UNIT 13 INTERNATIONAL Environmental Policy

in Pre-independent

ENVIRONMENTAL India

NEGOTIATIONS

Structure

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 United Nations Conference on Human Environment, 1972
13.4 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992
13.5 Convention on Biodiversity, 1992
13.6 The World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002
13.7 Let Us Sum Up
13.8 Key Words
13.9 Suggested Further Reading/References
13.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the years, many laws have been enacted to protect the environment to
have synergies between environment and development. In the last fifty years,
international environmental laws have evolved rapidly but at the same time
the environmental risks have also become more apparent and their
assessment and management more complex. The following conferences are
the basis for the evolution of international laws and treaties.

The basic framework development, maturation and linkage of the

environment with other areas were demarcated by two international
conferences i.e., the 1972 Stockholm Conference, and the 1992 Rio
Conference on Environment and Development. These agreements have been
early pillars of international environmental law. One of the outcomes of the
Stockholm conference was the establishment of the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP). Further progress was made by the
Johannesburg declaration on Sustainable Development. It can be said that
international environmental law has a significant impact in helping to shape
countries' actions in addressing environmental problems and promoting
sustainable development. In the light of these international conferences,
various environmental policies in India have been developed that are not only
focusing on the control of pollution but also in the positive directions that
have been directed at the improvement of quality of life that depends on the
health and viability of environment. In this unit, we will be discussing the
outcome of the Stockholm Conference, the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development, 1992 and the World Summit on Sustainable
Development, 2002. 237
Environmental
Legislations in India 13.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• recognize the outcome of the Stockholm Conference and Principles of
Stockholm Declaration;
• recognize the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, 1992; and
• recognize the outcome of the World Summit on Sustainable
Development, 2002.

13.3 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON

HUMAN ENVIRONMENT, 1972
United Nations Conference on Human Environment, 1972 (Stockholm
Conference) was the first world conference to make the environment a major
issue. The participants adopted a series of principles for sound management
of the environment including the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for
the Human Environment and several resolutions. The Stockholm Declaration,
which contained 26 principles, placed environmental issues at the forefront of
international concerns and marked the start of a dialogue between
industrialized and developing countries on the link between economic
growth, the pollution of the air, water, and oceans and the well-being of
people around the world. The Action Plan contained three main categories: 1)
Global Environmental Assessment Programme; 2) Environmental
management activities, and 3) International measures to support assessment
and management activities carried out at the national and international levels.

Highlights

In announcing the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment in

Stockholm (the “Stockholm Conference”), the UN General Assembly stated
that the “main purpose” of the conference was to serve as a practical means
to encourage and provide guidelines for action by Governments and
international organizations designed to protect and improve the human
environment. The UN General Assembly stated that the conference should
endeavour to promote and advance guidelines for action by Governments and
international organizations to remedy and prevent impairment of the
environment, through international cooperation, while taking into
consideration the particular importance of enabling developing countries to
forestall the occurrence of such problems.

• The Stockholm Declaration provided the first global set of principles for
future international cooperation on environmental issues.

• The Conference led to the establishment of the United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP).

• The Conference was the first UN event that supported civil society
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participation. Environmental Policy
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• The Stockholm Conference began a new era of global cooperation to
search for solutions to reconcile economic development and
environmental management and paved the way for the concept of
sustainable development.

Stockholm Declaration

The Stockholm Conference agreed upon a Declaration containing 26

principles concerning the environment and development; an Action Plan with
109 recommendations, and a Resolution.

• “Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him
physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual,
moral, social and spiritual growth. Through the rapid acceleration of
science and technology, man has acquired the power to transform his
environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale.

• The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major

issue which affects the well-being of people and economic development
throughout the world, it is the urgent desire of the people of the whole
world and the duly of all Governments.

• In our time man can transform his surroundings, and the wise use of
resources can bring to all people the benefits of development and the
opportunity to enhance the quality of life.

• We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in many regions

of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth and living
beings; major and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance of
the biosphere; destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and
gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social degradation
of man, in the man-made environment.

• In developing countries, most of the environmental problems are caused

by under-development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum
levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of adequate food
and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation. Therefore, the
developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing in
mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the
environment.

• Indutria1ized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap between

themselves and the developing countries. In industrialized countries,
environmental problems are generally related to industrialization and
technological development.

• The natural growth of the population continuously presents problems for

the preservation of the environment, and adequate policies and measures
should be adopted. 239
Environmental • Along with social progress and the advance in production, science and
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technology, the capability of man to improve the environment should be
increased. There are broad prospects for the enhancement of
environmental quality and the creation of good life.

• To defend and improve the human environment for present and future
generations has become an imperative goal for mankind - a goal to be
pursued together with and in harmony with, the established and
fundamental goals of peace and worldwide economic and social
development.

• To achieve this environmental goal will demand the acceptance of

responsibility by citizens and communities and by enterprises and
institutions at every level, all sharing equitably in common efforts.
Individuals in all walks of life as well as organizations in many fields, by
their values and the sum of their actions, will shape the world
environment of the future.

• Local and national governments will bear the greatest burden for large-
scale environmental policy and action within their jurisdictions.
International co-operation is also needed to raise resources to support the
developing countries in carrying out their responsibilities in this field.

• A growing class of environmental problems, because they are regional or

global in extent or because they affect the common international realm,
will require extensive co-operation among nations and action by
international organizations in the common interest.

• The Conference calls upon Governments and people to exert efforts for
the preservation and improvement of the human environment, for the
benefit of all the people and their posterity”.

Principles of the Stockholm Declaration

• Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned
• Natural resources must be safeguarded
• The Earth's capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained
• Wildlife must be safeguarded
• Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted
• Pollution must not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself
• Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented
• Development is needed to improve the environment
• Developing countries need assistance
• Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry
out environmental management
• Environment policy must not hamper development
• Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards
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• Integrated development planning is needed Environmental Policy
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• Rational planning should resolve conflicts between the environment and India
development
• Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental
problems
• Governments should plan their appropriate population policies
• National institutions must plan the development of states' natural
resources
• Science and technology must be used to improve the environment
• Environmental education is essential
• Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing
countries
• States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger
others
• Each nation must establish its standards
• There must be cooperation on international issues
• International organizations should help to improve the environment
• Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated

The Stockholm Conference motivated countries around the world to monitor

environmental conditions as well as to create environmental ministries and
agencies. Despite these institutional accomplishments, including the
establishment of UNEP, the failure to implement most of its action
programmes has prompted the UN to have follow-up conferences.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. What are the highlights of the United Nations Conference on Human

Environment?

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2. Write a short note on the principles of the Stockholm Declaration.

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13.4 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON

ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT, 1992
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), also known as the "Earth Summit", was held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. This global conference held on the occasion of
the 20th anniversary of the first Human Environment Conference in
Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, brought together political leaders, diplomats,
scientists, representatives of the media and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive effort to focus on the impact of
human socio-economic activities on the environment. A 'Global Forum' of
NGOs was also held in Rio de Janeiro at the same time, bringing together an
unprecedented number of NGO representatives, who presented their vision of
the world's future in relation to the environment and socio-economic
development.

The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic

and environmental factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how
success in one sector requires action in other sectors to be sustained over
time. The primary objective of the Rio Earth Summit was to produce a broad
agenda and a new blueprint for international action on environmental and
development issues that would help guide international cooperation and
development policy in the twenty-first century.

The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development

was an attainable goal for all the people of the world, regardless of whether
they were at the local, national, regional or international levels. It also
recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social and
environmental concerns in meeting our needs is vital for sustaining human
life on the planet and that such an integrated approach is possible. The
conference also recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social
and environmental dimensions required new perceptions of the way we
produce and consume, the way we live and work, and the way we make
decisions. This concept was revolutionary for its time, and it sparked a lively
debate within governments and between governments and their citizens on
how to ensure sustainability for development.

One of the major results of the UNCED Conference was Agenda 21, a
program of action calling for new strategies to invest in the future to achieve
overall sustainable development in the 21st century. Its recommendations
ranged from new methods of education to new ways of preserving natural
resources and new ways of participating in a sustainable economy.

The Earth Summit had many great achievements: the Rio Declaration and its
27 universal principles, the United Nations Framework Convention on
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Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity; and the Environmental Policy
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Declaration on the principles of forest management. It also led to the creation India
of the Commission on Sustainable Development, the holding of the first
world conference on the sustainable development of small island developing
states in 1994, and negotiations for the establishment of the agreement on
straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks. Through treaties and other
documents signed at the conference, most of the world's nations nominally
committed themselves to the pursuit of economic development in ways that
would protect the Earth's environment and non-renewable resources.

The Convention on Biological Diversity is a binding treaty requiring nations

to take inventories of their plants and wild animals and protect
their endangered species. The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), or Global Warming Convention, is a binding
treaty that requires nations to reduce their emission of carbon
dioxide, methane, and other “greenhouse” gases thought to be responsible
for global warming; the treaty stopped short of setting binding targets for
emission reductions, however. Such targets were eventually established in
an amendment to the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol (1997), which was
superseded by the Paris Agreement on climate change (2015).

The Declaration on Environment and Development, or Rio Declaration, laid

down 27 broad, non-binding principles for environmentally sound
development. Agenda 21 outlined global strategies for cleaning up the
environment and encouraging environmentally sound development.

Principles of Rio Conference

The Rio Conference has set forth the following principles with the “goal of
establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of
new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors of societies and people,
and working towards international agreements which respect the interests of
all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental
system” (https://www.cbd.int/doc/ref/rio-declaration.shtml).

• “Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable

development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in
harmony with nature.

• States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the
principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their
resources according to their own environmental and developmental
policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other
States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

• The right to development must be fulfilled to equitably meet the

developmental and environmental needs of present and future
generations.
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Environmental • To achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall
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constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be
considered in isolation from it.

• All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of
eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development, to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better
meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.

• The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the

least developed and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be
given special priority. International actions in the field of environment
and development should also address the interests and needs of all
countries.

• States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect

and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. Given the
different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have
common but differentiated responsibilities. The developed countries
acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit
of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place
on the global environment and of the technologies and financial
resources they command.

• To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all

people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of
production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic
policies.

• States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for

sustainable development by improving scientific understanding through
exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing
the development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies,
including new and innovative technologies.

• Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all

concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each
individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the
environment that is held by public authorities, including information on
hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the
opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. States shall
facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making
information widely available. Effective access to judicial and
administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be
provided.

• States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental

standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the
environmental and developmental context to which they apply.
244 Standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of
unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular Environmental Policy
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developing countries. India

• States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international

economic system that would lead to economic growth and sustainable
development in all countries, to better address the problems of
environmental degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental
purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable
discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral
actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of
the importing country should be avoided. Environmental measures
addressing transboundary or global environmental problems should, as
far as possible, be based on an international consensus.

• States shall develop national laws regarding liability and compensation

for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall
also cooperate in an expeditious and more determined manner to develop
further international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse
effects of environmental damage caused by activities within their
jurisdiction or control of areas beyond their jurisdiction.

• States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the

relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and substances
that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful
to human health.

• To protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely

applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats
of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not
be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation.

• National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of

environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into
account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost
of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting
international trade and investment.

• Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be

undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant
adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a
competent national authority.

• States shall immediately notify other States of any natural disasters or

other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on
the environment of those States. Every effort shall be made by the
international community to help the States so afflicted.

• States shall provide prior and timely notification and relevant

information to potentially affected States on activities that may have a
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Environmental significant adverse transboundary environmental effect and shall consult
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with those States at an early stage and in good faith.

• Women have a vital role in environmental management and

development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieving
sustainable development.

• The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should be
mobilized to forge a global partnership to achieve sustainable
development and ensure a better future for all.

• Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities

have a vital role in environmental management and development because
of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and
duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable their effective
participation in the achievement of sustainable development.

• The environment and natural resources of people under oppression,

domination and occupation shall be protected.

• Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States shall

therefore respect international law to provide protection for the
environment in times of armed conflict and cooperate in its further
development, as necessary.

• Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and

indivisible.

• States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peacefully and by

appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

• States and people shall cooperate in good faith and a spirit of partnership
in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and the
further development of international law in the field of sustainable
development”.

Indeed, there should be a holistic approach to the problems of environment,

ecology, poverty and population, and of socially indefensible excess of
consumption. The bio-future in the wider sense is in peril if we don’t heed
these urgent needs.

13.5 CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY, 1992

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), also called the Biodiversity
Treaty, is an international treaty designed to promote
the conservation of biodiversity and to ensure the sustainable use and
equitable sharing of genetic resources. Work on the treaty concluded
in Nairobi in May 1992 with the adoption of the Nairobi Final Act by the
Nairobi Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention
on Biological Diversity. The convention was opened for signatures at
the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, or Earth
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Summit, in June 1992 and entered into force in December of that year. The Environmental Policy
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parties to the convention include some 190 countries (though not the United India
States) and the European Union.

The convention calls for the conservation of genetic resources by preserving

sensitive ecosystems, rehabilitating degraded ecosystems, and enacting
legislation that protects endangered plant and animal species. Additionally,
the treaty requests financial assistance for developing countries so that they
can afford programs designed to conserve their biological resources. The
Conference of Parties, the governing body of the convention, has established
thematic programs that set goals and strategies for conserving genetic
resources in each of several major types of ecosystems: marine and coastal
areas, inland waterways, forests, mountain areas, agricultural areas, and dry
and sub-humid lands.

The main aim of CBD is to conserve and sustainably use the biological
wealth, including the diversity of natural ecosystems, wild animals, plant
species, genes and habitats. Further, CBD encourages actions, which will
lead to a sustainable future. There is a provision for developed countries to
help developing countries conserve their wildlife and plants initially through
GEF (Global Environment Facility), which is an institutional structure to
operate the financial mechanism of the Convention.

The Convention on Biological Diversity covers biodiversity at all levels:

ecosystems, species and genetic resources. It also covers biotechnology. It
covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to
biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from science, politics and
education to agriculture, business, culture and much more.

The CBD’s governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP). This
ultimate authority of all governments (or Parties) that have ratified the treaty
meets every two years to review progress, set priorities and commit to work
plans.

The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based

in Montreal, Canada. Its main function is to assist governments in the
implementation of the CBD and its programmes of work, organize meetings,
draft documents, coordinate with other international organizations and collect
and spread information. The Executive Secretary is the head of the
Secretariat.

Objectives of CBD
• Conservation of biological diversity.
• Substantial use of components of biological diversity.
• Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic
resources.

The CBD is the key international instrument for sustainable development in

ecosystems, species and genetic resources should be used for the benefit of 247
Environmental humans, but in a way that does not lead to the decline of biodiversity.
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Substantial investments are required to conserve biodiversity, but they will
bring significant environmental, economic and social benefits in return. The
Ecosystem Approach, an integrated strategy for the management of
resources, is the framework for action under the Convention. The
precautionary principle states that where there is a threat of significant
reduction or loss of biodiversity, a lack of full scientific certainty should not
be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a
threat.

To address the linkage between biodiversity conservation and its sustainable

use, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) introduced as one of its
three objectives the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of
the utilization of genetic resources with those providing such resources. The
inclusion of access and benefit sharing (ABS) as an objective of the CBD
was based on the premise that biodiversity has been used by public
institutions and private entities to produce new knowledge and products that
brought various benefits to its new users, but not necessarily for its original
owners or custodians.

It is the ABS aspect that entails the greatest interface between Intellectual
Property Rights (IPR) and biodiversity issues. Clear, fair and equitable rules
on ABS are critical to prevent the misappropriation of genetic resources and
associated traditional knowledge (TK), a situation also sometimes referred to
as ‘biopiracy’.

13.6 THE WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT, 2002
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was organized by
the United Nations (UN) in Johannesburg in 2002. It was held 10 years after
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro which focused world governments on
environmental issues for the first time. So, the Johannesburg World Summit
on Sustainable Development marked a continuation of the earlier efforts of
Agenda 21. It was meant to reaffirm Agenda 21 as well as broaden the
sustainable development debate to encourage partnerships between
government, business, and civil society.

It is an international agreement on the environment and sustainable

development. The Johannesburg Declaration reiterates most of the proposals
from the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21.
This summit in Johannesburg also included a huge number of delegates
representing nations, business interests and non-profit environmental and
development/citizen/social justice groups. It was the largest UN conference
to date when over 100 heads of state and 40,000 delegated participated and
came forward to set up the goals to halt poverty around the world whilst
saving the environment at the same time. It covered everything from
measures to cut poverty, improve sanitation, improve ecosystems, reduce
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pollution, and improve energy supply for poor people. Environmental Policy
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Highlights of the Johannesburg Declaration

The United Nations highlighted several of the Summit’s achievements

(https://thelawmatics.in/earth-summit-2002-johannesburg-declaration-on-
sustainable-development/)

Water and Sanitation

• Commitment to reduce by half the proportion of people without access to

sanitation by 2015.

Energy

• Commitment to increase access to modern energy services, energy

efficiency, and the use of renewable energy.

Health

• A commitment that by 2020, chemicals should be used and produced in

ways that do not harm human health and the environment.

• To enhance cooperation to reduce air pollution.

• To improve developing countries' access to environmentally sound

alternatives to ozone-depleting chemicals by 2010.

Agriculture

• The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) will consider the Convention

to Combat Desertification as a focal area for funding.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management

• Commitment to reduce biodiversity loss by 2010.

• Reverse the current trend in natural resource degradation.
• Restore fisheries to their maximum sustainable yields by 2015.
• Establish a representative network of marine protected areas by 2012.

• Improve developing countries' access to environmentally sound

alternatives to ozone-depleting chemicals by 2010.

• Undertake initiatives by 2004 to implement the Global Program of

Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based
Sources of Pollution.

Other Issues

• Recognition that opening access to markets is a key to development for

many countries.

• Support the phase-out of all forms of export subsidies.

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Environmental • Commitment to establishing a 10-year framework of programs on
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sustainable consumption and production.

• Commitment to actively promote corporate responsibility and

accountability.

• Commitments to develop and strengthen a range of activities to improve

preparedness and response for natural disasters.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. What is the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment

and Development?

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2. Explain the principles of the Rio Conference.

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3. Write a short note on the Convention on Biodiversity, 1992.

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4. Explain the outcome of the World Summit on Sustainable Development,

2002.

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13.7 LET US SUM UP Environmental Policy
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India
The increasingly unequal and resource-intensive development model is
degrading the Earth's finite capacity to sustain human well-being. Therefore,
today there is a need for an extraordinary effort by both rich and poor
counties to solve environmental problems. Rich countries would need to
reflect on their excessive consumption patterns. The poor nations, with some
financial assistance, should improve their energy efficiency levels and reach
sustainable levels of development. Society must restore this capacity and
adapt to it. The interconnected environmental emergencies of climate change,
loss of biodiversity and pollution need to be addressed together by
implementing various environmental laws. In this unit, we have discussed the
outcome of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment, 1972, the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 and the World
Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002.

13.8 KEY WORDS

Sustainable Development: Our Common Future defined sustainable
development as “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD) is the international legal instrument for "the conservation of
biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources”, that has been ratified by 196 nations.

Ecosystem: Ecosystem means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and

micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as
a functional unit.

Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: Sustainable use means the use of

components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to
the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential
to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations.

13.9 SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING/REFERENCES
Aggarwal, V.K. (2005). Environmental Laws in India: Challenges for
Enforcement. Bulletin of the National Institute of Ecology. Vol.15: 227-238.

Web Links

https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/stockholm1972
https://worldservice.org/stockholm.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_E
nvironment#cite_note-11 251
Environmental https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992
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https://www.cbd.int/doc/ref/rio-declaration.shtml
https://thelawmatics.in/earth-summit-2002-johannesburg-declaration-on-
sustainable-development/

13.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1. Please refer to section 13.3

2. Please refer to section 13.3

Check Your Progress 2

1. Please refer to section 13.4

2. Please refer to section 13.4
3. Please refer to section 13.5
4. Please refer to section 13.6

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