FOUNDAMENTALS OF
SURVEYING
PREPARED BY:
AMBACHEW AMBELIE
NOV,2016
Unit One
1. BASIC CONCEPTS
Definition:-
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative
position of various points above, on or below the surface of
the earth.
The relative positions are determined by measuring
horizontal distance, vertical distances (elevations),
horizontal angles and vertical angles accurately using
various surveying instruments.
After taking the measurements in the field, computations are
done and the plans and maps are prepared in the office.
These plans and maps are used for planning of engineering
works, making of boundaries, computations of areas and
volumes, and various other purposes.
Surveying also includes the art of setting out or locating the
points on the ground from the plan or map.
The first stage in all big projects is to survey the area and to
prepare plans.
These plans are used in the preparation of the detailed drawing,
design and estimate of the project.
After finalizing the drawings, setting out is done by
establishing the various points and lines on the ground from
the drawing.
Surveying, although simple in concept, requires great skill
and practice for doing the work accurately and
economically.
It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines such as
mathematics, physics, geodesy and astronomy. The need for
accurate surveying is increasing rapidly with the
development in technology.
The construction of modern buildings, highways, railways,
high dams, long bridges, and tunnels requires accurate
surveying. As the cost of the land and property is increasing
rapidly, high accuracy is required in making the boundaries
and the land subdivision.
1.2 Uses and Importance
Engineering design: of Surveying
Layout construction or engineering projects
Water supply, irrigation schemes, rail roads, bridges…
In agriculture:
computation of farm area
Volume of water reservoirs
Locating soil conservation works
Land grading….
Before plan and estimates, boundaries should
be determined & the topography of the site
1.3 Primary divisions of surveying
Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis
whether the curvature of the earth is considered or whether
the earth is assumed to be a flat plane.
Surveying is thus primarily divided in two
types:
Planesurveying
Geodetic surveying
1. Plane surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the
curvature of the earth is neglected and it is assumed to be a flat
surface.
All distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on
to a horizontal plane. A horizontal plane at a point is the plane,
which is perpendicular to the vertical line at that point.
2. Geodetic surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the
curvature of the earth is taken in to consideration, and a very
high standard of accuracy is maintained. The main object of
geodetic surveying is to determine the precise location of a
system of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth.
In geodetic surveying, the earth’s major and minor
axes are computed accurately and a spheroid of
reference is visualized. The spheroid is a
mathematical surface obtained by revolving an
ellipse about the earth’s polar axis. The earth’s
mean-sea-level surface, which is perpendicular to
the direction of gravity at every point, is
represented by a geoid
actual earth surface
geoid
sea
direction of gravity
ellipsoid
1,4 Classification of Ground Surveying based on its Purpose)
Property (cadastral) surveying : performed in order to establish
the positions of boundary lines and property corners. It is also
referred to as a land survey or a boundary survey
Control surveying: establishing H&V control points
Topographic surveying: relative positions (horizontal and
vertical) of features(natural and man-made).
City surveys: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a
city for urban planning. These are required for the purpose of
layout of streets, buildings, sewers, pips, etc.
Route surveying: to lay out the positions of highways, rail ways,
streets, pipelines or any other ‘’linear’’ project
Cont….
Mine surveying-positions and elevations of Mines, shafts, bore
holes etc for underground works.
Construction (engineering) surveying: layout or location survey
Hydrographic surveying : conducted on or near the body of
water,
Geological :to obtain information about different strata of the
earth’s surface for geological studies
Military: for military purpose
Astronomic surveys: conducted for the determination of
latitudes, Azimuths, local time etc. for various places on the earth
by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).
Satellite surveys : to obtain intercontinental, interdatum and
interisland geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial earth’s
satellites
Types…(based on Instruments used)
Chain: uses chain or tape to measure linear measurements
Compass: angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass in
addition to chain…
Leveling:
Theodolite survey:
Tachometric Survey
Plane table
Photogrammetric
Types (based on method used)
Traversing
Triangulation
Trilateration
1.5 Basic Measurements in
Surveying
Horizontal distance
Vertical Distance
Horizontal Angles and
Vertical Angles.
vertical angle
Horizontal angle
1.6 Units of measurement
There are two main systems of measurements:
1) M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second)metric system
(SI=Système International)
2) F.P.S. (foot, pound, second) British system
a) The SI unit of length is the base unit
meter (m).
1 decameter = 101m = 1 dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 11 hm
decimeter = 10-1m
1 kilometer = 103m = 1 km = 1 dm
1 megameter = 106m = 11 Mm
centimeter = 10-2m
1 gigameter = 109m = 1=Gm 1 cm
1 terameter = 1012m = 11 millimeter
Tm = 10-3m
= 1 mm
b) The SI unit for area is the derived units
square meter (m2)
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 m * 100m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 106m2 = 1000m *
1000m =
1km2 = 100ha
c) The SI unit for volume is the
derived unit cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters = 1 cubic
centimeter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic
decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic
d) The SI units for plane angles
There are three systems in use for angular
unit, namely
Radian(rad).
sexagesimal graduation, and
centesimal graduation
1, radian: In a unit circle with the radius 1 the full
circle equals 2 rad.
r=1
C = 2
Cont…
Sexagesimal graduation: The circle is
divided into 360
parts.
1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2/360 rad = /180
rad
10 = 60’ (minutes)
1’ = 60” (seconds)
Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided into
400 parts.
1 full circle = 400 gon
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2/400 rad = /200 rad
1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)
1 mgon = 10 cc (centi centigon)
Conversion of
units
a) Conversion of c) Conversion of
length volume
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 cu in = 16.387 cu
1 foot = 0.3048m cm
1 mile = 1.6093 km 1 cu ft = 0.0283 c
um
b) Conversion of
area d) Conversion of
1 sq in = 6.4516 sq angles
cmexample: 1 gon = 9/10
1sq ft = 0.0929
[Link] from gonsq m deg 48.0488 gon
to degree:
1 sq mile = 2.59 sq 1 deg
2. from degree decimal value to degree, = 10/9
minutes,
seconds: 43.2439
Example:
from gon to degree: 48.0488 gon
48.0488 gon * 9/10 = 43.2439
from degree to gon: 43.2439
43.2439 * 10/9 = 48.0488 gon
from degree decimal value to degree, minutes, seconds: 43.2439
43 + 0.2439
0.2439 * 60 = 14.6340’
0.6340’* 60 = 38”
result: 43 14’ 38”
from degree, minutes, seconds to degree decimal value: 43 14’ 38”
43 + 14’/60 + 38”/ 3600 = 43.2439
1.7-Scale
A plan graphical represents the features on or near the earth’s
surface as projected on a horizontal plane.
A map generally shows Natural and man made features on
the earth’s surface with additional information such as
relief’s, hachure and contour lines to indicate undulation on
the ground.
The plan of a house, school, factory, bridge, road, dam or
the map of a town, city country can not be prepared in full
size on a drawing sheet.
Hence, a reduced measuring instrument to measuring
instrument to measure the line or measurement is used
which is the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to a
reduced size, this operation being known as drawing to
scale.
1.7.1 Scale of a map
Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the
corresponding distance on the ground.
A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's
surface. The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on
the map to distance on the ground or vice versa.
Scales of a map are generally classified as large, medium and small. A
large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than a small scale
map.
Large denominator numbers refer to small scale, where as small
denominator numbers are indicative of a large scale.
Large scale: 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500
Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000
Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000
1.7.2- Representations of Scale
The following methods are used to represent a
scale of a map:
By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
By representative fraction
By graphical Scale
1. By statement (engineer’s Scale)-
According to this representation, a specified
distance on the map represents the
corresponding distance on the ground.
For example 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1
cm on the map represents 100m on the
ground.
2. By representative fraction (RF)-it is the fraction
between the distance on the map (plan) and the distance
on the ground. This scale is usually written as a fraction
and is called the representative fraction. The RF is
always written with the map distance as 1 and is
independent of any unit of measure (yards, meters,
inches, and so forth).
R= dm/da
Where:
dm = map distance
da = corresponding actual
distance on the ground
Note:
The unit in the numerator and denominator must be
the same (scale is unit less).
E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map
represents 5000 cm (=50m) on the ground.
3. By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler
printed on the map so that its map distance
corresponds to a convenient unit of length on the
ground and it is used to convert distances on the
map to actual ground distances. It is also used to
determine straight line distance between two
points on a map.
5km 3hm
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hectometer kilometer
1.7.3 Type of measuring scales
1. Plain Scale- represents either two units or
only one unit and its fraction. It consists of a
line divided in to suitable numbers of equal
parts or units, the first of which is subdivided in
to smaller parts.
5km 3hm
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hectometer kilometer
2. Comparative scale- The scales having the
common representation fraction but
graduated comparatively to read different
units called comparative scales, such as the
scales showing comparatively inches and
centimeters, miles and kilometers, degree
and radians, time and distance traveled, etc.
The advantage is that measurements are
taken directly in the desired unit with out any
calculations.
centimeter
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4
inch
3. Diagonal Scale - A diagonal scale represents
either three units or only one unit and its
fraction up to second place of decimal point. It
consists of a line divided in to suitable number
of equal parts. The first part is subdivided into
suitable number of equal parts, each of which is
further divided into smallest parts by diagonals.
325m
100 0 100 200 300 400
meters meters
[Link] Scale - A vernier scale is, an
additional, scale which allows a distance or
angle measurement to be read more precisely
than directly reading a uniformly-divided
straight or circular measurement scale. It is a
sliding secondary scale that is used to
indicate where the measurement lies when it
is in between two of the marks on the main
scale
1.8 Theory of Errors
Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no
measurement is exact and the true value of the
quantity being measured is never known. (Exact or
true values do exist, but they can not be determined).
1.8.1 Necessity for Accurate Surveys
The surveyor must have the skill and judgment
necessary to make very accurate measurements.
This fact is obvious when one is thinking in terms of
the construction of long bridges tunnels. Tall
buildings, and missile sites or the setting of delicate
machinery, but it can be just as important in land
surveying. A few decades ago land princes were not
extremely high except in and around the largest
cities. If the surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot
or a few acres in a farm, it was usually not
considered to be a matter of great importance.
1.8.2 Accuracy and Precision
The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in
surveying, yet their correct meanings are a little difficult to
grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the following
definitions are presented:
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in
measurements. It denotes how close a given measurement is
to the true value of the quantity.
Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement
with which a given quantity is measured. In other words, it is
the closeness of one measurement to another. If a quantity is
measured several times and the values obtained are very
close to each other, the precision is said to be high
Errors and Mistakes
Sources of Errors
There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and
nature .Accordingly, errors in measurement are generally said:
personal, instrumental, and natural, however, some errors do
not clearly fit in to one of these categories and may be due to a
combination of factors.
1. Personal errors occur due to human limitations, such as sense
of sight and touch. For instance, in estimating the fractional part
of a scale, the surveyor can not read it perfectly and will always
be either a little large or a little small.
2. Instrumental errors occur because instruments can not be
manufactured perfectly and the different parts of instruments
can not be adjusted exactly with respect to each other. Moreover,
with time the wear and tear of the instruments causes errors.
3. Natural errors are caused by changes in natural phenomena,
such as temperature, wind, humidity, refraction, and magnetic
field. For example if a tape has been calibrated at 20c, but the
field temperature is 30 c there will be a natural error due to
temperature variation.
Types of Errors
In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into
the following three types.
Gross errors or blunders
Systematic or cumulative errors
Accidental or random errors
