead indicated on horizontal)J 114 670 :M .171 .017(axis, the percentage of packets that incur that overhead. All histograms are)J 114 688 :M (drawn to the same scale and labelled in bits or bytes as appropriate.)S endp showpage %%Page: 122 122 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 122 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 104 \321)S 42 68 :M .96 .096(The MPEG trace is more favourable to COBS because it contains many large packets.)J 42 86 :M .126 .013(63% of the packets were maximum-sized IP packets, 1088 bytes long. The results for this)J 42 104 :M (trace file are shown in )S 152 104 :M (Figure 10.)S 42 134 :M .953 .095(HDLC incurred a total overhead of 1,862,796 bits \(1.27%\) and this histogram has two)J 42 152 :M .284 .028(visibly separate peaks. The first peak, one to eight bits, is the result of the overhead from)J 42 170 :M .652 .065(short \(40-byte\) ack packets. The second peak, forty to two hundred bits, is the result of)J 42 188 :M (the overhead from the long \(1088-byte\) data packets.)S 42 218 :M .438 .044(PPP incurred a total overhead of 101,024 bytes \(0.55%\). 36% of the packets \(mostly the)J 42 236 :M .64 .064(ack packets\) incurred no overhead. The majority of packets incurred one to ten bytes of)J 42 254 :M .602 .06(overhead and one packet incurred as much as twenty bytes of overhead. In this trace no)J 42 272 :M .468 .047(packet incurred more than twenty bytes of overhead, supporting the belief that most real)J 42 290 :M .623 .062(packets do not come close to the factor-of-two overhead that conventional byte stuffing)J 42 308 :M (forces us to design for.)S 42 338 :M 1.7 .17(COBS incurred a total overhead of only 35,410 bytes \(0.19%\), and the overhead is)J 42 356 :M .714 .071(concentrated in a tight spike in the middle: every packet incurred between one and five)J 42 374 :M .162 .016(bytes of overhead. 77% of the packets had exactly one byte of overhead. Only 17 packets)J 42 392 :M .677 .068(in the entire trace incurred five bytes of overhead, and as expected, no packets incurred)J 42 410 :M (more than that.)S 42 440 :M .307 .031(COBS/ZPE maintained a tight bound on worst-case performance while doing on average)J 42 458 :M 1.096 .11(much better than either PPP or COBS. For a 1088-byte packet the maximum possible)J 42 476 :M .516 .052(COBS/ZPE overhead is five bytes, but in fact in this trace no packet incurred more than)J 42 494 :M .791 .079(four bytes of overhead. In addition COBS/ZPE )J f243 sf .256(reduced)A 320 494 :M f165 sf 1.053 .105( the overall size of the data by)J 42 512 :M (161,548 bytes, giving a net overall saving of 0.88%.)S endp showpage %%Page: 123 123 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 123 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 105 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Six)S 78 119 :M (Extending COBS)S 78 212 :M f165 sf .526 .053(This chapter describes four ways of extending the basic COBS concept: \(i\) using COBS)J 78 230 :M .629 .063(to eliminate a data value other than zero, \(ii\) applying the COBS concept to other word)J 78 248 :M .531 .053(lengths in addition to eight-bit bytes, and \(iii\) extending the COBS concept to eliminate)J 78 266 :M .777 .078(multiple values from the packet data, and \(iv\) using COBS bytes-to-packets framing to)J 78 284 :M (also eliminate the overhead of lower-level bits-to-bytes framing,)S 78 320 :M f318 sf (6.1)S f360 sf ( )S 105 320 :M f318 sf (Eliminating a Value Other Than Zero)S 78 350 :M f165 sf .878 .088(As described, COBS first searches the packet for all occurrences of zeroes \(the )J f243 sf .31(search)A 78 368 :M (value)S 104 368 :M f165 sf .972 .097(\), logically dividing the packet into one or more search-value-terminated chunks,)J 78 386 :M 1.104 .11(and then encodes those chunks to produce an output stream that is free of zeroes \(the)J 78 404 :M f243 sf .471 .047(eliminated value)J 159 404 :M f165 sf .745 .074(\). However, the framing value zero may not be appropriate in all situa-)J 78 422 :M .65 .065(tions. For example, a radio interface that connects to the computer through a serial port)J 78 440 :M .653 .065(like a Hayes modem might use an ASCII carriage return \(byte value 0x0D\) to mark the)J 78 458 :M .176 .018(end of each packet [Che96]. There are two ways to modify COBS to eliminate a different)J 78 476 :M .157 .016(value. The first is to change the search value, which inherently results in a different value)J 78 494 :M 1.487 .149(being eliminated. The second is to keep zero as the search value, and use an output)J 78 512 :M (mapping function to change just the eliminated value.)S 78 542 :M f318 sf (6.1.1)S f360 sf ( )S 109 542 :M f318 sf (COBS with a non-zero Search Value)S 78 572 :M f165 sf .558 .056(Using some value )J 170 572 :M f243 sf (s)S 175 572 :M f165 sf .543 .054( other than zero as the search value simply requires a redefinition of)J 78 590 :M .033 .003(the meanings of the code bytes. The implicit trailing byte on the end of each code block is)J 78 608 :M .022 .002(defined to be a byte with value )J 230 608 :M f243 sf (s)S 235 608 :M f165 sf .021 .002( instead of a zero byte, and value )J f243 sf (s)S 401 608 :M f165 sf .021 .002( is defined to be illegal)J 78 626 :M .343 .034(and never used as a code byte. This transformation of the algorithm results in output that)J 78 644 :M (contains no occurrences of the value )S 256 644 :M f243 sf (s)S 261 644 :M f165 sf (.)S endp showpage %%Page: 124 124 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 124 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 106 \321)S 42 56 :M .236 .024(In this )J f243 sf (s)S 81 56 :M f165 sf .221 .022(-eliminating variant of COBS, the special maximum length block \(254 data bytes)J 42 74 :M 1.945 .195(without any implicit trailing byte\) is indicated by code value )J f243 sf (m)S 376 74 :M f165 sf 2.418 .242(, where )J 421 74 :M f243 sf (m)S 430 74 :M f165 sf 1.92 .192(=0xFF if)J 42 92 :M f243 sf (s)S 47 92 :M f165 sf cF f398 sf .051(\271)A setfont .508 .051(0xFF, and )J 107 92 :M f243 sf (m)S 116 92 :M f165 sf .454 .045(=0xFE otherwise. Code value )J 265 92 :M f243 sf .163(x)A f165 sf .46 .046( \(0)J cF f398 sf .46 .046(\243)J setfont 291 92 :M f243 sf (x)S f165 sf (<)S 303 92 :M f243 sf (s)S 308 92 :M f165 sf .468 .047(\) indicates a block of )J f243 sf .176(x)A f165 sf .579 .058( bytes with)J 42 110 :M .527 .053(an implicit trailing byte with value )J f243 sf (s)S 221 110 :M f165 sf .643 .064( and code value x \()J 317 110 :M f243 sf (s)S 322 110 :M f165 sf (<)S 329 110 :M f243 sf (x)S f165 sf (<)S 341 110 :M f243 sf (m)S 350 110 :M f165 sf .608 .061(\) indicates a block of )J 458 110 :M f243 sf (x)S f165 sf (\3201)S 42 128 :M (bytes with an implicit trailing byte with value )S 264 128 :M f243 sf (s)S 269 128 :M f165 sf (.)S 42 158 :M (There are three minor factors that influence the choice of )S 319 158 :M f243 sf (s)S 324 158 :M f165 sf (:)S 42 188 :M .894 .089(The first factor is that many CPUs, especially simple eight-bit CPUs, are able to test a)J 42 206 :M 1.14 .114(register for equality with the value zero more efficiently than they are able to test for)J 42 224 :M (equality with some other arbitrary value. This favours the use of zero as the search value.)S 42 254 :M .117 .012(The second factor is that when zero-terminated chunks are used, all the valid codes fall in)J 42 272 :M .554 .055(a contiguous range: code byte zero is illegal, code byte 0xFF is a special exception, and)J 42 290 :M .726 .073(each of the remaining code bytes )J 210 290 :M f243 sf .29(n)A f165 sf .751 .075( in the range from 0x01 to 0xFE encodes a block of)J 42 308 :M .322 .032(exactly )J 81 308 :M f243 sf .093(n)A f165 sf .313 .031( data bytes. This relationship helps simplify implementation. If some byte other)J 42 326 :M .267 .027(than 0x00 or 0xFF is chosen as the illegal value, then the range of valid code bytes is not)J 42 344 :M .366 .037(contiguous, and the above relationship that code )J f243 sf .111(n)A f165 sf .257 .026( encodes a block of )J 385 344 :M f243 sf .141(n)A f165 sf .334 .033( bytes is not true.)J 42 362 :M .288 .029(The valid code bytes are split into two disjoint ranges, and the decoding algorithm has to)J 42 380 :M (handle codes in the lower range differently to codes in the upper range.)S 42 410 :M .706 .071(The third factor is that COBS encodes short chunks with no overhead. COBS encoding)J 42 428 :M 1.537 .154(only adds overhead when a chunk is longer than 254 bytes and one or more special)J 42 446 :M .717 .072(maximum-length code blocks has to be used to encode that chunk. Consequently, if we)J 42 464 :M .653 .065(can pick a search value that is found generously distributed throughout our packet data,)J 42 482 :M 1.128 .113(most or all of the chunks will be short, and less overhead will be added. Because the)J 42 500 :M .347 .035(value zero is common in binary computer data, using the value zero may help reduce the)J 42 518 :M .849 .085(number of oversized chunks in some cases. However, it should be noted that this is an)J 42 536 :M .275 .027(extremely minor effect. The best case for COBS encoding is one byte per packet, and the)J 42 554 :M 1.291 .129(worst case is one byte for every 254 bytes of packet data \(0.4%\), so any variation in)J 42 572 :M 1.257 .126(overhead resulting from wise or poor choice of search value can only fall within this)J 42 590 :M (narrow range.)S 42 620 :M 1.574 .157(In the cases where these factors apply, they favour implementing the standard zero-)J 42 638 :M (eliminating COBS algorithm.)S endp showpage %%Page: 125 125 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 125 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 107 \321)S 78 56 :M .298 .03(In cases where the value required to be eliminated is not the same as the preferred search)J 78 74 :M (value, this can be achieved by using output mapping instead, as described below.)S 78 104 :M f318 sf (6.1.2)S f360 sf ( )S 109 104 :M f318 sf (COBS with Output Mapping)S 78 134 :M f165 sf .471 .047(Standard COBS output contains no instances of value zero. There are a number of ways)J 78 152 :M 1.004 .1(that this zero-free output can be easily converted to eliminate some other byte value )J f243 sf (e)S 78 170 :M f165 sf (instead, if that is required.)S 78 200 :M .528 .053(One way is simply to replace all occurrences of )J f243 sf .168(e)A f165 sf .538 .054( in the data with zero. Upon reception,)J 78 218 :M .15 .015(the receiver simply replaces occurrences of zero in the data with value )J f243 sf (e)S f165 sf .196 .02( before decoding.)J 78 236 :M 1.351 .135(Since we know that the original COBS output had no zeroes this is an unambiguous)J 78 254 :M .465 .046(transformation, because we know that any appearances of zero in the data can only have)J 78 272 :M (occurred as a result of replacing occurrences of )S 308 272 :M f243 sf (e)S f165 sf (.)S 78 302 :M 1.092 .109(Conditional code of this kind \(\324if \(x==0\) x=e;\325\) can be inefficient on some processors)J 78 320 :M .699 .07(because branches cause bubbles in the execution pipeline. As an alternative to selective)J 78 338 :M 1.196 .12(replacement, all bytes can be XORed with )J f243 sf .343(e)A f165 sf 1.265 .126( before transmission. The only value that)J 78 356 :M .273 .027(gives the result )J 156 356 :M f243 sf .096(e)A f165 sf .303 .03( when XORed with )J f243 sf .096(e)A f165 sf .27 .027( is zero, and since there are no zeroes in the output)J 78 374 :M .22 .022(from COBS, this procedure cannot result in any occurrences of )J 388 374 :M f243 sf .062(e)A f165 sf .212 .021( in the converted output.)J 78 392 :M .63 .063(The receiver XORs each received byte with )J 298 392 :M f243 sf .161(e)A f165 sf .584 .058( to reverse the transformation before fee)J 502 392 :M (d-)S 78 410 :M (ing it to the COBS decoder, so the data is decoded correctly.)S 78 440 :M .176 .018(Any similar transformation, such as using binary eight-bit add and subtract, could also be)J 78 458 :M (used equally well.)S 78 488 :M .552 .055(Finally, a 256-entry lookup table can also be used to implement any desired eight-bit to)J 78 506 :M (eight-bit mapping function.)S 78 536 :M .276 .028(Although the transformations are described here as a post-processing step after encoding,)J 78 554 :M .087 .009(in real implementations the COBS encoding and the output conversion are performed in a)J 78 572 :M (single loop for efficiency reasons [Cla90] [Ahl96a] [Ahl96b] [Ahl96c] [Braun96].)S 78 602 :M .481 .048(The remainder of this dissertation will consider only the case of eliminating zeroes from)J 78 620 :M .153 .015(the data. Any of the processes described above may be used in any case where a different)J 78 638 :M (value is to be eliminated.)S endp showpage %%Page: 126 126 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 126 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 108 \321)S 42 56 :M f318 sf (6.2)S f360 sf ( )S 69 56 :M f318 sf (Using Other Word Lengths)S 42 86 :M f165 sf .854 .085(This dissertation describes COBS using bytes as the unit of data, but the same concept)J 42 104 :M .111 .011(applies equally well to any word length )J f243 sf .051(w)A f165 sf .107 .011(>1. For word length )J 343 104 :M f243 sf .064(w)A f165 sf .114 .011(, value zero is not used as)J 42 122 :M .895 .089(a code value, value 2)J f443 sf 0 -5 rm (w)S 0 5 rm 153 122 :M f165 sf 1.02 .102(\3201 is used to indicate a run of 2)J 316 117 :M f443 sf (w)S 321 122 :M f165 sf .892 .089(\3202 non-zero values, and all the)J 42 140 :M .194 .019(remaining values )J f243 sf .051(n)A f165 sf .122 .012( are used to indicate a sequence of )J 302 140 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf .128 .013(\3201 non-zero values followed by an)J 42 158 :M (implicit zero. )S 109 158 :M (Table 32 summarizes these code values.)S 42 188 :M .447 .045(Using Consistent Overhead Word Stuffing \(COWS\) with word length )J f243 sf .163(w)A f165 sf .277 .028(, the best case is)J 42 206 :M .209 .021(one word of overhead per packet, and the worst case is one word for every 2)J 412 201 :M f443 sf (w)S 417 206 :M f165 sf .208 .021(\3202 words of)J 42 224 :M .355 .036(packet data. In both cases there is the overhead of the framing marker to consider, which)J 42 242 :M .445 .044(is )J f243 sf .421(w)A f165 sf .94 .094( bits for a word-oriented interface, 2)J 245 242 :M f243 sf .368(w)A f165 sf .848 .085( bits for a serial interface using synchronous)J 42 260 :M (idle markers, and 2)S 134 260 :M f243 sf (w)S f165 sf (+1 bits for a serial interface using asynchronous idle markers.)S 127 307 :M (Code)S 170 307 :M (Followed by)S 263 307 :M (Meaning)S 120 293 2 2 rF 120 293 2 2 rF 122 293 41 2 rF 163 293 2 2 rF 165 293 92 2 rF 257 293 2 2 rF 259 293 135 2 rF 394 293 2 2 rF 394 293 2 2 rF 120 295 2 17 rF 163 295 1 17 rF 257 295 1 17 rF 394 295 2 17 rF 127 325 :M (0)S 170 325 :M (\(not applicable\))S 263 325 :M (\(not allowed\))S 120 312 2 1 rF 122 312 41 1 rF 163 312 1 1 rF 164 312 93 1 rF 257 312 1 1 rF 258 312 136 1 rF 394 312 2 1 rF 120 313 2 29 rF 163 313 1 29 rF 257 313 1 29 rF 394 313 2 29 rF 127 355 :M f243 sf (n)S 164 342 93 18 rC 170 355 :M f165 sf <28>S 174 355 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\3201\) data values)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 263 355 :M f165 sf (The \()S 289 355 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (\3201\) data values,)S 263 367 :M (followed by a single zero)S 120 342 2 1 rF 122 342 41 1 rF 163 342 1 1 rF 164 342 93 1 rF 257 342 1 1 rF 258 342 136 1 rF 394 342 2 1 rF 120 343 2 29 rF 163 343 1 29 rF 257 343 1 29 rF 394 343 2 29 rF 127 385 :M (2)S f443 sf 0 -5 rm (w)S 0 5 rm 138 385 :M f165 sf (-1)S 164 372 93 18 rC 170 385 :M (2)S f443 sf 0 -5 rm (w)S 0 5 rm 181 385 :M f165 sf (\3202 data values)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 263 385 :M f165 sf (The 2)S 291 380 :M f443 sf (w)S 296 385 :M f165 sf (\3202 data values,)S 263 397 :M f318 sf (not)S 280 397 :M f165 sf ( followed by a zero)S 120 372 2 1 rF 122 372 41 1 rF 163 372 1 1 rF 164 372 93 1 rF 257 372 1 1 rF 258 372 136 1 rF 394 372 2 1 rF 120 373 2 29 rF 120 402 2 2 rF 120 402 2 2 rF 122 402 41 2 rF 163 373 1 29 rF 163 402 2 2 rF 165 402 92 2 rF 257 373 1 29 rF 257 402 2 2 rF 259 402 135 2 rF 394 373 2 29 rF 394 402 2 2 rF 394 402 2 2 rF 86 431 :M f318 sf (Table 32. Code Values used by Consistent Overhead Word Stuffing)S 78 461 :M f165 sf .738 .074(The concept of Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing can be applied to any)J 78 479 :M (word length )S 139 479 :M f243 sf (w)S f165 sf (>1.)S 42 509 :M .543 .054(As the word length increases, the size of the fixed overhead \(one word plus the framing)J 42 527 :M .547 .055(marker\) increases, but the variable component of overhead, consequently the worst-case)J 42 545 :M .666 .067(bound, decreases. )J 133 545 :M .715 .072(Table 33 shows the total overheads \(encoding overhead plus framing)J 42 563 :M 1.167 .117(marker overhead\) for sending a maximum-sized 1500-byte Ethernet packet using syn-)J 42 581 :M (chronous idle markers, for word lengths of 4, 8 and 16 bits.)S 42 611 :M .377 .038(When using sixteen-bit words, the best-case and worst-case are identical for a 1500-byte)J 42 629 :M .894 .089(packet. This is because COWS with a sixteen-bit word is able to encode any sequence)J 42 647 :M .241 .024(less than 65534 words long \(131,068 bytes\) using a single code block. Variable overhead)J 42 665 :M (could only be incurred for packets larger than 131,068 bytes.)S endp showpage %%Page: 127 127 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 127 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 109 \321)S 144 41 70 19 rC 148 55 :M (Word length)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 220 55 :M f165 sf (Best-case overhead)S 330 41 114 19 rC 335 55 :M (Worst-case overhead)S gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 142 41 2 2 rF 142 41 2 2 rF 144 41 70 2 rF 214 41 2 2 rF 216 41 113 2 rF 329 41 2 2 rF 331 41 113 2 rF 444 41 2 2 rF 444 41 2 2 rF 142 43 2 17 rF 214 43 1 17 rF 329 43 1 17 rF 444 43 2 17 rF 148 73 :M f165 sf (4)S 220 73 :M (12 bits \(0.1%\))S 335 73 :M (868 bits \(7.2%\))S 142 60 2 1 rF 144 60 70 1 rF 214 60 1 1 rF 215 60 114 1 rF 329 60 1 1 rF 330 60 114 1 rF 444 60 2 1 rF 142 61 2 17 rF 214 61 1 17 rF 329 61 1 17 rF 444 61 2 17 rF 148 91 :M (8)S 220 91 :M (24 bits \(0.2%\))S 335 91 :M ( 64 bits \(0.5%\))S 142 78 2 1 rF 144 78 70 1 rF 214 78 1 1 rF 215 78 114 1 rF 329 78 1 1 rF 330 78 114 1 rF 444 78 2 1 rF 142 79 2 17 rF 214 79 1 17 rF 329 79 1 17 rF 444 79 2 17 rF 148 109 :M (16)S 220 109 :M (48 bits \(0.4%\))S 335 109 :M ( 48 bits \(0.4%\))S 142 96 2 1 rF 144 96 70 1 rF 214 96 1 1 rF 215 96 114 1 rF 329 96 1 1 rF 330 96 114 1 rF 444 96 2 1 rF 142 97 2 17 rF 142 114 2 2 rF 142 114 2 2 rF 144 114 70 2 rF 214 97 1 17 rF 214 114 2 2 rF 216 114 113 2 rF 329 97 1 17 rF 329 114 2 2 rF 331 114 113 2 rF 444 97 2 17 rF 444 114 2 2 rF 444 114 2 2 rF 122 143 :M f318 sf (Table 33. Overhead Values for Consistent Overhead Word Stuffing)S 114 173 :M f165 sf .508 .051(Total overheads for sending a maximum-sized 1500-byte Ethernet packet)J 114 191 :M (using synchronous idle markers, for word lengths of 4, 8 and 16 bits.)S 78 221 :M .04 .004(For packets of around 1500 bytes, COBS with eight-bit words achieves a good worst-case)J 78 239 :M .757 .076(bound while adding only a small fixed overhead. Using four-bit words halves the fixed)J 78 257 :M .421 .042(overhead but makes the worst-case bound fourteen times worse. Using sixteen-bit words)J 78 275 :M 1.422 .142(only slightly reduces the worst-case bound, but it doubles the fixed overhead, which)J 78 293 :M .653 .065(adversely affects all packets, even those much smaller than 1500 bytes. For this reason,)J 78 311 :M 1.637 .164(this dissertation concentrates on COBS using eight-bit words, not only because it is)J 78 329 :M 1.006 .101(convenient to implement in software, but also because it is the most appropriate word)J 78 347 :M 1.224 .122(size for COBS encoding when used to encode a typical Ethernet-like range of packet)J 78 365 :M (sizes.)S 78 401 :M f318 sf (6.3)S f360 sf ( )S 105 401 :M f318 sf (Eliminating Multiple Values)S 78 431 :M f165 sf .624 .062(This dissertation describes COBS used to eliminate a single eight-bit value from packet)J 78 449 :M .814 .081(data, to free that value for use as a framing marker. There are some situations where it)J 78 467 :M .606 .061(may be desirable to eliminate more than one value from the data, such as when sending)J 78 485 :M .222 .022(data over some non-transparent lower layer that forbids certain values, and the COBS \(or)J 78 503 :M (COWS\) concept can also be extended to handle this.)S 78 533 :M .039 .004(Using a word length )J 179 533 :M f243 sf (w)S f165 sf .036 .004(, there are 2)J 244 528 :M f443 sf (w)S 249 533 :M f165 sf .038 .004( possible values. If we wish to eliminate )J 446 533 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf .034 .003( values from)J 78 551 :M .751 .075(the data, then that leaves 2)J f443 sf 0 -5 rm (w)S 0 5 rm 216 551 :M f165 sf .257(\320)A f243 sf .228(k)A f165 sf .757 .076( values available for use as COWS code and data values.)J 78 569 :M .558 .056(Reserving one code value \(code 2)J f443 sf 0 -5 rm (w)S 0 5 rm 249 569 :M f165 sf .575 .057(\3201\) for the special maximum length code, that leaves)J 78 587 :M (2)S f443 sf 0 -5 rm (w)S 0 5 rm 89 587 :M f165 sf (\320\()S 99 587 :M f243 sf .332(k)A f165 sf 1.138 .114(+1\) remaining COWS code values to be assigned. The first available code is a)J 503 587 :M (s)S 508 587 :M (-)S 78 605 :M .228 .023(signed to represent the first value to be eliminated. The next code is assigned to represent)J 78 623 :M .708 .071(the second value to be eliminated, and so on until the first )J f243 sf .243(k)A f165 sf .907 .091( codes have been assigned.)J 78 641 :M 1.103 .11(The next )J f243 sf .376(k)A f165 sf 1.223 .122( codes are assigned to represent a single data byte followed by an implicit)J endp showpage %%Page: 128 128 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 128 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 110 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.244 .124(value. The next )J 125 56 :M f243 sf .396(k)A f165 sf 1.211 .121( codes are assigned to represent a pair of data bytes followed by an)J 42 74 :M (implicit value, and so on until there are fewer than )S 287 74 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( codes remaining.)S 42 104 :M .433 .043(Using COWS with word size )J f243 sf .184(w)A f165 sf .337 .034( to eliminate )J 261 104 :M f243 sf .109(k)A f165 sf .376 .038( values, the best case encoding overhead is)J 42 122 :M (one word per packet, and the worst case is one word for every)S 176 137 58 34 rC 234 171 :M psb currentpoint pse 176 137 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 1856 div 1088 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 36 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 160 505 moveto 927 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 384 /Times-Roman f1 (2) 181 356 sh (1) 904 356 sh (1) 1587 604 sh 224 /Times-Italic f1 (w) 390 184 sh 384 ns (k) 532 904 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (-) 651 356 sh (\352) 0 355 sh (\353) 0 980 sh (\352) 0 724 sh (\372) 1110 355 sh (\373) 1110 980 sh (\372) 1110 724 sh (-) 1334 604 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 157 :M f165 sf ( words of packet data.)S 42 198 :M .277 .028(The maximum number of values that a COWS-type algorithm can eliminate is one fewer)J 42 216 :M .341 .034(than half of the values in an alphabet. This is because each of the eliminated values must)J 42 234 :M 1.05 .105(have at least one code value that implicitly represents it, or there would be no way to)J 42 252 :M .589 .059(represent that particular value. Since there are 2)J f443 sf 0 -5 rm (w)S 0 5 rm 283 252 :M f165 sf (\320\()S 293 252 :M f243 sf .154(k)A f165 sf .61 .061(+1\) COWS code values available to)J 42 270 :M (be assigned, that means )S f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( )S cF f398 sf (\243)S setfont ( 2)S 182 265 :M f443 sf (w)S 187 270 :M f165 sf (\320\()S 197 270 :M f243 sf (k)S f165 sf (+1\), so )S f243 sf (k)S f165 sf ( < 2)S 262 265 :M f443 sf (w)S 267 265 :M f497 sf (\3201)S f165 sf 0 5 rm (.)S 0 -5 rm 42 300 :M 1.274 .127(Table 34 below illustrates an example assignment of codes to make an encoding that)J 42 318 :M (simultaneously eliminates two different values from eight-bit packet data.)S 47 365 :M (Code)S 105 365 :M (Followed by)S 213 365 :M (Meaning)S 41 351 2 2 rF 41 351 2 2 rF 43 351 56 2 rF 99 351 2 2 rF 101 351 106 2 rF 207 351 2 2 rF 209 351 264 2 rF 473 351 2 2 rF 473 351 2 2 rF 41 353 2 17 rF 99 353 1 17 rF 207 353 1 17 rF 473 353 2 17 rF 47 383 :M (0, 1)S 105 383 :M (\(not applicable\))S 213 383 :M (\(not allowed\))S 41 370 2 1 rF 43 370 56 1 rF 99 370 1 1 rF 100 370 107 1 rF 207 370 1 1 rF 208 370 265 1 rF 473 370 2 1 rF 41 371 2 17 rF 99 371 1 17 rF 207 371 1 17 rF 473 371 2 17 rF 43 388 56 18 rC 47 401 :M (2)S cF f398 sf (\243)S setfont 60 401 :M f243 sf (n)S f165 sf (<254)S gR gS 105 392 34 17 rC 139 409 :M psb currentpoint pse 105 392 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 1088 div 544 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 60 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 160 225 moveto 164 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 224 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 187 183 sh 224 /Times-Roman f1 (2) 186 417 sh 384 ns (1) 836 324 sh /f3 {ff 3 -1 roll .001 mul 3 -1 roll .001 mul matrix scale makefont dup /cf exch def sf} def 384 1000 1171 /Symbol f3 (\353) 0 416 sh (\373) 347 416 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (-) 577 324 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 139 404 :M f165 sf ( data values)S 213 404 :M (The )S 235 392 34 17 rC 269 409 :M psb currentpoint pse 235 392 :M psb /MTsave save def 40 dict begin currentpoint 3 -1 roll sub neg 3 1 roll sub 1088 div 544 3 -1 roll exch div scale currentpoint translate 64 60 translate /thick 0 def /th { dup setlinewidth /thick exch def } def 16 th 160 225 moveto 164 0 rlineto stroke /cat { dup length 2 index length add string dup dup 5 -1 roll exch copy length 4 -1 roll putinterval } def /ff { dup FontDirectory exch known not { dup dup length string cvs (|______) exch cat dup FontDirectory exch known {exch} if pop } if findfont } def /fs 0 def /cf 0 def /sf {exch dup /fs exch def dup neg matrix scale makefont setfont} def /f1 {ff dup /cf exch def sf} def /ns {cf sf} def /sh {moveto show} def 224 /Times-Italic f1 (n) 187 183 sh 224 /Times-Roman f1 (2) 186 417 sh 384 ns (1) 836 324 sh /f3 {ff 3 -1 roll .001 mul 3 -1 roll .001 mul matrix scale makefont dup /cf exch def sf} def 384 1000 1171 /Symbol f3 (\353) 0 416 sh (\373) 347 416 sh 384 /Symbol f1 (-) 577 324 sh end MTsave restore pse gR gS 0 0 552 730 rC 269 404 :M f165 sf ( data values, followed by an implicit zero)S 213 418 :M (if code is even, or an implicit one if code is odd)S 41 388 2 1 rF 43 388 56 1 rF 99 388 1 1 rF 100 388 107 1 rF 207 388 1 1 rF 208 388 265 1 rF 473 388 2 1 rF 41 389 2 34 rF 99 389 1 34 rF 207 389 1 34 rF 473 389 2 34 rF 47 436 :M (254)S 105 436 :M (\(not applicable\))S 213 436 :M (\(unused code\))S 41 423 2 1 rF 43 423 56 1 rF 99 423 1 1 rF 100 423 107 1 rF 207 423 1 1 rF 208 423 265 1 rF 473 423 2 1 rF 41 424 2 17 rF 99 424 1 17 rF 207 424 1 17 rF 473 424 2 17 rF 47 454 :M (255)S 105 454 :M (126 data values)S 213 454 :M (The 126 data values, )S f318 sf (not)S 332 454 :M f165 sf ( followed by any implicit)S 213 466 :M (values)S 41 441 2 1 rF 43 441 56 1 rF 99 441 1 1 rF 100 441 107 1 rF 207 441 1 1 rF 208 441 265 1 rF 473 441 2 1 rF 41 442 2 29 rF 41 471 2 2 rF 41 471 2 2 rF 43 471 56 2 rF 99 442 1 29 rF 99 471 2 2 rF 101 471 106 2 rF 207 442 1 29 rF 207 471 2 2 rF 209 471 264 2 rF 473 442 2 29 rF 473 471 2 2 rF 473 471 2 2 rF 82 500 :M f318 sf (Table 34. COBS Code Values used to Eliminate a Pair of Byte Values)S 78 530 :M f165 sf 1.499 .15(The concept of Consistent Overhead Byte Stuffing can be extended to)J 78 548 :M .769 .077(eliminate more than one value from the data, such as when sending data)J 78 566 :M (over a non-transparent lower layer that forbids certain byte values.)S 42 596 :M .772 .077(Using the codes defined in )J 179 596 :M .787 .079(Table 34, the number of data bytes for code value )J 432 596 :M f243 sf .169(n)A f165 sf .628 .063(<255 is)J 42 614 :M .381 .038(given by the integer quotient of )J f443 sf 0 -5 rm (n)S 0 5 rm 203 614 :M f243 sf .083(/)A f443 sf 0 3 rm .078(k)A 0 -3 rm f165 sf .395 .04(, and the implicit value to be appended is given by the)J 42 632 :M 1.694 .169(remainder of )J 113 627 :M f443 sf (n)S 117 632 :M f243 sf .273(/)A f443 sf 0 3 rm .254(k)A 0 -3 rm f165 sf 1.621 .162(. However, decoding packet data can be done without requiring any)J 42 650 :M .174 .017(division operation, simply by initializing a counter to )J f243 sf .053(n\320k)A f165 sf .139 .014( when the code byte is read, and)J 42 668 :M .121 .012(decrementing the counter in steps of )J f243 sf (k)S f165 sf .106 .011(. When the counter reaches a value less than )J 442 668 :M f243 sf .056(k)A f165 sf .113 .011( all of)J endp showpage %%Page: 129 129 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 129 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 111 \321)S 78 56 :M .73 .073(the data bytes in that code block have been read, and if the initial value was other than)J 78 74 :M (255, then the value remaining in the counter is the implicit byte value to be appended.)S 78 104 :M .199 .02(While it is possible to extend COBS in this way, and it may be useful to do so for certain)J 78 122 :M 1.855 .185(applications, the aggressive worst-case bound which makes COBS useful is rapidly)J 78 140 :M .368 .037(weakened as the number of values to be eliminated increases. For example, using COBS)J 78 158 :M 1.616 .162(to eliminate 34 different byte values, as is sometimes done for PPP links over non-)J 78 176 :M .547 .055(transparent networks, results in a worst-case overhead of one byte for every six bytes of)J 78 194 :M (packet data \(16)S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (2)S 0 5 rm 155 194 :M f165 sf (/)S f497 sf 0 3 rm (3)S 0 -3 rm 162 194 :M f165 sf (%\).)S 78 224 :M .375 .038(For this reason, this dissertation concentrates on using COBS to eliminate a single eight-)J 78 242 :M .862 .086(bit value in order to facilitate reliable unambiguous packet framing, not extensive byte)J 78 260 :M (stuffing to compensate for non-transparency of the underlying ne)S 391 260 :M (twork.)S 78 296 :M f318 sf (6.4)S f360 sf ( )S 105 296 :M f318 sf (Lower-Level Framing)S 78 326 :M f165 sf .103 .01(COBS is defined in terms of byte operations. This means that there also needs to be some)J 78 344 :M .743 .074(underlying mechanism to detect where the byte boundaries fall in the bit-stream. When)J 78 362 :M .666 .067(used over an RS-232 serial port, the start/stop bits perform this function \(not very relia-)J 78 380 :M .194 .019(bly\), at a cost of 20% extra overhead. HDLC framing is usually more efficient, but it too,)J 78 398 :M .203 .02(in the worst case, can add as much as 20% overhead. The benefit of COBS having such a)J 78 416 :M .717 .072(tight bound on worst-case overhead at the byte level is somewhat diminished if the bit-)J 78 434 :M (level framing it depends upon is not similarly well behaved.)S 78 464 :M .658 .066(Fortunately, with the choice of an appropriate bit-level framing pattern, COBS-encoded)J 78 482 :M .417 .042(data becomes self-framing, and no lower-layer bit stuffing is needed. All that is required)J 78 500 :M .984 .098(to make this work is a bit-level framing pattern chosen so that it can never occur an)J 502 500 :M (y-)S 78 518 :M .2 .02(where in COBS-encoded data. If the framing pattern cannot inadvertently appear, there is)J 78 536 :M (no need for any bit stuffing mechanism to eliminate it.)S 78 566 :M .982 .098(Finding an appropriate framing pattern is easy. Since COBS-encoded data contains no)J 78 584 :M .096 .01(zero bytes, we know that there is at least one binary \3241\325 bit somewhere in every byte. This)J 78 602 :M .107 .011(means that in a bit-stream of COBS-encoded data there can be no contiguous run of more)J 78 620 :M .451 .045(than fourteen zero-bits, which suggests a candidate for the COBS end-of-packet marker:)J 78 638 :M (a run of fifteen \(or more\) zero-bits.)S endp showpage %%Page: 130 130 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 130 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 112 \321)S 42 56 :M .554 .055(The work of Barker [Bar53] and Artom [Art72] gives further guidance about the choice)J 42 74 :M .553 .055(of an appropriate framing pattern. The framing pattern should not only be one that does)J 42 92 :M .342 .034(not appear in the data stream, but also one that cannot appear in any overlap between the)J 42 110 :M .287 .029(marker and the data stream. A framing marker consisting of just a run of zero-bits would)J 42 128 :M .358 .036(not meet this requirement. It could never appear entirely within the encoded packet data,)J 42 146 :M 1.052 .105(but appending this framing marker to the end of an encoded packet could result in an)J 42 164 :M 1.052 .105(ambiguous situation. This is because nothing prevents an encoded packet from ending)J 42 182 :M 1.049 .105(with as many as seven consecutive zero-bits. Upon seeing a long run of zero-bits, the)J 42 200 :M .921 .092(receiver does not have any simple reliable way to tell which, if any, of those zero-bits)J 42 218 :M .796 .08(actually belong to the tail of the previous packet, and which bits belong to the framing)J 42 236 :M .287 .029(marker. This ambiguity can be solved by refining the definition of the framing marker to)J 42 254 :M (be a one-bit followed by fifteen zero-bits:)S 202 284 :M f482 sf -.211(1000000000000000)A 42 314 :M f165 sf .108 .011(Unintended occurrences of the framing marker are now eliminated, because any sequence)J 42 332 :M .07 .007(made by concatenating bits from the end of a packet with bits from the start of the marker)J 42 350 :M .585 .059(will result in a sequence that has at least one one-bit somewhere in the middle, and this)J 42 368 :M .601 .06(cannot be mistaken for a framing marker because the framing marker has no one-bits in)J 42 386 :M (the middle.)S 42 416 :M .676 .068(COBS bit-level framing can be defined to use a synchronous idle sequence, or an asy)J 466 416 :M (n-)S 42 434 :M .457 .046(chronous idle sequence, as appropriate to the application requirements. Using a synchro-)J 42 452 :M 1.265 .126(nous idle sequence, the end-of-packet marker is a one-bit followed by exactly fifteen)J 42 470 :M .322 .032(zero-bits. If the link is idle and there are no packets to transmit, then these 16-bit end-of-)J 42 488 :M 1.935 .194(packet markers are transmitted back-to-back continuously until there is a packet to)J 42 506 :M 1.234 .123(transmit. Using an asynchronous idle sequence, the end-of-packet marker is a one-bit)J 42 524 :M .698 .07(followed by fifteen )J 141 524 :M f243 sf .796 .08(or more)J f165 sf .666 .067( zero-bits. In this case, after the basic end-of-packet marker)J 42 542 :M .785 .078(has been sent, an idle line can simply be filled with as many zero-bits as are needed to)J 42 560 :M .45 .045(bridge the gap until there is another packet to send. So that the receiver knows when the)J 42 578 :M .299 .03(next packet begins, the asynchronous framing marker is defined to be a one-bit, followed)J 42 596 :M (by fifteen or more zero-bits, and then another one-bit, as shown below:)S 181 626 :M f482 sf -.208(100000000000000 ... 01)A endp showpage %%Page: 131 131 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 131 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 113 \321)S 78 56 :M 1.306 .131(For a line that is mostly busy the synchronous idle specification is marginally better,)J 78 74 :M .32 .032(because the framing marker is only 16 bits long, compared to the 17-bit minimum length)J 78 92 :M (of the asynchronous idle framing marker, so there is slightly less overhead.)S 78 122 :M 1.095 .109(For a line that is mostly idle, the asynchronous idle specification is marginally better,)J 78 140 :M .546 .055(because packets can be sent with slightly less delay. Using synchronous idle markers, if)J 78 158 :M 1.786 .179(an idle line has just begun transmitting its next idle end-of-packet marker when an)J 78 176 :M 1.32 .132(outgoing packet arrives at the interface, the packet will have to wait for 15 bit-times)J 78 194 :M .514 .051(before it can be sent. Using asynchronous idle, the interface could immediately send the)J 78 212 :M (start bit and begin sending the packet after a delay of only one bit-time.)S 78 242 :M 1.518 .152(Used with either of these framing marker definitions, COBS guarantees a very tight)J 78 260 :M .593 .059(bound, not only on the number of bytes, but also on the total number of bits required to)J 78 278 :M (transmit a data packet.)S endp showpage %%Page: 132 132 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 132 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 114 \321)S endp showpage %%Page: 133 133 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 133 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 115 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Seven)S 78 119 :M (Applications)S 78 212 :M f165 sf .619 .062(There are many applications, both current and future, that could benefit from consistent)J 78 230 :M .278 .028(overhead byte stuffing. This chapter presents some major ones, and explains how consi)J 503 230 :M (s)S 508 230 :M (-)S 78 248 :M 1.031 .103(tent overhead byte stuffing either improves on an existing solution, or how it makes a)J 78 266 :M (new kind of solution possible.)S 78 302 :M f318 sf (7.1)S f360 sf ( )S 105 302 :M f318 sf (Conventional Serial Line Byte Stuffing)S 78 332 :M f165 sf 1 .1(COBS would be a useful replacement for conventional two-for-one byte stuffing alg)J 502 332 :M (o-)S 78 350 :M .323 .032(rithms even when used with modems over conventional telephone lines. Fortunately PPP)J 78 368 :M .487 .049(has an option negotiation mechanism that allows new extensions to be added to the PPP)J 78 386 :M 1.391 .139(protocol without sacrificing backward compatibility with older implementations. The)J 78 404 :M .368 .037(IETF PPP Working Group is currently considering an Internet-Draft specifying just such)J 78 422 :M 1.796 .18(an extension which allows PPP implementations to negotiate use of a new framing)J 78 440 :M (scheme based on an extension of COBS/ZPE [Carl97].)S 78 476 :M f318 sf (7.2)S f360 sf ( )S 105 476 :M f318 sf (Slotted Media Access Protocols)S 78 506 :M f165 sf 1.186 .119(Some media access protocols, such as Slotted Aloha [Abr72] [Abr85] use fixed sized)J 78 524 :M .296 .03(transmission slots. In order to ensure that no packet can exceed its allocated slot size, the)J 78 542 :M .439 .044(sender must artificially limit its maximum payload size to account for worst-case expa)J 502 542 :M (n-)S 78 560 :M 1.048 .105(sion. In the case of a system using conventional two-for-one byte stuffing, this would)J 78 578 :M 1.694 .169(mean that no packet\325s raw size could be more than half of the slot size, effectively)J 78 596 :M (wasting half of the channel\325s ban)S 237 596 :M (dwidth.)S 78 626 :M .584 .058(Consistent overhead byte stuffing solves this problem by providing much better predic)J 505 626 :M (t-)S 78 644 :M .344 .034(ability in the encoded size of the data. Because we know no packet can increase by more)J endp showpage %%Page: 134 134 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 134 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 116 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.086 .109(than 0.4%, we can set the maximum payload size to 99.4% of the slot size, achieving)J 42 74 :M (almost double the utilization of a conventional two-for-one byte system.)S 42 110 :M f318 sf (7.3)S f360 sf ( )S 69 110 :M f318 sf (Simplified MACA Protocol)S 42 140 :M f165 sf .928 .093(The MACA protocol [Karn90] provides another example application of COBS. In this)J 42 158 :M .441 .044(protocol, after a successful RTS/CTS exchange \(Request To Send/Clear To Send\), other)J 42 176 :M 1.615 .162(stations must remain quiet for long enough for the requesting station to transmit its)J 42 194 :M .195 .019(packet, so that they do not interfere with it. In an environment where PPP byte stuffing is)J 42 212 :M 1.203 .12(used to encode the packet, to be certain that the transmission is complete the stations)J 42 230 :M 1.07 .107(might have to remain quiet for twice as long. With HDLC bit stuffing the uncertainty)J 42 248 :M .961 .096(would not be so great, but the stations would still have to allow a 20% safety margin.)J 42 266 :M .523 .052(\(The stations that are required to remain quiet to prevent interference at the )J f243 sf .148(receiver)A f165 sf .408 .041( are)J 42 284 :M .357 .036(not necessarily in range of the )J 193 284 :M f243 sf (sender)S 225 284 :M f165 sf .364 .036(. They may not be able to hear the packet transmis)J 472 284 :M (-)S 42 302 :M .675 .067(sion in order to detect when the transmission is complete and determine for themselves)J 42 320 :M .602 .06(when it is safe to send again.\) The sender could pre-compute the encoded size and send)J 42 338 :M .258 .026(that information, instead of \(or as well as\) the raw payload size, in its initial RTS packet,)J 42 356 :M .507 .051(but this is extra software overhead that could be avoided by using COBS. If the radio is)J 42 374 :M 1.135 .113(using HDLC bit stuffing hardware to transmit the packet, then the software must pre-)J 42 392 :M .208 .021(compute the HDLC overhead in order to put this information into the RTS packet and, as)J 42 410 :M .581 .058(discussed before, computing bitwise encodings like HDLC in software is often not very)J 42 428 :M (efficient.)S 42 458 :M .584 .058(Consistent overhead byte stuffing solves this problem by providing much better predic)J 469 458 :M (t-)S 42 476 :M .567 .057(ability in the encoded size of the data. It eliminates the need to precompute the encoded)J 42 494 :M 1.711 .171(size because we can instead simply use the raw size plus 0.4%, since we know the)J 42 512 :M (encoded size can never exceed this.)S 42 548 :M f318 sf (7.4)S f360 sf ( )S 69 548 :M f318 sf (ISM Packet Radio Byte Stuffing)S 42 578 :M f165 sf 1.665 .167(Packet radio devices, such as Metricom\325s 900Mhz packet radio devices [Che96] are)J 42 596 :M .877 .088(constrained by United States FCC regulations to transmit for no more than 400ms at a)J 42 614 :M (time. This legally imposed limit presents a constraint it would be very unwise to break.)S 42 644 :M .25 .025(Using conventional byte stuffing which can potentially double packet size, the maximum)J 42 662 :M .592 .059(payload size must be set to half the maximum transmission size. Using HDLC framing,)J endp showpage %%Page: 135 135 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 135 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 117 \321)S 78 56 :M .599 .06(the maximum payload size must be set to no more than 80% of the maximum transmi)J 503 56 :M (s)S 508 56 :M (-)S 78 74 :M .35 .035(sion size. Using consistent overhead byte stuffing the maximum payload size may be set)J 78 92 :M (as high as 99.6% of the maximum transmission size.)S 78 128 :M f318 sf (7.5)S f360 sf ( )S 105 128 :M f318 sf (Improves ATM Efficiency)S 78 158 :M f165 sf .688 .069(On average, ATM Adaptation Layer 5 \(AAL5\) [RFC1483] wastes half an ATM cell \321)J 78 176 :M .756 .076(24 bytes \321 at the end of every packet that is sent. Certain particular common kinds of)J 78 194 :M .676 .068(packet suffer especially badly. For example, a single character telnet packet is typically)J 78 212 :M .882 .088(41 bytes long \321 20 bytes of IP header, 20 bytes of TCP header, and one byte of data.)J 78 230 :M 1.754 .175(When the 8-byte AAL5 CPCS-PDU trailer is added, this makes 49 bytes, so it just)J 78 248 :M .708 .071(marginally fails to fit into a single 48-byte ATM cell and requires two cells instead. 96)J 78 266 :M 1.499 .15(ATM payload bytes are required to transport a 41-byte IP packet \321 an overhead of)J 78 284 :M .832 .083(134%. Even for larger packets, on the order of 1000 bytes long, an average wastage of)J 78 302 :M 1.14 .114(half a cell per packet results in an overhead rate of 2.4% \(not counting the ATM cell)J 78 320 :M (headers themselves\).)S 78 350 :M .207 .021(By streaming IP packets back to back using COBS, that wastage could be reduced to less)J 78 368 :M .496 .05(than 0.4% in the worst case, and 0.23% on average, plus ATM cell headers. Particularly)J 78 386 :M (for small IP packets where the AAL5 overhead is great, this is a big improvement.)S 78 416 :M .412 .041(It should be noted that streaming packets back to back this way does not preclude use of)J 78 434 :M 2.1 .21(techniques such as Romanow-Floyd Early Packet Discard [RoFlo94]. Early Packet)J 78 452 :M .305 .031(Discard is a technique where, if the ATM switch drops one single ATM cell, then all the)J 78 470 :M 1.544 .154(subsequent cells belonging to that IP packet are also dropped, to avoid wasting link)J 78 488 :M .409 .041(bandwidth by sending cells that will be useless to the receiver. When using COBS back-)J 78 506 :M .427 .043(to-back streaming, the EOP \(End of Packet\) bit in the ATM cell header can still be used)J 78 524 :M .461 .046(to indicate to the ATM switch where IP packet boundaries fall in the data stream. When)J 78 542 :M .795 .08(an ATM switch is in discard mode, seeing a cell with the EOP bit set would indicate a)J 78 560 :M .739 .074(cell containing the end of one packet \(and in most cases the beginning of the next\) and)J 78 578 :M .217 .022(hence would serve to indicate to the switch that cell forwarding should be turned back on)J 78 596 :M (immediately, beginning with that cell.)S endp showpage %%Page: 136 136 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 136 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 118 \321)S 42 56 :M f318 sf (7.6)S f360 sf ( )S 69 56 :M f318 sf (File Storage)S 42 86 :M f165 sf .408 .041(Sometimes large numbers of records are stored in a single storage medium. When this is)J 42 104 :M 1.454 .145(done, some mechanism is usually desired to extract individual records from the file.)J 42 122 :M (Three examples are MPEG video disks, Unix Maildrop files, and backup tapes.)S 42 152 :M f318 sf (7.6.1)S f360 sf ( )S 73 152 :M f318 sf (MPEG Video Disks)S 42 182 :M f165 sf 1.094 .109(When MPEG [ISO11172] video is stored on CD-ROM there are typically as many as)J 42 200 :M 1.336 .134(100,000 individual records \321 video frames \321concatenated together with little or no)J 42 218 :M .079 .008(indexing information. If random access to a portion of the disk required reading the entire)J 42 236 :M 1.078 .108(MPEG file from the beginning, it would take several minutes and the user experience)J 42 254 :M .674 .067(would be extremely poor. If any part of the disk were damaged, then all data following)J 42 272 :M .315 .032(that damaged area might be unrecoverable. In the absence of any indexing information it)J 42 290 :M 1.089 .109(is desirable to be able to seek to any point on the disk and find where the next frame)J 42 308 :M (starts in an )S 97 308 :M f243 sf (ad hoc)S f165 sf ( fashion, using only the data that is there.)S 42 338 :M .56 .056(MPEG allows random access by beginning each frame with three zero bytes, so that the)J 42 356 :M .675 .068(receiver can simply search for three zero bytes to find the next frame boundary. MPEG)J 42 374 :M .503 .05(does not perform any kind of data stuffing to eliminate occurrences of zero triplets from)J 42 392 :M .173 .017(the data. Instead, the MPEG committee defined the MPEG video encoding very carefully)J 42 410 :M .33 .033(so that under no circumstances can three zero bytes ever appear anywhere in the body of)J 42 428 :M .186 .019(an encoded video frame. This non-transparency of the underlying MPEG layer forced the)J 42 446 :M .198 .02(specification of the MPEG video encoding standard to be considerably more complicated)J 42 464 :M 1.203 .12(than it might otherwise have been. Unfortunately the MPEG audio encoding standard)J 42 482 :M .476 .048(fails to ensure that no run of three zero bytes ever appears in encoded audio data, which)J 42 500 :M .92 .092(means that searching for three zeroes is actually not a reliable way of finding the next)J 42 518 :M (frame boun)S 97 518 :M (dary.)S 42 548 :M .273 .027(Using COBS framing, the video encoding specification could be a lot simpler, and frame)J 42 566 :M (boundaries could be accurately located by simply searching for the framing marker.)S 42 596 :M f318 sf (7.6.2)S f360 sf ( )S 73 596 :M f318 sf (Unix Maildrop Files)S 42 626 :M f165 sf 2.039 .204(The Unix electronic mail software \324sendmail\325 concatenates received mail messages)J 42 644 :M .691 .069(together into a single file. The start of each new message is detected by searching for a)J 42 662 :M .749 .075(line beginning with the word \324From\325. If this word appears anywhere in the body of the)J endp showpage %%Page: 137 137 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 137 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 119 \321)S 78 56 :M 1.168 .117(message, then a kind of \324word stuffing\325 is performed, replacing \324From\325 with \324>From\325)J 78 74 :M 1.321 .132(before the message is added to the combined mail file. This transformation is not r)J 503 74 :M (e-)S 78 92 :M .226 .023(versed when the mail is delivered, resulting in some mail messages becoming changed in)J 78 110 :M .48 .048(transit. When a human being is reading the message, the addition of extra \324>\325 characters)J 78 128 :M .693 .069(at the start of lines may be slightly confusing and unsightly, but not catastrophic. Ho)J 499 128 :M (w)S 508 128 :M (-)S 78 146 :M .71 .071(ever, if the text of the message is, say, Base-64 encoded binary data that by misfortune)J 78 164 :M .709 .071(simply happens to contain a line that begins with the text \324From\325, then the alteration of)J 78 182 :M (the data may well result in the file not decoding correctly.)S 78 212 :M .761 .076(Using consistent overhead byte stuffing, it would be easy to find the beginning of each)J 78 230 :M 1.079 .108(mail message simply by looking for the reserved framing character, and no mail me)J 503 230 :M (s)S 508 230 :M (-)S 78 248 :M (sages would be damaged in the process.)S 78 278 :M f318 sf (7.6.3)S f360 sf ( )S 109 278 :M f318 sf (Backup Media)S 78 308 :M f165 sf .33 .033(Many popular kinds of \324append-only\325 media exist, such as recordable \(\324write-once\325\) )J 490 308 :M (CDs)S 78 326 :M .55 .055([ISO10149] [ECMA-167] [ECMA-168], and streaming tape formats like 4mm [X3.203])J 78 344 :M .996 .1(\(\324DAT\325 or \324DDS\325\) and 8mm [ISO11319] helical-scan tapes. Adding new data to these)J 78 362 :M .877 .088(media in anything other than a simple linear sequential fashion is cumbersome at best,)J 78 380 :M .358 .036(and in many cases impossible. Many common backup formats have magic data in magic)J 78 398 :M .181 .018(places, such as a catalog of files at the start of the tape. This makes it difficult to add new)J 78 416 :M .174 .017(data to an existing backup tape because there is no convenient way to go back to the start)J 78 434 :M 1.523 .152(of the tape and rewrite the catalog. It also means that an otherwise small amount of)J 78 452 :M .187 .019(damage at the start of the tape which renders that catalog unreadable may make the entire)J 78 470 :M (archive effectively useless [Zwi91a] [Zwi91b] [Zwi97].)S 78 500 :M .664 .066(An alternative approach would be to write each file, along with its meta-data, as a self-)J 78 518 :M .456 .046(describing record, framed using COBS. Additional meta-data, as required by the backup)J 78 536 :M 1.746 .175(software, would also be written as self-describing records and framed using COBS.)J 78 554 :M .511 .051(Framing the data in independent records this way would allow the tape reader to decode)J 78 572 :M 1.043 .104(each complete undamaged record in isolation, regardless of whether the preceeding or)J 78 590 :M .839 .084(following records were readable, and a small isolated error would not render the entire)J 78 608 :M (remainder of the tape meaningless.)S endp showpage %%Page: 138 138 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 138 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 120 \321)S 42 56 :M f318 sf (7.7)S f360 sf ( )S 69 56 :M f318 sf (Allowing New Observers to Join)S 42 86 :M f165 sf .425 .042(Sometimes an observer on a network may want to observe a transmission that is already)J 42 104 :M .463 .046(part-way through. One example of this is digital satellite broadcasting, which broadcasts)J 42 122 :M .484 .048(a continuous MPEG video stream. For observers to join in the middle of a transmission,)J 42 140 :M (they must be able to detect where the next frame or packet of data begins.)S 42 170 :M 1.202 .12(Using consistent overhead byte stuffing, an observer could join a transmission at any)J 42 188 :M (point and still easily be able to detect the start of the next frame.)S endp showpage %%Page: 139 139 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 139 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 121 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Eight)S 78 119 :M (Conclusions)S 78 212 :M f165 sf 1.095 .11(COBS is a useful addition to our arsenal of techniques for data communications. It is)J 78 230 :M .295 .03(computationally cheap, easy to implement in software, and gives significant performance)J 78 248 :M .556 .056(benefits by allowing much larger packets to be sent over a given piece of network har)J 502 248 :M (d-)S 78 266 :M (ware.)S 78 296 :M .641 .064(COBS is easy to implement efficiently in software, even for primitive microprocessors.)J 78 314 :M .463 .046(In one project in our group [Pog96] COBS has been implemented in hand-written eight-)J 78 332 :M 1.239 .124(bit assembly code to allow a small embedded control device to connect to a wireless)J 78 350 :M .1 .01(interface and communicate with Internet hosts using UDP/IP. The device needs to be able)J 78 368 :M .942 .094(to send and receive one kilobyte blocks of data but does not have enough memory for)J 78 386 :M .39 .039(either an implementation of TCP or of IP fragmentation and reassembly. Without COBS)J 78 404 :M .942 .094(it would have been much harder to make the device work. We would have had to add)J 78 422 :M .229 .023(extra memory to the device and would have had to do a lot of extra development work to)J 78 440 :M (implement TCP and/or IP fragmentation and reassembly in eight-bit assembly code.)S 78 470 :M .545 .055(In retrospect it is surprising that COBS or similar techniques have never been described)J 78 488 :M .757 .076(in the literature before. Perhaps one reason is that, until the development of unlicensed)J 78 506 :M .787 .079(radio transmitters under the FCC\325s Part 15 ISM band rules, the networking community)J 78 524 :M .107 .011(had not confronted the problem of dealing with devices where the maximum transmission)J 78 542 :M (size is a hard limit dictated at the physical level.)S 78 572 :M .359 .036(COBS has the potential to set a new standard, not only for packet radio applications, but)J 78 590 :M (for all future applications that use byte stuffing.)S 78 620 :M 1.013 .101(The benefit of conventional two-for-one substitution encodings like PPP, compared to)J 78 638 :M 1.164 .116(COBS, is that they may encode small packets with no overhead whereas basic COBS)J endp showpage %%Page: 140 140 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 140 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 122 \321)S 42 56 :M 1.764 .176(always adds exactly one byte. However, three factors make this apparent benefit of)J 42 74 :M (conventional byte stuffing algorithms less compelling.)S 42 104 :M 1.075 .108(The main factor is that the pressing problem for many new wireless devices is that of)J 42 122 :M 1.434 .143(sending large packets, not small packets. It is the large packets that cause problems,)J 42 140 :M .216 .022(because the software must be able to ensure that they do not exceed the device\325s physical)J 42 158 :M (and regulatory limits.)S 42 188 :M 1.23 .123(Another factor is that the move to IPv6 [RFC1883] in the future means that the very)J 42 206 :M .96 .096(smallest packets, where PPP does better than COBS, will become increasingly uncom-)J 42 224 :M .252 .025(mon. Although header compression techniques exist to reduce the overhead of the packet)J 42 242 :M 2.009 .201(headers \(especially over slow links\) [Deg96], those header compression techniques)J 42 260 :M .914 .091(reduce the header size by amounts measured in tens of bytes, dwarfing concerns about)J 42 278 :M (differences of a single byte here and there.)S 42 308 :M .27 .027(Finally, if even a single byte of overhead is unacceptable, a trivial modification to COBS)J 42 326 :M .62 .062(to support Zero Pair Elimination makes it perform better than PPP, even for short pack-)J 42 344 :M (ets. COBS/ZPE beats both PPP\325s average overhead and its worst-case overhead.)S endp showpage %%Page: 141 141 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 141 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 123 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Chapter Nine)S 78 119 :M (Bibliography)S 78 212 :M f165 sf ([Abr72])S 150 212 :M (Norman Abramson. )S f243 sf (Excess capacity of a slotted aloha channel.)S 150 230 :M f165 sf (ARPANET Satellite System Note 26 12735, Stanford Research Institute,)S 150 248 :M (November 1972.)S 78 278 :M ([Abr85])S 150 278 :M (Norman Abramson. Development of the ALOHANET. )S 418 278 :M f243 sf (IEEE Transactions)S 150 296 :M (on Information Theory,)S f165 sf ( vol. IT-31, pp. 119-123, March 1985.)S 78 326 :M ([Ahl96a])S 150 326 :M (B. Ahlgren, P. G)S 231 326 :M (unningberg & K. Moldeklev. 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Available from the American Radio Relay League, Newington CT)S 150 560 :M (USA 06111.)S 78 590 :M ([Bar53])S 150 590 :M (R. H. Barker. Group Synchronizing of Binary Digital Systems, )S 455 590 :M f243 sf (Communi-)S 150 608 :M (cation Theory \(Proceedings of the Symposium on the Applications of)S 150 626 :M (Communication Theory, September 1952\))S f165 sf (. W. Jackson, Ed. New York:)S 150 644 :M (Academic Press, 1953.)S endp showpage %%Page: 142 142 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 142 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 124 \321)S 42 56 :M ([Bea90])S 114 56 :M (K. G. Beauchamp. )S 206 56 :M f243 sf (Computer Communications, Second edition)S f165 sf (. London,)S 114 74 :M (UK: Chapman and Hall, 1990.)S 42 104 :M ([Braun94])S 114 104 :M (H. W. Braun and K. Claffy. Web Traffic Characterization: an assessment)S 114 122 :M (of the impact of caching documents from NCSA\325s web server. )S 417 122 :M f243 sf (Procee)S 451 122 :M (d-)S 114 140 :M (ings of Second International World Wide Web \(WWW\) Conference \32594.)S 114 158 :M f165 sf (Chicago, IL, O)S 186 158 :M (ctober 1994.)S 42 188 :M ([Braun96])S 114 188 :M (T. Braun & C. Diot. 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Architectural Considerations for a)S 114 614 :M (New Generation of Protocols. )S f243 sf (Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM 1990)S 446 614 :M f165 sf (,)S 114 632 :M (September 1990.)S endp showpage %%Page: 143 143 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 143 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 125 \321)S 78 56 :M ([Cro08])S 150 56 :M (Arthur Crotch. )S 224 56 :M f243 sf (The Hughes and Baudot Telegraphs)S f165 sf (. London: Rentell,)S 150 74 :M (1908.)S 78 104 :M ([Cru78])S 150 104 :M (Frank da Cruz. )S 225 104 :M f243 sf (Kermit, A File Transfer Protocol)S f165 sf (. Bedford, MA: Digital)S 150 122 :M (Press, c1987.)S 78 152 :M ([Deg96])S 150 152 :M (Mikael Degermark, Mathias Engan, Bj\232rn Nordgren, Stephen Pink. 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Also available)S 114 110 :M (http://agora.rdrop.com/users/caf/zmdmget.html [26 March 1997].)S 42 140 :M ([G721])S 114 140 :M (CCITT Recommendation G.700-G.795 \(1)S 316 140 :M (988\), General Aspects of Digital)S 114 158 :M (Transmission Systems, Terminal Equipment. \(\324Blue Book\325\))S 42 188 :M ([Gill96])S 114 188 :M (Personal communication, John Gill, Associate Professor, Electrical)S 114 206 :M (Engineering, Stanford University, November 1996. Not published in any)S 114 224 :M (public forum.)S 42 254 :M ([Gol58a])S 114 254 :M (Golomb, Welch & Delbr\237ck. Construction and Properties of Comma-Free)S 114 272 :M (Codes, )S 150 272 :M f243 sf (Biologiske Meddelelser udgivet af Det Kongelige Danske Viden-)S 114 290 :M (skabernes Selskab,)S 205 290 :M f165 sf ( vol. 23, no. 9, 1958.)S 42 320 :M ([Gol58b])S 114 320 :M (S. W. Golomb, B. Gordon, and L. R. Welch. 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Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1991.)S 42 560 :M ([Hol95])S 114 560 :M (Gerard J. Holzmann. )S 217 560 :M f243 sf (The Early History of Data Networks)S f165 sf (. Los Alamitos,)S 114 578 :M (Calif.: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1995.)S 42 608 :M ([Hop86])S 114 608 :M (Andrew Hopper, Steven Temple, and Robin Williamson. )S 391 608 :M f243 sf (Local Area)S 114 626 :M (Network Design.)S 195 626 :M f165 sf ( Workin)S 235 626 :M (gham, England; Reading, Mass.: Addison-)S 114 644 :M (Wesley, c1986.)S endp showpage %%Page: 145 145 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 145 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 127 \321)S 78 56 :M ([Hum81])S 150 56 :M (Pierre Humblet. Generalization of Huffman Coding to Minimize the)S 150 74 :M (Probability of Buffer Overflow. )S 306 74 :M f243 sf (IEEE Transactions on Information Th)S 489 74 :M (e-)S 150 92 :M (ory,)S 169 92 :M f165 sf ( vol. 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Institute of)S 150 290 :M (Electrical and Electronic Engineers, IEEE Standard 802.5-1989, 1989.)S 78 320 :M ([ISO 8824])S 150 320 :M (Information Processing Systems \321 Open Systems Interconnection,)S 150 338 :M (Specification of Abstract Syntax Notation One \(ASN.1\), Geneva, March)S 150 356 :M (1988.)S 78 386 :M ([ISO 8825])S 150 386 :M (Infor)S 174 386 :M (mation Processing Systems \321 Open Systems Interconnection,)S 150 404 :M (Specification of Basic Encoding Rules for Abstract Notation One)S 150 422 :M (\(ASN.1\), G)S 206 422 :M (eneva, March 1988.)S 78 452 :M ([ISO10149])S 150 452 :M (ISO Committee Draft 10149. Information technology \321 Data interchange)S 150 470 :M (on read-only 120 mm )S 257 470 :M (optical data disks \(CD-ROM\), ISO/IEC 10149,)S 150 488 :M (1989. \(\324Yellow Book\325\))S 78 518 :M ([ISO10918])S 150 518 :M (ISO Committee Draft 10918. 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Fragmentation Considered Harmful. )S 401 266 :M f243 sf (Proc. of)S 114 284 :M (SIGCOMM \32587 Workshop on Frontiers in Computer Communications)S 114 302 :M (Technology.)S 173 302 :M f165 sf ( August, 1987.)S 42 332 :M ([Kes96])S 114 332 :M (Gary C. Kessler, Peter V. Southwick. )S f243 sf (ISDN: Concepts, Facilities, And)S 114 350 :M (Services. 3rd ed)S 191 350 :M f165 sf (. New York: McGraw-Hill, c1997 [i.e. 1996].)S 42 380 :M ([King83])S 114 380 :M (Richard Allen King. )S 215 380 :M f243 sf (The IBM PC-DOS Handbook, 1st ed.)S f165 sf ( Berkeley, CA:)S 114 398 :M (Sybex, 1983.)S 42 428 :M ([Knu85])S 114 428 :M (D. E. Knuth. Dynamic Huffman Coding. )S 313 428 :M f243 sf (Journal of Algorithms,)S 422 428 :M f165 sf ( vol. 6, pp.)S 114 446 :M (163-180, 1985.)S 42 476 :M ([LZ77])S 114 476 :M (J. Ziv and A. Lempel. A Universal Algorithm for Sequential Data Co)S 447 476 :M (m-)S 114 494 :M (pression. )S 160 494 :M f243 sf (IEEE Transactions on Information Theory)S 364 494 :M f165 sf (, May 1977.)S 42 524 :M ([Mauf97])S 114 524 :M (Personal communication, Tom Maufer, T-1 engineer, 3 Com, March 1997.)S 42 554 :M ([Mav03])S 114 554 :M (Wi)S 129 554 :M (lliam Maver, Jr. )S 209 554 :M f243 sf (American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the Tel)S 451 554 :M (e-)S 114 572 :M (graph: Systems, Apparatus, Operation. 5th ed.)S 338 572 :M f165 sf ( New York: Maver pu)S 444 572 :M (b-)S 114 590 :M (lishing company [1903].)S 42 620 :M ([May96])S 114 620 :M (Personal communication, Maynard Handley, chief MPEG engineer, Apple)S 114 638 :M (Computer, November 1996.)S endp showpage %%Page: 147 147 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 147 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 129 \321)S 78 56 :M ([Mil87])S 150 56 :M (Michael J. Miller, Syed V. Ahamed. )S f243 sf (Digital Transmission Systems and)S 150 74 :M (Networks)S f165 sf (. Rockville, MD: Computer Science Press, c1987.)S 78 104 :M ([Nel96])S 150 104 :M (Mark Nelson, Jean-Loup Gailly. )S 309 104 :M f243 sf (The Data Compression Book, 2nd ed.)S 150 122 :M f165 sf (New York: M&T Books, c1996.)S 78 152 :M ([Pad83])S 150 152 :M (M. A. Padlipsky. A Perspective on the ARPANET Reference Model.)S 150 170 :M f243 sf (Proceedings of IEEE INFOCOM \32583)S 328 170 :M f165 sf (, p. 242-53. Silver Springs, MD:)S 150 188 :M (IEEE Computer Society Press.)S 78 218 :M ([Pap87])S 150 218 :M (Stavros Papastavridis. On the Mean Number of Stuffing Bits in a Prefix-)S 150 236 :M (Synchronized Code, )S f243 sf (IEEE Transactions on Communications,)S 444 236 :M f165 sf ( vol. COM-)S 150 254 :M (35, pp. 453-455, April 1987.)S 78 284 :M ([Pog96])S 150 284 :M (Elliot Poger. )S 214 284 :M f243 sf (Radioscope)S 270 284 :M f165 sf (,)S 150 302 :M (, December 1996.)S 78 332 :M ([Pra97])S 150 332 :M (Personal communication, Vaughan Pratt, August 1997.)S 78 362 :M ([RoFlo94])S 150 362 :M (A. Romanow and S. Floyd.)S 281 362 :M ( Dynamics of TCP Traffic over ATM Ne)S 478 362 :M (t-)S 150 380 :M (works. )S f243 sf (Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM 1994)S 371 380 :M f165 sf (, August 1994.)S 78 410 :M ([RFC791])S 150 410 :M (J. Postel. Internet Protocol. STD 5, RFC 791, September 1981.)S 78 440 :M ([RFC916])S 150 440 :M (G. Finn. Reliable Asynchronous Transfer Protocol \(RATP\). RFC 916,)S 150 458 :M (October 1984.)S 78 488 :M ([RFC935])S 150 488 :M (J. Robinson. Reliable Link Layer Protocols. RFC 935, January 1985.)S 78 518 :M ([RFC959])S 150 518 :M (J. Postel, J. Reynolds. File Transfer Protocol \(FTP\). RFC 959, October)S 150 536 :M (1985.)S 78 566 :M ([RFC1055])S 150 566 :M (J. Romkey. A Nonstandard For Transmission Of IP Datagrams Over Serial)S 150 584 :M (Lines: SLIP. RFC 1055, June 1988.)S 78 614 :M ([RFC1122])S 150 614 :M (R. Braden. Requirements for Internet Hosts \321 Communication Layers.)S 150 632 :M (RFC 1122, October 1989.)S endp showpage %%Page: 148 148 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 148 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 130 \321)S 42 56 :M ([RFC1135])S 114 56 :M (J. Reynolds. The Helminthiasis \(infestation with parasitic worms\) of the)S 114 74 :M (Internet. RFC 1135, December 1989.)S 42 104 :M ([RFC1191])S 114 104 :M (J. Mogul and )S 180 104 :M (S. Deering. Path MTU Discovery. RFC 1191, November)S 114 122 :M (1990.)S 42 152 :M ([RFC1483])S 114 152 :M (Juha Heinanen. Multiprotocol Encapsulation over ATM Adaptation Layer)S 114 170 :M (5. RFC 1483, July 1993.)S 42 200 :M ([RFC1661])S 114 200 :M (William Simpson. The Point-to-Point Protocol \(PPP\). RFC 1661, July)S 114 218 :M (1994.)S 42 248 :M ([RFC1662])S 114 248 :M (Wil)S 132 248 :M (liam Simpson. PPP in HDLC-like Framing. RFC 1662, July 1994.)S 42 278 :M ([RFC1883])S 114 278 :M (Steve Deering and Bob Hinden. Internet Protocol, Version 6 \(IPv6\))S 114 296 :M (Specification. RFC 1883, December 1995.)S 42 326 :M ([RS-232-C])S 114 326 :M (Electronic Industries Association Standard RS-232-C: Interface between)S 114 344 :M (Data Terminal Equipment and Data Communication Equipment Employ-)S 114 362 :M (ing Serial Binary Data Interchange, October 1969.)S 42 392 :M ([Sch69a])S 114 392 :M (Robert A. Scholtz. On the Generation and Generalization of Comma-Free)S 114 410 :M (Codes, )S 150 410 :M f243 sf (1969 International Symposium on Information Theory)S f165 sf (, Ellenville,)S 114 428 :M (New York, January 28-31, 1969.)S 42 458 :M ([Sch69b])S 114 458 :M (Robert A. Scholtz. Maximal and Variable Word-Length Comma-Free)S 114 476 :M (Codes)S 144 476 :M (, )S f243 sf (IEEE Trans. on Information Theory)S f165 sf (, Vol. IT-15, March 1969.)S 42 506 :M ([Sch80])S 114 506 :M (Robert A. Scholtz. Frame Synchronization Techniques, )S 383 506 :M f243 sf (IEEE Transa)S 446 506 :M (c-)S 114 524 :M (tions on Communications,)S 240 524 :M f165 sf ( vol. COM-28, pp. 1204-1213, August 1980.)S 42 554 :M ([Sext92])S 114 554 :M (Mike Sexton and Andy Reid. )S f243 sf (Transmission Networking: SONET and the)S 114 572 :M (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy.)S f165 sf ( Boston: Artech House, c1992.)S 42 602 :M ([Shah93])S 114 602 :M (Amit Shah, G. Ramakrishnan. )S 262 602 :M f243 sf (FDDI : A High Speed Network.)S f165 sf ( Englewood)S 114 620 :M (Cliffs, N.J.: PTR Prentice Hall, 1993.)S endp showpage %%Page: 149 149 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 149 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 131 \321)S 78 56 :M ([Sta94])S 150 56 :M (William Stallings, )S f243 sf (Data and Computer Communications, Fourth Edition)S 498 56 :M f165 sf (.)S 150 74 :M (New York: Macmillan Pub. Co.; Toronto: Collier Macmillan Canada;)S 150 92 :M (New York: Maxwell Macmillan International, c1994.)S 78 122 :M ([Sta95])S 150 122 :M (William Stallings, )S f243 sf (ISDN and Broadband ISDN with Frame Relay and)S 150 140 :M (ATM. 3rd ed.)S 214 140 :M f165 sf ( Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1995.)S 78 170 :M ([T1.601])S 150 170 :M (ANSI Standard Number T1.601-1988. )S f243 sf (Integrated Services Digital Net-)S 150 188 :M (work \(ISDN\) Basic Access Interface For Use On Metallic Loops For Ap-)S 150 206 :M (plication On The Network Side Of The NT \(Layer 1 Specification\))S 466 206 :M f165 sf (. New)S 150 224 :M (York, N.Y.: ANSI, 1988.)S 78 254 :M ([Tan88])S 150 254 :M (Andrew S. Tanenbaum, )S 267 254 :M f243 sf (Computer Networks, 2nd ed)S 402 254 :M f165 sf (. Englewood Cliffs,)S 150 272 :M (N.J.: Prentice-Hall, c1988.)S 78 302 :M ([Tay97])S 150 302 :M (Tom Taylor, discussion on the IETF PPP Working Group Mailing List, 1)S f497 sf 0 -5 rm (st)S 0 5 rm 150 320 :M f165 sf (December 1997.)S 78 350 :M ([Thom97])S 150 350 :M (Kevin Thompson, Gregory J. Miller, and Rick Wilde. Wide-Area Internet)S 150 368 :M (Traffic Patterns and Characteristics. )S 326 368 :M f243 sf (IEEE Network.)S 399 368 :M f165 sf ( November/December)S 150 386 :M (1997.)S 78 416 :M ([US94-15])S 150 416 :M (United States Title 47 Code of Federal Regulations )S 399 416 :M (\(CFR\), Federal)S 150 434 :M (Communications Commission \(FCC\) Part 15, Low-Power Device Regul)S 498 434 :M (a-)S 150 452 :M (tions, Section 15.247. U.S. Government Printing Office.)S 78 482 :M ([Vail1845])S 150 482 :M (Alfred Vail. )S 211 482 :M f243 sf (The American Electro Magnetic Telegraph: with the Reports)S 150 500 :M (of Congress, and a Description of all Telegraphs Known, Employing)S 150 518 :M (Electricity or Galvanism.)S 272 518 :M f165 sf ( Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1845.)S 78 548 :M ([Vei83])S 150 548 :M (Richard H. Veith, )S f243 sf (Television\325s Teletext)S 337 548 :M f165 sf (. New York, N.Y.: North-Holland,)S 150 566 :M (c1983.)S 78 596 :M ([Ver86])S 150 596 :M (Verilink Corporation, Sunnyvale, California, Interface Method and)S 150 614 :M (Apparatus. U.S. Patent number 4,587,514. Expired May 11, 1994 due to)S 150 632 :M (failure to pay maintenance fees.)S endp showpage %%Page: 150 150 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 150 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 234 704 :M f165 sf (\321 132 \321)S 42 56 :M ([Wel84])S 114 56 :M (T. Welch. A Technique for High-Performance Data Compression. )S f243 sf (Com)S 457 56 :M (-)S 114 74 :M (puter)S f165 sf (, June 1984.)S 42 104 :M ([Wolv84])S 114 104 :M (Van Wolverton. )S f243 sf (Running MS DOS: the Microsoft guide to getting the most)S 114 122 :M (out of the standard operating system for the IBM PC and 50 other pe)S 446 122 :M (r)S 451 122 :M (-)S 114 140 :M (sonal computers.)S 196 140 :M f165 sf ( Bellevue, Wash.: Microsoft Press; [New York, N.Y.]:)S 114 158 :M (Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Simon and Schuster, c1984.)S 42 188 :M ([X3.131])S 114 188 :M (ANSI Standard Number X3.131-1986. )S 303 188 :M f243 sf (Small Computer System Interface)S 114 206 :M (\(SCSI\).)S 149 206 :M f165 sf ( New York, N.Y.: ANSI, 1986.)S 42 236 :M ([X3.203])S 114 236 :M (ANSI Standard Number X3.203:1992. )S 302 236 :M f243 sf (Helical-Scan Digital Computer)S 114 254 :M (Tape Cartridge, 3.81 mm \(0.150 in\) \321 Digital Data Storage \(DDS\) R)S 449 254 :M (e-)S 114 272 :M (corded Format for Information Interchange)S 325 272 :M f165 sf (. New York, N.Y.: ANSI,)S 114 290 :M (1992.)S 42 320 :M ([Zwi91a])S 114 320 :M (Elizabeth D. Zwicky. Torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs:)S 114 338 :M (Things You Ought to Know But Probably Would Rather Not. )S 413 338 :M f243 sf (Proceedings)S 114 356 :M (of the 5th Conference on Large Installation Systems Administration)S 114 374 :M (\(LISA91\))S 158 374 :M f165 sf ( 181-190. )S 207 374 :M (San Diego, CA, USA, September 1991. USENIX A)S 456 374 :M (s)S 461 374 :M (-)S 114 392 :M (sociation, 1991.)S 42 422 :M ([Zwi91b])S 114 422 :M (Elizabeth D. Zwicky. Analysing Backup Systems. )S 358 422 :M f243 sf (Proceedings of the 9th)S 114 440 :M (Annual Sun User Group Conference and Exhibit \(SUG91\))S 394 440 :M f165 sf (. San Jose, CA,)S 114 458 :M (USA, )S 144 458 :M (December 1991. 287-300.)S 42 488 :M ([Zwi97])S 114 488 :M (Personal communi)S 204 488 :M (cation, Elizabeth D. Zwicky, )S 345 488 :M (Technical lead of the)S 114 506 :M (European Desktop Project, Silicon Grap)S 307 506 :M (hics, December 1997.)S endp showpage %%Page: 151 151 %%BeginPageSetup initializepage (Stuart Cheshire; page: 151 of 152)setjob %%EndPageSetup gS 0 0 552 730 rC 270 704 :M f165 sf (\321 133 \321)S 78 71 :M f211 sf (Appendix)S 78 119 :M (Source Code Listings)S 78 193 :M f736 sf -.797(/*)A 78 203 :M -.404( * StuffData byte stuffs \324length\325 bytes of data at the location pointed to by \324ptr\325,)A 78 213 :M -.406( * writing the output to the location pointed to by \324dst\325.)A 78 223 :M -.598( */)A 78 243 :M -.404(#define FinishBlock\(X\) \(*code_ptr = \(X\), code_ptr = dst++, code = 0x01\))A 78 263 :M -.404(void StuffData\(const unsigned char *ptr, unsigned long length, unsigned char *dst\))A 96 273 :M ({)S 96 283 :M -.409(const unsigned char *end = ptr + length;)A 96 293 :M -.412(unsigned char *code_ptr = dst++;)A 96 303 :M -.415(unsigned char code = 0x01;)A 96 323 :M -.424(while \(ptr < end\))A 114 333 :M ({)S 114 343 :M -.411(if \(*ptr == 0\) FinishBlock\(code\);)A 114 353 :M -.532(else)A 132 363 :M ({)S 132 373 :M -.429(*dst++ = *ptr;)A 132 383 :M -.465(code++;)A 132 393 :M -.41(if \(code == 0xFF\) FinishBlock\(code\);)A 132 403 :M (})S 114 413 :M -.478(ptr++;)A 114 423 :M (})S 96 433 :M -.422(FinishBlock\(code\);)A 96 443 :M (})S 214 472 :M f318 sf (Listing 1. COBS Encoding in C)S 78 513 :M f736 sf -.797(/*)A 78 523 :M -.404( * UnStuffData decodes \324length\325 bytes of data at the location pointed to by \324ptr\325,)A 78 533 :M -.406( * writing the output to the location pointed to by \324dst\325.)A 78 543 :M -.598( */)A 78 563 :M -.404(void UnStuffData\(const unsigned char *ptr, unsigned long length, unsigned char *dst\))A 96 573 :M ({)S 96 583 :M -.409(const unsigned char *end = ptr + length;)A 96 593 :M -.424(while \(ptr < end\))A 114 603 :M ({)S 114 613 :M -.419(int i, code = *ptr++;)A 114 623 :M -.409(for \(i=1; i