Wikipedia

First Treaty of London

(Redirected from Treaty of London (1358))

The First Treaty of London, also known as the Treaty of Windsor, was formally agreed on 8 May 1358 at Windsor Castle in England. Its terms ended the then 21-year-old Anglo-French conflict now known as the Hundred Years' War. It was sealed by Edward III, king of England, and John II, king of France; the latter was a prisoner in England, having been captured with much of his council at the battle of Poitiers in 1356.

First Treaty of London
TypeTreaty of perpetual peace
ContextHundred Years' War
DraftedOctober 1357 – May 1358
LocationWindsor Castle, England
Sealed8 May 1358 (1358-05-08)
Effective8 May 1358
Negotiators
Signatories
Parties

The treaty set John's ransom at four million écus. This was £667,000 – the equivalent of the entire peacetime income of the English Crown for about 20 years. In exchange for peace, France was to transfer to England more than a quarter of its territory; while Edward would give up his claim to the French throne. The first instalment of the ransom – 600,000 écus (£100,000) – was due to be paid on 1 November, but with the French government collapsing into insurrection and anarchy it proved impossible to raise it. Edward refused to accept less than full performance of the terms of the treaty and it lapsed. Subsequent negotiations led to the Second Treaty of London in March 1358, which was so harsh the French government repudiated it. Hostilities resumed in October, when Edward again invaded France.

Background

edit

Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. By the first quarter of the fourteenth century, the only significant French possession still held by the English in France was Gascony in the south west. But Gascony was disproportionately important: duty levied by the English Crown on wine from Bordeaux in Gascony totalled more than all other English customs duties combined and was by far the largest source of state income.[1] Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France and Edward III of England, on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council agreed that the lands held by Edward III in France should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.[2][3]

 
France in 1330: only Gascony remained under English control.

After ten years of fierce but sporadic fighting the Truce of Calais was signed in September 1347,[4] partially as a result of both countries being financially exhausted.[5] The same year the Black Death reached northern France and southern England.[6] It is estimated to have killed a third of the population of Western Europe; the death rate was over 40% in southern England. This catastrophe temporarily halted the fighting,[7][8][9] with the Truce of Calais repeatedly extended. This did not stop ongoing naval clashes, nor small-scale fighting – which was especially fierce in south-west France[10] – nor occasional fighting on a larger scale.[11][12]

TheTreaty of Guînes, which would have ended the war, was signed on 6 April 1354. However, the composition of the inner council of the new French king, John II changed and French sentiment turned against its terms. John decided not to ratify it, and it was clear that from the summer of 1355 both sides would be committed to full-scale war.[13][14] In April 1355 Edward III and his council, with the treasury in an unusually favourable financial position, decided to launch offensives that year in both northern France and Gascony.[15][16] John attempted to strongly garrison his northern towns and fortifications against the expected descent by Edward III, at the same time as assembling a field army; he was unable to, largely because of a lack of money.[17]

Black Prince's campaigns

edit
Further information: Black Prince's chevauchée of 1355, Black Prince's chevauchée of 1356, and Battle of Poitiers
 
Edward, the Black Prince

By the summer of 1355 the truce had ended, negotiations had collapsed, and both sides were preparing for full-scale war.[13][14] Edward III's eldest son, Edward of Woodstock, later known as the Black Prince, was given the Gascon command.[18][19] He arrived in Bordeaux on 20 September and set off out on 5 October on a chevauchée, which was a large-scale mounted raid. An Anglo-Gascon force marched from Bordeaux 300 miles (480 km) to Narbonne – almost on the Mediterranean coast and deep inside France – and back to Gascony. They devastated a wide swathe of French territory and sacked many French towns on the way. The local French forces avoided battle, and there was little fighting. While no territory was captured, enormous economic damage was done to France; the modern historian Clifford Rogers concluded "the importance of the economic attrition aspect of the chevauchée can hardly be exaggerated."[20]

Starting on 4 August 1356 the Black Prince carried out another, similar chevauchée. This time 6,000 Anglo-Gascon soldiers headed north from Bergerac towards Bourges, as before leaving a trail of death and burning French towns on the way. By early September the Anglo-Gascons were facing a much larger French royal army and the Black Prince withdrew towards Gascony. The French succeeded in cutting off the Prince's army, and attacked it in its prepared defensive position, partly from fear it might slip away, but mostly as a question of honour. This was the Battle of Poitiers.[21]

Between 14,000 and 16,000 French troops, including at least 10,000 men-at-arms,[note 1] attacked on the morning of 19 September in four separate waves. The Anglo-Gascons defeated each in turn during a long-drawn-out battle. They partially surrounded the final French attack and captured the French King and one of his sons. In total 5,800 Frenchmen were killed and 2,000 to 3,000 men-at-arms captured. The surviving French dispersed while the Anglo-Gascons continued their withdrawal to Gascony.[23][24][25] In the aftermath of the battle English and Gascon forces raided widely across France, against little or no opposition.[26] With no effective central authority France dissolved into near anarchy.[27][28] On 22 March 1357 John and the Black Prince agreed a truce between France and England at Bordeaux, to last until 19 April 1359.[29] In April 1357 the pair sailed for England,[29] entering London to a rapturous reception.[27]

Negotiations

edit
 
Contemporary image of John II

Negotiations to both end the war and to agree a ransom for the French king began between the royal councils of John and Edward III in October 1357; most of the French Great Council were in London, having been captured by the English. Little was agreed until November, when news arrived that the King of Navarre, known as Charles the Bad, had escaped from his French prison cell. Charles had a strong claim to the French throne and had repeatedly negotiated with the English, plotted to kidnap John and in 1354 had murdered the constable of France, one of John's closest advisors, in his bedroom, and boasted of it.[30][31] In April 1356 he was dining with colleagues at the table of John's eldest son (the Dauphin), Charles, when John arrived accompanied by armed men, and arrested ten of the most outspoken diners; four were summarily executed, the others, including Charles the Bad, were imprisoned.[30][31]

John, believing correctly that Charles would raise an army against the crown, now felt compelled to be back on his throne so he could attempt to control the situation, while Edward felt this was the moment at which he could obtain the best deal.[32][33] In John's absence France was proving ungovernable. Charles the Dauphin was the regent, but had so little control that in February 1358 two of his senior advisors were murdered in his presence in Paris. Also in February, the French national assembly, the Estates General, fearing what John might agree to, attempted to prohibit him from negotiating with Edward.[34]

By early 1358 the English and French negotiators had agreed that John's personal ransom would be the huge amount of 4 million écus. This was £667,000, which was the equivalent of the entire peacetime income of the English crown for about 20 years.[35] John was not to be released until an initial payment of 600,000 écus (£100,000) was paid; according to the treaty this was to be received on 1 November. The balance was to be paid in annual instalments for an unspecified period. With regards to a territorial settlement, the final terms were less harsh for France than those incorporated in the never-ratified Treaty of Guînes. Nevertheless, a quarter of France was to be transferred to England to become its sovereign territory.[35][36] Nearly all of this was in the south west – Aquitaine, Saintonge, Poitou, Angoumois, Périgord, Agenais, Limousin, Rouergue, Quercy, Bigorre, Gaure – but also included Ponthieu, Montreuil, the Pale of Calais, and parts of Normandy.[37] There were various other provisions, mostly concerning France's internal affairs, such as a mechanism for ending the Breton Civil War, and France abandoning its long-standing alliance with Scotland. Almost all of the senior nobility of France were to be held in England as hostages for compliance with the terms of the treaty, along with two of the more important burghers from each of 20 principal French towns. In exchange the war would be ended and Edward would give up his and his descendants' claim on the French throne.[35][36] Edward insisted that the agreement be so structured that if any of its terms were not fulfilled, the entire treaty lapsed.[38][39] The treaty was formally sealed by John and Edward on 8 May 1358 at Windsor Castle.[40] The Dauphin had already ratified the agreement.[41]

Outcome

edit

French opinion was strongly against the treaty from the start,[42] and between its sealing and the date on which the first tranche of John's ransom was due the calamitous situation in France grew worse. An unaffiliated army of unemployed soldiers and freebooters, known as routiers, cut a swath of destruction through the Seine valley; Charles of Navarre, backed by armed force, continued to manoeuvre to seize the French throne; a savage peasant uprising, the Jacquerie, broke out against the established order; the Dauphin had to leave Paris, he returned in July and laid siege to the city. Raising the money to secure John's freedom was impossible.[43][44]

To add to the pressure on the French, in October 1357 the Treaty of Berwick was sealed between England and Scotland. This ended the Anglo-Scottish war, fudging the issue of English suzerainty and freeing the captured Scottish king, David II for a ransom of £67,000, to be paid in instalments over ten years.[45][46] English men and resources previously needed to hold the Scots in check could now be used in France.[47] Brooking no excuses, on 20 November 1358 Edward declared that the treaty with France had lapsed.[36] By 2 January 1359 he was gathering materiel in preparation for another round of campaigning.[48] In despair, in February John negotiated face to face with Edward and they rapidly came to a revised agreement, the Second Treaty of London. The ransom sum was reduced, but John was to cede almost half of France in full sovereignty to England. This treaty was sealed on 24 March. There was an outcry against it in France when the details became known and the Dauphin refused to accept it. Edward mobilised the English army.[49][50]

Aftermath

edit
Further information: Reims campaign and Treaty of Brétigny
 
France after the 1360 Treaty of Brétigny; French territory in green, English territory in pink

In October 1359 Edward III led another campaign in northern France. It was unopposed by French forces but was unable to take any strongly fortified places.[51] Instead the English army spread out and for six months devastated much of the region.[52] Both countries were finding it almost impossible to finance continued hostilities, but neither was inclined to change their attitude to the proposed peace terms. On 13 April 1360, near Chartres, a sharp fall in temperature and a heavy hail storm killed many English baggage horses and some soldiers. Taking this as a sign from God, Edward reopened negotiations, directly with the Dauphin. By 8 May the Treaty of Brétigny had been agreed, which largely replicated the First Treaty of London[53] or the Treaty of Guînes.[54]

By this treaty vast areas of France were ceded to England, to be personally ruled by the Black Prince as the Prince of Aquitaine and Gascony and John was ransomed for three million écu.[55] As well as John, sixteen of the more senior nobles captured at Poitiers were finally released with the sealing of this treaty.[56] At the time it seemed this was the end of the war, but large-scale fighting broke out again in 1369 and the Hundred Years' War did not end until 1453, with a French victory which left only Calais in English hands.[57]

Notes, citations and sources

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ Men-at-arms were, broadly, knights or knights in training. They were drawn from the landed gentry and ranged from great lords to the relatives and attendants of minor landowners. They needed to be able to equip themselves with a full suit of plate armour and a war horse.[22]

Citations

edit
  1. ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 39–40.
  2. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 184.
  3. ^ Rodger 2004, p. 79.
  4. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 585.
  5. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 584.
  6. ^ Deaux 1969, p. 122.
  7. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 6–8.
  8. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 53–54.
  9. ^ Harari 2007, p. 110.
  10. ^ Burne 1999, p. 225.
  11. ^ Wagner 2006, p. 74.
  12. ^ Harari 2007, p. 114.
  13. ^ a b Wagner 2006, pp. 142–143.
  14. ^ a b Sumption 1999, pp. 139–142.
  15. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 153, 160.
  16. ^ Madden 2014, p. 6.
  17. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 171–172.
  18. ^ Madden 2014, p. 79ff.
  19. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 153–154.
  20. ^ Rogers 1994, p. 101.
  21. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 256–258.
  22. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 21–23.
  23. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 383–384.
  24. ^ Sumption 1999, p. 247.
  25. ^ Hoskins 2011, pp. 191–192.
  26. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 250, 267, 271, 274.
  27. ^ a b Green 2011, p. 62.
  28. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 393, 395.
  29. ^ a b Hoskins 2011, p. 201.
  30. ^ a b Sumption 1999, pp. 124–125.
  31. ^ a b Wagner 2006, pp. 93–94.
  32. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 332–334.
  33. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 93, 198.
  34. ^ Wagner 2006, p. 198, 208.
  35. ^ a b c Rogers 1994, pp. 388–389.
  36. ^ a b c Wagner 2006, p. 198.
  37. ^ Hoskins 2011, p. 202.
  38. ^ Mortimer 2007, p. 333.
  39. ^ Rogers 1994, p. 389.
  40. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 326–327.
  41. ^ Mortimer 2007, p. 330.
  42. ^ Prestwich 1980, p. 182.
  43. ^ Mortimer 2007, pp. 333–334.
  44. ^ Livingstone & Witzel 2018, Triumphant homecoming.
  45. ^ Penman 2004, p. 192.
  46. ^ Ormrod 1990, p. 26.
  47. ^ Sumption 1999, p. 291.
  48. ^ Mortimer 2007, p. 334.
  49. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 198–199.
  50. ^ Mortimer 2007, pp. 334–335.
  51. ^ Curry 2002, p. 45.
  52. ^ Hoskins 2011, p. 203.
  53. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 414–416.
  54. ^ Rogers 2014, p. 292.
  55. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 135–136, 447.
  56. ^ Given-Wilson & Bériac 2001, pp. 803–804.
  57. ^ Curry 2002, pp. 46, 91.

Sources

edit
  • Burne, Alfred (1999) [1955]. The Crecy War. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 978-1-84022-210-4.
  • Curry, Anne (2002). The Hundred Years' War 1337–1453. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-269-2.
  • Deaux, George (1969). The Black Death, 1347. London: Hamilton. OCLC 242352826.
  • Given-Wilson, Chris & Bériac, Françoise (2001). "Edward III's Prisoners of War: The Battle of Poitiers and its Context". The English Historical Review. 112 (468): 802–833. doi:10.1093/ehr/CXVI.468.802. ISSN 0013-8266. JSTOR 579193.
  • Green, David (2011). The Black Prince. New York: History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-7306-2.
  • Harari, Yuval N. (2007). Special Operations in the Age of Chivalry, 1100–1550. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-292-8.
  • Hoskins, Peter (2011). In the Steps of the Black Prince: The Road to Poitiers, 1355–1356. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell. ISBN 978-1-84383-611-7.
  • Livingstone, Marilyn & Witzel, Morgen (2018). The Black Prince and the Capture of a King, Poitiers 1356. Oxford; Havertown, Pennsylvania: Casemate. ISBN 978-1-61200-452-5.
  • Madden, Mollie Marie (2014). The Black Prince at War: The Anatomy of a Chevauchée (PDF) (PhD thesis). Minnesota: University of Minnesota. OCLC 1194717646.
  • Mortimer, Ian (2007). The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-1-84413-530-1.
  • Ormrod, W. M. (1990). The Reign of Edward III: Crown and Political Society in England 1327–1377. New Haven; London: Yale. ISBN 978-0-300-04875-9.
  • Penman, Michael (2004). David II. East Linton, East Lothian: Tuckwell Press. ISBN 978-1-8623-2202-8.
  • Prestwich, M. (1980). The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377. Fakenham: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-29777-730-4.
  • Rodger, N. A. M. (2004). The Safeguard of the Sea. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-029724-9.
  • Rogers, Clifford J. (1994). "Edward III and the Dialectics of Strategy, 1327–1360". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 4: 83–102. doi:10.2307/3679216. JSTOR 3679216. OCLC 931311378. S2CID 163041276.
  • Rogers, Clifford J. (2014) [2000]. War Cruel and Sharp: English Strategy under Edward III, 1327–1360. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-804-4.
  • Sumption, Jonathan (1990). Trial by Battle. The Hundred Years' War. Vol. I. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-20095-5.
  • Sumption, Jonathan (1999). Trial by Fire. The Hundred Years' War. Vol. II. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-13896-8.
  • Wagner, John A. (2006). Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-32736-0.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Treaty_of_London&oldid=1277574257"