TÁC GIẢ

LÊ MINH DIỆU
Cử nhân Giáo khoa Anh văn
Nguyên Trưởng Bộ môn Ngoại ngữ, Trường Đại học
Y Dược Huế
Nguyên Trưởng Khoa Anh ngữ chuyên ngành
(ESP), Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ Huế
Nguyên trợ lý Ủy ban Mỹ hợp tác Khoa học với Việt Nam

LE MINH DIEU, B.A.

Former Head of the Department of Foreign
Languages, Hue University College of Medicine and
Pharmacy
Former Head of the Department of English for Specific
Purposes (ESP), Hue University College of Foreign
Languages
Assistant of the US Committee for Scientific
Cooperation with Vietnam

PHAN GIA ANH BẢO

Tiến sỹ Y học - Bác sỹ chuyên khoa Sản Phụ khoa
và Ung thư học.
Trưởng Khoa Y- Đại học Duy Tân
Nguyên Phó Giám đốc Bệnh viện Ung thư Đà Nẵng
Nguyên Giám đốc Bệnh viện Phụ nữ Thành phố Đà Nẵng

PHAN GIA ANH BAO, M.D., Ph.D.

Obstetrician, Gynaecologist and Oncologist
Dean- Faculty of Medicine - Duy Tan University
Former Vice Director - Da Nang Cancer Hospital
Former Director - Da Nang Women’s Hospital

3
What is this book for?
English in Medicine 2 is designed to help those who
want to read medical textbooks and journals more
fluently. It will also help medical students preparing
for an elective attachment in an English speaking
environment as well as to help them build a strong
medical language foundation for their professional
studies or take part in workshops and conferences
conducted in English.
The book is not intended to teach about medicine.
The texts selected cover as many as 15 clinical topics.
The learners can use this book on their own or with a
teacher in the classroom, one-to-one or in groups.

How is the book organized?

The book has 16 units, covering various clinical
topics from diseases, their causes, how to treat
and prevent them. Five appendices are also added
in for the learners’ further references. Each unit is
composed of four parts: New Words, Comprehension
Questions, Language Focus and Dialogue. 12 passages
are also added in for further reading, which helps the
learners enlarge their range of vocabulary, together
with references providing the illustrations of medical
devices, a piece of writing on the history of the medical

6
terminology, a useful list of medical abbreviations and
of the most commonly used affixes and word roots of
medical terms as well as the language used by doctors
and patients.
The two critical readings written in Vietnamese
provide some fundamental knowledge of the origins,
derivation and construction of medical terms currently
used worldwide in Medical English literature. These
readings are written in Vietnamese, instead of English,
for the purpose of better reference and understanding
by Vietnamese students.
In the classroom, the texts selected can be used as
a basis for discussion with the whole class, or in small
groups. Teachers can use this book to develop the
students’ speaking skill. For most exercises, learners
can do as their homework or class work with the
assistance of and feedback from their teachers (if they
fail to find the correct answer).
We would like to show our gratitude to Mrs. Elaine
Greene, MD and Mr. Robert Greene, MD for their
development of the short dialogues for every unit in
the whole book.

Le Minh Dieu
Phan Gia Anh Bao

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TABLE OF Contents

• Lesson 1 Disease 11
• Lesson 2 Classification of diseases 19
• Lesson 3 Infection 27
• Lesson 4 Cardiovascular disease 34
• Lesson 5 Wound 45
• Lesson 6 Diagnosis 50
• Lesson 7 Therapy 58
• Lesson 8 Therapeutic response and reactions 65
• Lesson 9 Immunization 73
• Lesson 10 Surgical procedures 84
• Lesson 11 Microsurgery 94
• Lesson 12 Preventive medicine 102
• Lesson 13 Anesthesia 110
• Lesson 14 Acupuncture 118
• Lesson 15 Stress 125
• Lesson 16 Leukemia 137
• FR 1 Diagnostic Radiology 144
• FR 2 Fracture 147
• FR 3 Ultrasound 148
• FR 4 Endoscopy 149
• FR 5 Physical Therapy 150

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• FR 6 Occupational therapy 151
• FR 7 Schizophrenia 153
• FR 8 Types of antibiotics 159
• FR 9 Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 161
• FR 10 Antibiotics 162
• FR 11 Virus 165
• FR 12 Alternative medicine 168
• FR 13 Acupuncture 170
• Course Review
• Vocabulary Part A 172
• Vocabulary Part B 182
• Vocabulary Part C 187
• Vocabulary Part D 191
• Grammar 198
• BÀI ĐỌC THÊM 1: NGUỒN GỐC, XUẤT XỨ VÀ MỘT SỐ QUY TẮC
XÂY DỰNG CÁC THUẬT NGỮ Y HỌC 210
• BÀI ĐỌC THÊM 2: CÁC THÀNH PHẦN CẤU TẠO CỦA THUẬT NGỮ Y HỌC 234
• APPENDIX 1: Vocabulary Check List 242
• APPENDIX 2: COMMON MEDICAL ABBREVIATIONS 255
• APPENDIX 3: The Language of Doctor and Patient 257
• APPENDIX 4: Surgical and Medical Equipment 261
• APPENDIX 5: Medical Terminology 264
Lesson 1

Disease
Disease, in medicine, is any state in
which the health of the human organism
is impaired. All diseases involve 1
a breakdown of the body’s natural
defense systems or those regulating
the internal environment. Even when a
cause is not known, a disease can almost
always be understood in terms of 2 the
physiological or mental processes that
are disrupted.
Symptoms
Understanding of diseases depends on a clear delineation3 of
the symptoms, which are manifestations of altered life processes.
Symptoms may range4 from subjective reports of pain, such as
headache5 or backache, to visible conditions, such as a swelling6 or
a rash7. Common symptoms include changes in body temperature,
fatigue, loss or gain of weight, and pain or tenderness8 of muscles
or internal organs. Further examination may reveal the presence
of infectious9 organisms, as detected by growth in special nutrient
solutions; broken bones seen during radiological examination10;
changes in the composition of blood cells; and cancerous growth
identified11 microscopically on surgically12 removed tissues.
With increasing use of laboratory tests in routine13 physical
examinations14 of apparently healthy persons, doctors are more
often finding diseases without symptoms noticeable to the patient.
For example, high blood pressure can be detected in its early stages
before it does measurable 15damage to the heart and blood vessels.
Another condition, mitral valve16 prolapse17, in which one of the heart
valves functions abnormally, occurs in about 10 percent of all persons
examined but usually causes no symptoms. Apparently18 most people

11
with this condition are healthy, but some may have an increased
risk of autoimmune19disease. The development and widespread use
of more sensitive tests may require careful use of the term disease.
1. NEW WORDS
apparently • autoimmune • delineation • headache • identify • infectious
• involve • in terms of • measurable • physical examination • prolapse
• radiological examination • range • swelling • surgically • tenderness
1. involve v. kéo theo, bao gồm: The operation involves inserting a
small tube into the heart. All diseases involve a breakdown of the
body’s natural defense systems or those regulating the internal
environment.
2. in terms of bằng, dưới dạng, qua: A disease can almost always
be understood in terms of the physiological or mental processes
that are disrupted.
3. delineation sự mô tả, giải thích rõ ràng, chi tiết: Understanding
of diseases depends on a clear delineation of the symptoms.
4. range (from... to...) gồm từ… đến; lên xuống trong khoảng:
Symptoms may range from subjective reports of pain, such as
headache or backache, to visible conditions. Temperature ranging
from ten to thirty-three degrees
5. headache đau đầu: Your headache symptoms can help your doctor
determine the cause and the appropriate treatment. Most headaches
aren’t the result of a serious illness, but some may result from a
life-threatening condition requiring emergency care. Headaches
can have many causes, but serious causes of headaches are rare.
6. swelling (sự) sưng, phồng: Swelling is the collection of fluid within
tissues at the site of an injury or infection. Swelling caused by
the build-up of excessive fluids in the body is called edema.
7. rash ban (đỏ): Rashes may cause the skin to change color, itch,
become warm, bumpy, dry, cracked or blistered, swell and may
be painful. Rashes are extremely common in infancy, and are
usually not serious at all and can be treated at home.
8. tenderness (sự) dễ bị tổn thương, đau. My arm was very tender
after the injection. Common symptoms include changes in body
temperature, fatigue, loss or gain of weight, and pain or tenderness
of muscles or internal organs.
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9. infectious (do) nhiễm khuẩn, nhiễm trùng: In medicine, infectious
disease or communicable disease is the disease caused by a
biological agent such as harmful bacteria, parasites, fungi…
Infectious endocarditis is an infection of the lining of the heart
chambers and heart valves caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or
other infectious agents.
10. radiological examination chụp phim X quang (ngày nay
mang nghĩa rộng hơn: chẩn đoán hình ảnh): Radiological
examination is done by various means of visualizing body spaces
and organs and their functions, e.g., by computed tomography,
fluoroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasonography, or
related techniques. Many radiologic exams require specific patient
preparation prior to the exam in order to ensure that the study is
performed in the safest and most accurate manner possible.
11. identify nhận biết, nhận ra: Small babies can identify their
mothers. Cancerous growth can be identified microscopically on
surgically removed tissue.
12. surgically bằng phẫu thuật, bằng ngoại khoa: Is spinal stenosis
better treated surgically or non-surgically? While many foot
problems can be treated non-surgically, not all problems will
improve and some will require an operation.
13. routine thường qui: There is an increasing use of laboratory tests
in routine physical examinations of apparently healthy persons.
A number of lab tests are suggested for all women as part of
routine prenatal care.
14. physical examination thăm khám thực thể: A physical
examination, medical examination, or clinical examination
(more popularly known as a check-up) is the process by which a
medical professional investigates the body of a patient for signs
of disease. A physical examination is a routine test your doctor
performs to check your overall health.
15. measurable đo được, đáng kể: High blood pressure can be
detected in its early stages before it does measurable damage to
the heart and blood vessels.
16. mitral valve: van hai lá (tim): The mitral valve acts as a gate
between the left atrium and the left ventricle. Mitral valve repair
is an open heart procedure performed by cardiothoracic surgeons
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to treat stenosis (narrowing) or regurgitation (leakage) of the
mitral valve.
17. prolapse: sự sa xuống Mitral valve prolapse, in which one of the
heart valves functions abnormally, occurs in about 10 percent of all
persons examined but usually causes no symptoms. Prolapse is a
common condition and it occurs when the structures designed to
keep organs in place weaken or stretch.
18. apparently: rõ ràng là, hiển nhiên là: The computer trouble
was apparently caused by a programming error. Apparently most
persons with this condition are healthy, but some may have an
increased risk of autoimmune disease
19. autoimmune: tự miễn (dịch): Autoimmune disorders are
conditions in which a person’s immune system attacks the body’s
own cells, causing tissue destruction. Autoimmune diseases are
among the ten leading causes of death among women in all age
groups up to 65.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with the words given: delineation, identify, involve,
prolapse, range, tender, measurable
1. The operation __________ inserting a small tube into the
heart.
2. Understanding of diseases depends on a clear _________ of
the symptoms.
3. Symptoms may ­­­_________ from subjective reports of pain, such
as headache or backache, to visible conditions.
4. My arm was very __________ after the injection.
5. Small babies can ___________ their mothers.
6. High blood pressure often causes ________ damage to the
heart and blood vessels.
7. A ___________ is a downward displacement of an organ or
part of it from its normal position.
2. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
2.1. Answer the following questions.
1. What does ‘disease’ mean?
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2. Is the cause of a disease always known? Give some examples
to support your answer.
3. What are some symptoms of disease?
4. Apart from the examining of the doctor, how can other sources
of diseases be revealed?
5. How can doctors find diseases without symptoms noticeable
to the patient?
2.2. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words beginning with the
given initial letters.
Disease is an a_________(1) condition of the human body. It
i_________ (2) a breakdown of some natural defense systems as well
as the systems w__________(3) regulate the internal environment.
Subjective reports of the patients of pain, headache or backache
to the visible conditions such as a swelling or a rash are called
s_________ (4) In order to r_________ (5) some kinds of diseases
further e_________ (6) can be done in the laboratory or carried out
at the r_________ (7) department such as broken bone cases. Some
disease-causing agents can only be identified under a m_________
(8). Thanks to the d_________ (9) of science in general and
medicine in particular, doctors nowadays are aided with a variety
of m_________ (10) tools to help identify the progressive disease
as well as its incubation period.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS Reduction and Modification
Study the use of the underlined phrases and read carefully the
explanation.
3.1. Further examination may reveal the presence of infectious
organisms, as detected by growth in special nutrient solutions.
3.2. … doctors are more often finding diseases without symptoms
noticeable to the patient.
Relative pronoun + be: If the word following be belongs to
a special group of adjectives ending with –ble (e.g., possible,
responsible, visible, capable, applicable) plus a modifying phrase
it can be reduced.
Defining: A small scar was the only change visible three weeks
after the operation.
15
Non-defining:
INCORRECT: Dr. Smith, responsible, is unavailable for the
moment.
CORRECT: Dr. Smith, responsible for the cancer ward, was
unavailable at the moment.
Exercise: Reduce the following defining and non-defining relative
clauses.
1. The virus that is responsible may be related to the measles virus.
2. The space telescope, which is capable of seeing farther than any
land-based observatory, will receive funding for only ten years.
3. The only examination that was possible was that there had
been an error in the procedure.
4. The lens of the eye, which is remarkable for its transparency,
consists of closely packed proteins.
3.3. Another condition, mitral valve prolapse, in which one of
the heart valves functions abnormally, occurs in about 10 percent of
all persons examined but usually causes no symptoms.
Many relative – clause sentences can be made more concise
through reduction. This reduction is very common in scientific writing.
However, reduction is usually a choice, not a requirement.
Exercise: Can you remove any words or phrases in the following
sentences without changing the meaning? If so, draw a circle around
these words.
1.
One solvent that is used in dry cleaning is benzine.
2.
The only water that is drinkable here is bottled water.
3.
The leaf that is growing on the left does not respond to light.
4.
The pump that is the closest to the venturi valve has broken
down twice.
5. Venus is a planet that is covered with clouds.
Removing the relative pronoun + be. Subject form relative clauses
can be reduced by removing the relative pronoun (who, whom, which,
and that; but not whose or the relative adverbs where and when)
plus be in all cases except where only a noun phrase or certain
adjectives remain. This reduction is common but not required in
English. Who, whom, which, and that can be removed.
16
Exercise: Reduce the following S-form relative clauses if
possible:
1. The person who is responsible is the doctor who gave the injection.
2. The sentences that are underlined should be changed in the report.
3. The computer is a system that is simple enough for a child to use.
4. Apnea is a sleep disorder that is characterized by frequent
respiratory failure.
5. Hemoglobin, which is made up of four peptide chains, carries
oxygen through the body.
6. Diseases that occur in crops can be controlled by chemicals
and good farm practice.
3.4. Disease Terms

acute Disease characterized by abrupt or sudden onset,

cấp usually with severe symptoms. Acute disease, as a rule,
lasts a comparatively short time-no more than a few
weeks.
chronic Disease characterized by longer duration, often months
mạn tính or years.
It is usually associated with symptoms of less severe
intensity.
communicable Disease that is transmissible by direct or indirect
có thể lây nhiễm contact with infection.
congenital Disease present in an infant at birth; it may be caused
bẩm sinh by hereditary factors or result from a prenatal condition
or disease.
contagious Highly transmissible disease.
truyền nhiễm
endemic Disease that occurs continuously or recurrently in a
bệnh lưu hành particular geographic region.
địa phương
epidemic Disease that attacks simultaneously a large number of
bệnh dịch persons living in a particular geographic region.
functional Disease in which there is no significant anatomical
bệnh suy chức change in the tissues or organs to account for the
năng change in function or the performance of the body.

17
hereditary Disease transmitted from parent to offspring genetically.
di truyền
idiopathic Disease in which the cause is unknown.
vô căn
occupational Disease that results directly or indirectly from the
nghề nghiệp patient’s job.
pandemic Disease that occurs more or less over the entire world at
đại dịch the same time.
primary Term used in several ways to characterize disease.
nguyên phát When an individual has several diseases, the term
primary may refer to the initial disease or to the most
important disease. Sometimes it is used to denote
a disease or group of diseases for which there is no
specific cause. At times it is used to indicate the site in
which a pathological process begins.
prognosis Medical assessment of the probable outcome or the
tiên lượng prospect for recovery of the disease.

secondary Disease that results from a definite contributing factor.

thứ phát For instance, secondary anemia may result from blood
loss or blood destruction.
sporadic Disease that occurs in isolated cases in a locality where
tản phát it is neither endemic nor epidemic.
subacute Disease characterized by an onset that is not as abrupt
bán cấp tính as in the acute form and with symptoms less severe and
of shorter duration than chronic.

4. Dialogue:
A: I’m not feeling well.
B: What symptoms are involved?
A: I’ve been having fevers, muscle tenderness and a headache.
B: For how long has this been going on?
A: Apparently for about 10 days.
B: Maybe you have a disease like Malaria. You should go to the
doctor and get a blood test. Maybe he can identify the cause.

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Lesson 2

Classification of Diseases

Diseases can be classified by their

site (bone, heart, liver); by their natural
history (acute or chronic); by their
course (progressive or intermittent1);
or by other schemes2. Two of the most
useful ways to classify are by cause
and by which biological process is
disturbed.
Classification by Cause
This approach3 arose from study of
infectious diseases, which were among
the first illnesses to be understood.
Examples include pneumonia, cholera, and gonorrhea, caused by
bacteria; and smallpox, measles, and hepatitis, caused by viruses.
Even when a causative organism is identified, however, infection is
not the only important part of the disease process. Many people
may be exposed to4 influenza virus, for example, but some stay
well, others become moderately5 ill, and weak or old people may
die. The state of the immune system and the overall health of the
person influence the disease course6.
Noninfectious causes of disease, many of them occupational, are
also known. For example, long-term exposure to coal dust predisposes7
miners to a respiratory disease called black lung, and exposure
to cotton dust similarly predisposes workers to brown lung. Here
again, exposure to the mine or cotton dust is not the only cause
of the disease. In both cases workers who smoke cigarettes are
known to have a higher chance of developing impaired respiratory
function. The same is true of the lung disease caused by exposure

19
to asbestos8. More recently, occupational exposure to fine powders
and some organic chemicals has been found to produce an allergic
reaction. Scientists are studying why some workers exposed to these
chemicals experience breathing difficulties and severe sneezing, but
others in the same work area do not.
A new type of disease cause called “harmful life-styles” entered
the medical vocabulary in the 1970s. Smoking cigarettes, drinking
alcohol excessively, overeating or not exercising, and living in
a state of constant9 stress are all now considered to predispose
one to illness. These are not causes in the traditional sense. The
relationship between eating a high-fat diet and having a heart attack,
for example, is even more complicated than the process by which
infection causes symptoms.
Classification by the Process Altered
In many diseases no cause is known, but the biological system
affected can be identified. One example is cancer, in which the
normal restraint10 on cell growth is lost. As a result, a group of
cells anywhere in the body can grow unchecked until a large mass
of cells accumulates that can harm normal tissue. Another group
of diseases results from a derangement11 of the immune system.
In these illnesses, called autoimmune diseases, the immune system
makes antibodies against normal tissues in the body, destroying their
normal operation.
Disease can also result from abnormal cell receptors12. Receptors
are substances on the surface of cells that allow chemicals outside
the cell, such as hormones and nutrients, to enter the cell. Some
cases of diabetes mellitus are due to an altered cell receptor for
insulin, the hormone that promotes13 entry of sugar into cells. The
neurological disability called Parkinson’s disease results from an
abnormal receptor for a chemical necessary for brain function.
Many conditions considered to be character disorders are now
known to have biochemical components. For example, people
with anomalies14 in the way they metabolize alcohol may be more
vulnerable15 to its effects than others. The success of some drugs in
treating mental illnesses has promoted the idea that these disorders
may not always be behavioral problems, but signs of abnormal
functioning of parts of the brain.
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1. NEW WORDS
approach • asbestos • constant • course • expose • intermittent •
moderately • predispose • restraint • scheme
1. intermittent từng cơn, cách hồi: Intermittent fever: a fever that
rises, subsides, and then returns again. Intermittent claudication is
caused by peripheral diseases.
2. scheme phương án, phương cách: Diseases can be classified by
their sites, by their natural history; by their causes; or by other
schemes.
3. approach cách/phương pháp tiếp cận (để giải quyết): This
approach arose from study of infectious diseases, which were among
the first illnesses to be understood. We need to adopt a different
approach to the problem.
4. expose: phơi nhiễm: Many people may be exposed to influenza
virus, for example, but some stay well, others become moderately
ill, and weak or old people may die. The article said that children
exposed to smoke are more likely to be sick.
5. moderately: vừa phải: If the child continues to run a high
fever, check the dose and your measuring utensil again to make sure
that he got the right amount of medication. But if his temperature
is just moderately elevated, he may not have an actual fever.
6. course: tiến trình, quá trình diễn biến: The state of the immune
system and the overall health of the person influence the disease
course.
7. predispose: dẫn đến, khiến… phải chịu: Long-term exposure
to coal dust predisposes miners to a respiratory disease called
black lung. Collect historical information about conditions that may
predispose the patient to a worse prognosis.
8. asbestos: chất amiang: If asbestos should become airborne
and is inhaled, it can remain in the lungs for a long period of time,
producing the risk for severe health problems that do not appear
until many years later.
9. constant: liên tục, liên miên, mãi: Smoking cigarettes, drinking
alcohol excessively, overeating or not exercising, and living in a
state of constant stress are all now considered to predispose one
to illness.
21
10. restraint: sự kiềm chế: In many diseases no cause is known,
but the biological system affected can be identified. One example is
cancer, in which the normal restraint on cell growth is lost.
11. derangement sự trục trặc: Diseases may result from a
derangement of the immune system. Internal derangement of the
knee refers to a variety of damaged structures that can be injured
within the knee.
12. receptor thụ thể, cơ quan nhận cảm: Receptors are substances
on the surface of cells that allow chemicals outside the cell, such
as hormones and nutrients, to enter the cell. In immunology, a
receptor is the region of an antibody which shows recognition of
an antigen.
13. promote xúc tiến, đẩy mạnh, làm tăng: Some cases of diabetes
mellitus are due to an altered cell receptor for insulin, the hormone
that promote entry of sugar into cells. Eating a wide variety of
healthy foods promotes good health.
14. anomaly sự không bình thường: People with anomalies in the
way they metabolize alcohol may be more vulnerable to its effects
than others. Because the tricuspid valve is malformed in Ebstein’s
anomaly, it often doesn’t work properly and may leak.
15. vunerable (=susceptible) dễ bị; có thể bị (tổn thương…):
People who are poorly nourished, who get inadequate sleep, or who
are physically unwell are vulnerable to stress. Children and infants,
for example, have immune systems that are not fully developed,
making them more vulnerable to flu viruses and flu complications.
Exercise
1. Match each word in the left box with its corresponding
meaning in the right box.
1. vulnerable a fever that rises, subsides, and then returns again.
2. constant to create a situation or a condition that makes
(someone) likely to be harmed
3. moderate being within a middle range in size, amount,
or degree; neither great nor little
4. derangement the often gradual development of something, or
the way something happens, or a way of doing
something

22
5. predispose to influence (someone) to behave or think in a
particular way or to have a particular condition
6. expose nearly continuous or very frequent
7. course The state of being mentally ill and unable to think
or act in a controlled way (disorder)
8. intermittent able to be easily hurt, influenced
fever

2. Fill in the blanks with proper words

1. I__________ fever is a fever that rises, subsides, and then
returns again.
2. Classification of diseases by cause is the ap_____________
arising from the study of infectious diseases.
3. The state of the immune system and the overall health of the
person influence the disease c__________.
4. The medical test said that she was p___________ toward
breast cancer.
5. It was no place to raise a child with lungs so v_______to
infection.
6. Diseases can be classified by their course (progressive or
i_________)
7. Many people may be e_________ to influenza virus, for
example, but some stay well, others become moderately ill,
and weak or old people may die.
8. Long-term exposure to coal dust p_________ miners to a
respiratory disease called black lung.
9. Living in a state of c__________ stress are all now considered
to predispose one to illness.
10. Diseases may result from a d ________ of the immune
system.
11. Insulin is the hormone that p_______ entry of sugar into
cells
2. COMPREHENSION
2.1. What’s the main point of the passage?
a. How diseases are caused
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b. Different ways to classify diseases
c. The two most common ways of disease classification
d. Derangement of the immune system is the main cause of
diseases
2.2. According to the author
a. Exposure to any kind of virus can cause illness.
b. Only special viruses cause disease.
c. Exposure to a kind of virus does not always cause illness.
d. Exposure to viruses always causes illness.
2.3. ___________ are substances on the surface of cells that
allow chemicals outside the cell, such as hormones and nutrients,
to enter the cell.
a. Chemicals b. Receptors c. Drugs d. Exudates
2.4. The word “approach” in the first line of the second paragraph
means the same as:
a. advance b. proposal c. way d. attitude
2.5. Find a word in the first paragraph that has the nearly the
same meaning as approach.

3. LANGUAGE FOCUS
Study the passive construction in the following sentences.
3.1. Many conditions considered to be character disorders are
now known to have biochemical components.
3.2. Noninfectious causes of disease, many of them occupational,
are also known.
3.3. Diseases can be classified by their site (bone, heart, liver); by
their natural history (acute or chronic); by their course (progressive
or intermittent); or by other schemes.
Exercise 3.1.
Add the correct form of the passive auxiliary BE to the following
sentences. The verbs have to be supplied by you.
1. Hundreds of people _________ in the epidemic.
2. The brain chemical that regulates growth _________________
24
recently ________.
3. X-ray ________ by Roentgen in 1895.
4. The patients _________ for immune-deficiency diseases.
5. A microscope ________ usually _____of an objective, a
specimen stage, and a light source.
6. Decayed teeth _______ by dentists.
7. Food ___________ by enzymes in the stomach.
8. The doctor requested that an X ray of the patient be _______
by the nurse.
9. The structure of DNA molecule _______________ in 1953 by
Watson and Crick.
Exercise 3.2.
Fill the blanks with by, with or by means of
1. Many cancer patients hope to be cured ________ interferon,
a protein produced by an animal in response to a virus.
2. The response was measured ________receptors placed beneath
the skin.
3. Teeth are removed _________ forceps.
4. Food is digested _____ enzymes.
5. The patient was revived _________ of an injection of
insulin.
Exercise 3.3. Fill the blanks with your own words.
1. This approach of classification arose from study of
infectious diseases, ________ were among the first illnesses to be
understood.
2. Noninfectious causes of disease, many of _______ occupational,
are also known.
3. Occupational exposure _____ fine powders and some organic
chemicals have been found to produce an allergic reaction.
4. The relationship between eating a high-fat diet and having a
heart attack, for example, is even more complicated than the process
________ which infection causes symptoms.
5. Disease can also result ________ abnormal cell receptors.
25
6. Workers who smoke cigarettes are known to have a higher
chance of developing impaired respiratory function. The same is true
________ the lung disease caused by exposure to asbestos.
4. DIALOGUE:
A: What else could it be?
B: If you have a constant fever, it could be typhoid fever,
but the course of typhoid is much more severe. If the fevers are
intermittent, then malaria is more likely. Also you have only moderate
symptoms.
A: I made a trip to a village and was exposed to a lot of mosquito
bites. This could predispose me to a malaria attack, right?
B: Yes, and people who do not take something like chloroquine
for prophylaxis are more vulnerable to malaria.

26
Lesson 3

Infection

Infection is an injurious
contamination of the body or part
of the body by pathogenic agents,
such as fungi, bacteria, protozoa,
rickettsia, or viruses, or by the toxins
that these agents may produce. An
infection may be local and confined
to1 one area or generalized and
spread throughout the body. Once the infectious agent enters the
host and begins to proliferate2, the defense mechanisms of the body
react to the infection, producing the characteristic symptoms of pain,
swelling, reddening at the site of infection, functional disorders, rise
in body temperature and pulse rates, and an increase in the number
of white cells.
Infectious agents may enter the body of the host by several routes3.
The most common route is through the respiratory passages, urinary
tract, and gastrointestinal tract4, but other common entry routes are
through the skin, especially injured skin, the mucosal surfaces of other
body openings, and the conjunctiva5 of the eyes. Pregnant6 women
may also transmit infections to their fetuses7. The degree of infection
is related to the dose and virulence8 of the infecting agent, as well
as to the resistance or immunity of the host against that organism.
Resistance to infection is lowered by many diseases of the immune
system, such as leukemia9 and cancer, as well as by conditions such
as severe burns or malnutrition. In healthy people, the body’ s own
so-called natural flora10 of bacteria form a line of defense against
mild infections, which may thus be taken care of without further
treatment. Antibiotics such as sulfa drugs and other pharmaceuticals
11
are used against more severe infections and vaccines serve as

27
preventive measures against a wide range of infectious diseases.
Among the many infectious diseases are the common cold, chicken
pox12, cholera, diphtheria13, German measles, influenza, malaria,
mumps, rabies14, tuberculosis, and sexually transmitted diseases15.
1. New Words
chicken pox • confine • conjunctiva • diphtheria • fetus • flora •
leukemia, pharmaceutical • pregnant • proliferate • rabies • route •
tract • virulence • sexually transmitted disease
1. confine: hạn chế, giam giữ, giới hạn: An infection may be local
and confined to only one area or generalized and spread throughout
the body. The disease seems to be confined in tropical regions. After
her operation, she was confined to bed for a week. The report does
not confine itself to sexually transmitted diseases.
2. proliferate: tăng sinh: Once the infectious agent enters the
host and begins to proliferate, the defense mechanisms of the body
react to the infection.
3. route: đường: Infectious agents may enter the body of the
host by several routes. The route of transmission is important to
epidemiologists because patterns of contact vary between different
populations and different groups of populations depending on socio-
economic, cultural and other features.
4. tract: đường, bộ máy: The digestive/ urinary tract /upper
respiratory tract. Upper tract tumors develop in tissue in the kidneys
that collects urine (i.e., the renal pelvis) and the tubes that carry
urine from the kidneys to the bladder (ureters).
5. conjunctiva: kết mạc: Disorders of the conjunctiva and
cornea are a common source of eye complaints. Conjunctivitis is an
inflammation of the conjunctiva (the outermost layer of the eye and
the inner surface of the eyelids, often due to infection.
6. pregnant: có thai, mang thai: She’s seven months pregnant.
Pregnant women who use drugs may be placing their unborn babies
at risk for premature birth, poor growth, birth defects, and behavior
and learning problems.
7. fetus: thai (nhi): Pregnant mothers may also transmit infections
to their fetuses. If the fetus is in a different position or presentation,
labor may be more difficult and delivery through the vagina may
not be possible.

28
8. virulence: độc lực, tính độc hại: The degree of infection is
related to the dose and virulence of the infecting agent. The virulence
of a microorganism (such as a bacterium or virus) is a measure of
the severity of the disease it is capable of causing.
9. leukemia: bệnh bạch cầu: Leukemia is cancer of the white
blood cells. Resistance to infection is lowered by many diseases of
the immune system, such as leukemia and cancer.
10. flora: khuẩn chí: In healthy people, the body’s own so-called
natural flora of bacteria form a line of defense against mild infections.
11. pharmaceuticals: dược phẩm, thuốc: Antibiotics such as
sulfa drugs and other pharmaceuticals are used against more severe
infections. A pharmaceutical drug (also referred to as a medicinal
product, medicine, medication, or medicament) is a drug used to
diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease.
12. chicken pox: bệnh thủy đậu: Chicken pox is usually much milder
in children, for whom hospitalization is usually not required, than it is
in adults. Chicken pox is contracted by touching an infected person’s
blisters or anything that has been contaminated by contact with them.
13. diphtheria: bệnh bạch hầu: When he was five his older brother
contracted diphtheria and was confined for six months to a wheelchair.
Diphtheria spreads through respiratory droplets (such as from a cough
or sneeze) of an infected person or someone who carries the bacteria.
14. rabies: bệnh dại: Although rabies infections in people are
rare, they can cause serious health problems. The rabies virus is
carried in the saliva of infected animals and is typically transmitted
through an animal bite, through contamination of any break in the
skin with infected saliva may result in rabies.
15. sexually transmitted disease: bệnh lây truyền qua đường tình
dục: If this STD is untreated, it can lead to damage of the nervous
system, heart, and brain.
Special note:
infect to cause disease in (someone) by introducing organisms
such as bacteria or viruses
He infected at least three women with the AIDS virus.
infected: an infected toe
infection: a sinus infection
29
infectious: infectious disease
Exercise 1.1. Fill in each space with an appropriate word.
1. An infection may be local and c__________ to one area.
2. Once the infectious agent enters the host and begins to
pr__________ the defense mechanisms of the body react to the
infection, producing the characteristic symptoms of pain, swelling,
and reddening at the site of infection.
3. A f__________is a human being or animal as it is developing
in the uterus before birth, after the organs have started to form.
4. C_________is the delicate mucous membrane that covers the
front of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelids.
5. L_________is a disease in which the body produces too
many white blood cells, causing weakness and sometimes leading
to death.
6. Ph__________ are drugs and medicines.
2. COMPREHENSION
Exercise 2.1. Answer the following questions.
1. What are some reactions of the body to infection?
2. What are some common routes through which bacteria enter
the body?
3. How can a variety of infectious diseases be prevented?
4. When does the body begin to react to infection?
5. Through what routes do infectious agents enter the body?
6. What happens to the body’s resistance to infection if its immune
system gets affected?
Exercise 2.2. Say which of the following statements are false.
1. An increase in the number of white cells produces an infectious
agent.
2. Infectious agents can enter the body through some epithelial
tissues and some glands such as sweat glands.
3. Some diseases often lower the resistance to infection of the
body or the immunity of that individual.
4. Vaccine can be used to treat a wide range of infectious
diseases.
30
Exercise 2.3. Complete the following passage by filling in the gaps.
Infection is the injurious contamination of the body or part of
the body by (1)__________agents, such as fungi, bacteria, protozoa,
rickettsia, or viruses, or by the toxins that these (2)__________
may produce. An infection may be local and confined to one area
or generalized and spread throughout the body. Once the infectious
agent (3)__________ the host and begins to proliferate, the defense
mechanisms of the body (4)_________ to the infection, producing the
characteristic symptoms of pain, swelling, reddening at the site of
(5) __________, functional disorders, rise in body temperature and
pulse rates, and an (6)___________ in the number of white cells.
Infectious agents may enter the body of the host by (7)__________
routes. The most common route is through the respiratory passages,
urinary tract, and gastrointestinal tract, but other common entry routes
are through the skin, especially injured skin, the mucosal surfaces
of other body openings, and the conjunctiva of the (8)__________.
Pregnant mothers may also (9)__________ infections to their fetuses.
The degree of infection is related to the dose and virulence of the
infecting agent, as well as to the resistance or (10)__________ of
the host against that organism.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS
3.1. CONNECTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE
Read the underlined phrase and then the explanation of its use.
Once the infectious agent enters the host and begins to proliferate,
the defense mechanisms of the body react to the infection, producing
the characteristic symptoms of pain, swelling, reddening at the site
of infection, functional disorders, rise in body temperature and pulse
rates, and an increase in the number of white cells.
1. The phrase “…producing the characteristic symptoms of pain,
swelling, reddening at the site of infection, functional disorders, rise
in body temperature and pulse rates, and an increase in the number
of white cells.” is a short form of the relative clause
2. “….which produces the characteristic symptom of pain…”,
in which the relative pronoun which refers to the preceding idea “the
reaction of the defense mechanisms of the body to the infection.
This type of clause is called a connective relative clause. It has

31
the same form as a non-defining relative clause. Clauses of this
type are usually placed after the object of the main verb:
I told Peter, who said it wasn’t a serious case.
Or after the preposition + noun:
I handed the curette to John, who then handed it to the dentist.
Connective clauses do not describe their nouns but continue the
story. They can be replaced by and or but:
I told Peter, but he said….
I handed the curette to John and he….
Non-defining relative clauses can also be placed after the object of
the main verb or the object of a preposition. And sometimes it may
be difficult to say whether a clause in this position is non-defining or
connective. But there is no need for students to make this distinction,
as there is no difference between the two forms.
More examples of connective clauses:
Mary ate a fungus, which made her ill = Mary ate a fungus and
it made her ill.
I bought twenty syringes, six of which broke when I dropped the
box at the hospital’s gate.
The lorry crashed into a queue of people, several of whom had
to have hospital treatment.
Which can also stand for a whole clause:
She said she was a doctor, which wasn’t true. = She said she
was a doctor, but this wasn’t true.
3.2. INVERSION AFTER ADVERBIAL OF PLACE (Inversion
of Subject)
In narrative and descriptive writing, it is common to begin sentences
with adverbial expressions like in the neck, round the corner, in the
mouth. When these are followed by intransitive verbs like come, lie,
stand, live, walk, be situated..., inversion is common. The whole
verb is put before the subject.
On the hill in front of my house stood a very big statue.
Round the corner walked a policeman.
Just inside the nostrils are tiny hairs called cilia.
32
Inversion of this kind can be applied to sentences whose verbal
phrases designate location and direction. The verbs can be any verb
that includes the meaning of a final state.
Inversion of subjects also occurs when the subject is important.
An accumulation of the inventions and discoveries of past ages
makes up today’s science. = Making up today’s science is an
accumulation of the inventions and discoveries of past ages.
Among the many infectious diseases are the common cold, chicken
pox, cholera, diphtheria, German measles, influenza, malaria, mumps,
rabies, tuberculosis, and sexually transmitted diseases.
Exercise: Rearrange the following sentences, using the technique
of inversion.
1. The genes which pass on certain traits from one generation to
another lie in the nucleus.
2. An automatic nerve center is located in the wall of the right
auricle.
3. Fibers of combined muscular and nervous characteristics run
from this center.
4. The pituitary gland is located just under the brain.
5. A group of cells called Islets of Langerhans is embedded in
the pancreas.
6. Many minute blood vessels surround each alveolus or air sac.
7. Oxygen and sulfur also fall into this group.
4. Dialogue
A: I’m also concerned about a rash.
B: What kind of rash? Is it all over your body like Chickenpox?
A: No, there are only a few spots on my arms and legs. They
are red and some are swollen and draining.
B: Oh, maybe your fever is from skin infection. Even though
bacteria such as Staphylococcus are part of the normal flora of the
skin, scratching mosquito bites can open a route for the bacteria to
enter and proliferate. They can sometimes be very virulent. Perhaps
your doctor will order a pharmaceutical like Penicillin.

33
Lesson 4

Cardiovascular Disease

Cardiovascular disease
(disease of the heart or blood
vessels) can develop in any
part of the circulatory system.
Problems can occur with the
valves, the sinoatrial node 1,
the heart muscle, or the blood
vessels.
Arteriosclerosis2, commonly
called hardening of the arteries, includes a variety of conditions
in which artery walls thicken and lose elasticity. There is evidence
that heredity and a high cholesterol level in the blood can lead to
atherosclerosis3, the most common form of arteriosclerosis.
Hypertension. The force of the blood being pumped through the
arteries exerts pressure on the arterial walls. When this pressure is
too high it is an unhealthy condition called hypertension, or, simply,
high blood pressure. If left untreated, it can lead to heart attack,
stroke4, kidney disease, or other illnesses.
Rheumatic fever5 causes inflammation of the body tissues, joints,
and heart. All heart tissues, including the pericardium, can be affected,
but the heart’s valves are most often damaged. Antibiotics can lessen
the adverse effects6 and prevent serious heart damage.
Bacterial endocarditis7, a bacterial infection of the inner lining of
the heart muscle, leads to inflammation of the lining. More than half
of the incidents of bacterial endocarditis are a result of rheumatic
fever. Bacteria may also be introduced into the bloodstream during
minor medical procedures, but this is rare.
Congenital8 heart disease is the heart disease present at birth.

34
It ranges from minor heart murmurs that require no treatment to
fatal structural defects.
Fibrillation9. In a normal, healthy heart, the muscles contract
and relax in an orderly manner. This rhythmic pulsing can be
disturbed, however, by faulty electrical impulses that cause the heart
to beat abnormally or irregularly. Ventricular fibrillation- rapid,
uncoordinated contractions of the heart- is one of the most serious
disturbances of heart rate and rhythm and can lead to cardiac
arrest10 and death. Other rhythm disorders, or arrhythmias11, include
auricular fibrillation12 and flutter, tachycardia13 (rapid heartbeat),
and bradycardia 14 (slow heartbeat).
Congestive heart failure occurs when engorgement15 of the veins
serving the lungs or of those serving the rest of the body prevents
the heart muscle from being able to pump forcefully enough to
deliver an adequate supply of blood to the body. It can be caused
by disease of either the heart muscle or the valves.
Heart attack occurs when the flow of blood to the heart muscle
itself is cut off or so severely impeded16 as to cause destruction of
cardiac tissue. It is a life-threatening episode of heart disease and
can result from a blood clot or advanced atherosclerosis in the
coronary arteries.

Diagnosis and Treatment

A physician can detect many heart conditions before symptoms
become apparent by using an instrument called an electrocardiograph17,
for example. It detects tiny electrical impulses from the contracting
heart and records them on an electrocardiogram, or EKG or ECG.
Normal hearts produce characteristic peak-and-valley tracings. These
reflect the contractions of the auricles18 and ventricles. A tracing
that varies from this pattern may indicate a disorder.
Heart conditions can also be diagnosed with the aid of various
types of X rays, including X-ray films and fluoroscopy19, which enable
physicians to see the heart in action. More detailed examinations
can be made using such techniques as angiocardiography20, which
tracks the passage of blood through the heart, coronary arteries,
and larger vessels, computed tomography21 (CT), which provides a
detailed cross-sectional image of the heart, and magnetic resonance

35
imaging22 (MRI), which can show images of the heart in many
planes.
Treatment of heart conditions may be possible with prescribed
drugs that improve blood flow, reduce blood pressure, prevent blood
clots from forming or enlarging, increase the heart’s pumping ability,
or regulate the heartbeat. Frequently prescribed drugs include
anticoagulants that prevent unwanted clotting and vasodilators that
widen the blood vessels.
Other treatments include pacemaker implantation23 and cardiac
catheterization24. A pacemaker is an electronic device that produces
rhythmic electrical impulses to regulate the patient’s heartbeat. In the
process known as cardiac catheterization, physicians insert a catheter,
or thin plastic tube, through an artery in the arm or leg to reach
the coronary arteries. They then inject special enzymes through the
tube to dissolve arterial blood clots. In some cases physicians use
a small balloon on the end of the catheter. The balloon is inflated
slightly in a narrowed artery to widen it.
Coronary bypass surgery25 may be necessary to provide a new path
for blood flow around a blocked artery. In the most radical surgery
the patient may undergo a heart transplant, in which the diseased
heart is replaced with a healthy heart from a deceased donor.
1. NEW WORDS
adverse effect • angiocardiography • arteriosclerosis • artherosclerosis
• auricle cardiac arrest • computed tomography • congenital • coronary
• bypass surgery • electrocardiograph • endocarditis • engorgement
• fibrillation • fluoroscopy impede • magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) • rheumatic fever • pacemaker implantation • sinoatrial node
• stroke • tachycardia
1. sinoatrial node: nút xoang nhĩ: The sinoatrial node (the SA
node) is one of the major elements in the cardiac conduction system,
the system that controls the heart rate.
2. arteriosclerosis: xơ cứng động mạch: Arteriosclerosis refers
to the thickening of the walls of the arteries. Arteriosclerosis results
in the loss of elasticity of the blood vessels and a narrowing of the
smaller arteries, which interferes with the free circulation of the
blood.
3. atherosclerosis: xơ vữa động mạch: There is evidence that

36
heredity and a high cholesterol level in the blood can lead to
atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis involve the
buildup of deposits on the insides of the artery walls, which causes
thickening and hardening of the arteries.
4. stroke: đột quỵ: Strokes occur due to problems with the blood
supply to the brain; either the blood supply is blocked or a blood
vessel within the brain ruptures. Strokes occur quickly, and as such
their symptoms often appear suddenly without warning.
5. rheumatic fever: sốt thấp (bệnh thấp khớp): Rheumatic fever
is a complicated, involved disease that affects the joints, skin, heart,
blood vessels, and brain. Children with rheumatic fever are often
treated in the hospital, depending upon the severity of the disease.
6. adverse effect: tác dụng phụ: Antibiotics can lessen the adverse
effects and prevent serious heart damage. Adverse effects may also
be caused by drug interaction, i.e., when physicians fail to check for
all medicaments a patient is taking and prescribe new ones which
interact agonistically or antagonistically.
7. endocarditis viêm nội tâm mạc; viêm màng trong tim:
8. congenital: bẩm sinh: Congenital heart disease is the heart
disease present at birth. It ranges from minor heart murmurs that
require no treatment to fatal structural defects. Congenital heart
defects happen because of incomplete or abnormal development of
the fetus’ heart during the very early weeks of pregnancy.
9. fibrillation: sự rung: Fibrillation is the rapid, irregular, and
unsynchronized contraction of the muscle fibers of the heart. There
are two major classes of fibrillation, atrial fibrillation and ventricular
fibrillation.
10. cardiac arrest: ngừng tim: Sudden cardiac arrest is the
abrupt loss of heart function in a person who may or may not have
diagnosed heart disease. Cardiac arrest is different from myocardial
infarction or heart attack but may be caused by a heart attack.
11. arrhythmia: loạn nhịp tim: Arrhythmias are commonly called
heart palpitations by the general population. Minor arrhythmias
may be caused by excessive alcohol use, smoking, caffeine, stress
or exercise.
12. auricular fibrillation: rung nhĩ: The patient’s symptoms were

37
diagnosed as paroxysmal auricular fibrillation and intermittent
auricular fibrillation, but her coronarography was normal.
13. tachycardia: tim đập nhanh: Tachycardia is an abnormally
rapid beating of the heart, defined as a resting heart rate of 100
or more beats per minute in an average adult. Tachycardia caused
by heart or lung disease is often accompanied by chest pain or
shortness of breath or lightheadedness.
14. bradycardia: tim đập chậm: Bradycardia is a term used to
describe a pulse, or heart rate, that is less than 60 beats per minute.
Bradycardia is common in elderly people and infants with certain
types of congenital heart congenital heart disease.
15. engorgement: sự ứ máu: Congestive heart failure occurs
when engorgement of the veins serving the lungs or of those serving
the rest of the body prevents the heart muscle from being able to
pump forcefully enough to deliver an adequate supply of blood to
the body.
16. impede: cản trở: Heart attack occurs when the flow of blood
to the heart muscle itself is cut off or so severely impeded as to
cause destruction of cardiac tissue.
17. electrocardiograph: máy ghi điện tim: A physician can detect
many heart conditions before symptoms become apparent by using
an instrument called electrocardiograph.
18. auricle: tâm nhĩ: Normal hearts produce characteristic peak-
and-valley tracings. These reflect the contractions of the auricles
and ventricles.
19. fluoroscopy: chụp huỳnh quang: Heart conditions can also
be diagnosed with the aid of various types of X rays, including
X-ray films and fluoroscopy. Fluoroscopy of the chest, blood vessels,
digestive tract, urinary tract, or reproductive tract is usually done
in the X-ray department of a hospital.
20. angiocardiography: chụp mạch vành tim: Angiocardiography
permits direct visualization of the chambers and great vessels of the
heart from injections of dyes that are opaque to X rays.
21. computed tomography (CT) chụp cắt lớp: Computed
tomography (CT) is a diagnostic procedure that uses special X-ray
equipment to obtain cross-sectional pictures of the body.
38
22. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): chụp cộng hưởng từ:
MRI is an imaging method that produces pictures of the body using
a magnet and radio waves. Magnetic resonance imaging can show
images of the heart in many planes.
23. pacemaker implantation: đặt máy tạo nhịp: Heart Pacemaker
implantation is an effective approach to controlling the bradycardia
(slow heart beat)
24. catheterization: sự đặt ống thông, đặt catheter: Cardiac
catheterization is a test that uses dye in the coronary arteries to
diagnose and treat some heart conditions.
25. coronary bypass surgery: phẫu thuật bắc cầu động mạch
vành: During coronary artery bypass surgery (also called CABG),
a blood vessel is removed or redirected from one area of the body
and placed around the area or areas of narrowing to “bypass” the
blockages and restore blood flow to the heart muscle.
Exercise 1.1. Choose the word that can fit into each of the following
definitions.
1. _________ a device used to produce and maintain a normal
heart rate in patients with heart block
2. _________ sclerosis and thickening of the walls of the smaller
arteries
3. _________ a sudden cessation of cardiac output and effective
circulation. When this occurs, delivery of oxygen and removal of
carbon dioxide stop.
4. _________ an x-ray technique that produces a film representing
a detailed cross section of tissue structure. The procedure is painless,
non-invasive and requires no preparation.
5. _________ present at birth
6. _________ Open-heart surgery in which a prosthesis or a section
of a blood vessel is grafted onto one of the coronary arteries. The
operation is performed to improve the blood supply to the heart
muscle, and to relieve angina pain.
7. _________ local congestion; excessive fullness of any organ,
vessel, or tissue due to accumulation of fluids, especially that due
to accumulation of blood.
39
Exercise 1.2. Match the words with their definition
1. arteriosclerosis A. A device used to produce and maintain a
normal heart rate in patients with heart block. The
unit consists of a battery that stimulates the heart
through an insulated electrode wire attached to the
surface of the ventricle or lying in contact with the
lining of the heart.
2. atherosclerosis B. The technique of using ultrasound waves to
produce an image of structures at a particular
depth within the body, bringing them into sharp
focus while deliberately blurring structures at other
depths. The visual record of the technique is called
a tomogram .
3. cardiac arrest C. A section of saphenous vein or suitable
substitute grafted between the aorta and a coronary
artery distal to an obstructive lesion in the latter.
[Link]/ D. A disease of the arteries in which fatty plaques
computerized develop on their inner walls, with eventual obstruction
tomography of blood flow.
5. coronary bypass E. The cessation of effective pumping of the heart,
which most commonly occurs when the muscle
fibers of the ventricles start to beat rapidly without
pumping any blood (ventricular fibrillation) or
when the heart stops beating completely.
6. pacemaker: F. sclerosis and thickening of the walls of the
smaller arteries (arterioles)

Exercise 1.3. Fill in each space with a word you choose from the
word list provided: detect, develop, disturbed, disturbances, introduced,
lead, lessen, ranges, regulate, tracks
1. Cardiovascular disease- disease of the heart or blood vessels-
can _________in any part of the circulatory system.
2. There is evidence that heredity and a high cholesterol level in
the blood can __________to atherosclerosis, the most common
form of arteriosclerosis.
3. Antibiotics can __________the adverse effects and prevent
serious heart damage.
40
4. Bacteria may also be ________into the bloodstream during
minor medical procedures, but this is rare.
5. Congenital heart disease _________from minor heart murmurs
that require no treatment to fatal structural defects.
6. In a normal, healthy heart the muscles contract and relax in
an orderly manner. This rhythmic pulsing can be_________,
however, by faulty electrical impulses that cause the heart to
beat abnormally or irregularly.
7. Ventricular fibrillation is one of the most serious _________of
heart rate and rhythm and can lead to cardiac arrest and
death.
8. A physician can _________many heart conditions before
symptoms become apparent by using an instrument called an
electrocardiograph.
9. More detailed examinations can be made using such techniques
as angiocardiography, which _________the passage of blood
through the heart, coronary arteries.
10. A pacemaker is an electronic device that produces rhythmic
electrical impulses to _________the patient’s heartbeat.
2. Comprehension:

Exercise 2.1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the causes of arteriosclerosis ?
2. What is the relationship between heart disease and rheumatic fever?
3. Why does the heart beat abnormally or irregularly?
4. What parts of the heart are most often damaged by rheumatic fever?
5. What is congenital heart disease?
6. When does congestive heart failure occur?
7. By what means is heart disease treated?
Exercise 2.2. Complete the following sentences.
1. Hypertension is a dangerous disease which, if left................,
can lead to a variety of diseases causing death.
2. Antibiotics can be very useful in ............. the adverse effects
and preventing serious heart damage.
41
3. It is also mentioned that in some cases of medical procedures,
an ............... may occur due to the introduction of bacteria into the
bloodstream.
4. Veins which are..............often make the heart muscle unable to
pump enough blood to all parts of the body, leading to a condition
called congestive heart failure.
Exercise 2.3. According to the passage, which of the following
statements is TRUE?
1. The sinoatrial node is a part of the circulatory system that can
be affected by cardiovascular disease.
2. The term arteriosclerosis is often used as a synonym for
artherosclerosis.
3. Heart attack, stroke, kidney disease, or other illnesses are
unavoidable diseased conditions if hypertension is left untreated.
4. The heart’s valves are seldom damaged by rheumatic fever.
5. Ventricular fibrillation, a minor disturbance of heart rate and
rhythm, can lead to cardiac arrest and death.
3. Language Focus: Study the use of participles in the following
sentences:
3.1. A subordinate clause containing a passive verb can be
shortened as follows:
If left untreated, it can lead to heart attack, stroke, kidney disease,
or other illnesses.
3.2. A relative clause containing an active verb can be shortened
as follows:
Congestive heart failure occurs when engorgement of the veins
serving the lungs or of those serving the rest of the body prevents
the heart muscle from being able to pump forcefully enough to
deliver an adequate supply of blood to the body. It can be caused
by disease of either the heart muscle or the valves.
3.3. Note also the use of -ing form in the following sentences.
More detailed examinations can be made using such techniques
as angiocardiography, which tracks the passage of blood through
the heart, coronary arteries, and larger vessels, computed tomography
42
(CT), which provides a detailed cross-sectional image of the heart,
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which can show images of
the heart in many planes.
Exercise 3.1.
Rewrite the relative clauses in the following sentences as
exemplified in (b) above.
1. Iron, which is found mainly in meat, eggs, beans and peas, is
an essential part of the diet.
2. The acidity of chyme in the duodenum is reduced by bile, a
substance which is produced by the liver.
3. The cells which form the Islet of Langerhans have no ducts.
4. The envelope which encloses hemoglobin is a semi-permeable
membrane.
5. Most of the energy which is required by the body is derived
from carbohydrates and fat.
6. Pepsin and hydrochloric acid are among constituents of the
juice which is secreted by the stomach.
7. Food which is broken down by enzymes is absorbed through
the lining of the intestine into the blood.
8. Amino acids which are not required for new protoplasm can
be utilized by the liver in the manufacture of fibrinogen.
9. The pyloric sphincter, which separates the stomach from the
duodenum, opens periodically to allow some of the chyme to pass
through.
Exercise 3.2.

Complete the following sentences so that each contains a short

form relative clause, using the -ING or the -ED form of the verbs
below.
attach cover separate form
grow produce contain
1. The marrow cells ____________ within bone have a hemopoietic
function.
2. The skull may be divided into the face, with its sinuses and
cavities, and the cranium, ____________ the brain.

43
3. Calcified cartilage and dead cells are replaced by ____________
bone.
4. The mediastinum is a partition ____________ the two lungs.
5. The bones ____________ the hand and wrist are carpals,
metacarpals and phalanges.
6. Ovulation is suppressed by progesterone, a hormone
____________ by the corpus luteum.
7. Sweat glands are tubes of epithelium, ____________ down
from the epidermis into the corium.
IV. Dialogue
A: My father is ill with some heart problems.
B: Does he have high blood pressure?
A: Yes, and the specialist said that atherosclerosis has caused
problems with his sinoatrial node, causing an arrhythmia. The doctor
also said he needs to eat less fat in his diet and to avoid salt, since
this has an adverse effect on his breathing.
B: Did he start him on vasodilators?
A: Yes, and other medicines for his heart rhythm. If it is not
controlled soon, he may need pacemaker implantation.

44
Lesson 5

Wound

Wound, in pathology, is any

break in the external or internal
surfaces of the body involving a
separation of tissue, and caused by
external injury or force. Wounds1
are classified as incised2, or cut,
if they are produced by a sharp
instrument or object, punctured3,
if the instrument is pointed and
narrow, lacerated3, if accompanied
by a tearing of the tissue, contused4,
if a substantial5 amount of tissue is bruised, penetrating6, if the wound
passes completely through a part of the body, and subcutaneous7, if
it involves deep destruction of tissue with a relatively small opening,
or none at all, in the surface. Septic8, or infected, wounds are those
in which the area is contaminated9 by bacteria, which can cause
suppuration9 or shedding of tissue.
Wounds heal by the formation of granulation10 and fibrous
tissue, constituting what is later known as a scar. The danger in
wounds includes the possibility of a ruptured blood vessel causing
hemorrhage11, and septic, or infected, wounds which can cause
infection. Proper cleaning of a wound and the removal of dead
tissue are important; antibiotics are effective in combating infection.
When necessary, plasma12 or plasma substitutes are administered
for shock.

1. NEW WORDS
contaminated • contused • granulation • incised • lacerated •
penetrating • punctured • septic • subcutaneous • wound

45
1. wound: vết thương: Wound, in pathology, is any break in the
external or internal surfaces of the body involving a separation of
tissue, and caused by external injury or force. The overall treatment
of wound depends on the type, cause, and depth of the wound as
well as whether or not other structures beyond the skin (dermis)
are involved.
2. incised: bị đứt, rạch hay cắt: Incised wounds are sharp cut-
like injuries, made by knives or broken glass etc. An incised wound
is a specific type of injury that has opened the skin.
3. punctured: do bị đâm thủng: A puncture wound does not
usually result in excessive bleeding. Usually, these wounds close
fairly quickly without any intervention.
4. lacerated bị rách: lacerated wound: one in which the tissues
are torn.
5. contused: bị/do dập phần mềm: There was a contused wound
just below the right temple, which covered, with its livid stain, a
portion of the cheek. There were no marks of violence on body, but
on left side of head and face there were numerous incised wounds
and one contused wound penetrating into the brain.
6. penetrating: xuyên thấu: Penetrating brain injury (PBI), though
less prevalent than closed head trauma, carries a worse prognosis.
A wound is said to be penetrating, if the wound passes completely
through a part of the body.
7. subcutaneous: dưới da: Subcutaneous injections can be given
anywhere over the dorsal, cervical, thoracic or lumbar regions. The
advantages of subcutaneous fluids are the ease of administration,
convenience and low cost.
8. septic: nhiễm khuẩn, nhiễm trùng: Septic or infected, wounds
are those in which the area is contaminated by bacteria. Patients
with septic shock or severe sepsis require admission to an ICU.
9. contaminated: nhiễm bẩn: Contaminated food makes millions of
people sick every year. Our drinking water may become contaminated
by way of leaky pipes.
10. granulation: sự tạo hạt, mô hạt: Granulation tissue is new
connective tissue and tiny blood vessels that form on the surfaces
of a wound during the healing process.
46
11. haemorrhage: sự xuất huyết, chảy máu: The patient was
checked for any signs of haemorrhage. Sometimes, cerebral
haemorrhages are caused by congenital weaknesses in the walls of
the blood vessels.
12. plasma: huyết tương: Plasma supports the recovery of hundreds
of patients suffering with liver disease, severe burns, hemophilia, and
leukemia. Plasma transfusion is most often used to control bleeding
due to low levels of some clotting factors.
Exercise 1.1: Fill the spaces with the words used in the reading
selection.
1. Drugs are_______________ by different routes.
2. Antibiotics are effective in _______________ infection.
3. Wounds are classified as contused, if a substantial amount of
tissue is _________.
4. A wound is any break in the external or internal _______________
of the body.
5. Septic, or infected, wounds are those in which the area is
_______________ by bacteria.
6. A _____________ sore produces and exudates pus.
7. Wounds heal by the formation of _______________ and fibrous
tissue.
Exercise 1.2. Choose the right word from within the parentheses
to fill each blank.
1. A wound is any break in the external or internal ________of the
body involving a separation of tissue. (surfaces, side, system, tract)
2. Wounds are classified as _________ if they are produced
by a sharp instrument or object; _________, if it involves deep
destruction of tissue with a relatively small opening. (punctured,
incised, lacerated, subcutaneous)
3. Wounds _________ by the formation of granulation and fibrous
tissue, constituting what is later known as a scar. (cure, treat, heal,
develop)
4. Antibiotics are effective in _________ infection. (combating,
causing, promoting, healing)
47
5. _______ cleaning of a wound and the removal of dead tissue
are important. (reasonable, proper, poor, unsatisfactory)
2. COMPREHENSION

Exercise 2.1. Answer the following questions.

1. What is a wound?
2. How are wounds classified?
3. When is a wound classified as “incised”?
4. When is a wound classified as “lacerated”?
5. What are septic or infected wounds?
6. What is the proper treatment of a wound?
Exercise 2.2. Fill each blank with a word you choose from
the word list provided: antiseptics, disinfected, practice, solution,
sterilization.
The _________of using antiseptics in the care and treatment
of wounds was begun by the English surgeon Joseph Lister in
1865. Basing his work on the findings of the German physiologist
Theodor Schwann and the French biochemist Louis Pasteur, Lister
_________surgical and accidental wounds with a _________of
carbolic acid, and in five years reduced the death rate from major
amputations from nearly 50 percent to about 12 percent. Many other
________have come into use, among which the most important are
bichloride of mercury, iodine, boric acid, alcohol, the hypochlorite,
mercurochrome, and Merthiolate. Chlorine is used in the _________of
water, especially in public water systems.
Exercise 2.3. Completion
1. Incised wounds are ..............................
2. Puncture wounds are..............................
3. Lacerated wounds mean..........................
4. Contused wounds are..............................
5. Penetrating wounds result from......................
6. Subcutaneous wounds are defined as..........................
7. Septic wounds are.............................................
48
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

3.1. Reduce those sentences you think possible.

Wounds are classified as incised, or cut, if they are produced by
a sharp instrument or object; wounds are classified as punctured,
if the instrument is pointed and narrow; wounds are classified as
lacerated, if they are accompanied by a tearing of the tissue.
3.2. Give the correct form of the verb given in the parentheses.
Wounds heal by the formation of granulation and fibrous tissue,
_________ (constitute) what is later known as a scar.
3.3. What does the relative pronoun WHICH refer to in the following
sentences?
The danger in wounds includes the possibility of a ruptured,
septic or infected wound which can cause suppuration or shedding
of tissue.
IV. DIALOGUE
B: What did the doctor say about your rash?
A: He said that I had wounded the skin by puncturing it with my
fingernails while scratching. This led to a bacterial infection with
suppuration.
B: What did he do?
A: He cleaned the sores, administered antibiotic ointment and
bandaged the areas. He also administered an antibiotic injection
and dispensed some pills.
B: How are they doing now?
A: I think the sores are healing well. The doctor says that they
are granulating and should be healed in 7 days.

49
Lesson 6

Diagnosis

Diagnosis, in medicine,
is the determination of the
nature of a disease. Modern
diagnosis combines the taking
of the patient’s health history,
a physical examination, and
laboratory and radiological1
examinations.
Some diseases, such as
measles2 and mumps3, are fairly easy to identify by appearance.
Other problems, such as broken bones, are often suspected on the
basis of symptoms4 and confirmed by X-ray observation. With many
symptoms, however, more complex testing is needed. Establishing
the presence of a gastric ulcer, for example, is helped by inserting
a tube called an endoscope6 into the stomach. Coronary artery7
disease may be suspected due to the presence of chest pains and
an abnormal electrocardiogram8. Definitive evidence, however,
comes only from an angiogram9, in which dye is injected into the
coronary arteries. A diagnosis of cancer often requires a biopsy10,
or microscopic examination of tissues. Diagnosis of disease in a
fetus is now possible, in many cases, by using sound waves or by
sampling11 amniotic fluid12.
Laboratory tests are becoming more important in diagnosis.
Measurement of hormone levels identifies endocrine13 diseases.
Enumeration of different kinds of cells in the blood, called a
differential14 count, helps pinpoint anemias15 and some kinds of
cancers. The culturing of body fluids or tissues to show the presence
of specific microorganisms is essential to rational treatment of
infections with antibiotics.

50
Many diseases, such as headaches, are difficult to diagnose16
because they may have many causes. Some neurological diseases,
such as Huntington’s disease, can be identified with certainty only
after many years of observing the patient’s symptoms. To sharpen
their diagnostic skills, physicians and other medical professionals
hold regular conferences at which difficult cases are discussed.
I. NEW WORDS
amniotic • diagnosis • fluid • angiogram • biopsy • coronary artery
• differential • electrocardiogram • endocrine endoscope • gastric •
ulcer • measles • mumps • radiological • sample • symptom
1. radiological (thuộc) X-quang, chẩn đoán hình ảnh: Radiological
examinations are carried out in specialized radiology centers or in
radiology departments of hospitals or clinics.
2. measles (bệnh) sởi: Measles is characterized by small red dots
appearing on the surface of the skin, irritation of the eyes (especially
on exposure to light), coughing, and a runny nose.
3. mumps bệnh quai bị: Mumps is a disease caused by a virus
that usually spreads through saliva and can infect many parts of the
body, especially the parotid salivary glands. Mumps is spread from
person to person by droplets sprayed from the respiratory tract of
infected persons, and it is highly contagious.
4. symptom triệu chứng: A symptom is a sensation or change in
health function experienced by a patient. Some examples of symptoms
are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.
5. gastric ulcer loét dạ dày : If the ulcer occurs at the level of
the stomach, it is called stomach or gastric ulcer. Ulcers developed
in the lining of either the duodenum or stomach, in the presence of
pepsin and hydrochloric acids, are called peptic ulcers.
6. endoscope ống nội soi: The endoscope is an optical instrument
used for viewing internal organs through natural openings (ear, throat,
rectum, etc.) or through a small incision in the skin. Endoscopes are
commonly used in the examination of the ear, nose and throat.
7. coronary artery động mạch vành: Coronary arteries can
become diseased when cholesterol, a fatlike substance carried in
the blood, builds up to form plaque (fatty substances and calcium)
in the lining of the artery.
51
8. electrocardiogram điện tâm đồ: An electrocardiogram, also
called an EKG or ECG, is a simple, painless test that records the
heart’s electrical activity. The electrocardiogram is commonly used
to detect abnormal heart rhythms and to investigate the cause of
chest pains.
9. angiogram mạch đồ: Lung (pulmonary) angiogram is used to
evaluate the arteries that lead to the lungs (pulmonary arteries) and
the blood vessels within the lungs. A cerebral angiogram involves
a study of the blood vessels in the head and neck.
10. biopsy sinh thiết: A biopsy is a procedure performed to remove
tissue or cells from the body for examination under a microscope.
A liver biopsy is a procedure that involves taking a small piece of
tissue from the liver to examine under the microscope.
11. sample (v) lấy mẫu nghiệm: Diagnosis of disease in a fetus is
now possible, in many cases, by using sound waves or by sampling
amniotic fluid .
12. amniotic fluid dịch ối, nước ối: Amniotic fluid is important in
the development of fetal organs, especially the lungs. An abnormally
small amount of amniotic fluid may result from a postdate pregnancy,
ruptured membranes, placental dysfunction, or fetal abnormalities.
13. endocrine (thuộc) nội tiết: Endocrine disorders are classified
in two ways: disturbances in the production of hormones, and the
inability of tissues to respond to hormones. Measurement of hormone
levels identifies endocrine diseases.
14. differential phân biệt, gián biệt: In medicine, differential
diagnosis (sometimes abbreviated DDx or ΔΔ) is the systematic
method physicians use to identify the disease causing a patient’s
symptoms.
15. anemia bệnh thiếu máu: Anemia is usually caused by a
deficiency of hemoglobin which is the oxygen carrying molecule
in the red blood cell. Anemia caused by an infection will usually
improve when the infection passes or is treated.
16. diagnose chẩn đoán: If you diagnose a disease, you recognize
it by the signs and symptoms your patient shows. Presently, we don’t
have any medical test that can diagnose autism.
52
Exercise 1.1.: Fill in the blanks with the word you have learned.
Their initial letters are given.
1. Diagnosis is the determination of the n_________of a
disease.
2. Some diseases are fairly easy to i__________ by appearance.
3. Establishing the presence of a gastric ulcer is helped by
i_________a tube called an endoscope into the stomach.
4. A diagnosis of cancer often requires a b_________, or
microscopic examination of tissues.
5. Diagnosis of disease in a f_________ is now possible, in many
cases, by using sound waves.
6. Measurement of hormone levels identifies e__________
diseases.
2. COMPREHENSION

2.1. Answer the following questions:

1. What is diagnosis?
2. What does a doctor do to diagnose a disease?
3. What can help the doctor to have a correct diagnosis?
4. Why do laboratory tests play an important part in diagnosis?
5. Why is it difficult for some diseases to be identified?
6. How are diseases identified?
7. What is a biopsy for?
8. What is an endoscope for?
9. Is diagnosis of disease in a fetus possible? How?
10. How are endocrine diseases identified?
2.2. Use these given words to complete theses sentences.
determine - symptoms - condition - identify - diagnosed -
measurement

1. Diagnosis helps to ................... the treatment.

2. Doctors can ................. a disease thanks to the signs and
................. of that diseases.
53
3. Some diseases can be ................. only with the help of medical
equipment such as X- ray or endoscopy.
4. Sound waves is the useful means to recognize the ................ of the
fetus at the early stage of pregnancy.
5. Endocrine diseases are no longer impossible to diagnose owing to
the .................. of hormone levels.

3. LANGUAGE FOCUS
3.1. Suffixes Used for Diagnosis
Suffix Meaning Example
-gram record of data    encephalogram brain
-graph instrument for recording cardiograph heart
-graphy act of recording data Radiography
-meter instrument for measuring     craniometer cranium
-metry measurement of audiometry audio (hearing)
-scope instrument for viewing laryngoscope larynx
-scopy examination of laparoscopy abdomen

Exercise 1. Match the suffixes with their meanings.

Suffix Meaning   
-scopy record of data   
-meter instrument for recording
-scope act of recording data
-graph instrument for measuring    
-metry measurement of
-graphy instrument for viewing
-gram examination of

Exercise 2. Define the following terms: cardiogram, microscopy,

endoscope, craniometer, encephalograph.
3.2. Fairly, quite, rather and pretty: Some diseases, such as measles
and mumps, are fairly easy to identify by appearance.
Fairly ==> quite ==> rather / pretty ==> very
In general. quite is a little stronger than fairly.
54
I’m fairly tired, but I don’t think I’ll go to bed.
Rather is stronger than quite. We can use rather to mean “more
than usual”, “more than wanted” or “more than expected.”
The TV is rather loud. Shall I turn it down?
The concert was rather good. We were surprised.
We can use pretty with a similar meaning to rather. Pretty is
more formal.
We are pretty hungry. We haven’t eaten all day.
Rather, but not fairly, quite or pretty, can be used before
comparatives:
Rather colder Rather more expensive.
Notice the position of quite, fairly, and pretty:
He’s quite a young man.
He’s a fairly young man.
It was rather an interesting film.
Quite can also mean completely with some adjectives: The story
was quite untrue.
I quite understand. (= completely understand)
3.3. Relative pronouns with prepositions
To sharpen their diagnostic skills, physicians and other medical
professionals hold regular conferences at which difficult cases are
discussed.
In medical writing there are many relative clauses with a preposition
before which. Such clauses are formed in the following ways:
Connective tissue is a matrix
More highly organized tissues are embedded in this matrix.
___________________________________________________
= Connective tissue is a matrix in which more highly organized
tissues are embedded.
If an object-form relative clause contains a verb with a preposition,
two constructions are possible:
55
The substance is latex.
+ that
Rubber is made from the substance
________________________________________
(1) The substance that rubber is made from is latex.
Sentence (1) is common in spoken and written English but is consid-
ered informal. To make the sentence more formal and therefore more
appropriate for scientific writing, we move the preposition in front
of the relative pronoun:
(2) The substance from which rubber is made is latex.
This preposition movement is possible only with the relative
pronoun which or whom. If the pronoun that has been used, it must
be changed to which before the preposition can be moved.
Incorrect: The substance from that rubber is made is latex.
Exercise 1. Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into
one sentence that contains a formal relative clause. Make (a) the
main clause and (b) the subordinate clause.
1. (a) The subject is the treatment of arthritis.
(b) This report is concerned with the subject.
2. (a) The process is synthesis.
(b) Plants depend on the process of synthesis.
3. (a) The organs are the lungs.
(b) Oxygen is exchanged with carbon dioxide in the organs.
4. (a) Epithelial tissue is the layer of skin.
(b) Beneath the layer of skin lies the connective tissue.
5. (a) The aorta is the principal artery.
(b) Blood flows to the brain through the artery.
Exercise 2. Make the following sentences formal by shifting the
prepositions.
Example: Latex is the substance that rubber is made from.
==> Latex is the substance from which rubber is made.

1. The doctor examined the lump that the patient was concerned about.

56
2. The electrons that the nucleus is surrounded by have a very
low mass.
3. The muscle that tumor was removed from was badly damaged.
4. Darwin is a scientist that zoologists have great respect for.
5. The data that the researchers had relied upon turned out to be
inaccurate.
4. DIALOGUE
A: How is your mother doing?
B: She is better now. She had gastrointestinal bleeding and
enumeration of her red blood cells showed anemia. In order to make
a diagnosis, they inserted an endoscope and biopsied the ulcer in
her stomach.
A: How did it turn out?
B: The biopsy was negative for Cancer, but a sampling of the
gastric fluid showed Helicobacter Pylori.
A: How was she treated?
B: The doctor gave her medicine for acid and said that rational
treatment should include antibiotics for the H. Pylori.

57
Lesson 7

Therapy

Therapy 1 is any of various

techniques used in the treatment
of physical or mental illnesses.
Therapy is used not only during
the course of a disease but also
after recovery if the patient suffers
lingering effects. Although some
disorders2 may be treated by only
one form of therapy, a combination
of therapeutic techniques is often required.
In treating physical diseases, probably the most common form
of therapy in Western medicine is chemotherapy, or drug therapy.
The many drugs available range from commonly used compounds3
like aspirin, which reduces fever and relieves pain, to the complex
chemicals used in the treatment of cancer. Radiotherapy is frequently
used in the treatment of cancer, often in combination with surgical
treatment and chemotherapy. Therapeutic methods drawn from non-
Western traditions are collectively referred to as alternative medicine
and include techniques such as chiropractic4, acupuncture5, and
homeopathy6.
Like physical disorders, mental illnesses may be treated with drugs,
particularly antidepressants7. However, while drugs help relieve the
patient’s symptoms, they seldom cure the underlying problems. More
useful therapies include techniques that rely heavily on verbal and
emotional communication. Collectively referred to as psychotherapy,
these techniques help the patient to express, understand, and cope
with underlying problems that are not due to physical disease8.
Emotionally disturbed children who cannot express their problems
verbally may be treated by play therapy. The children are encouraged

58
to engage in certain forms of recreation or to act out scenes on the
theory that this process will reveal their feelings.
The final stage in treatment of physical and mental illnesses
is often rehabilitation9. This may include physical therapy, which
involves exercise, massage, and the application of heat and water
(hydrotherapy10) to improve or restore functioning to damaged and
weakened parts of the body. People with disabilities also benefit from
recreational and occupational therapy, which helps people master
their personal and work-related activities, such as buttoning clothes
or cooking while seated in a wheelchair. Speech therapy is given to
people who have speech problems of physical or psychological origin.
In addition, people with disabilities11 may require psychotherapy to
help them overcome the emotional and psychological problems that
are sometimes associated with disability.
1. NEW WORDS
• acupuncture • antidepressant • chiropractic • compound
• disability • disorder • homeopathy • hydrotherapy • physical disease
• rehabilitation • therapy
1. therapy liệu pháp, việc điều trị: Therapy is any of various
techniques used in the treatment of physical or mental illnesses.
Therapy is used not only during the course of a disease but also
after recovery if the patient suffers lingering effects.
2. disorder rối loạn: About one in 20 Australians has an eating
disorder. Eating disorders are serious mental illnesses. A genetic
disorder is a genetic problem caused by one or more abnormalities in
the genome, especially a condition that is present from birth (congenital).
3. compound hợp chất A compound differs from a mixture in that
the components of a mixture retain their own properties. The many
drugs available range from commonly used compounds like aspirin,
which reduces fever and relieves pain, to the complex chemicals
used in the treatment of cancer.
4. chiropractic phương pháp trị liệu thần kinh cột sống:
Chiropractic is a form of diagnosing and treating illnesses that affect
the nerves, muscles, bones, and joints of the body. Chiropractic has
been shown to be effective for acute and chronic low back pain,
neck pain, headaches (including migraines), tennis elbow and other
sports injuries… and may be helpful for otitis media (ear infection),

59
digestive problems, menstrual and premenstrual pain, and asthma.
5. acupuncture châm cứu: Acupuncture is the stimulation of
specific points on the body by a variety of techniques, including
the insertion of thin metal needles though the skin. Acupuncture is
a health science that is used to treat both pain and dysfunction in
the body.
6. homeopathy vi lượng đồng căn: The purpose of homeopathy
is the restoration of the body to homeostasis, or healthy balance,
which is its natural state. Homeopathy is generally a safe treatment,
as it uses medicines in extremely diluted quantities, and there are
usually minimal side effects.
7. antidepressant thuốc chống trầm cảm: Antidepressants should
not be used unless the depression is severe and/or other treatments
have failed. Antidepressants should be used with great care.
8. physical disease bệnh thực thể: Physical diseases can be divided
into acute and chronic. Some examples of physical illnesses are
cancer, diabetes, Parkinson’s disease and pneumonia. Other examples
of physical illness are the common cold and sickle cell anemia.
9. rehabilitation hồi phục chức năng: Rehabilitation is typically
needed by patients who, for example, have had a stroke, hip fracture,
or limb amputation. The purpose of rehabilitation is to restore some
or all of the patient’s physical, sensory, and mental capabilities that
were lost due to injury, illnesses, or disease.
10. hydrotherapy thủy liệu pháp: Hydrotherapy is the use of water
in the treatment of disease. Hydrotherapy’s more conventional uses
are the treatment of muscle weakness, balance disorders, diabetes
and other diseases that impair circulation, cramps, premenstrual
syndrome, arthritis, back pain, musculo-skeletal injuries and soft
tissue injuries.
11. disability sự tàn tật, tàn phế: When a disability leaves you
unable to work for an extended length of time, you lose the ability
to earn an income- the one thing you’ve always relied on to provide
for yourself and your loved ones. Persons with disabilities would
have access to the supports that would help them complete their
education, find or keep a job, have an adequate income, experience
good health, and participate in their communities.
60
Exericse 1.1. Fill the blanks with the word you choose from the list
provided: chemotherapy, course, involves, master, overcome, reduce,
rehabilitation, underlying
1. Therapy is used not only during the _________of a disease but
also after recovery if the patient suffers lingering effects.
2. __________is the treatment of diseases, especially cancer,
using chemicals.
3. Aspirin is a drug taken to _______ pain, fever, and swelling.
4. Some physical conditions may be effectively treated by
radiotherapy, which ________the use of X-rays or other types of
radiation.
5. While drugs help relieve the patient’s symptoms, they seldom
cure the _________problems.
6. The final stage in treatment of physical and mental illnesses
is often_______.
7. Recreational and occupational therapy help people _________
their personal and work-related activities.
8. Psychotherapy may help people with disabilities __________the
emotional and psychological problems that are sometimes associated
with disability.
Exercise 1.2. Find the words in the passage that express the
meanings defined.
1. to take longer than usual to disappear ( ____________ )
2. to make (something bad or painful) less severe. (__________)
3. the treatment of an ill, injured, or disabled patient by massage,
electrotherapy, and graduated exercises to restore normal health and
functions. (____________ )
4. a physical or mental condition that makes someone unable to act in
a way that is considered usual for most people. (____________)
5. a type of drug that is used to reduce feelings of being unhappy
and hopeless. ( ____________ )
2. COMPREHENSION:
2.1. Answer the following questions.
1. Why is therapy still needed after the patient recovers from
61
his illness?
2. Is chemotherapy the most effective way of treatment?
3. What does “play therapy” mean? For what patients is it useful?
4. How can people with disabilities be treated?
5. How can cancer be treated?
6. What is hydrotherapy?
7. Who is speech therapy for?
2.2. Which of the following statements is not true?
1. A combination of therapeutic techniques is always required for
the treatment of diseases.
2. Some physical conditions can be effectively treated with the
use of X-rays.
3. In order to treat mental illnesses, verbal and emotional
communication plays only a small part.
4. Psychodrama is a kind of therapy used only for the treatment
of physical diseases.
5. Doctors can make use of psychotherapy in the process of
treating disabled people.
6. A combination of therapeutic techniques is always a requirement
for any form of disorders.
7. Aspirin is the only drug used to relieve pain and reduce high
temperature.
8. Radiotherapy is the frequent treatment of cancer.
9. Mental illness can be treated medically.
10. Play therapy is used to deal with emotional disturbances in
children.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

Exercise 3.1. Complete the sentences with appropriate words.

Therapy is_____ of various techniques _____ in the treatment of
physical or mental illnesses. Therapy is used not only during the course
of a disease _________ after recovery if the patient suffers lingering
effects.______ some disorders may be treated by only one form of
therapy, a combination of therapeutic techniques is often required.

62
_____ treating physical diseases, probably the _______ common
form of therapy in Western medicine is chemotherapy, or drug therapy.
The many drugs available range ______ commonly used compounds
like aspirin, ______ reduces fever and relieves pain, to the complex
chemicals used in the treatment of cancer. Radiotherapy is frequently
used ______ the treatment of cancer, often in combination with
surgical treatment and chemotherapy.
Exercise 3.2. Study the used of the participle referred in the following
sentence.
Collectively referred to as psychotherapy, these techniques help
the patient to express, understand, and cope with underlying problems
that are not due to physical disease.
The past participle can replace a subject + passive verb just as
the present participle can replace subject + active verb :
She enters. She is accompanied by her mother.
= She enters, accompanied by her mother.
The bridge had been weakened by successive storms and was
no longer safe.
= Weakened by successive storms, the bridge was no longer safe.
As he was convinced that they were trying to poison him, he
refused to eat anything.
= Convinced that they were trying to poison him, he refused
to eat anything.
Exercise 3.3. Rewrite these sentences using the past participle at the
beginning of the sentence.
1. Osteoclasts, which are located in many cavities throughout all
bones, can form from osteocytes, osteoblasts or even from fibroblasts
in the bone marrow.
2. The human heart, located in the front part of the chest, is
covered by the pericardium-a double membrane.
3. The pituitary or ‘’ master gland’’ located just under the brain,
influences growth and development and stimulates the function of
the adrenals through ACTH.
4. The diaphragm, which is a sheet of muscle attached to the ribs
and spinal column, contracts and relaxes during respiration.
63
5. The nerve centers are connected with the muscles of the ribcage
and diaphragm, and they increase or decrease the rate of breathing
according to the needs of the body.
6. The osteocytes are assigned the job of maintaining the bone
around it, using the repair material it gets from the blood flowing
nearby.
7. The four little glands, embedded in the thyroid or lying near
it, the parathyroid, apparently just happen to be there.
8. The adrenals, placed like caps on the upper ends of each kidney,
are probably the most essential to life.
Exercise 3.4. Rewrite the participle phrase into clauses.
1. If left untreated, hypertension can lead to heart attack, stroke,
kidney diseases or other illnesses.
2. When taken together, drugs can interact with one another and
produce the effect of other drugs.
3. Collectively referred to as psychotherapy, these techniques help
the patient to express, understand and cope with underlying problems
that are not due to physical diseases.
4. Once known under war conditions as shell shock or battle
fatigue, post-traumatic stress disorder gained its name after it appeared
in many veterans returning from Viet Nam as they tried to readjust
to civilian life.
4. DIALOGUE
B: My mother has been suffering from a backache.
A: Does medicine relieve her pain?
B: Only partially. The physical therapist tried massage and the
application of heat, but they only gave temporary relief.
A: She must be getting discouraged.
B: Yes, she was troubled by depression. The doctor gave her some
antidepressants and sent her to a chiropractor who also recommended
acupuncture.
A: Is she better?
B: Yes, she is finally much better.

64
Lesson 8

Therapeutic Responses
and Adverse Reactions

The same receptors1 can

be found in different tissues
and organs in the body, but
receptors produce different
responses depending on
their location. As a result,
a specific drug can affect the
body in more than one way.
Desirable effects are called
therapeutic or beneficial responses . Undesirable or harmful effects
2

are called adverse reactions. Some adverse reactions, or side effects,

can be predicted. The most common side effects are drowsiness,
headache, sleeplessness, nausea3, and diarrhea4. Other reactions,
such as those that occur only in specific individuals for unexpected
reasons, called idiosyncratic5 reactions, and those that occur with
the triggering of the body’s immune system, called allergic6 reactions,
are less predictable.
Drug toxicity, or poisoning, can occur when drugs are given in
too large a dose or when individuals take a particular drug over a
long period of time - the drug may build up to dangerous levels in
the kidneys and liver and damage these organs. For some drugs, such
as those used to treat epilepsy7, the difference between therapeutic
and toxic concentrations8 is small. Physicians constantly monitor
the precise levels of such drugs in an individual’s bloodstream to
prevent drug poisoning.
Other drugs, such as those used to treat cancer, are known to
have toxic effects; however, the benefits outweigh the risks-that is,
treatment without them may result in death.
65
Drug Interactions
When taken together, drugs can interact with one another and
produce desirable or undesirable results. Some drugs have an additive
effect-that is, they increase the effect of other drugs. For example,
alcoholic beverages intensify the drowsiness-producing effect of some
sedatives9. Drugs that displace, or take the place of other drugs
present in blood proteins, make the displaced drugs more active
in the body, increasing their effect. Other drugs have a reducing
effect-that is, they interfere with the action of drugs already present
in the body. For example, antacids10 prevent antibiotics11 from being
absorbed by the stomach. Some drugs combine with other drugs
to create a substance that has no medical benefit. In some cases,
however, drug interactions can produce desirable results. Doctors
have found that using three drugs to fight AIDS is more effective
than one drug used alone.
Drugs are most effective when properly prescribed12 by physicians
and taken correctly by patients. Missing doses13, taking drugs at the
wrong time of the day or with instead of before meals, and stopping drug
use too soon can markedly reduce the medical benefits of many drugs.
Drug Abuse
Drug abuse is characterized by taking more than the recommended
dose of prescription, using drugs such as barbiturates14 without
medical supervision, or using government-controlled substances such
as marijuana15, cocaine, heroin, or other illegal substances. Legal
substances, such as alcohol and nicotine, are also abused by many
people. Abuse of drugs and other substances can lead to physical
and psychological dependence.
Drug abuse can cause a wide variety of adverse physical reactions.
Long-term drug abuse may damage the heart, liver, and brain. Drug
abusers may suffer from malnutrition16 if they habitually forget to eat,
cannot afford to buy food, or eat foods lacking the proper vitamins and
minerals. Individuals who abuse injectable drugs17 risk contracting
infections such as hepatitis and HIV from dirty needles or needles
shared with other infected abusers. One of the most dangerous effects
of illegal drug use is the potential for overdosing-that is, taking
too large or too strong a dose for the body’s systems to handle. A
drug overdose may cause an individual to lose consciousness and

66
to breathe inadequately. Without treatment, an individual may die
from a drug overdose.
Drug addiction is marked by a compulsive craving for a substance.
Successful treatment methods vary and include psychological
counseling18, or psychotherapy19, and detoxification programs-
medically supervised programs that gradually wean20 an individual
from a drug over a period of days or weeks. Detoxification and
psychotherapy are often used together.
The illegal use of drugs was once considered a problem unique
to residents of poor, urban neighborhoods. Today, however, people
from all economic levels, in both cities and suburbs, abuse drugs.
Some people use drugs to relieve stress and to forget about their
problems. Genetic21 factors may predispose other individuals to drug
addiction. Environmental factors such as peer pressure, especially
in young people, and the availability of drugs, also influence people
to abuse drugs.

1. NEW WORDS
• allergic • antacid • antibiotic • barbiturate • concentration • counseling
• diarrhea • dose • epilepsy • genetic • idiosyncratic • injectable drug
• malnutrition • marijuana • nausea • prescribe • psychotherapy
• receptor • response • sedative • wean
1. receptor thể thụ cảm, thụ thể: In pharmacology, a receptor is a
protein molecule usually found embedded within the plasma membrane
surface of a cell that receives chemical signals from outside the cell.
In immunology, a receptor is the region of an antibody which shows
recognition of an antigen.
2. response đáp ứng: The immune response is the way the body
recognizes and defends itself against microorganisms, viruses, and
substances recognized as foreign and potentially harmful to the body.
Allergies involve an immune response to a substance that, in the
majority of people, the body perceives as harmless.
3. nausea (cảm giác) buồn nôn, muốn nôn: Nausea can be caused
by stress, headaches, spoiled foods, unpleasant odors, eating or
drinking too much or too little, alcohol, and morning sickness in
pregnant women… Nausea and vomiting are common in the early
stages of pregnancy, especially in the morning.
67
4. diarrhea tiêu chảy: Diarrhea may cause a loss of significant
amounts of water and salts. Diarrhea is classified by physicians into
acute, which lasts one to two weeks, and chronic, which continues
for longer than 2-3 weeks.
5. idiosyncratic đặc ứng: This is a reaction to a medication that
is unusual and unpredictable, specific to a particular person. Unlike
allergy, it can occur on first exposure to the medication, unlike a side
effect, it affects only very few individuals. Idiosyncratic drug reactions
are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality for patients.
6. allergic dị ứng: Allergic rhinitis is an allergic reaction to
airborne particles that primarily affects the nose and eyes. An allergic
reaction, also known as a hypersensitivity reaction, is a reaction caused
by the immune system in response to a foreign substance, or allergen.
7. epilepsy động kinh : The most common ages of onset for
epilepsy are for those under the age of 18 and those over the age
of 65. Epilepsy is not contagious and is not caused by mental illness
or mental retardation.
8. concentration nồng độ, độ cô đặc: High serum vitamin B12
concentrations have been reported in patients with hepatic disease.
Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC). BAC refers to the amount of
alcohol contained in a person’s blood. It is measured as weight per
unit of volume.
9. sedative thuốc giảm đau, an thần: Alcoholic beverages intensify
the drowsiness-producing effect of some sedatives. Sedatives can be
extremely addictive, even in people who are taking them under the
guidance of a physician.
10. antacid thuốc kháng axit : Antacids are used to relieve acid
indigestion, upset stomach, sour stomach, and heartburn. Antacids
shouldn’t be given to children.
11. antibiotic (thuốc) kháng sinh: Antibiotics are chemical
substances that inhibit the growth of (bacteriostatic) or kill
(bactericidal) bacteria. Antibiotics come in pill form, as syrups, as
ointments, and are also given by injection.
12. prescribe kê đơn (thuốc) : Valium is usually prescribed to
treat anxiety. He may be able to prescribe you something for that
cough. The ​doctor prescribed some ​medicine and told her to have
a week’s ​rest.
68
13. dose liều: 20 or 30 of these ​pills would be a ​lethal dose (=
enough to k​ ill you). It is d​ angerous to take more than the r​ ecommended
dose of this ​medicine.
14. barbiturate Barbiturate là thuốc tác động trên thần kinh
trung ương có phổ hoạt tính rộng: Barbiturates are used mainly
as intravenous (IV) anesthetics, as anticonvulsants, and in the
resuscitation of patients with cerebral injuries. Barbiturates are not
used for medical purposes as often as they once were.
15. marijuana cần sa : Marijuana causes the user’s heart rate
to increase, the mouth to become dry (commonly referred to as
“cotton-mouth”), blood vessels in the eyes to expand. Marijuana
smokers are at a high risk of developing lung cancer, bronchitis,
and emphysema.
16. malnutrition suy dinh dưỡng : Many of the ​refugees are​
suffering from ​severe malnutrition. Malnutrition can occur because
of the lack of a single vitamin in the diet, or it can be because a
person isn’t getting enough food.
17. injectable drug thuốc tiêm/chích: The reference does not
provide information on injectable drugs and, to our knowledge, there
is no comprehensive list of injectable medications . Prolia, a new
injectable drug to treat osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at
high risk of fractures has been approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA).
18. counseling sự tư vấn : Good counseling helps clients choose
and use family planning methods that suit them. Clients differ, their
situations differ, and they need different kinds of help. The college
has a medical student counseling center.
19. psychotherapy liệu pháp tâm lí : During psychotherapy, you
learn about your condition and your moods, feelings, thoughts and
behaviors. Psychotherapy, or talk therapy, is a way to treat people
with a mental disorder by helping them understand their illness.
20. wean cai (thuốc, sữa): It’s important for parents to start
weaning babies from bottles around the end of the first year and
start getting them comfortable drinking from cups. A medically
supervised heroin detoxification programs are designed to help heroin
addicts gradually wean off heroin and prepare to participate in a
therapeutic recovery .
69
21. genetic (do/có tính chất/thuộc) di truyền: For most genetic
disorders, genetic counseling is advised. A genetic disorder is a
genetic problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome,
especially a condition that is present from birth (congenital).
Exercise 1.1. What words are defined in the following definitions?
1__________: The peripheral apparatus which receives a specific
stimulus.
2. If you feel __________ you feel sleepy in a way which leaves
you unable to think clearly or do anything.
3. _________: The condition of feeling sick as if you are going
to vomit.
4. If something __________you, it makes you feel sick and as
if you are going to vomit.
5. __________: an abnormal susceptibility to some drug, protein,
or other agent which is peculiar to the individual.
6. If something __________, it gradually gets bigger or higher
as a result of something added to it. (= accumulate)
7.__________: nervous system disease marked by seizures with
convulsions and loss of consciousness
8. If one thing __________another, it is of greater importance,
benefit or significance than the other thing.
9. __________: noticeably
10. __________: the action of one drug upon the effectiveness
or toxicity of another (or others)
11. To________ something is to use it in a wrong way. (= misuse).
12. __________: used to describe someone’s behavior when he
has a strong desire to do something or has developed the habit of
doing it, and finds it hard to control his behavior
13. __________: a very strong desire.
14__________: the activity of giving people advice.
15. If you __________ someone from doing something, you
gradually make him stop doing it. When you __________a baby you
stop feeding it with milk from its mother’s breast and start giving
it other food, especially solid food.
70
1.2. Fill the gaps with appropriate words
1. All that fresh air is very t________.
2. Smoking is an a________ to your health.
3. Desirable effects are called therapeutic or b_________
responses.
4. The reactions that occur only in specific individuals for
unexpected reasons are called i__________ reactions.
5. Side effects are also called u__________ or harmful effects.
6. Drowsiness, headache, sleeplessness, nausea, and diarrhea are
s_______ effects.
7. When taken together, drugs can i_________ with one another
and produce desirable or undesirable results.
8. Drugs are most effective when p_________ prescribed by
physicians and taken correctly by patients.
2. COMPREHENSION

Exercise 2.1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why can a specific drug affect the body in different ways?
2. What are drowsiness, headache, sleeplessness, nausea, and
diarrhea?
3. Why do drug toxicity or poisoning occur?
4. When can drug toxicity or poisoning occur?
5. When do desirable or undesirable results occur?
6. What are additive effects?
7. When are drugs most effective?
8. What can markedly reduce the medical benefits of many
drugs?
Exercise 2.2. Find the statements that are NOT TRUE and correct
them.
____1.It is often difficult to predict the reactions that are called
idiosyncratic.
____2.Drug poisoning can be prevented if physicians are careful
enough to monitor the level of certain kinds of medicine.
71
____3.People know that drugs are toxic, but they want to use them
because they are so risky for their lives.
____ [Link] knowledge of drug interactions helps doctors find the
treatment for some diseases.
____ 5. It’s good for some people to use drugs to relieve their stress
and troubles.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

3.1. Explain the use of this structure.

Drug toxicity, or poisoning, can occur when drugs are given in
too large a dose.
3.2. Fill the gaps with appropriate word(s).
1. Other reactions, such as _________ that occur only in specific
individuals for unexpected reasons, are called idiosyncratic
reactions.
2. Some drugs combine with other drugs to create a substance
that has ______ medical benefit.
3. Doctors have found that using three drugs to fight AIDS is
more effective than one drug ______ alone.
4. Drugs are most effective when properly _____ correctly by
patients.
5. When _______ together, drugs can interact with one another
and produce desirable or undesirable results.
4. DIALOGUE
A: How are your father’s headaches?
B: It is still a problem. At first the medicine was causing drowsiness,
and the next medicines caused an idiosyncratic reaction. Another
one caused an additive effect on his heart medicine.
A: Then what happened?
B: The doctor tried a stronger controlled substance which relieved
the pain better, but now he has developed a compulsive craving for
it. He keeps taking more than he should. I’m afraid he is becoming
addicted. I think he should be weaned off of it.

72
Lesson 9

Immunization

Immunization 1 , also called

vaccination 2 or inoculation, is a
method of stimulating resistance in the
human body to specific diseases using
microorganisms—bacteria or viruses—
that have been modified or killed.
These treated microorganisms do not
cause the disease, but rather trigger
the body’s immune system to build a
defense mechanism that continuously
guards against the disease. If a person
immunized against a particular disease later comes into contact with
the disease-causing agent, the immune system is immediately able
to respond defensively.
Immunization has dramatically reduced the incidence3 of a number
of deadly diseases. For example, a worldwide vaccination program
resulted in the global eradication4 of smallpox5 in 1980, and in
most developed countries immunization has essentially eliminated
diphtheria6, poliomyelitis7, and neonatal tetanus8. The number of
cases of hemophilus influenzae9 type B meningitis10 in the United
States has dropped 95 percent among infants and children since
1988, when the vaccine for that disease was first introduced. In the
United States, more than 97 percent of children are immunized by the
time they reach school age. In an attempt to continue these global
successes, the World Health Organization (WHO) has set the year
2000 as a target date for the immunization of all children.
Active and Passive Immunization
Active immunization involves injection of all or part of a disease-

73
causing microorganism or a modified product of that microorganism
into the body to make the immune system respond defensively. The
activating components of the vaccination are antigens11, substances
that the immune system recognizes as foreign. In response to the
antigen, the immune system develops either antibodies or white
blood cells called T lymphocytes12, which are special attacker cells.
Immunization mimics real infection but presents little or no risk to
the recipient. Some immunizing agents provide complete protection
against a disease for life. Other agents provide partial protection,
meaning that the immunized person can contract13 the disease, but
in a less severe form. Some immunizing agents require repeated
inoculations—or booster shots14—at specific intervals. Tetanus shots,
for example, are recommended every ten years throughout life.
A person can be actively immunized by receiving an injection
of dead organisms that are no longer capable of causing disease
but that still contain antigens. This type of vaccination is used to
protect against bacterial diseases such as typhoid fever15, whooping
cough16, and diphtheria. Active immunization can also be carried
out using bacterial toxins that have been treated with chemicals so
that they are no longer toxic, even though their antigens are still
intact. This procedure uses the toxins produced by the bacteria
rather than the organism itself and is used in vaccinating against
tetanus, botulism17, and similar toxic diseases. Finally, a person can
be injected with live organisms that have been attenuated—that is,
changed so that they do not cause disease. This procedure is used
to protect against poliomyelitis, yellow fever, measles, smallpox, and
many other viral diseases.
While active immunization confers long-lasting immunity, passive
immunization provides temporary immunity and is performed without
injecting any antigen. Passive immunization is accomplished by
injecting antibodies obtained from the blood of an actively immunized
human being or animal. The antibodies last for two to three weeks,
and during that time the person is protected against the disease.
Although short-lived, passive immunization provides immediate
protection, unlike active immunization, which can take weeks to
develop. Consequently, passive immunization can be life-saving when
a person has been infected with a deadly organism.
74
Occasionally there are complications18 associated with passive
immunization. Diseases such as botulism and rabies once posed
a particular problem. Immune globulin (antibody-containing
plasma19for these diseases) was once derived from the blood serum
of horses. Although this animal material was specially treated before
administration to humans, serious allergic reactions were common.
Today, human-derived immune globulin is more widely available and
the risk of side effects is reduced.
There are more than 20 vaccines licensed in the United States.
The American Academy of Pediatrics and the U.S. Public Health
Service recommend a series of immunizations beginning at birth. The
initial series for children is completed by the time they reach the age
of two, but booster vaccines are required for certain diseases such
as diphtheria and tetanus in order to maintain adequate protection.
When new vaccines are introduced, it is uncertain how long full
protection will last. Recently, for example, it was discovered that
a single injection of measles vaccine, first licensed in 1963 and
administered to children at the age of 15 months, did not confer
protection through adolescence and young adulthood. As a result,
in the 1980s a series of measles epidemics20 occurred on college
campuses throughout the United States among students who had
been vaccinated as infants. To forestall future epidemics, health
authorities now recommend that a booster dose of measles vaccine
be administered at 4 to 6 or 11 to 12 years.
Although modern immunizing agents generally are considered
safe and effective, risks associated with the use of vaccines can
vary from insignificant (fever and soreness at the site of injection)
to life threatening. The goal in vaccine development is to achieve
the highest degree of protection with the lowest rate of side effects.
Today’s genetic engineering technology makes it possible to prepare
safer and highly effective genetically altered vaccines.
Not only children but also adults can benefit from immunization.
Many adults in the United States are not sufficiently protected against
tetanus, diphtheria, measles21, mumps, and German measles. Health
authorities recommend that most adults 65 years of age and older,
and those with respiratory illnesses be immunized against influenza22
(yearly) and pneumococcus23(once), which causes pneumonia24.
75
1. NEW WORDS
• antigen • booster • botulism • complication • contract • epidemic
• shot • diphtheria • eradication • hemophilus influenza • immunization
• incidence • lymphocyte • measles • meningitis • plasma
• pneumococcus • pneumonia • poliomyelitis • smallpox • tetanus
• vaccination • typhoid fever

1. immunization sự tạo miễn dịch: Immunization, also called

vaccination or inoculation, a method of stimulating resistance in
the human body to specific diseases using microorganisms-bacteria
or viruses - that have been modified or killed. Immunization has
achieved real success in the past 20 years, and today vaccines
protect nearly three-quarters of the world’s children against major
childhood illnesses.
2. vaccination sự tiêm chủng (= inoculation) : Vaccination is
the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate
an individual’s immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a
pathogen. The leaflet tells you about the common side effects of
vaccinations that might occur in babies and young children up to
five years of age.
3. incidence tỉ lệ mắc mới: The incidence of disease is defined
as the number of new cases of disease occurring in a population
during a defined time interval. Mortality is the incidence of death
from a disease.
4. eradication sự thanh toán (bệnh): A worldwide vaccination
program resulted in the global eradication of smallpox in 1980.
New Tuberculosis Eradication Plan: WHO Adopts New Strategies
To Eliminate TB In Over 30 Developed Countries by 2050.
5. smallpox bệnh đậu mùa: Smallpox is a viral disease
characterized by a skin rash and a high death rate. In the battle
against smallpox in the 20th century, two weapons were key: (1)
an effective vaccine and (2) the fact that the smallpox virus exists
only in humans.
6. diphtheria bệnh bạch hầu: When he was five his older brother
contracted diphtheria and was confined for six months to a wheelchair.
Diphtheria is a bacterial infection that affects the membranes of the
throat and nose.
76
7. poliomyelitis bệnh bại liệt /viêm tủy xám: Poliomyelitis is a
viral disease that can affect nerves and lead to paralysis. Poliomyelitis
most commonly affects children under the age of five.
8. tetanus bệnh uốn ván: Tetanus bacteria are present worldwide
and are commonly found in soil, dust and manure. Tetanus is a major
problem in developing countries where immunization of children is
not required or enforced.
9. hemophilus influenza vi trùng thuộc loại cầu trực khuẩn Gram
âm: Hemophilus influenzae is one of several different bacteria that
cause bacterial meningitis. Hemophilus influenzae type B disease
almost exclusively affects children under 5 years of age.
10. meningitis viêm màng não: Meningitis is an infection that
causes inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and
spinal cord. The symptoms of meningitis vary and depend both on
the age of the child and on which bacterium or virus is causing
the infection.
11. antigen kháng nguyên: Antigens are defined as substances
recognized by the body as foreign, causing the body to produce an
antibody to react specifically with it. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
have certain proteins on their surface, called antigens.
12. lymphocyte tế bào lim phô: Lymphocytes are a type of white
blood cell. Lymphocytes identify foreign substances and germs
(bacteria or viruses) in the body and produce antibodies and cells
that specifically target them.
13. contract mắc (bệnh): He contracted ​malaria while he was​
travelling. Mental disorders are not ‘contracted’ simply by thinking
about them.
14. booster shot liều thuốc tăng cường, liều vaccine nhắc lại:
Some immunizing agents require repeated inoculations—or booster
shots—at specific intervals.
15. typhoid fever (sốt) thương hàn: Typhoid fever appears to have
affected thousands of human beings from last so many years, but the
cause of the illness is a poisonous and interruptive bacterium called
Salmonella typhi. Typhoid fever is transmitted by food and water
contaminated by the feces and urine of patients and carriers.
16 whooping cough ho gà: Whooping cough vaccine can be given
77
before pregnancy or as soon as possible after the baby is born. Both
parents can be protected from whooping cough by being vaccinated,
thereby lessening the chance of passing it on to their new baby.
17. botulism chứng ngộ độc thịt, ngộ độc botulism: Botulism is
mainly a foodborne intoxication but it can also be transmitted through
wound infections or intestinal infection in infants. Infant botulism
occurs in babies younger than six months old, and, if hospital care
is provided, is not as serious as food-borne botulism.
18. complication biến chứng: Some women experience health
problems during pregnancy. These complications can involve the
mother’s health, the fetus, or both. A very common complication
after surgery occurs when a patient is not able to breathe in enough
air to fill the lungs.
19. plasma huyết tương: Plasma is the liquid part of your blood
that carries your platelets, red cells and white cells through your
body. Plasma supports the recovery of hundreds of patients suffering
with liver disease, severe burns, hemophilia, and leukemia.
20. epidemic dịch: A worldwide epidemic is known as a pandemic,
e.g., the influenza pandemic of 1918 or the AIDS pandemic beginning
in the 1980s. This year’s flu outbreak isn’t an epidemic yet, but a
health authority said on Friday it soon will be.
21. measles sởi: Measles is characterized by small red dots
appearing on the surface of the skin, irritation of the eyes (especially
on exposure to light), coughing, and a runny nose. Mothers who
have never had the measles but have been vaccinated do not pass
antibodies to their fetuses, and their babies will be vulnerable to
measles at birth.
22. influenza cúm (=flu): Influenza, commonly known as the flu,
is an infectious disease that infects birds and mammals (primarily
of the upper airways and lungs. Influenza is highly contagious and
is easily spread from person to person by droplets from the nose or
throat of an infected person.
23. pneumococcus phế cầu: Pneumococcus is a bacterium that
causes several different types of serious infections in children.
Pneumococcus disease can be very difficult to diagnose, so it
is unclear exactly how many children die directly as a result of
infection.

78
24. pneumonia viêm phổi: Pneumonia is an illness of the lungs
and respiratory system in which the alveoli become inflamed and
flooded with fluid. Pneumonia is a common illness, occurs in all
age groups, and is a leading cause of death among the elderly and
people who are chronically ill. Vaccines to prevent certain types of
pneumonia are available.
Exercise 1.1 Find the proper meaning of the underlined word or
phrase from the given list in the parentheses.
1. Bacteria or viruses can be modified or killed. (changed,
attenuated, improved)
2. These treated microorganisms do not cause the disease, but rather
trigger the body’s immune system to build a defense mechanism.
(cause to start, ask, force)
3. Immunization has dramatically reduced the incidence of a
number of deadly diseases. (suddenly, markedly, unexpectedly)
4. A worldwide vaccination program resulted in the global
eradication of smallpox in 1980. (elimination, disappearance,
outbreak)
5. Health professionals are working hard in an attempt to continue
these global successes (trial, success, effort)
6. The World Health Organization has set the year 2000 as a target
date for the immunization of all children. (fixed, used, taken)
7. Immunization mimics real infection but presents little or no
risk to the recipient. (is just like, is different from, deals with)
8. Active immunization confers long-lasting immunity. (means,
produces, has)
9. To forestall future epidemics, health authorities now recommend
that a booster dose of measles vaccine be administered at 4 to 6 or
11 to 12 years. (stop, avoid, prevent from occurring)
Exercise 1.2. Match each word in the left box with its corresponding
meaning in the right.

1. diphtheria Weaken
2. mimic an extremely severe form of food poisoning

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3. attenuate a disease characterized by formation of infectious
membranes, especially in the throat and nose, by pain,
and by toxemia.
4. poliomyelitis destroy completely (= eliminate, wipe out)
5. forestall If you forestall something that someone was intending
or likely to do, you prevent him from doing it by doing
something else first.
6. botulism If someone or something mimics another person or
thing, he/it tries to be like them or act like the thing
itself. Immunization mimics real infection but presents
little or no risk to the recipient.
7. eradicate inflammation of gray substance of spinal cord

2. COMPREHENSION
2.1. Questions
1. What is immunization?
2. What are the benefits of immunization?
3. What is the mechanism of active immunization?
4. In what way is active immunization different from passive
immunization?
5. Do people know the exact effect and the duration of a new
vaccine?
6. Do immunizing agents provide complete protection against a disease
for life?
7. How can active immunization be carried out?
8. What makes it possible to prepare safer and highly effective
genetically altered vaccines?

2.2. Completion 1: Use the given words to complete these

sentences.
adverse, attenuated, children, partial, setting, thanks to, which

1. ....................... immunization, the incidence of dreadful diseases

has been greatly reduced worldwide.
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2. A campaign of expanded immunization in .................... has been
launched to achieve the aim of World Health Organization when
.................... the year of 2000 as a target date for this program.
3. Active immunization involves the case in ................ the recipient
has complete protection against a disease for life and also the case
of providing ................. protection, which means the recipient can
get that disease but not as severely.
4. Some viral diseases can be prevented by injecting live organisms
which have been ................. into the person.
5. One disadvantage of passive immunization is that it can cause
some ................. reactions to the users.
2.3 Complete the following sentences with details from the
passage.
1. Treated microorganisms ……………….. cause the disease,
but rather trigger the body’s immune system to build a defense
mechanism.
2. If a person is immunized against a particular disease, the
immune system of his body ………………………
3. Antigens are ………………..
4. Active immunization is different from passive immunization
in that it…………..
5. Booster vaccines should be administered for certain diseases
in order to …………………
6. Preparation of safer and highly effective genetically altered
vaccines are made possible …………………
7. Immunization is beneficial to ……………………………
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

3.1. Explain the meaning and the use or the constructions of the
underlined words, phrases, or sentences.
a.….rather trigger the body’s immune system to build a defense
mechanism that continuously guards against the disease.
b. a disease-causing microorganism, long-lasting immunity,
antibody-containing plasma, human-derived immune globulin,
short-lived, life-saving

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c. Other agents provide partial protection, meaning that the
immunized person can contract the disease.
d. To forestall future epidemics, health authorities now recommend
that a booster dose of measles vaccine be administered at 4 to 6
or 11 to 12 years.
e. Today’s genetic engineering technology makes it possible to
prepare safer and highly effective genetically altered vaccines.
3.2. Complete the paragraph with the following words: against, although,
during, even though, rather than, so that, when, which, while
A person can be actively immunized by receiving an injection of
dead organisms that are no longer capable of causing disease but
that still contain antigens. This type of vaccination is used to protect
_______bacterial diseases such as typhoid fever, whooping cough,
and diphtheria. Active immunization can also be carried out using
bacterial toxins that have been treated with chemicals _________they
are no longer toxic, ___________their antigens are still intact. This
procedure uses the toxins produced by the bacteria _________the
organism itself and is used in vaccinating against tetanus, botulism,
and similar toxic diseases. Finally, a person can be injected with
live organisms that have been attenuated—that is, changed so that
they do not cause disease. This procedure is used to protect against
poliomyelitis, yellow fever, measles, smallpox, and many other viral
diseases.
________active immunization confers long-lasting immunity,
passive immunization provides temporary immunity and is performed
without injecting any antigen. Passive immunization is accomplished
by injecting antibodies obtained from the blood of an actively
immunized human being or animal. The antibodies last for two to
three weeks, and _______that time the person is protected against
the disease. _________short-lived, passive immunization provides
immediate protection, unlike active immunization, _______can
take weeks to develop. Consequently, passive immunization can
be life-saving ________a person has been infected with a deadly
organism.
4. DIALOGUE
A: Have you gotten your Flu booster shot yet this year?
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B: No, but I plan to, even if it doesn’t completely prevent the
disease. Immunizations have made a big difference in certain
diseases such as poliomyelitis and diphtheria, but the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus “HIV” has dramatically challenged the
science of immunization.
A: How is that?
B: Well, in order to forestall infection with a virus like HIV, the
recipient of the immunization injection must be able to form antibodies
and react with a strong defense.
A: That sounds as though the attempt to find a vaccine might fail!

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Lesson 10

Surgical Procedures

Surgical procedures1 are classified

as optional, required, elective,
urgent2, and emergent3 based on the
patient’s medical condition. Optional
surgery consists of operations that
are not required but which the patient
chooses to undergo as with some
types of cosmetic surgery4. Required
surgery is performed when only
surgery will correct a problem such
as cataracts5 but the surgery can
be delayed for a period of weeks or
months.
Elective surgical procedures
usually involve conditions that may not require surgery but in which
surgery will have a favorable effect- such as the removal of a small
cyst6. Urgent surgical procedures are performed when a patient’s
condition is not immediately life- threatening, but failure to treat it
may result in death. Patients with some forms of cancer are often
considered urgent surgical cases. Emergency procedures must be
performed within a few hours of a patient’s arrival at a hospital
to prevent death. These surgeries correct serious life-threatening
conditions such as major wounds, blockages of the intestines, or
appendicitis7 – inflammation8 of the appendix.
For any surgical procedure, medical care is provided before
(preoperative9), during (intraoperative10), and after (postoperative11)
the operation. Preoperative care includes routine checks of vital signs
including temperature, pulse12, and blood pressure, analysis of blood
and urine13, and physical examination to evaluate organ function.
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An anesthesiologist14 (a physician trained to provide anesthesia15)
looks for signs that might make the administration of anesthetics
dangerous such as chest infections or low blood pressure. A history
of the patient’s use of medications16 is acquired to prevent possible
adverse interactions with anesthetics17. A surgeon18 will generally
counsel the patient and his or her family about the surgery and
what to expect after the operation19 is performed. Preoperative care
reduces the risk of complications during and after surgery.
Intraoperative care involves several members of the surgical
team. The surgeon determines the timing of the operation, the
techniques, and the instruments and supplies to be used. The
anesthesiologist controls the patient’s pain and, if necessary, the
level of unconsciousness to make surgery more tolerable and ensure
that the patient regains consciousness20 safely and quickly following
the operation. The scrub nurse21 readies all instruments, ensures the
sterility of the surgical field, and anticipates when instruments will
be needed by the surgeon. The circulating nurse22 makes sure the
operating room is adequately supplied and provides any additional
supplies to the scrub nurse during the operation. Depending upon
the hospital, surgical assistants, physician assistants, surgical
residents23, medical students, and nursing students may also attend
an operation.
Postoperative care begins in a recovery room or intensive care
unit24 (ICU). Both areas are equipped to monitor blood pressure and
heart rate and provide supplemental oxygen, mechanical ventilation25
for the lungs, and physical support under critical circumstances.
Drugs are often prescribed to control postoperative pain.

1. NEW WORDS
• anesthesia • anesthesiologist • anesthetic • appendicitis • cataract
• consciousness • cosmetic • cyst • emergent • intensive care unit
(ICU) • inflammation • operation • resident • rotating nurse • scrub
nurse • surgeon • surgical preoperative postoperative • pulse • urgent
• ventilation
1. surgical procedure thủ thuật ngoại khoa: Surgical procedures
are classified as optional, required, elective, urgent, and emergent
based on the patient’s medical condition. Urgent surgical procedures
are performed when a patient’s condition is not immediately life-

85
threatening, but failure to treat it may result in death.
2. urgent khẩn cấp: Urgent Care is an acute-care service for
many types of illnesses or injuries that need prompt attention, but
aren’t likely to result in loss of life or severe impairment. Urgent
care is not a substitute for emergency care. In general, an emergency
condition is one that can permanently impair or endanger the life
of an individual.
3. emergent cấp cứu: Acute and emergent genitourinary conditions
require accurate and rapid diagnosis to minimize patient’s morbidity
and mortality. In most cases, non-emergent care is not covered (by
insurance companies) when received in a hospital emergency room.
4. cosmetic surgery phẩu thuật thẩm mỹ : Plastic surgery has
two branches, cosmetic surgery and reconstructive plastic surgery.
All surgeries, including cosmetic procedures, carry risk.
5. cataract (bệnh) đục thủy tinh thể: A cataract is a cloudy or
opaque area in the lens of the eye. Congenital cataracts can also
be caused by infections of the mother during pregnancy.
6. cyst nang: A cyst is a sac-like pocket of tissue that contains
fluid, air, or other substances. They can grow almost anywhere in
the body or on the skin. In anatomy, a cyst can also refer to any
normal bag or sac in the body, such as the bladder. A cyst also refers
to an abnormal sac or pocket in the body that contains either liquid,
gaseous or semi-solid substances.
7. appendicitis viêm ruột thừa: Appendicitis may occur for several
reasons, such as an infection of the appendix, but the most important
step is the obstruction of the appendiceal lumen. Appendicitis is
a medical emergency that requires prompt surgery to remove the
appendix.
8. inflammation viêm: Inflammation is a process by which the
body’s white blood cells and chemicals protect us from infection and
foreign substances such as bacteria and viruses. Inflammation is
characterized by the following quintet: redness (rubor), heat (calor),
swelling (tumor), pain (dolor) and dysfunction of the organs involved
(functio laesa).
9. preoperative tiền phẫu, trước khi mổ: Preoperative care refers
to health care provided before a surgical operation. The aim of
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preoperative care is to do whatever is right to increase the success
of the surgery. Medical consultants are generally asked to assess
preoperative risk in most patients who are to undergo surgery.
10. intraoperative trong (khi tiến hành) phẫu thuật: Perioperative
generally refers to the three phases of surgery: preoperative,
intraoperative, and postoperative. Intraoperative magnetic resonance
imaging (iMRI) is a procedure to create images of the brain during
surgery.
11. postoperative hậu phẫu, sau mổ: Postoperative care refers
to the care you receive following a surgical procedure. This may
include pain management and wound care. Effective postoperative
pain control is an essential component of the care of the surgical
patient.
12. pulse mạch: The pulse results from pressure waves moving
through the blood vessels, which are pliable; it is not caused by the
forward movement of the blood. The pulse is measured at the wrist,
neck, temple, groin, behind the knees, or on top of the foot.
13. urine nước tiểu: Chemically, the urine is mainly an aqueous
(watery) solution of salt (sodium chloride) and substances called
urea and uric acid. Urine is liquid produced by an animal’s kidney,
collected in the bladder and excreted through the urethra.
14. anesthesiologist bác sĩ gây mê : An anesthesiologist (American
English), or anesthetist (British English), is a medical doctor trained
to administer anesthesia. The anesthesiologist’s role is the practice
of medicine dedicated to the relief of pain and total care of the
surgical patient before, during, and after surgery.
15. anesthesia sự gây mê, làm vô cảm : Anesthesia is the use of
medications and close monitoring to provide comfort and maintain
vital life functions during surgery or other medical procedures.
Regional anesthesia is used to eliminate pain in a larger part of the
body by temporarily blocking large groups of nerves or the spinal
cord so that the pain signal cannot reach the brain.
16 medication sự cho thuốc, dược phẩm, thuốc: A history of the
patient’s use of medications is acquired to prevent possible adverse
interactions with anesthetics. It is important to know the benefits of
prescribed medications, as well as their potential side effects.
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17. anesthetic thuốc gây tê/mê: General anaesthetics have some
common side effects. Anesthetic effects are seen within 15 minutes
of administration and may last from 45 minutes to several hours,
depending on the drug used.
18. surgeon bác sĩ phẫu thuật, bác sĩ ngoại khoa: A dental surgeon
does not only care for your teeth needs, he/she can also repair a
fracture of the mandible or make dental implants less painful and
less expensive than regular dentists. Today, a surgeon can perform
an appendectomy in one of two ways: through what is called an
open operation or through the laparoscopic technique.
19. operation phẫu thuật, sự mổ, ca mổ: He underwent a three-
hour heart operation. Doctors performed an emergency operation
for appendicitis last night.
20. consciousness tri giác, tri thức: I can’t remember any more—I
must have lost consciousness. She did not regain consciousness and
died the next day.
21. scrub nurse điều dưỡng vòng trong, y tá dụng cụ (trong):
Scrub nurses, also called perioperative nurses, are registered nurses
who assist in surgical procedures by setting up the room before the
operation, working with the doctor during surgery and preparing
the patient for the move to the recovery room.
22. circulating nurse điều dưỡng vòng ngoài, y tá dụng cụ
(ngoài): Nurses who work rotating night shifts have an increased
risk of death from cardiovascular disease (CVD). A rotating nurse
can be either a circulating or a scrub nurse in the operation theater.
Nick Coulter is a ‘rotating nurse’ and travels across the country
for work.
23. resident bác sĩ nội trú : A Resident Physician is a medical
school graduate who is participating in a GME (Graduate Medical
Education) program and training in a specialized area of medicine.
Residents, as they are more commonly called, have a dual role in
the health care system in that they are simultaneously learners and
medical care providers.
24. intensive care unit (ICU) đơn vị chăm sóc tăng cường/tích
cực/đặc biệt: The Intensive Care Unit (ICU) is a unit in the hospital
where seriously ill patients are cared for by especially trained staff.
The ICU staff includes doctors, nurses, respiratory therapists, clinical

88
nurse specialists, pharmacists, physical therapists, nurse practitioners,
physician assistants, dietitians, social workers, and chaplains.
25. ventilation sự thông khí: In natural ventilation, air moves
through opened windows and doors. In a lung ventilation scan, a
mask is placed over the nose and mouth, and the patient is asked
to inhale and exhale a combination of air and radioactive gas.
2. COMPREHENSION

Exercise 2.1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why is nasoplastic surgery considered optional?
2. What is the difference between urgent surgical procedures and
emergency procedures?
3. Why is low blood pressure a sign worthy of finding before
giving anesthetics?
4. Do all medical students have permission to attend an
operation?
5. What is the task of ICU (Intensive Care Unit)?
Exercise 2.2. Indicate which of the following are FALSE.
____1. Cases requiring surgery cannot be cured with the use of
medicine.
____2. With the delay of an emergency procedure, a case of mortality
may result.
____3. An anesthetist needs to know what kind of medicine the
patient has used in order to give the right anesthetics.
____4. The scrub nurse is in charge of providing the right instruments
for the surgeon.
____5. After the operation, all patients are carried to the ICU for a
special care until they gain consciousness.
Exercise 2.3. Choose the suitable words to complete the sentences
a. (Plastic/ Oral/ Optional) surgery consists of operations that
are not required but which the patient chooses to undergo as with
some types of cosmetic surgeries.
b. (Elective/Plastic/ Urgent) surgical procedures are performed
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when a patient’s condition is not immediately life-threatening, but
failure to treat it may result in death.
c. Emergency procedures must be performed within (a lot of /
many/ a few) hours of a patient’s arrival at a hospital to prevent
death.
d. (Intraoperative/Postoperative/Preoperative) care includes
routine checks of vital signs including temperature, pulse, and blood
pressure, analysis of blood and urine, and physical examination to
evaluate organ functions.
e. An anesthesiologist (a physician trained to provide anesthesia)
looks for signs that might make the (application/injection/
administration) of anesthetics dangerous such as chest infections
or low blood pressure.
f. A surgeon generally will (counsel/force/require) the patient
and his or her family about the surgery and what to expect after
the operation is performed.
g. The surgeon (refuses/provides/determines) the timing of the
operation, the techniques, and the instruments and supplies to be
used.
h. The anesthesiologist (causes/ facilitates/ controls) the patient’s
pain.
i. Depending upon the hospital, surgical assistants, physician
assistants, surgical residents, medical students, and nursing students
may also (perform/do/attend) an operation.
Exercise 2.4. Complete the following statements with the information
from the passage.
a. The various surgical procedures mentioned in the passage are
......................
b. Urgent surgical procedures are performed when .....................
c. To prevent death ...................... must be performed within a
few hours of a patient’s arrival at a hospital .
e. Major wounds, blockages of the intestines, or appendicitis are
......................
f. Temperature, pulse, and blood pressure are ......................
g. Analysis of blood and urine and physical examination are

90
made to ......................
h. To make surgery more tolerable and to ensure that the patient
regains consciousness safely and quickly following the operation, the
patient’s pain and the level of consciousness ......................
i. The ...................... readies all instruments, ensures the sterility
of the surgical field, and anticipates when instruments will be needed
by the surgeon.
j. The ...................... makes sure the operating room is adequately
supplied and provides any additional supplies to the scrub nurse
during the operation.
k. Postoperative care begins in ......................
Exercise 2.5. Multiple Choices
1. When saying “Patients with some form of cancer are often
considered urgent surgical cases,” the writer wants to say that
A. They must be operated within one month of a patient’s arrival
at a hospital.
B. They must be operated as soon as possible.
C. They may die if not treated.
2. Preoperative care reduces the risk of complications
………….
A. before a surgical operation
B. after a surgical operation
C. during and after a surgical operation
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

3.1. The Use of Some

a. Some is used to mean quite a large amount or number.
I did not meet her for some years (almost the same as several
or many).
It took some years for Mr. Kennedy to realize the truth.
b. Some can also be used in front of a number to show that you
are not being totally accurate.
It was some fifteen kilometers by sea from the nearest village.
91
c. When you want to emphasize that you do not know the identity
of a person or thing, or when you think their identity is not important,
you can use some with a singular count noun, instead of a or an.
Most staff members will spend a few weeks in some developing
country.
Patients with some form of cancer are often considered urgent
surgical cases.
3.2. The Use of Might
You can use could, might, or may to say that there is a possibility
that something is happening. May is slightly more formal than
could or might. Otherwise there is very little difference in meaning
between those modals.
An anesthesiologist (a physician trained to provide anesthesia)
looks for signs that might make the administration of anesthetics
dangerous such as chest infections or low blood pressure.
Don’t eat it. It could be poisonous.
He might have been sick.
In rare case the jaw may be broken during extraction.
That mightn’t be true.
3.3. STUDY also: possibility (past reference), and It may be
that…..
Notice how the doctor expresses the idea that the possible cause
of the patient’s nosebleed was his high BP.
DOCTOR: It may be that the high blood pressure caused your
nose bleed.
Now use the same phrase to express possible causes.
a. He may have taken an overdose.
b. You may have set the fracture incorrectly.
c. Perhaps the pain was due to hysteria.
d. Perhaps the cause of the raised blood pressure was
arteriosclerosis.
e. The patient may have damaged her skin deliberately, as
sometimes happens in neurodermatitis.
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Exercise 3.4. Complete the following sentences with the words given:
but, may (2), must , some , these, will, when.
Elective surgical procedures usually involve conditions that
______not require surgery but in which surgery ______have a
favorable effect- such as the removal of a small cyst. Urgent
surgical procedures are performed ______a patient’s condition is not
immediately life-threatening, ______failure to treat it ______result
in death. Patients with _______forms of cancer are often considered
urgent surgical cases. Emergency procedures ______be performed
within a few hours of a patient’s arrival at a hospital to prevent
death. _________­­­­­­­surgeries correct serious life-threatening conditions
such as major wounds, blockages of the intestines, or appendicitis-
-inflammation of the appendix.
4. DIALOGUE
A: Why are you having surgery?
B: I’m having this cyst on my cheek removed. It’s not urgent. It’s
an elective operation, and it will be done under local anesthesia.
A: Who is performing the surgery?
B: The Plastic Surgery Resident is going to do it. It’s considered
a minor procedure. You might say it is cosmetic surgery, since there
is no evidence that it is malignant. However, the scrub nurse will
send it to Pathology to be checked for cancer, just in case.

93
Lesson 11

Microsurgery

Microsurgery1 is a specialized surgical technique performed with

a high-powered binocular microscope designed for the operating
room and precision instruments. Microsurgical procedures are used
to connect or dissect2 minute nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues
in delicate procedures such as the reattachment of a severed limb to
the body, repair of the eye’s retina3, graft4 of a coronary bypass5,
removal of tumors6 from previously inaccessible areas of the brain
and spinal cord, and procedures on organs, muscles, or tendons.
During microsurgery, surgeons view the operating field7 through
a microscope that magnifies the area from 6 to 40 times, providing a
functional look at nerves and blood vessels too small to see clearly
with the naked eye. An operating microscope has several binocular
eyepieces so that more than one person can participate in the surgery.
In addition, surgeons usually wear special magnifying glasses that
further enlarge the field of view. Many operating microscopes are
equipped with television cameras so the progress of a microsurgical
procedure can be viewed on a television monitor by other members
of the surgical team or medical students.
The first surgery using an operating microscope was performed
on the delicate bones of a patient’s inner ear in 1921. By 1960
advances in optics provided surgeons microscopes that enabled them
to rejoin micro vessels (tiny blood vessels with external diameters of

94
2.0 mm/0.08 in). Specialized surgical instruments that are smaller
and more precise than those used in conventional surgery8 were
developed as microsurgery techniques advanced, and by the 1970s
surgeons were also operating on micro nerves.
Continued improvements in both operating microscopes and
surgical instruments have made possible microsurgical procedures
involving even smaller blood vessels and nerves. Microsurgery has
lowered mortality rates9 for life-threatening diseases such as cancer
and heart disease and improved the results of conventional surgical
procedures in which microsurgery is one part of the operation.
Microsurgery is now applied in cell, embryo10, and biomedical
research.
A revolutionary development utilizing state-of-the-art computer
technology allows surgeons to perform microsurgery without a
microscope. Known as three-dimensional on-screen microsurgery
system (TOMS), this procedure utilizes two cameras in a video
microscope that project a magnified three-dimensional image on one
or more television monitors. Initial studies at medical schools in
the United States, Canada, and the Netherlands show that surgeons
who have used TOMS in both laboratory and clinical settings have
improved views of the operating field and experience reduced eye
strain.
1. NEW WORDS
bypass • conventional surgery • dissect • embryo • graft • microsurgery
• mortality rate • operating field • retina • tumor
1. microsurgery vi phẫu: Microsurgery is surgery that is
performed on very small structures, such as blood vessels and nerves,
with specialized instruments under a microscope. In microsurgery,
preoperative planning and attention to the details of the operation
are critical for success.
2. dissect mổ xẻ, phẫu tích: Microsurgical procedures are used
to connect or dissect minute nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues.
The medical student is dissecting a cadaver.
3. retina võng mạc A healthy retina is necessary for good vision.
Retinal diseases can affect any part of your retina and can cause
total blindness.
95
4. graft ghép: Bone grafts are bone that is transplanted from one
area of the skeleton to another to aid in healing, strengthening or
improving function. A skin graft is a patch of skin that is surgically
removed from one area of the body and transplanted to another one.
5. bypass phẫu thuật bắt cầu Coronary bypass surgery is one of
the most common and effective procedures to manage blockage of
blood to the heart muscle.
6. tumour khối u: Brain tumours are responsible for approximately
2% of all cancer deaths. A pituitary tumour is a mass of cells that
grow on the gland.
7. operating field phẫu trường: One of the elements of physical
preparation is preparation of an operating field, which takes place at
the surgical ward as well as at the operating suite. Clear visualization
of the operating field is essential for successful surgery.
8. conventional surgery mổ thường quy: The vast majority of
common conventional surgery in the abdomen is now carried out
safely, quickly and efficiently through a number of small, relatively
painless incisions.
9. mortality rate tỉ lệ tử vong: There are several different
mortality rates used to monitor the level of mortality in populations.
The maternal mortality rate (MMR) is the annual number of female
deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated
by pregnancy.
10. embryo phôi: In humans, the term embryo describes the
fertilized egg during its first seven weeks of existence; from the
eighth week onwards it is referred to as a fetus. Microsurgery is
now applied in cell, embryo, and biomedical research.
Exercise 1.1 Complete each of the following sentences with the
right word you choose from this word list: dissect, life-threatening,
magnifies , optics, procedure, view.
1. Microsurgical procedures are used to connect or __________
minute nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues in delicate
procedures.
2. During microsurgery, surgeons __________the operating field
through a microscope that __________the area from 6 to 40 times,
providing a functional look at nerves and blood vessels too small

96
to see clearly with the naked eye.
3. Many operating microscopes are equipped with television
cameras so the progress of a microsurgical _________can be viewed
on a television monitor by other members of the surgical team or
medical students.
4. By 1960 advances in __________provided surgeons microscopes
that enabled them to rejoin micro vessels.
5. Microsurgery has lowered mortality rates for __________
diseases such as cancer and heart disease and improved the results
of conventional surgical procedures in which microsurgery is one
part of the operation.
Exercise 1.2 Find the word in the passage for each definition given.
1. __________to cut apart (the body of an animal or plant) in
order to study its structure.
2. __________difficult or impossible to reach
3. __________to take part in or become involved in an activity
4. __________ easily broken
5. __________presently most advanced
Exercise 1.3 Complete these sentences with the words you choose
from within the brackets.
1. A specific drug can _________the body in more than one way.
(attack, affect, kill)
2. Desirable effects are called __________or beneficial responses.
(adverse, intermediate, therapeutic)
3. Drugs may build up to dangerous _________in the kidneys
and liver and damage these organs. (things, effects, levels)
4. When taken together, drugs can ________with one another
and produce desirable or undesirable results. (compete, react,
interact)
5. Some drugs have an _______ effect—that is, they increase the
effect of other drugs. (addictive, adverse, additive)
6. Other drugs have a reducing effect—that is, they _______with
the action of drugs already present in the body. (interfere, compete,
compare)
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7. Missing doses, taking drugs at the wrong time of the day or
with instead of before meals, and stopping drug use too soon can
markedly___________ the medical benefits of many drugs. (reduce,
increase, cause)
8. Drug ________ is characterized by taking more than the
recommended dose of prescription drugs. (interaction, resistance,
abuse)
9. Drug ________ is marked by a compulsive craving for a
substance. (addiction, addition, metabolism)
10. Genetic factors may__________ people to drug addiction.
(cause, make, predispose)

2. COMPREHENSION

Exercise 2.1 Match the words or phrases on the left with their
related parts on the right.

[Link] microsurgery, a. help surgeons have improved

surgeons view the operating views of the operating field and
field through a microscope experience reduced eye strain.
that magnifies the area from 6
to 40 times…

[Link] operating microscope b. so the progress of a microsurgical

has several binocular procedure can be viewed on a
eyepieces … television monitor by other members
of the surgical team or medical
students
3. Many operating c. so that more than one person can
microscopes are equipped participate in the surgery.
with television cameras…

4. Three-dimensional d. providing a functional look at

on-screen microsurgery nerves and blood vessels too small to
system (TOMS) utilizing see clearly with the naked eye.
two cameras in a video
microscope …

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Exercise 2.2. Answer the following questions.
1. In what field is microsurgery the most useful?
2. How can the surgeon see the minute blood vessels during the
operation?
3. Does the television monitor help the surgeon in performing
the operation?
4. Besides usefulness in an operation, what are the other fields
which benefit from microsurgery?
Exercise 2.3. Multiple Choice Test.
1. Microsurgery is performed ................
a. to remove the tumor of any kind and any place
b. for the healing of broken bones
c. only in the operating room and not in any fields
d. for cutting out a tumor from sites which are difficult to
access.
2. A surgeon can perform microsurgery thanks to ....................
a. a microscope with several binocular eyepieces
b. special magnifying glasses for the surgeons
c. television cameras connected to operating microscopes
d. all of these
3. An operation possibly done on micronerves is the result of
...................
a. advanced techniques in microsurgery
b. experiences in conventional surgery
c. specialized surgical instruments
d. a and c
4. Microsurgery can be performed without a microscope since
...................
a. there was a revolution in medicine
b. there was development in modern computer technology
c. there were two kinds of modern cameras
d. there were one or more television monitors
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5. TOMS is useful for surgeons to perform microsurgery because
................
a. views of the operating field are better
b. they have to concentrate more
c. the stress on eyes can be reduced
d. a and c
Exercise 2.3 Fill in the blanks with the words given: bypass, impact,
implantation, leak, paralysis, prevent, separate, surgery
The development of microsurgery has had a strong ________on
several types of brain operations. For example, neurosurgeons at
Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore recently announced the
results of a study of patients with brain aneurysms. (An aneurysm
is a weakness in an artery that can bubble out and ______blood.)
It was reported that 90 percent of the aneurysm patients treated by
microsurgery were completely cured, compared with 50 percent of
those treated by _________involving unmagnified vision. Another
study showed that microsurgery ________strokes better than does
drug treatment, by permitting the _________of a stretch of artery
into the brain to _________a blocked blood vessel.
Additional uses for microsurgery continue to be found. For
example, surgeons have reported a new technique for treating spina
bifida, a condition in which a sac of spinal fluid protrudes from the
spinal column, causing_________. By using microsurgery, physicians
were able to __________nerves from the sac and then remove the
sac without destroying them.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS
3.1. Explain the meaning of the following word groups: operating
room, operating field, magnifying glasses, magnifying microscope, life-
threatening, high-powered binocular microscope

3.2. Study the underlined phrases.

1. Continued improvements in both operating microscopes and
surgical instruments have made possible microsurgical procedures
involving even smaller blood vessels and nerves.
2. Known as three-dimensional on-screen microsurgery system this
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procedure utilizes two cameras in a video microscope that project
a magnified three-dimensional image on one or more television
monitors.
4. DIALOGUE
A: My sister had an amazing operation—microsurgery.
B: What happened to her?
A: She had lost some bone in her leg because of a bad accident
2 months ago, and it wasn’t healing well. Also the leg was going
to be too short.
B: How could microsurgery help that?
A: They took a piece of bone along with its blood vessels from
another part of her leg and grafted it into the area of missing bone.
The “micro-“part was the repair of the tiny arteries and veins. They
said it should heal in about 3 months.

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Lesson 12

Preventive medicine

Preventive
Medicine is a
medical specialty that
promotes1 health and
prevents illness. In
the late 20th century
this specialty gained
importance as United States public health officials2 became concerned
about the increasing cost of health care. Preventive medicine3
strategies can focus on the population or on individuals.
Population-based Programs
Historically, the first preventive strategies were based on the
awareness that disease transmission4 can be stopped by public
hygiene5 measures such as quarantining6 people who are ill, removing
the dead, and providing sewage systems. A major advance was
the discovery that immunization can protect people against many
infectious diseases.
Preventive medicine is also concerned with chronic7 disease and
has developed such measures as screening8 programs to identify
individuals with high blood pressure9 and those who have breast
or cervical cancer10. Unfortunately, screening for lung cancer has
not been as successful.
Governments have attempted to prevent disease by requiring
greater purity of air and water and by prohibiting the use of food
additives11 that cause cancer in animals. Federal regulations in the
United States also promote safety in the workplace, for example, by
requiring the removal of accident hazards and by limiting employees’
exposure to chemicals and radiation12.

102
Individual Action
Researchers in human health problems also uncover actions
that people can take individually to improve their health. Primary
among these are maintaining a nutritious13 and balanced diet14 with
a low fat content, getting sufficient sleep and regular exercise, and
having periodic medical and dental examinations. Many physicians
recommend reducing the intake of cholesterol in the diet to cut down
heart disease. Dentists have introduced the application of fluoride
to children’s teeth to prevent tooth decay15. Public health officials
also stress the use of automobile seat belts, especially for children.
Physicians and health officials encourage people to stop smoking as
the most effective way to combat the increasing occurrence of lung
cancer. People are also encouraged to wear sunscreens and avoid
prolonged exposure16to sunlight in an effort to prevent skin cancers,
although these measures have been found to be ineffective against
melanoma17, the most deadly form of skin cancer. Some scientists
advocate the massive use of vitamin C to prevent colds and the use
of vitamins A and E to prevent some cancers, but these measures
remain controversial.
1. NEW WORDS
• promote • health officials • preventive medicine • disease transmission
• hygiene • quarantine • chronic • screening • blood pressure • cervical
cancer • food additives • radiation • nutritious • diet • tooth decay •
exposure • melanoma
1. promote làm tăng: Promoting healthy lifestyles is a challenge
for many primary care practices. Health promotion is more than just
promoting good health behavior.
2. health official nhân viên y tế : Public health officials have
an important responsibility to promote the practice of public health.
Medical Officer of Health, Medical Health Officer or District
Medical Officer, is a title commonly used for the senior government
official of a health department or agency, usually at a municipal,
county/district, state/province, or regional level.
3. preventive medicine y học/y tế dự phòng: Generally speaking,
preventive medicine is that part of medicine engaged with preventing
disease rather than curing it. The Department of Preventive Medicine
aims to improve the health of individuals and populations through
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translational research, education and training, community outreach
and promotion of public health.
4. transmission sự lây tuyền (bệnh) : In medicine, transmission
is the passing of a disease from an infected individual or group to
a previously uninfected individual or group. Transmission through
kissing on the mouth carries a very low risk, and no evidence has
been found that the virus is spread through saliva by kissing.
5. hygiene vệ sinh: Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the
mouth clean and healthy by brushing and flossing to prevent tooth
decay and gum disease. Effective Hand Hygiene is the single most
important strategy in preventing health care associated infections.
6. quarantine (sự) cách li Disease transmission can be stopped
by public hygiene measures such as quarantining people who are
ill. The patient was kept in quarantine for six days.
7. chronic mạn(tính), kinh niên: She ​suffers from chronic ​pain
in her ​knees. Chronic diseases are the major cause of death and
disability worldwide.
8. screening tầm soát: Screening, in medicine, is a strategy
used in a population to identify the possible presence of an as-yet-
undiagnosed disease in individuals without signs or symptoms. A
screening test is done to detect potential health disorders or diseases
in people who do not have any symptoms of disease.
9. blood pressure huyết áp, áp huyết: Blood pressure is a
measurement of the force applied to the walls of the arteries as
the heart pumps blood through the body. Normal blood pressure is
below 120/80; blood pressure between 120/80 and 139/89 is called
“pre–hypertension”, and a blood pressure of 140/90 or above is
considered high.
10. cervical cancer ung thư cổ tử cung: Cervical cancer is a
disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the
cervix. Cancer of the cervix is the second most common cancer in
women worldwide and is a leading cause of cancer-related death
in women in underdeveloped countries.
11. food additive phụ gia thực phẩm: Food additives enhance flavor
and add color to everyday foods. Over the years, the safety of many
food additives, from food dyes to trans fats, has come into question.
104
12. radiation bức xạ: Many s​ ervicemen s​ uffered radiation s​ ickness
after the early ​atomic ​tests. There is a link between exposure to
radiation and childhood cancer.
13. nutritious bổ dưỡng: Raw ​spinach is ​especially nutritious.
Eating healthy, nutritious foods helps keep the metabolism high and
provides more nutrients for health and greater energy levels.
14. diet sự ăn kiêng: The ​doctor put me on a low-salt diet to​
reduce my ​blood ​pressure. A good diet ​helps ​build the body’s ​natural​
defences.
15. tooth decay bệnh sâu răng: Tooth decay, also known as dental
decay or dental caries, is when acids in your mouth dissolve the
outer layers of your teeth. Dental decay happens when the enamel
and dentine of a tooth become softened by acid attack after you
have eaten or drunk anything containing sugars.
16. exposure phơi nhiễm, tiếp xúc không có bảo vệ: Even a ​brief
exposure to ​radiation is very ​dangerous. She ​gradually ​became ​deaf
after ​lengthy exposure to ​noise in the ​workplace.
17. melanoma u hắc tố: Melanoma is the most serious type of
skin cancer. Melanoma is almost always curable in its early stages,
but it is also likely to spread to other parts of the body such as the
lymph nodes, liver, lungs or brain.
Exercise 1.1 Complete the sentences with the most suitable words.
1. Preventive Medicine (produces/ nourishes/ promotes) health
and prevents illness.
2. Public (awareness/hygiene/ opinion) of AIDS has helped to
limit the spread of the disease.
3. (Divorce/ Separation/ Quarantine) is the period of time during
which a person or an animal that may have a disease is kept separate
from other people or animals so that the disease does not have a chance
to spread.
4. When you (study/see/screen) some people, you question or
examine them carefully in order to make sure that they do not have
a particular disease.
5. The use of food additives that cause cancer must be (promoted/
prohibited/ encouraged).
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6. Serious (measures / attempts / lessons) have been made by
local health authorities to prevent the epidemic of cholera from
spreading further.
7. When a person knows or suspects (exposure/reaction/similarity)
to rabies virus, a number of actions should be taken rapidly but
carefully.
8. Many physicians (oppose/deny/recommend) reducing the intake
of cholesterol in the diet to cut down heart disease.
9. People are (encouraged/unwilling/pleased) to stop smoking
as the most effective way to combat the increasing occurrence of
lung cancer.
10. The Ministry of Health has just announced the latest (measures/
regulations/credits) concerning drug trading.
Exercise 1.2 Find a word in the passage for each definition given.
1. Something added to a substance, esp. food, to improve it or
to preserve it. (__________)
2. Long-range plans for achieving something or reaching a goal,
or the skill of making such plans. (__________)
3. To recognize or be able to name someone or something, or to
prove who or what someone or something is. (__________)
4. To try to make or do something (__________)
5. Something that could be dangerous to you, your health, or
safety. (__________)
6. A situation or condition that makes someone likely to be
harmed, esp. because they have not been protected from something
dangerous. (__________)
7. Happening repeatedly although not necessarily frequently.
(__________)
2. COMPREHENSION

2.1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are population-based programs?
2. What must be done to prevent disease and illness from
developing?
106
3. What should individuals do to improve their health?
4. What is melanoma?
5. What is the main point of the passage?
6. Why did preventive medicine begin to gain importance in the
late 20th century?
7. What is the aim of preventive medicine and how is it carried out?
8. What are the measures taken by the government to prevent
diseases?
9. What are the benefits of preventive medicine for
individuals?
2.2. Completion

2.2.1. Complete the following statements.

1. For the purpose of preventing disease transmission, some
measures have to be carried out such as ….................people
with infectious diseases or providing good sanitation and sewage
system.
2. Avoiding or ................the use of food additives which are
considered harmful is one of the …............. to prevent disease.
3. A beneficial advance in medicine is the ................of immunization
that can help protect people from disease.
4. Individuals also play their active ................in preventive
medicine.
5. People can help prevent skin cancer by wearing sunscreens or
avoiding.................. to sunlight.
2.2.2. Complete the following passage with the appropriate words
in parenthesis (available, diagnostic, disorder, fulfilled, form,
identification, prevalence, problem, remedy, risk )
Screening is the_________, among apparently healthy individuals,
of those who are sufficiently at ________from a specific _________to
justify a subsequent _______test or procedure, or, in certain cases,
intervention. Screening tests may take the ________of inquiry or
may take the form of a special test. Before screening can provide
an effective means of disease prevention, certain criteria need to
be __________. A knowledge of the disorder being screened for,

107
including its ________and natural history, is needed to ensure
that the disease is sufficiently common and serious to represent an
important medical________. The screening test must be simple,
cheap, acceptable and safe, and facilities must be _______to provide
the screening service and the consequent________.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS
Exercise 3.1. Explain the use of gerundial phrases in the following
sentences.
a. Historically, the first preventive strategies were based on the
awareness that disease transmission can be stopped by public hygiene
measures such as quarantining people who are ill, removing the dead,
and providing sewage systems.
b. Primary among these are maintaining a nutritious and balanced
diet with a low fat content, getting sufficient sleep and regular
exercise, and having periodic medical and dental examinations.
c. Many physicians recommend reducing the intake of cholesterol
in the diet to cut down heart disease.
3.2. Give the correct form of the words in the parentheses.
Historically, the first preventive strategies were based on the
awareness that disease transmission can be stopped by public hygiene
measures such as (quarantine) _______ people who are ill, (remove)
________ the dead, and (provide) ___________ sewage systems.
A major advance was the discovery that immunization can protect
people against many infectious diseases.
Preventive medicine is also concerned with chronic disease and
has developed such measures as screening programs to identify
individuals with high blood pressure and those who have breast or
cervical cancer. Unfortunately, (screen) ________for lung cancer
has not been as successful.
Governments have attempted to prevent disease by requiring greater
purity of air and water and by (prohibit) ________the use of food
additives that cause cancer in animals. Federal regulations in the
United States also promote safety in the workplace, for example, by
(require) ________ the removal of accident hazards and by (limit)
________ employees’ exposure to chemicals and radiation.
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4. DIALOGUE
A: I see you haven’t given up smoking yet.
B: I have about decided to quit. I just heard that about 50 million
people have died from tobacco use. We get immunization to prevent
other diseases, so it makes sense to prevent illness by a simple
change of behavior. Even so, it isn’t easy!
A: The government helps prevent diseases by clean water and
laws concerning food preparation. But the most useful activities are
correct behavior on our parts. For example, there is a “vaccine”
for AIDS that we have known about for 20 years, and it is free!
It is safe behavior. Also a wiser diet would reduce diabetes and
heart disease. And the use of sunscreen and hats would reduce the
incidence of Melanoma.

109
Lesson 13

Anesthesia
Anesthesia is loss of
sensation 1 , especially the
sensation of touch. It can be
general (affecting the entire
body and usually accompanied
by loss of consciousness) or
local (affecting limited areas of
the body). The condition may be
the result of damage to nerves
or nerve centers by disease or injury, or it may be intentionally induced
by the administration of drugs for the prevention or relief2 of pain.
General Anesthesia
Surgical anesthesia (complete general anesthesia3, characterized
by muscular paralysis sufficient to permit surgical manipulation4) is
produced by inhalation5 anesthetics6: gases or volatile7 liquids such as
cyclopropane, nitrous oxide, halothane, and enflurane. The anesthetic,
usually mixed with oxygen, is either inhaled or administered into
the windpipe through a tube.
Modern anesthesia almost always involves a combination
of agents8. Before administering the inhalation anesthetic, the
anesthesiologist might give intravenously9 a short-acting barbiturate
such as pentobarbital or sodium pentothal (more properly called
thiopental sodium or thiopentone), or an antianxiety10 drug such
as diazepam, to induce unconsciousness. A narcotic analgesic11
such as meperidine or fentanyl may be used in addition. To allow
the use of smaller amounts of the inhalation anesthetic, special
muscle-paralyzing12 drugs are given. These include tubocurarine,
gallamine, and succinylcholine. The combination of a narcotic, a
barbiturate, a muscle-paralyzing drug, and nitrous oxide is called
balanced anesthesia. Because muscular activity is prevented in all
these procedures, the anesthesiologist must induce breathing in the
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patient mechanically.
Surgical anesthesia must continue throughout the operation, but
prolonged anesthetization13 can kill, paralyzing first the respiratory
system and then the heart. The correct level is maintained by constant
monitoring of the patient’s condition and increasing or decreasing
the dosage as needed.
Thiopental sodium in small doses is sometimes used in psychiatry
because it allows patients to talk uninhibitedly. This quality has also
given the drug some value in law enforcement as a “truth serum.”
Local Anesthesia
Some surgical procedures do not require total muscular14 relaxation
and can be performed using local anesthetics, which temporarily block
nerve conduction without damaging nerve fibers. Local anesthesia is
produced by injecting into the tissues to be affected a solution of a
natural alkaloid such as cocaine, the oldest of all local anesthetics,
or a synthetic agent such as procaine, widely known under the trade
name Novocain, or lidocaine (Xylocaine).
Block anesthesia, a much more extensive local anesthesia, is
produced by injecting the agent into a nerve trunk, next to a nerve,
or all around the operative field, thereby deadening the entire area.
The best-known block15 anesthesia is probably the spinal block,
produced by injecting an anesthetic into the spinal canal16.
A mild local anesthesia, useful in many minor dental and medical
procedures, can be produced by numbing17 the tissues with cold,
either by applying ice or by spraying with a volatile liquid such as
ethyl chloride.
1. NEW WORDS
• sensation • relief • general • anesthesia • manipulation • inhalation
• anesthetic • volatile • agents • intravenously • antianxiety • analgesic
• paralyzing • anesthetization • muscular • block • spinal canal
• numbing
1. sensation cảm giác: In medicine pain relates to a sensation
that hurts. If you feel pain when it hurts, you feel discomfort, distress
and perhaps agony, depending on the severity of it. Pain is the
most common reason that people seek medical attention. But pain
is actually hard to define because it’s a subjective sensation.

111
2. relief sự giảm (đau), cảm giác yên tâm: Massage can bring
some relief from tension. New advances in drugs and technology
means there are now better solutions for chronic pain relief.
3. general anesthesia sự gây mê toàn thân: General anesthesia is
the induction of a state of unconsciousness with the absence of pain
sensation over the entire body, through the administration of anesthetic
drugs. General anesthesia is much safer today than it was in the past,
thanks to faster-acting anesthetics, improved safety standards in the
equipment used to deliver the drugs, and better devices to monitor
breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and brain activity during surgery.
4. manipulation thao tác, thủ thuật, sự xoa nắn: Osteopathy​
involves ​massage and manipulation of the ​bones and ​joints.
Manipulation under anesthesia is a technique for treating stiffness
and poor range of motion following total knee arthroplasty (TKA)
or knee revision surgery.
5. inhalation sự hít, thở (vào): Surgical anesthesia is produced
by inhalation anesthetics. Hundreds of children were treated for
smoke inhalation.
6. anesthetic thuốc gây tê, mê: A local anesthetic causes loss
of feeling in a part of the body and a general anesthetic puts the
person to sleep. Anesthetic effects are seen within 15 minutes of
administration and may last from 45 minutes to several hours,
depending on the drug used. The anesthetic, usually mixed with oxygen,
is either inhaled or administered into the windpipe through a tube.
7. volatile dễ bay hơi: Volatile organic compounds are organic
chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at ordinary room
temperature. Although mercury doesn’t evaporate at normal
temperatures, some would call it volatile, since it is the only metal
that is liquid at room temperature.
8. agent tác nhân, thuốc: Modern anesthesia almost always
involves a combination of agents. More than 600 US troops since
2003 reported that they were exposed to chemical agents in Iraq.
Aspirin as a therapeutic agent can reduce risks of occlusive vascular
events by inhibiting platelet aggregation.
9. intravenously qua (đường) tĩnh mạch: Before administering the
inhalation anesthetic, the anesthesiologist might give intravenously
a short-acting barbiturate such as pentobarbital or sodium pentothal

112
to induce unconsciousness. If a baby’s gastrointestinal (GI) tract is
immature, she will have to be fed a nutritious substance called total
parenteral nutrition intravenously.
10. anti-anxiety chống, điều trị lo âu : An anxiolytic (also antipanic
or antianxiety agent) is a medication or other intervention that inhibits
anxiety. There are a variety of treatments available for controlling
anxiety, including several effective anti-anxiety medications and
specific forms of psychotherapy.
11. analgesic (thuốc) giảm đau: An analgesic or painkiller is any
member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from
pain. Analgesics may be classified into two types: anti-inflammatory
drugs, which alleviate pain by reducing local inflammatory responses;
and the opioids, which act on the brain.
12. paralyzing gây liệt: To allow the use of smaller amounts of the
inhalation anesthetic, special muscle-paralyzing drugs are given.
13. anesthetization sự gây tê: Laryngeal anesthetization was
achieved via a transcutaneous lidocaine injection. The test was
repeated after separate anesthetization of the skin and stomach with
lidocaine and after using normal saline instead of lidocaine.
14. muscular thuộc cơ: Muscular dystrophy is usually seen in
children before the age of 5, with weakness typically affecting the
shoulder and pelvic muscle as one of the initial symptoms. Weakness
is reduced strength in one or more muscles. Weakness may be all
over the body or in only one area.
15. block sự phong bế; sự tắc nghẽn: The best- known block
anesthesia is probably the spinal block, produced by injecting
an anesthetic into the spinal canal. Spinal anaesthesia (or
spinal anesthesia), also called spinal analgesia, spinal block or
subarachnoid block, is a form of regional anaesthesia involving
injection of a local anaesthetic into the subarachnoid space, generally
through a fine needle.
16. spinal canal ống (tuỷ) sống: Spurs (small growths) may
develop on the bones and into the spinal canal. Spinal stenosis is
an abnormal narrowing (stenosis) of the spinal canal that may occur
in any of the regions of the spine.
17. numb gây tê, làm tê: A mild local anesthesia, useful in many
minor dental and medical procedures, can be produced by numbing

113
the tissues with cold, either by applying ice or by spraying with a
volatile liquid such as ethyl chloride.
Exercise 1.1. Choose the suitable word to complete each sentence:
1. Surgical anesthesia is produced by (inhalation/ proprietary/
modern) anesthetics.
2. The anesthetic, usually mixed with oxygen, is either inhaled or
(exhaled/ inserted/ administered) into the windpipe through
a tube.
3. The (administration/ combination/ order) of a narcotic, a
barbiturate, a muscle-paralyzing drug, and nitrous oxide is
called balanced anesthesia.
4. Surgical anesthesia must continue throughout the operation,
but (weakened/ prolonged/ limited) anesthetization can kill,
paralyzing first the respiratory system and then the heart.
5. Before administering the inhalation anesthetic, the anesthesiologist
might give (intrathecally/ intramuscularly/ intravenously) a
short-acting barbiturate to induce unconsciousness.
6. Some surgical (procedures/ necks/ spirits) do not require total
muscular relaxation.
7. (General/ Block/ Local) anesthesia is produced by injecting
into the tissues to be affected a solution of a natural alkaloid
such as cocaine.
8. A mild local anesthesia, useful in many minor dental and medical
procedures, can be produced by (irritating/ stimulating/
numbing) the tissues with cold.
Exercise 1.2. Find words in the passage which mean:
1. on purpose ( ____________ )
2. make (something) possible ( ____________ )
3. to include (someone or something) in an activity (__________)
4. cause (something) to happen ( ___________)
5. not allow to become less ( ___________ )
6. to reduce the severity or effect of (something) ( ____________)
Exercise 1.3. Complete the sentences with the words you’ve just
learned.

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1. The anesthesiologist began to have the patient ________ the drug.
2. The operation __________ inserting a small tube into the heart.
3. If the doctor _________labor or birth, he causes labor to begin
by the use of drugs or by other medical means.
4. The nurse is __________ the patient’s heart rate and
respiration.
5. If something ________you or a part of your body, it prevents
you from feeling pain or any other physical sensation.
2. COMPREHENSION:
2.1. Match the information provided on the left with its correspondent
completion on the right.

1. General anesthesia … a. the tissues to be affected a solution of

a natural alkaloid such as cocaine.
2. Surgical anesthesia …. b. special muscle-paralyzing drugs are
given.
3. To allow the use of smaller c. is complete general anesthesia,
amounts of the inhalation characterized by muscular paralysis
anesthetic, sufficient to permit surgical
manipulation.
4. Local anesthesia is d. the agent into a nerve trunk, next to a
produced by injecting into … nerve, or all around the operative field,
thereby deadening the entire area.

5. Block anesthesia, is e. affects the entire body and is usually

produced by injecting ….. accompanied by loss of consciousness.

2.2. Fill each blanks with a suitable word you choose from the
following word list: acupuncture, administering, combination, deadens,
induced, inhaled, limited, performed, procedures, reducing
Anesthesia is loss of feeling or sensation in a part or all of the
body. Anesthesia of a part of the body may occur as a result of
injury or disease of a nerve, for example, in leprosy. The term is
applied, however, to the medical technique of ____________an
individual’s sensation of pain to enable surgery to be___________.
This is affected by _________drugs or by the use of other methods,
such as __________ or hypnosis.

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General anesthesia is total unconsciousness, usually achieved
by administering a ____________of injections and gases (the later
is __________through a mask). It is ___________for such major
operations as removal of the stomach or a lung.
Local anesthesia abolishes pain in a _________area of the body
and is used for minor operations, particularly many dental__________.
It may be achieved by injections of substances such as lidocaine
(commonly used in dentistry) close to a local nerve, which
__________the tissue supplied by that nerve. Local anesthesia may
be combined with intravenous sedation.
2.3. Answer the following questions.
1. Under what conditions is anesthesia required?
2. What is one characteristic of modern anesthesia?
3. How can the correct level of anesthesia be kept during an
operation?
4. When is local anesthesia needed?
2.4. Complete the following sentences.
1. General anesthesia can be used on a patient with either
.....................or administration into the windpipe through a tube.
2. Modern anesthesia is said to be safe for the patient because it
involves a ................ of agents and procedures.
3. Before the patient inhales an anesthetic, a short-acting barbiturate
is ............... intravenously to induce.......................
4. In order to prevent an incident that might kill the patient,
the anesthesiologist needs to................. the patient and increase or
.................the dosage.
5. Block anesthesia is also a kind of ................anesthesia which
is performed by ....................an anesthetic into the spinal canal.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

Exercise 3.1. Explain the use of the underlined words or phrases.

1. Before administering the inhalation anesthetic, the
anesthesiologist might give intravenously a short-acting barbiturate
such as pentobarbital or sodium pentothal.
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2. To allow the use of smaller amounts of the inhalation anesthetic,
special muscle-paralyzing drugs are given.
3. Prolonged anesthetization can kill, paralyzing first the
respiratory system and then the heart.
4. Block anesthesia, a much more extensive local anesthesia, is
produced by injecting the agent into a nerve trunk, next to a nerve, or
all around the operative field, thereby deadening the entire area.
Exercise 3.2. Complete the sentences in the following paragraph
with the words you choose from this list: all, into (3), more, thereby,
which, without, under.
Some surgical procedures do not require total muscular relaxation
and can be performed using local anesthetics, ______temporarily block
nerve conduction ______damaging nerve fibers. Local anesthesia is
produced by injecting ______the tissues to be affected a solution of
a natural alkaloid such as cocaine, the oldest of all local anesthetics,
or a synthetic agent such as procaine, widely known ______the trade
name Novocain, or lidocaine (Xylocaine).
Block anesthesia, a much ______extensive local anesthesia, is
produced by injecting the agent _____ a nerve trunk, next to a nerve,
or ______around the operative field, _______deadening the entire
area. The best-known block anesthesia is probably the spinal block,
produced by injecting an anesthetic ______ the spinal canal.
4. DIALOGUE
A: When I have my surgery I want to be completely out—
unconscious!
B: There are good alternatives, though, if you are concerned
about the risks.
A: If you are talking about local anesthesia, I’m not sure it works
very well.
B: They are getting better at nerve block techniques. They paralyze
the muscles well and numb the area completely. If you are worried
about what you see or hear, they can give sedative injections that
make you quite unconscious as well. But you can still breathe on
your own.

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Lesson 14

Acupuncture

Acupuncture 1 is an ancient
Chinese medical procedure involving
insertion and manipulation of needles
at more than 360 points2 in the human
body. Applied to relieve pain during
surgery or in rheumatic3 conditions,
and to treat many other illnesses,
acupuncture is used today in most
hospitals in China and by some
private practitioners in Japan and
elsewhere, including the United States.
Acupressure4, a variant in which
the practitioner uses manipulation rather than penetration to alleviate5
pain or other symptoms, is in widespread use in Japan and has begun
to find adherents in the U.S. Also known as shiatsu6, acupressure
is administered by pressing with the fingertips—and sometimes the
elbows or knees—along a complex network of trigger points7 in the
patient’s body.
History
Acupuncture needles dating from 4,000 years ago have been found
in China. The first needles were stone; later, bronze, gold, or silver
were used, and today needles are usually made of steel. Initially,
needles were used only to prick boils and ulcers. Acupuncture was
developed in response to the theory that there are special “meridian
points” on the body connected to the internal organs and that “vital
energy” flows along the meridian lines. According to this theory,
diseases are caused by interrupted energy flow and inserting and
twirling8 needles restores normal flow.

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Treatment
The primary use of acupuncture in China today is for surgical
analgesia. Chinese surgeons estimate that 30 percent of surgical
patients obtain adequate analgesia with acupuncture, which is now
done by sending electrical current through the needles rather than by
twirling them. American physicians who have observed surgery done
under acupuncture have verified that it is effective in some patients,
but put the figure closer to 10 percent. Brain surgery is especially
amenable to this form of analgesia9. Chinese surgeons claim that
acupuncture is superior to Western, drug-induced analgesia in that
it does not disturb normal body physiology and therefore does not
make the patient vulnerable10 to shock.
Chinese doctors also treat some forms of heart disease with
acupuncture. As part of an attempt to put the practice on a more
scientific basis, they studied the effects of acupuncture treatment
on more than 600 people with chest pain caused by reduced blood
flow to the heart. They claimed that almost all the patients greatly
reduced their use of medicine and that most were able to resume work.
Other physiological conditions treated with acupuncture are ulcer11,
hypertension12 (high blood pressure), appendicitis, and asthma13.
How acupuncture works remains uncertain. Both Western and
Eastern scientists have shown, by producing acupuncture analgesia in
rabbits, that the effects are not simply a matter of suggestion. After
the discovery in 1975 of enkephalins and endorphins (natural pain
inhibitors14 in the body), some neurophysiologists15 suggested that the
needles may trigger the release of one or more of these substances,
which inhibit pain signals by blocking their pathway through the spinal
cord. This view is supported by both American and Chinese studies
showing that placing acupuncture needles in certain parts of the brain
of dogs causes a rise in the level of endorphins in the spinal fluid.
Scientists in the U.S. have also shown that acupuncture analgesia
is at least partly reversible by naloxone, a drug that blocks the
action of morphine and morphine-like chemicals such as endorphins.
1. NEW WORDS
• acupuncture • points • rheumatic • acupressure • alleviate • shiatsu
• trigger points • twirling • analgesia • vulnerable • ulcer • hypertension
• asthma • inhibitors • neurophysiologists

119
1. acupuncture (thuật) châm cứu: Acupuncture is the stimulation
of specific points on the body by a variety of techniques, including
the insertion of thin metal needles though the skin. Acupuncture
is particularly effective for pain relief and for post-surgery and
chemotherapy-associated nausea and vomiting.
2. point huyệt Acupuncture is the stimulation of special points
on the body, usually by the insertion of fine needles. In East Asian
countries practitioners commonly refer to acupuncture points by
their traditional names. Some points have several names.
3. rheumatic (thuộc) bệnh thấp: Rheumatism or Rheumatic
disorder is a non-specific term for medical problems affecting the
heart, bones, joints, kidney, skin and lung. Rheumatic fever and
rheumatic heart disease are major causes of death and disability
in developing countries.
4. acupressure day, bấm huyệt: Used for thousands of years in
China, acupressure applies the same principles as acupuncture to
promote relaxation and wellness and to treat disease. Acupressure
is the art of treating diseases by applying pressure on specific points
of the body by using one’s thumb or other unpointed things.
5. alleviate làm giảm: Aspirin is used to alleviate, or relieve,
pain. The agents can also be used to prevent, alleviate, or eliminate
symptoms associated with the disease.
6. shiatsu bấm huyệt, phương pháp xoa bóp bấm huyệt: Shiastsu
is a form of accupressure. Shiastsu technique involves stretching,
holding and leaning body weight into various part of the recipients
body to improve energy flow, blood circulation .
7. trigger point điểm kích thích: Myofascial trigger points, also
known as trigger points, are described as hyperirritable spots in
the fascia surrounding skeletal muscle. Trigger point injection is
a technique used in the treatment of painful areas of muscle that
contain trigger points.
8. twirling vê (kim): Diseases are caused by interrupted energy
flow and inserting and twirling needles restores normal flow. Proficient
acupuncturists are capable of inserting and removing the needles
quickly, and also twirling or rotating the needles flexibly.
9. analgesia sự giảm đau: Sedation and analgesia are often used
in critical care for patients to alleviate pain, anxiety, and stress.

120
Hypnotic analgesia is a powerful tool having the ability to relieve
pain even in such severe cases as surgery, child birth, and in the
treatment of cancer patients.
10. vulnerable dễ bị (tổn thương): New research shows that
inhaling nicotine as a vapor through e-cigarettes may damage the
lungs, making them vulnerable to infection. When is a baby’s
immune system most vulnerable to infection?
11. ulcer loét: An ulcer is the result of an imbalance between
aggressive and defensive factors. Peptic ulcers are ulcers that form
in the stomach or the upper part of the small intestine, called the
duodenum.
12. hypertension (high blood pressure) huyết áp cao, cao huyết
áp: Hypertension may be suspected when the blood pressure is high
at any single measurement. Persistent hypertension is one of the risk
factors for strokes, heart attacks, heart failure and arterial aneurysm,
and is a leading cause of chronic renal failure.
13. asthma hen: Asthma is a chronic (long-lasting) inflammatory
disease of the airways. Asthma can begin at any age, but most
children experience their first symptoms by the time they are five
years old.
14. inhibitor chất ức chế: ACE inhibitors (angiotensin converting
enzyme) can be used for blood pressure control and congestive heart
failure. Enzyme inhibitor, a substance that binds to an enzyme and
decreases the enzyme’s activity.
15. neurophysiologist bác sĩ chuyên khoa sinh lý học thần kinh:
Neurophysiologists diagnose and monitor disorders which affect the
brain and nervous system of patients, for example epilepsy, strokes…
Dr Sushma Goyal is consultant children’s clinical neurophysiologist.
Her area of expertise is seizures and epilepsy in newborn babies
and children.
Exercise 1.1: Choose a word from within the parentheses to complete
each sentence.
1. There are more than 360 (holes/marks/points) in the human
body.
2. Acupuncture is a method of producing analgesia by (inserting/
putting/warming) fine, wire-thin needles into the skin at specific

121
sites on the body.
3. Acupressure, a (change/variant/alteration) of acupuncture,
is administered by pressing with the fingertips—and sometimes the
elbows or knees—along a complex network of trigger points in the
patient’s body.
4. In acupuncture, special needles are inserted into the skin at
specific sites on the body along a series of lines or channels called
(points/media/meridians).
5. Acupuncture is now done by sending electrical current through
the needles rather than by (manipulating/inserting/twirling)
them.
6. It has been (denied/rumored/verified) that acupuncture is
effective in some patients, but the exact percentage is still being
debated.
7. Chinese surgeons (claim/warn/suggest) that acupuncture is
superior to Western, drug-induced analgesia.
8. It was claimed that almost all the patients treated with
acupuncture greatly reduced their use of medicine and that most
were able to (find/resume /finish) work.
Exercise 1.2 Find a word in the passage that means:
1. to control in a skillful way: ____________
2. to make less severe: ______________
3. to check that it is true by careful study or investigation:
__________
4. to state that (something) is true or is a fact:
_______________
5. to stay in the same condition or state: _____________
6. to block: ________
2. COMPREHENSION

Exercise 2.1 Answer the following questions.

1. How is acupuncture different from acupressure?
2. Why is acupuncture thought to have more advantages than
modern drugs?
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3. What are some disadvantages of acupuncture that you can
think of?
Exercise 2.2. Fill the blank with one appropriate word.
1. Acupuncture is .................. to reduce pain and to treat many
other diseases as well as to help operations to be performed
successfully.
2. Acupressure today is used ..................... in many countries,
including Asian and European ones, and there are also ..................
in the United States.
3. Fingertips are the means ................... to press along a complex
network of trigger points in the patient’s body.
4. It is believed that there are special points on the body that
have a ..................... to the internal organs and from these points
flow the vital energy of the body.
5. American physicians have also verified the effect of acupuncture
on some patients during operations but they consider the .....................
is only 10 percent.
Exercise 2.3. Complete the following statement with the information
that you already know.
1. Acupuncture is an oriental medical procedure involving
______________.
2. Acupuncture is applied to ___________.
3. The primary use of acupuncture in China today is for surgical
analgesia, but this medical procedure is also used to __________.
4. Naloxone is a drug that blocks ____________.
5. The passage is mainly about ___________.

Exercise 2.4. Fill the blanks with the words given below.
Acupuncture is a ________ Chinese system of healing in which
symptoms are _________ by thin metal needles inserted into selected
_________ beneath the skin. The needles are stimulated either by
rotation or, more recently, by an electric________. Recent hypotheses
suggest that the needling activates deep sensory nerves, which
cause the pituitary and midbrain to ________endorphin, the brain’s
natural pain-killers. Acupuncture is widely used in the Far East for
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the _______of pain and in China itself has become an alternative
to anesthesia for some ________operations. Acupuncturists in the
West may be medically ______but many are not.
( current, major, points, qualified, release, relieved, relief,
traditional)

3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

Explain why the underlined phrases are placed at the beginning

of the sentence.
a. Applied to relieve pain during surgery or in rheumatic conditions,
and to treat many other illnesses, acupuncture is used today in most
hospitals in China and by some private practitioners in Japan and
elsewhere, including the United States.
b. Also known as shiatsu, acupressure is administered by pressing
with the fingertips—and sometimes the elbows or knees—along a
complex network of trigger points in the patient’s body.
4. DIALOGUE
A: My daughter is studying acupuncture. She says they can even
use it as anesthesia for surgery.
B: If they can give complete anesthesia, then it’s not surprising
that it can alleviate pain. I have some friends who are adherents
to it, and they regularly turn to it or to acupressure for aches and
pains. When they have trigger points that won’t go away, they say
that acupuncture always works.
A: My daughter agrees, but she says the idea of energy flow still
needs more scientific understanding.

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Lesson 15

Stress
Stress in medicine, is
a physical, chemical, or
emotional development that
causes strains that can
lead to physical illness. A
prominent authority on stress,
the Canadian physician Hans
Selye identified three stages
in the stress response. In the
first stage, alarm, the body
recognizes the stress and
prepares for action, either to
fight or escape. Endocrine gland release hormones that increase
1

heartbeat2 and respiration, elevate blood sugar, increase perspiration3,

dilate4 the pupils, and slow the digestion. In the second stage,
resistance, the body repairs any damage caused by the alarm
reaction. If the stress continues, however, the body remains alert
and cannot repair the damage. As resistance continues, the third
stage, exhaustion, sets in, and a stress-related disorder might result.
Prolonged exposure to stress depletes the body’s energy supplies and
can even lead to death.
Stress-Related Disorders are diseases brought on or worsened
by psychological stress. These psychosomatic5 disorders commonly
involve the autonomic nervous system, which controls the body’s
internal organs. Some kinds of headache and back and facial pain,
asthma, stomach ulcers, and high blood pressure, are examples of
stress-related disorders.
Physicians have long recognized that people are more susceptible6
to diseases of all kinds when they are subjected to great stress.
Negative events such as the death of a loved one seem to cause

125
enough distress to lower the body’s resistance to disease. Positive
circumstances, however, such as a new job or a new baby in the
house, can also upset a person’s normal ability to fend off disease.
Social scientists have devised a list of life events and rated the relative
stressfulness of each. Thus, the death of a spouse rates a 100 on
the scale, whereas trouble with one’s employer rates 23; being fired,
47; going to jail, 63; getting divorced, 73; and so on.
Causes
Although stress can exert some influence on any disease, such
as a cold or tuberculosis and perhaps even cancer, it affects some
disorders directly. Scientists attribute7 at least part of this effect to
evolutionary history, reasoning that at one time people had to live
with constant physical threats from wild animals and the elements,
as well as from one another, and that the body developed in a way
that helped it cope with these physical stresses. The heart beats faster,
blood pressure rises, and other body systems prepare to meet the
threat. When a person does something active to cope with a threat,
these systems return to normal. Running away or fighting—the so-
called flight or fight reaction—are both successful ways of coping
with many physical threats. Problems arise, however, when the body
is prepared, as described, to cope with8 danger but cannot do so.
Being caught in a traffic jam, for example, can cause the body to
prepare for a flight or fight response, but when no action can be
taken, the body’s systems remain overly active. Similar repeated
experiences of this frustrating nature can lead to conditions such
as high blood pressure.
Many other determinants9 also may lead to stress-related disorders.
Among those under investigation is a certain type of behavior that
scientists call “type A,” a term originally applied to people who
are prone to10 coronary artery disease. The type-A coping style,
characterized by competitive, hard-driving intensity, is common
in American society, and mounting evidence indicates that type-A
behavior is associated with an increased incidence of several stress-
related disorders.
Kinds
High blood pressure, or hypertension, is one of the most common
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disorders made worse by stress. It afflicts an estimated 15 to 20 out
of every 100 Americans. Although it has no noticeable symptoms,
hypertension can damage the kidneys and can lead to stroke11.
Other stress-related disorders that are even more common are
gastrointestinal12 problems. More serious are peptic ulcers and
anorexia nervosa13. Ulcers are caused by an excess of gastric juices
or unusual sensitivity in an area of the stomach lining, causing
nausea14 and pain. Anorexia nervosa, a disorder most common among
adolescent girls, is characterized by a refusal to eat—to the extreme
that death may result. Other stress-related gastrointestinal disorders
include some inflammatory diseases of the colon and bowel, such
as regional enteritis15.
Respiratory disorders also can be affected by stress. The most
common of these are disorders caused by emotional upsets. Asthma
attacks are characterized by wheezing16, panting, and a feeling of
being suffocated. In addition, emotional stress can cause or aggravate
many skin disorders, from those that produce itching17, tickling, and
pain to those that cause rashes18 and acne19.
Major traumatic events such as accidents, catastrophes, or battle
experiences may bring on a condition now called post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD). Once known under war conditions as shell shock
or battle fatigue, PTSD gained its current name after it appeared in
many veterans returning from Vietnam as they tried to readjust to
civilian life. Its symptoms, which may take months to appear after an
initial state of numbness is observed, include nervous irritability20,
difficulty in relating to surroundings, and depression21.
Treatment
Treatment of stress-related disorders is sometimes limited to
relieving the particular physical symptom involved; for example,
hypertension may be controlled with drugs. Psychological treatments
are directed at helping the person to relieve the source of stress
or else to learn to cope more effectively with it. Combinations of
physical and psychological treatments are often recommended.
1. NEW WORDS
• endocrine • heartbeat • perspiration • dilate • psychosomatic
• susceptible • attribute • cope with • determinants • prone to • stroke

127
gastrointestinal • anorexia nervosa • nausea • enteritis • wheezing
itching • rashes • acne • nervous • irritability • depression
[Link] nội tiết: The endocrine system is a complex network
of glands and hormones that regulates many of the body’s functions.
Endocrine disorders are classified in two ways: disturbances in the
production of hormones, and the inability of tissues to respond to
hormones.
2. heart beat tiếng tim, nhịp tim: During rest, the heart beats are
about 60 to 100 times a minute. A normal fetal heart rate (FHR)
usually ranges from 120 to 160 beats per minute (bpm) in the in-
utero period.
3. perspiration sự tháo mồ hôi: Excessive perspiration may
often be prevented by the cold bath. Perspiration is a combination
of water, salt, potassium, and bodily wastes.
4. dilate dãn: Eyes dilate for many reasons. They mainly dilate
to control the amount of light that enters the eye. Pupils become
smaller when the light is bright, and larger in the dark. Eye doctors
dilate eyes to check for signs of disease. Eyes can also dilate as a
result of an illness, or another condition or emotion.
5. psychosomatic (thuộc) tâm thể: A psychosomatic illness is one
with physical manifestations and perhaps a supposed psychological
cause. Psychosomatic complaints such as nausea, chest pains, and
headaches are also associated with poor mental health, and may be
more likely to be reported and discussed than other mental health
problems.
6. susceptible dễ mắc, dễ bị tác động, ảnh hưởng: There are
few known diseases which are not susceptible to medical treatment.
Among ​particularly susceptible ​children, the ​disease can ​develop
very ​fast.
7. attribute to quy cho, là do: The short duration watery diarrhea
may be attributed to an infection by cholera. When doctors attribute
death to tuberculosis they are right about it in the great majority
of instances.
8. cope with đối phó với: Learning how to cope properly with
stress can go a long way for your everyday health. The local Red
Cross implements various health programs to cope with cholera
epidemic and transitional diseases in the area.

128
9. determinant nhân tố/yếu tố quyết định: Many determinants
may lead to stress-related disorders. The social determinants of
health are the range of social, economic and environmental factors
that determine the health status of individuals or populations.
10. prone to dễ bị, có thiên hướng: She has always been prone to​
headaches. A number of environmental factors influence the spread
of communicable diseases that are prone to cause epidemics.
11. stroke đột quỵ: The stroke left him partly paralyzed. In
ischemic stroke, which occurs in approximately 85-90% of strokes,
a blood vessel becomes occluded and the blood supply to part of
the brain is totally or partially blocked.
12. gastrointestinal (thuộc) tiêu hóa, dạ dày- ruột: Amebiasis
is an amebic gastrointestinal infection (sometimes affecting other
systems) that may be asymptomatic, chronic, or acute. Gastrointestinal
bleeding or gastrointestinal hemorrhage describes every form of
hemorrhage (loss of blood) in the gastrointestinal tract, from the
pharynx to the rectum.
13. anorexia nervosa chán ăn/biếng ăn thần kinh: Anorexia
nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by unrealistic fear of
weight gain, self-starvation, and conspicuous distortion of body
image. Anorexia nervosa is usually treated with a combination
of individual therapy, family therapy, behavior modification, and
nutritional rehabilitation.
14. nausea (sự) buồn nôn: Nausea is the sensation of unease
and discomfort in the stomach with an urge to vomit. Nausea can
be caused by stress, headaches, spoiled foods, stomach viruses,
unpleasant odors, eating or drinking too much or too little, alcohol,
street drugs and morning sickness in pregnant women.
15. enteritis viêm ruột: Enteritis means inflammation of the
intestinal tract, especially of the small intestine. Enteritis is usually
caused by eating or drinking substances contaminated with bacteria
or viruses.
16. wheezing (sự) thở khò khè: In early childhood, wheezing
is often associated with a lower respiratory tract infection or
bronchiolitis. Wheezing is a common symptom in people who
have asthma, although people can wheeze for reasons other than
asthma.

129
17. itching (sự) ngứa: The itching feeling gradually gets worse,
and may last two to five days, or as long as two weeks, before
fading away slowly. Itching may occur all over the body or only
in one location.
18. rash ban đỏ: Rashes may cause the skin to change color, itch,
become warm, bumpy, dry, cracked or blistered, swell and may be
painful. Rashes are extremely common in infancy, and are usually
not serious at all and can be treated at home.
19. acne mụn: Acne commonly appears on the face and shoulders,
but may also occur on the trunk, arms, legs, and buttocks. Acne
will generally reappear quite soon after the end of treatment—days
later in the case of topical applications, and weeks later in the case
of oral antibiotics.
20. nervous irritability (tình trạng) căng thẳng, lo lắng, bị kích
động: A person whose tissue calcium level is low is prone to nervous
irritability. Posttraumatic stress disorder may take months to appear
after an initial state of numbness is observed, include nervous
irritability, difficulty in relating to surroundings, and depression.
21. depression (sự) trầm cảm: Depression is a strong mood involving
sadness, discouragement, despair, or hopelessness that lasts for
weeks, months, or even longer, and interferes with a person’s ability
to participate in their normal activities. It is thought that one cause
of depression is that an inadequate amount of serotonin, a chemical
that the brain uses to transmit signals between nerve cells, is
produced.

Exercise 1.1. Find suitable words to complete the following

sentences.
1. In the first stage, alarm, the body (finds/ fights/ recognizes)
the stress and prepares for action, either to fight or escape.
2. If the stress continues, however, the body (remains/gets/
appears) alert and cannot repair the damage.
3. Prolonged exposure to stress (creates/depletes/increases) the
body’s energy supplies and can even lead to death.
4. Stress-Related Disorders are (brought on/treated/bettered) or
worsened by psychological stress.
5. People are more susceptible to diseases of all kinds when they

130
are (resisting/reacting/subjected) to great stress.
6. Although stress can (exert/get rid of/reduce) some influence
on any disease, such as a cold or tuberculosis and perhaps
even cancer, it affects some disorders directly.
7. When a person does something active to (work/cope/correlate)
with a threat, these systems return to normal.
8. Problems (are solved/arise/complicated), however, when
the body is prepared, as described, to cope with danger but
cannot do so.
Exercise 1.2 Find a word in the passage which means:
1. ____________ : more important or powerful than all others.
2. ____________ : the state of being extremely tired
3. ____________ : to begin
4. ____________: to reduce (esp. supplies, energy, or money) in
size or amount
5. ____________: prone, likely to be affected by
6. ____________: produce an effect on
7. ____________: nearly continuous or very frequent
8. ____________: to deal with problems or difficulties, especially
with a degree of success
9. ____________: develop, happen
10. ___________: to make (someone or something) suffer
physically or mentally
Exercise 1.3 What does each underlined word mean?
1. Social scientists have devised a list of life events and rated the
relative stressfulness of each.
2. Stress-Related Disorders are diseases brought on by psychological
stress.
3. Psychosomatic disorders commonly involve the autonomic nervous
system, which controls the body’s internal organs.
4. Positive circumstances, however, such as a new job or a new baby
in the house, can also upset a person’s normal ability to fend off
disease.

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5. Mounting evidence indicates that type-A behavior is associated with
an increased incidence of several stress-related disorders.
6. Anorexia nervosa, a disorder most common among adolescent girls,
is characterized by a refusal to eat—to the extreme that death may
result.
7. Emotional stress can cause or aggravate many skin disorders.
8. Many veterans returning from Vietnam tried to readjust to
civilian life.
Here below are the suggested meanings

a. Affect
b. Degree
c. get rid of
d. Increasing
e. to cause (esp. something bad) to happen
f. to change the way you live or behave to fit a new or different situation
g. to invent (something), esp. with intelligence or imagination
h. to make (something bad) worse

2. Comprehension:

Exercise 2.1. True or False?

1. The hormones secreted by the endocrine glands increase
heartbeat and respiration, elevate blood sugar, decrease perspiration,
dilate the pupils, and slow the digestion.
2. Continual resistance to stress always causes exhaustion.
3. Only negative events lower the ability of defense of the
body.
4. Doing something active helps the systems of the body cope
with stress.
5. The cardiovascular system is the only system of the body that
is affected by stress.
6. In the first stage when stress occurs, there are some changes
in the body such as tachycardia, hyperglycemia, increased sweating,
dilation of the pupils and indigestion.
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7. The more a person is exposed to a stress, the less likely he
is to get a disease.
8. People have to do something in response to a stress or they
could be in danger of some disease.
9. Behavior is not considered as a determinant causing stress-
related disorder because there is no relationship between physical
and emotional mechanisms.
Exercise 2.2. Complete the passage with appropriate words
Stress is an inhibiting phenomenon of a mental or physical
condition that can lead to ....... (1)...... illness. Three stages of
stress response are ... (2)..... by an outstanding expert on stress, the
Canadian physician Hans Seyle. Exhaustion results when there is
...........(3)........resistance to stress.
Researchers have shown that negative events often cause enough
.....(4)......to weaken the body’s resistance to disease. However,
positive situations also play a part in .......(5)........a person‘s normal
ability to fend off disease. In order to ..........(6).........with a physical
stress, man has to be very ...........(7).......to bring the body back to
......(8)........condition. If the body is prepared to resist to .......(9).......
but can not do so, some problems can ......(10).......
Exercise 2.3. Complete the statements, referring to the information
in the passage.
1. There are_________ stages in stress response.
2. Hormones released by the endocrine glands have the effect
of________.
3. The energy supplied by the body gets depleted
when____________.
4. Examples of stress-related disorders are ___________.
5. People are more susceptible to diseases of all kinds when
___________.
6. Some stress-related disorders are ___________.
7. PTSD is the abbreviation of _______________.
8. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by __________.
9. Psychological treatments of stress are directed at helping the
person to_____________.
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Exercise 2.4. Complete each statement on the left with the information
provided on the right.
1. Psychosomatic disorders a. among stress-related
commonly involve _____ gastrointestinal disorders .
2. Prolonged exposure to stress b. both successful ways of coping
_____ with many physical threats.
3. When people are subjected to great c. an excess of gastric juices or
stress, they are ______ unusual sensitivity in an area of the
stomach lining.
4. Running away or fighting d. depletes the body’s energy
are_______ supplies and can even lead to
death.
5. Ulcers are caused by _______ e. more susceptible to diseases of
all kinds.
6. Some inflammatory diseases of the f. the autonomic nervous system,
colon and bowel are_________ which controls the body’s internal
organs.

Exercise 2.5. Completion: contributing, cope, correlation, disorders

(2), increasingly, negative, release, responding, risk
Physicians increasingly acknowledge that stress is a _______
factor in a wide variety of health problems. These problems include
cardiovascular _______such as hypertension, coronary heart disease,
and gastrointestinal disorders, such as ulcers. Stress also appears
to be a ______factor in cancer, chronic pain problems, and many
other health______.
Stress is a contributing factor in a wide variety of health
problems.
Researchers have clearly identified stress, and specifically a
person’s characteristic way of _______to stress, as a risk factor
for cardiovascular diseases. The _______of stress hormones has a
cumulative ______effect on the heart and blood vessels. Cortisol,
for example, increases blood pressure, which can damage the
inside walls of blood vessels. It also increases the free fatty acids
in the bloodstream, which in turn leads to plaque buildup on the
lining of the blood vessels. As the blood vessels narrow over time
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it becomes ______difficult for the heart to pump sufficient blood
through them.
Stress also appears to influence the development of cancer, but
the relationship is not as well established as it is for cardiovascular
diseases. There is a moderate positive _______between extent of
exposure to life stressors and cancer—the more the stressors, the
greater the likelihood of cancer. In addition, a tendency to _______
with unpleasant events in a rigid, unemotional manner is associated
with the development and progression of cancer.
3. LANGUAGE FOCUS

Exercise 3.1. Explain the use of the participles in the following

sentences.
1. Treatment of stress-related disorders is sometimes limited to
relieving the particular physical symptom involved; for example,
hypertension may be controlled with drugs.
2. Scientists attribute at least part of this effect to evolutionary
history, reasoning that at one time people had to live with constant
physical threats from wild animals and the elements, as well as from
one another, and that the body developed in a way that helped it
cope with these physical stresses.
3. Running away or fighting—the so-called flight or fight reaction—
are both successful ways of coping with many physical threats.
4. Once known under war conditions as shell shock or battle fatigue,
PTSD gained its current name after it appeared in many veterans
returning from Vietnam as they tried to readjust to civilian life.
Exercise 3.2. Fill the blanks with appropriate words.
Stress, in medicine a physical, chemical, or emotional development,
____ causes strains ____ can lead to physical illness. A pre-eminent
authority _____ stress, the Canadian physician Hans Selye identified
three stages ____ the stress response. In the first stage, alarm, the
body recognizes the stress and prepares _____ action, ______ to fight
or escape. Endocrine glands release hormones that increase heartbeat
and respiration, elevate blood sugar, increase perspiration, dilate the
pupils, and slow the digestion. In the second stage, resistance, the
body repairs any damage caused by the alarm reaction. ______ the
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stress continues, however, the body remains alert and cannot repair
the damage. ______ resistance continues, the third stage, exhaustion,
sets in, and a stress-related disorder might result. Prolonged exposure
_____ stress depletes the body’s energy supplies and can even lead
to death.
4. DIALOGUE
A: My friend is suffering from too much stress.
B: What’s her problem?
A: She has been having recurring headaches and is not sleeping
well. Now lately, her asthma is bothering her again.
B: What is causing her stress?
A: She has felt frustrated because her son is having problems in
school. Also she is subjected to pressure from her boss at her work.
Sometimes it’s so bad that she starts wheezing and has the feeling
of being suffocated.

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Lesson 16

Leukemia

Leukemia 1 is a disease
known also as cancer of the
blood and the blood-forming
tissues. It is characterized by
overproduction of immature
atypical white blood cells,
which can be detected in the
blood vessels. The white blood
cells, called leukocytes 2 ,
are produced in the bone
marrow , spleen , and lymph glands as well as in other endothelial6
3 4 5

tissues.
Leukemia occurs throughout the world. In the United States, about
26,000 new cases are reported annually, and about 20,500 people
die of leukemia each year. The disease constitutes one-third of the
cancer cases in children under age 15.
The exact cause of most leukemia remains unknown. Exposure
to high-energy ionizing radiation can cause the disease, however,
and certain chemicals such as benzene may also be responsible
for its initiation. Human T-cell leukemia is known to be caused by
two viruses, and certain abnormalities in chromosomes7 have been
linked with some leukemia. Recent research has identified a gene
responsible for some acute leukemia in children. The gene, called
ALL-1, changes places with a gene on a different chromosome. The
resulting combination forms a protein that transforms normal white
blood cells into cancerous cells. This “jumping gene” is involved in
about 90 percent of acute leukemia in infants and about 40 percent
of acute leukemia in older children.

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Classification
Leukemia may be classified according to the blood cell or cell series
that predominates in the peripheral8 blood. Thus, myelocytic leukemia
is characterized by a proliferation of myelocytes9, lymphocytic
leukemia by immature lymphocytes, and monocytic leukemia by
immature monocytes10.
Two clinical forms of leukemia are recognized: acute and chronic.
Acute leukemia is most common in children and in young adults,
whereas the chronic form is found most often in middle-aged persons.
The clinical symptoms of acute leukemia are irregular fever, a tendency
to hemorrhage11, or bleed profusely, from the gums12 and mucous
membranes and under the skin, and a rapidly developing anemia, or
abnormal reduction in the number of red blood cells. In addition, chronic
myelocytic leukemia is characterized by enlargement of the spleen
and chronic lymphocytic leukemia by enlargement of the lymph nodes.
Treatment
Both radiation therapy and chemotherapy (anticancer drugs) are
used to treat leukemia. In cases of acute leukemia, such treatment
leads to apparent cures in about 50 percent of cases, and up to 90
percent of cases show remissions13 of three or more years. Chronic
myelocytic leukemia can now be treated with similar rates of success.
One rare form of the disease has been found to respond somewhat
to treatment with Interferon. Bone marrow transplantation14 may
be useful in the treatment of some leukemias. In addition, Chinese
researchers have reported finding a mitochondrial marker15 for
predicting the onset16 of acute leukemia; if proven, this would be
important for the early treatment of the disease.

1. NEW WORDS
• chromosome • endothelial • glands gums hemorrhage • leukemia
• leukocytes • lymph • marrow • mitochondrial marker • monocyte
• myelocytes • onset • peripheral • remissions • transplantation
1. leukemia bệnh bạch cầu: Leukemia or leukaemia is a cancer of
the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal proliferation
of blood cells, usually white blood cells (leukocytes). In leukemia,
however, the bone marrow produces abnormal white blood cells.
2. leukocyte bạch cầu: Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC)
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are cells in the blood that are involved in defending the body against
infective organisms and foreign substances. Leukocyte or white blood
cell levels are considered elevated when they are between 15,000-
20,000 per microliter. The increased number of leukocytes can occur
abnormally as a result of an infection, cancer, or drug intake.
3. marrow tủy: There are two types of marrow, red and yellow.
The former produces the blood cells; the latter, which is mainly
formed of fatty tissue, normally has no blood-producing function.
During infancy and early childhood all bone marrow is red. In a
bone marrow transplant, the sick child’s bone marrow is permanently
replaced with new bone marrow.
4. spleen lách: The spleen is the largest organ in the lymphatic
system. It is an important organ for keeping bodily fluids balanced,
but it is possible to live without it. The spleen acts as a blood filter;
it controls the amount of red blood cells and blood storage in the
body, and helps to fight infection. Splenomegaly is a condition that
occurs when your spleen becomes enlarged. It is also commonly
referred to as enlarged spleen or spleen enlargement. An enlarged
spleen (splenomegaly) is not a disease in itself but the result of an
underlying disorder. Many disorders can make the spleen enlarge.
5. Lymph gland: Lymph glands (also called lymph nodes) are
pea-sized lumps of tissue that contain white blood cells. These help
to fight bacteria, viruses and anything else that causes infection.
They are an important part of the immune system and are found
throughout the body. Swelling of the lymph glands is typically a
result of local or widespread inflammation, but sometimes enlarged
lymph nodes are due to cancer. Swollen lymph glands are referred
to as lymphadenopathy. Inflammation of a lymph node is referred
to as lymphadenitis.
6. endothelial (thuộc) nội mô: Endothelial dysfunction, a precursor
of vascular disease, begins early in type 1 diabetes mellitus. In
vascular diseases, endothelial dysfunction is a systemic pathological
state of the endothelium (the inner lining of blood vessels).
7. chromosome thể nhiễm sắc: The Y chromosome is one of the
two sex chromosomes in humans and most other mammals (the other
is the X chromosome). One set of 23 chromosomes is inherited from
the biological mother (from the egg), and the other set is inherited

139
from the biological father (from the sperm).
8. peripheral ngoại biên: Peripheral nerves send sensory information
back to the brain and spinal cord, such as a message that the feet are
cold or a finger is burned. The peripheral nervous system is made up
of the nerves that branch out of the spinal cord to all parts of the body.
9. myelocyte tế bào tủy xương: A myelocyte is a young cell of
the granulocytic series, occurring normally in bone marrow (can
be found in circulating blood when caused by certain diseases).
Myelocytes appear normally in the bone marrow. Myelocytes
are sometimes found in peripheral blood in combination with
a general increase in the number of white blood cells. This
condition, called leukocytosis, is related to many causes including
infection, inflammation, tissue damage, drugs, toxins, emotional
stress, metabolic disturbances, blood disorders and some cancers.
10. monocyte tế bào mono: A monocyte is a relatively large type
of white blood cell with one nucleus. Monocytes are produced by the
bone marrow, circulate in the blood stream for about one to three
days and then typically move into tissues throughout the body.
11. haemorrhage sự xuất huyết: A cerebral haemorrhage is
the bleeding from a ruptured blood vessel in the brain. In severe
haemorrhage, as from the division of a large artery, the patient may
collapse and death ensues from syncope.
12. gum lợi: Bleeding gums are usually a sign of gingivitis, the
mildest form of gum disease. Gum disease is usually caused by
a buildup of plaque, an invisible sticky layer of germs that forms
naturally on the teeth and gums.
13. remission giảm, lùi (bệnh): Remission (medicine), the state
of absence of disease activity in patients with a chronic illness.
In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have
disappeared, although cancer still may be in the body.
14. transplantation cấy, ghép: An organ transplant is the
transplantation of a whole or partial organ from one body to
another (or from a donor site on the patient’s own body), for the
purpose of replacing the recipient’s damaged or failing organ with a
working one from the donor site. Heart transplantation is a surgical
procedure to remove a damaged or diseased heart and replace it
with a healthy donor heart.

140
15. mitochondrial marker chỉ dấu ti thể: Mitochondrial markers
are structural or functional properties that are specific for mitochondria.
16. onset (sự) khởi phát: In medicine, the first appearance of
the signs or symptoms of an illness as, for example, the onset of
rheumatoid arthritis. Type 2 diabetes, once known as adult-onset or
noninsulin-dependent diabetes, is a chronic condition that affects the
way your body metabolizes sugar (glucose).

Exercise 1.1. Choose the most suitable word.

1. Leukemia (constitutes/says/makes) one-third of the cancer
cases in children under age 15.
2. The exact cause of most leukemia (predicts/remains/says)
unknown.
3. Certain chemicals such as benzene may also be responsible
for the (remission/reduction/initiation) of leukemia.
4. The gene, called ALL-1, has been identified to be (responsive/
responsible/ reactive) for some acute leukemias in
children.
5. In cases of acute leukemia, both radiation therapy and
chemotherapy leads to (indefinite/apparent/bad) cures in
about 50 percent of cases, and up to 90 percent of cases show
remissions of three or more years.

Exercise 1.2. Find words in the passage that mean:

1. make up, create : ______________________
2. to say that (an event or action) will happen in the future :
___________
3. to be dominant in amount, number: _____________
4. a period of time when an illness is less severe: _____________
5. be the cause of : ___________________

2. COMPREHENSION
Exercise 2.1. Answer the following questions.
1. What organs produce white blood cells?
2. Does leukemia cause harmful effects which can’t be cured easily?
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3. What are likely to be the causes of leukemia?
4. Is chronic form of leukemia found more common in middle-
aged persons than in children?
5. What are some ways of treating leukemia?
Exercise 2.2. Which of the following are NOT true?
1. Leukemia is brought about by an abnormal increase in the
number of immature atypical leukocytes.
2. The mortality of this disease is considered high in comparison
with other forms of cancer such as breast cancer.
3. The cause of leukemia is well defined and can be recognized
in each case.
4. The 2 forms of leukemia can be easily diagnosed because of
their clinical symptoms.
5. Both acute and chronic leukemia can be treated with a similar
rate of success.
Exercise 2.3. Complete the following sentences.
1. Leukemia is characterized by _________________________ .
2. The white blood cells, called leukocytes, are produced in______.
3. Leukemia can be caused by _________________________
4. The classification of leukemias is based on ____________ .
5. The clinical symptoms of acute leukemia are ___________.

Exercise 2.4. Fill in the passage with the following words: enlargement,
malignant, overproduction, progression, proliferating, suppresses,
suppressing, susceptibility.
Leukemia is any group of _______diseases in which the bone
marrow and other blood forming organs produce increased numbers
of certain types of white blood cells. ________of these white cells
________the production of normal white cells, red cells and platelets.
This leads to increased _________to infection (due to neutropenia),
anemia and bleeding (due to thrombocytopenia). Other symptoms
include ________of the spleen, liver and lymph nodes.
Leukemia is classified into acute or chronic varieties depending
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on the rate of _________of the disease. It is also classified according
to the type of white cell that is ________abnormally. Leukemias are
treated with radiotherapy and cytotoxic drugs, which are aimed at
_________the reproduction of the abnormal cells.

3. LANGUAGE FOCUS: Explain the use of the following grammar

points or sentence construction.
3.1. Acute leukemia is most common in children and in young
adults, whereas the chronic form is found most often in middle-aged
persons.
3.2. Chinese researchers have reported finding a mitochondrial
marker for predicting the onset of acute leukemia; if proven, this
would be important for the early treatment of the disease.

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Reading Practice

1. Diagnostic Radiology

Diagnostic radiology, or diagnostic imaging, is the medical

evaluation of body tissues and functions—both normal anatomy and
physiology and abnormalities caused by disease or injury—by means
of static (still) or dynamic (moving) radiologic images.
In the century since Roentgen’s discovery, electromagnetic radiation
in the form of ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, and X rays)
has been the predominant energy source for diagnostic radiology.
The use of ionizing radiation in diagnostic radiology involves
passing a localized beam of X-rays through the part of the body
being examined. This produces a static image on film. The image,
called a radiograph, or X-ray picture, can take several forms. It
may be a plain radiograph, such as the common chest X-ray; a
mammogram, an X-ray image of the female breast used to scan for
cancerous tumors; a tomograph, which produces an image of the
entire depth of an anatomical structure with a series of X rays; or
a computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT) scan, a computer
analysis of a cross-sectional image of the body.
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Many organs, organ systems, and certain muscular and skeletal
structures are not visible with routine radiographic techniques.
They become visible with the ingestion, injection, or inhalation of
substances called contrast media, which are opaque to radiation.
Diagnostic techniques involving contrast media include the upper
gastrointestinal (GI) series, barium enema (colon examination),
arthrogram (injection of contrast into a joint), myelogram (injection
of contrast into the spinal canal), and angiogram (injection of contrast
into an artery, vein, or lymph vessel).
Dynamic images, which record movement of organs or organ
systems such as the intestinal tract or the flow of contrast material
through blood vessels or the spinal canal, may be obtained by
fluoroscopy (recording the radiographic image on a movable, radiation-
sensitive screen) or cineradiography (recording the image on film
or videotape). Both film and videotape are permanent recording
media. The fluoroscopic image, analogous to a television image, is
transient. Permanent radiographic images (spot films) can, however,
be made at any time during a fluoroscopic examination. Another type
of diagnostic imaging that identifies biochemical activity in addition
to structural tissues is positron emission tomography (PET). In this
method, a patient is injected with glucose treated with radioactive
tracers. As the body metabolizes the glucose, the PET scan monitors
the radioactive particles emitted by the tracers in the glucose. Images
are produced that show metabolic reactions, making this method
useful to diagnose brain tumors and strokes.
The use of ionizing radiation in the evaluation of disease is
similar to the use of drugs in the treatment of disease. Diagnostic
radiographic examinations should only be performed for a specific
medical indication on the direct request of a physician or other
qualified person. Although diagnostic radiation dosage levels involve
a small health risk, there is no evidence to show detectable adverse
effects of radiation from medically indicated and properly conducted
diagnostic radiographic examinations. In the opinion of the American
College of Radiology and the Bureau of Radiologic Health of the
United States Department of Health and Human Services, with
careful patient selection, the risk-benefit ratio clearly lies in favor
of the radiographic procedure.
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Since the 1970s new imaging procedures that utilize energy sources
other than ionizing radiation have become essential in diagnostic
radiology. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) produces computer-
processed views of soft tissue, such as arteries, nerves, tendons, and
some tumors, that present little or no shadow on a conventional X
ray. During an MRI, powerful electromagnets create a magnetic field
up to 30,000 times stronger than the earth’s, which influences the
alignment of protons in hydrogen atoms in the body. A radio wave,
emitted 25 or more times per second, knocks the protons out of this
temporary alignment. When each radio pulse stops, the protons realign
within milliseconds. MRI scans these differences in the alignment
of hydrogen protons to produce the diagnostic images.
Ultrasound utilizes high-frequency sound waves, which are
reflected by tissue in the body. The sound reflection is processed
by a computer to produce a photograph or a moving image on
television. Ultrasound is used to examine many parts of the body;
however, its best known application is the examination of the fetus
during pregnancy.
Each of these techniques has unique features that, under various
conditions, make it more likely to reveal clearly the part of the body
to be examined. The radiologist, a physician specializing in imaging
techniques, has the opportunity to select the imaging procedure best
suited to the diagnostic needs of the patient.
Therapeutic Radiology
Therapeutic radiology, also referred to as radiation oncology, is
based on the use of ionizing radiation in the treatment of cancer.
Normal tissues have a greater ability to recover from the effects of
radiation than tumors and tumor cells. A radiation dose sufficient to
destroy cancerous cells only temporarily injures adjacent normal cells.
When the ability of normal tissues to recover from a given amount of
radiation is the same as or less than that of the cancerous tissue, the
tumor is described as radioresistant. In such cases radiation therapy
is usually not considered an appropriate form of treatment.
Treatment with ionizing radiation is often described in terms of the
energy of the beam used: superficial (less than 120 kilovolts, or kv);
orthovoltage (120 to 1000 kv); and megavoltage (greater than 1000
kv). Superficial radiation therapy is used in treating malignant diseases

146
involving the skin, the eye, or other body surfaces. Orthovoltage
therapy has been largely replaced by megavoltage (cobalt, linear
accelerator, and betatron) therapy. Megavoltage therapy provides
more efficient and effective delivery of the intended radiation dose
to tumors deep inside the body and, at the same time, spares the
healthy skin and surrounding normal tissue from excess radiation.
Radiation therapy may be used alone as the treatment of choice
in most cancers of the skin; in certain stages of cancers involving
the cervix, uterus, breast, and prostate gland; and in some types of
leukemia and lymphoma, particularly Hodgkin’s disease. In such
instances, radiation therapy is intended to affect a cure. When
radiation therapy is used in conjunction with cancer-treatment drugs
(known as combined modality therapy), however, it may be intended
for either cure or palliation (the relief of symptoms). Radiation
therapy is commonly employed either before or shortly after surgical
removal of certain tumors to destroy tumor cells that could (or may
already have) spread beyond the surgical margins. Radiation therapy
is also frequently employed in controlling local tumor recurrence
after surgery.

2. Fracture
A Fracture is a break or crack in a bone
or in ossified cartilage. Simple, or closed,
fractures are not visible on the surface.
Compound, or open fractures involve a
rupturing of the skin, often exposing the
bone. Single and multiple fractures refer
to the number of breaks in the same bone.
Fractures are complete if the break is total
or incomplete (greenstick) if the fracture
occurs only part of the distance across a
bone shaft, with bending or crushing of
the bone. Incomplete fractures are found
mostly in young children, whose bones are
resilient. Heavy impact causes most fractures but the simple activity
of throwing a ball could cause a break.
Common symptoms of a fracture are severe local pain, tenderness,

147
and swelling with some degree of deformity. X-rays are the only
accurate means of detecting and defining the type of fracture.
Infection in compound fractures is treated with antiseptics and
antibiotics. If the broken segments lie adjacent to each other, stretching
or traction to overcome the pull of powerful muscles may be used to
achieve realignment, although external manipulation may sometimes
bind the segments. This is called reduction. If proper alignment cannot
be achieved in this way, an operation is usually performed, and the
fragments are joined with screws, nuts, nails, wires or metal plates.
This is called open reduction. Once aligned, segments are secured
externally with a plaster cast or splint to immobilize the fracture and
to speed healing. When ribs are fractured, the chest is often strapped
or taped to reduce pain from the motion of breathing. While healing,
the body creates new tissue to join the broken segments. Minerals
in the tissue harden to form solid new bone structure.

3. Ultrasound
Ultrasound is a medical
diagnostic technique in which
very high frequency sound is
directed into the body. The tissue
interfaces reflect the sound, and the
resulting pattern of sound reflection
is processed by a computer to
produce a photograph or a moving
image on a television. Ultrasound
can be used to examine many parts
of the body, but its best known
application is the examination of
the fetus during pregnancy.
The sound waves used in the
ultrasound beam are produced by
a rapidly oscillating crystal, and are inaudible to humans. A device
called a transducer is used to transmit the sound waves and receive
the echoes. The transducer must be in close contact with the skin,
and a jellylike substance is smeared on the skin to improve the
transmission of sound.

148
Uses of Ultrasound
Ultrasound can be used to examine the arterial system, heart,
pancreas, peritoneal cavity, urinary system, ovaries, venous system,
brain, and spinal cord. Fluid conducts the sound waves well, making
ultrasound a useful technique for diagnosing cysts (which are filled
with liquid), examining fluid-filled structures such as the bladder or
biliary system, and viewing the fetus in the amniotic sac. Air, bone,
and other calcified tissues absorb nearly all the ultrasound beam, so
this technique cannot be used to examine the bones or lungs.
Ultrasound examination of the heart is known as echocardiography.
Echocardiography is used to study congenital heart disease, coronary
artery disease, tumors of the heart and other cardiac disorders.
Ultrasound can also be used to guide surgical procedures, for example
during the insertion of a biopsy needle into a particular area or the
pregnancy diagnostic test called amniocentesis. Doppler ultrasound
is used to measure the flow of a liquid, for example blood flow.
Fetal Examination
During pregnancy, ultrasound is used to monitor the growth,
development, and well-being of the fetus. Unlike x-ray examination,
ultrasound is safe during pregnancy, with no risk to either the fetus
or the mother. Ultrasound can also be used to check the baby’s due
date; the size of the fetus’s head can be measured and this is used
to estimate its age. If multiple births are suspected, ultrasound may
be used in order to confirm the number of fetuses. Ultrasound can
be used to detect some fetal abnormalities, such as spina bifida,
short-limbed dwarfism, or severe congenital heart diseases. This early
diagnosis allows appropriate treatment to be given during pregnancy
and childbirth.

4. Endoscopy
Endoscopy is the examination of internal body cavities using a
specialized medical instrument called an endoscope. Physicians use
endoscopy to diagnose, monitor, and surgically treat various medical
problems.
An endoscope is a slender, flexible tube equipped with lenses

149
and a light source. It contains
glass fibers that transmit light
to illuminate the body part
being viewed and fibers that
reflect an image of the body
part back to the viewer. The
endoscope also has a channel
through which surgeons can
manipulate tiny instruments,
such as forceps, surgical
scissors, and suction devices. A surgeon introduces the endoscope
into the body either through a body opening, such as the mouth or
the anus, or through a small incision in the skin.
During the endoscopic procedure, the surgeon may perform several
tasks. The surgeon may look for visual evidence of the problem, such
as ulceration or inflammation, collect a sample of tissue, remove
problematic tissue, such as polyps, or photograph the area being
examined. Most endoscopic procedures are normally done with the
patient lightly anesthetized.
The term endoscopy is both a general and a specialized term.
As a specialized term it refers to endoscopic examination of the
gastrointestinal tract. As a generalized term, endoscopy refers to
examination of a wide variety of body parts. Depending on the
body part, each type of endoscopy has its own special term, such as
laparoscopy (abdomen), laryngoscopy (vocal cords), bronchoscopy
(lungs), colonoscopy (colon), and arthroscopy (joint).

5. Physical Therapy
Physical Therapy is a
scientific physical procedures
used in the treatment of patients
with a disability, disease, or
injury to achieve and maintain
functional rehabilitation and
to prevent malfunction or
deformity. Treatments are
designed to minimize residual

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physical disability, to hasten convalescence, and to contribute to the
patient’s comfort and well-being. Physical therapy is prescribed for
patients with varied orthopedic, neurological, vascular, and respiratory
conditions, which may be the result of congenital malfunction,
disability acquired through disease or trauma, or inherited dysfunction.
Physical therapists are employed in hospitals, rehabilitation centers,
clinics, nursing homes, and schools for handicapped children and
also in federal, state, and local health agencies and in private
practice. In addition to direct patient care, physical therapists are
involved in other areas including consultation, supervision, teaching,
administration, and research.
Types of Treatment
Among the diagnostic tests used by the physical therapist are
manual muscle testing, electrical testing, perceptual and sensory
testing, and measurement of the range of motion of joints. Functional
activity testing is important in ascertaining patients’ capabilities for
performing the necessary tasks of caring for themselves. In treating
a patient, the physical therapist may employ one or more of the
following procedures: heat treatments involving the use of water at
various temperatures, melted paraffin wax, infrared and ultraviolet
lamps, ultrasonic waves that produce heat internally), and diathermy
(application of electric current to generate heat in body tissues). One
of the most important tasks of the physical therapist is therapeutic
exercise in various forms. It is used to increase strength and
endurance, to improve coordination, to improve functional movement
for activities of daily living, and to increase and maintain range
of motion. Gait training is practiced with the assistance of canes,
crutches, walkers, braces, and artificial limbs. Physical therapy also
uses massage, bandaging, strapping, and application and removal
of splints and casts. Physical therapists instruct patients and their
relatives in techniques of exercise and the use of prosthetic devices,
such as artificial limbs, and orthotic, or bracing, devices.

6. Occupational Therapy
Occupational Therapy is rehabilitative therapy that uses
the activities of everyday living to help people with physical or

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mental disabilities achieve
maximum functioning and
independence at home and in
the workplace.
Occupational therapy
benefits people of all ages,
from infants to the elderly,
and can improve functioning
whether the disability results
from a birth defect, accident,
disease, aging, or drug or alcohol abuse. Occupational therapy is
geared to the particular functional level and interests of the individual
and can take place in a variety of settings, including hospitals, the
disabled person’s home, mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers,
nursing homes, schools, and the workplace.
Occupational therapy differs from physical therapy in that physical
therapy deals chiefly with restoration of physical strength, endurance,
coordination, and range of motion through such means as exercise,
heat or cold therapy, and massage. Occupational therapy focuses on
personal and work activities, both in helping people with disabilities
to find ways to master these activities and in using these activities
to continue the goals of physical therapy.
Occupational therapy can range from teaching someone with
swallowing difficulty how to eat and drink safely to showing
someone how to use special tools to put on shoes and socks, close
zippers, and button shirts and blouses; from showing someone in
a wheelchair how to do cooking and housekeeping from a seated
position to advising on how to make structural alterations in a home
that will help accommodate a disability; and from teaching someone
who has lost an arm or leg how to drive a specially equipped
automobile to helping someone with cerebral palsy—a disorder
affecting muscle control—learn to use a computer to communicate
and operate household equipment. Occupational therapists work with
people with mental and emotional problems—such as depression,
anxiety, or schizophrenia—to help them plan their activities in order
to function more effectively in everyday life. Occupational therapy is
also widely used with children with physical and mental disabilities
ranging from cerebral palsy to autism and fetal alcohol syndrome.

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7. Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a severe
mental illness characterized
by a variety of symptoms,
including loss of contact
with reality, bizarre behavior,
disorganized thinking and
speech, decreased emotional
expressiveness, and social
withdrawal. Usually only
some of these symptoms
occur in any one person. The term schizophrenia comes from Greek
words meaning “split mind.” However, contrary to common belief,
schizophrenia does not refer to a person with a split personality or
multiple personality. To observers, schizophrenia may seem like
madness or insanity.
Perhaps more than any other mental illness, schizophrenia has a
debilitating effect on the lives of the people who suffer from it. A
person with schizophrenia may have difficulty telling the difference
between real and unreal experiences, logical and illogical thoughts,
or appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Schizophrenia seriously
impairs a person’s ability to work, go to school, enjoy relationships
with others, or take care of oneself. In addition, people with
schizophrenia frequently require hospitalization because they pose a
danger to themselves. About 10 percent of people with schizophrenia
commit suicide, and many others attempt suicide. Once people
develop schizophrenia, they usually suffer from the illness for the
rest of their lives. Although there is no cure, treatment can help
many people with schizophrenia lead productive lives.
Schizophrenia also carries an enormous cost to society. People
with schizophrenia occupy about one-third of all beds in psychiatric
hospitals in the United States. In addition, people with schizophrenia
account for at least 10 percent of the homeless population in the
United States.
Prevalence
Approximately 1 percent of people develop schizophrenia at

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some time during their lives. Experts estimate that about 1.8 million
people in the United States have schizophrenia. The prevalence of
schizophrenia is the same regardless of gender, race, and culture.
Although women are just as likely as men to develop schizophrenia,
women tend to experience the illness less severely, with fewer
hospitalizations and better social functioning in the community.
Symptoms
Schizophrenia usually develops in late adolescence or early
adulthood, between the ages of 15 and 30. Much less commonly,
schizophrenia develops later in life. The illness may begin abruptly,
but it usually develops slowly over months or years. Mental health
professionals diagnose schizophrenia based on an interview with the
patient in which they determine whether the person has experienced
specific symptoms of the illness.
Symptoms and functioning in people with schizophrenia tend to
vary over time, sometimes worsening and other times improving. For
many patients the symptoms gradually become less severe as they
grow older. About 25 percent of people with schizophrenia become
symptom-free later in their lives.
A variety of symptoms characterize schizophrenia. The most
prominent include symptoms of psychosis—such as delusions and
hallucinations—as well as bizarre behavior, strange movements, and
disorganized thinking and speech. Many people with schizophrenia
do not recognize that their mental functioning is disturbed.
Delusions
Delusions are false beliefs that appear obviously untrue to other
people. For example, a person with schizophrenia may believe that
he is the king of England when he is not. People with schizophrenia
may have delusions that others, such as the police or the FBI, are
plotting against them or spying on them. They may believe that aliens
are controlling their thoughts or that their own thoughts are being
broadcast to the world so that other people can hear them.
Hallucinations
People with schizophrenia may also experience hallucinations (false
sensory perceptions). People with hallucinations see, hear, smell,
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feel, or taste things that are not really there. Auditory hallucinations,
such as hearing voices when no one else is around, are especially
common in schizophrenia. These hallucinations may include two
or more voices conversing with each other, voices that continually
comment on the person’s life or voices that command the person
to do something.
Bizarre Behavior
People with schizophrenia often behave in a bizarre manner. They
may talk to themselves, walk backwards, laugh suddenly without
explanation, make funny faces, or masturbate in public. In rare cases,
they maintain a rigid, bizarre pose for hours on end. Alternately, they
may engage in constant random or repetitive movements.
Disorganized Thinking and Speech
People with schizophrenia sometimes talk in incoherent or
nonsensical ways, which suggests confused or disorganized thinking.
In conversation they may jump from topic to topic or string together
loosely associated phrases. They may combine words and phrases
in meaningless ways or make up new words. In addition, they may
show poverty of speech, in which they talk less and more slowly
than other people, fail to answer questions or reply only briefly, or
suddenly stop talking in the middle of speech.
Social Withdrawal
Another common characteristic of schizophrenia is social
withdrawal. People with schizophrenia may avoid others or act as
though others do not exist. They often show decreased emotional
expressiveness. For example, they may talk in a low, monotonous
voice, avoid eye contact with others, and display a blank facial
expression. They may also have difficulties experiencing pleasure
and may lack interest in participating in activities.
Other Symptoms
Other symptoms of schizophrenia include difficulties with memory,
attention span, abstract thinking, and planning ahead. People with
schizophrenia commonly have problems with anxiety, depression,
and suicidal thoughts. In addition, people with schizophrenia are
much more likely to abuse or become dependent upon drugs or
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alcohol than other people. The use of alcohol and drugs often
worsens the symptoms of schizophrenia, resulting in relapses and
hospitalizations.
Causes
Schizophrenia appears to result not from a single cause, but
from a variety of factors. Most scientists believe that schizophrenia
is a biological disease caused by genetic factors, an imbalance of
chemicals in the brain, structural brain abnormalities, or abnormalities
in the prenatal environment. In addition, stressful life events may
contribute to the development of schizophrenia in those who are
predisposed to the illness.
Genetic Factors
Research suggests that the genes one inherits strongly influence
one’s risk of developing schizophrenia. Studies of families have shown
that the more closely one is related to someone with schizophrenia,
the greater the risk one has of developing the illness. For example,
the children of one parent with schizophrenia have about a 13
percent chance of developing the illness, and children of two parents
with schizophrenia have about a 46 percent chance of eventually
developing schizophrenia. This increased risk occurs even when
such children are adopted and raised by mentally healthy parents.
In comparison, children in the general population have only about
a 1 percent chance of developing schizophrenia.
Chemical Imbalance
Some evidence suggests that schizophrenia may result from an
imbalance of chemicals in the brain called neurotransmitters. These
chemicals enable neurons (brain cells) to communicate with each
other. Some scientists suggest that schizophrenia results from excess
activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in certain parts of the
brain or from an abnormal sensitivity to dopamine. Support for this
hypothesis comes from antipsychotic drugs, which reduce psychotic
symptoms in schizophrenia by blocking brain receptors for dopamine.
In addition, amphetamines, which increase dopamine activity, intensify
psychotic symptoms in people with schizophrenia. Despite these
findings, many experts believe that excess dopamine activity alone
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cannot account for schizophrenia. Other neurotransmitters, such as
serotonin and norepinephrine, may play important roles as well.
Structural Brain Abnormalities
Brain imaging techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging
and positron-emission tomography, have led researchers to discover
specific structural abnormalities in the brains of people with
schizophrenia. For example, people with chronic schizophrenia tend
to have enlarged brain ventricles (cavities in the brain that contain
cerebrospinal fluid). They also have a smaller overall volume of
brain tissue compared to mentally healthy people. Other people with
schizophrenia show abnormally low activity in the frontal lobe of
the brain, which governs abstract thought, planning, and judgment.
Research has identified possible abnormalities in many other parts
of the brain, including the temporal lobes, basal ganglia, thalamus,
hippocampus, and superior temporal gyrus. These defects may
partially explain the abnormal thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors
that characterize schizophrenia.
Prenatal Factors
Evidence suggests that factors in the prenatal environment can
increase the risk of a person later developing schizophrenia. For
example, pregnant women who have been exposed to the influenza
virus or who have poor nutrition have a slightly increased chance
of giving birth to a child who later develops schizophrenia.
Stressful Events
Although scientists favor a biological cause of schizophrenia, stress
in the environment may affect the onset and course of the illness.
Stressful life circumstances—such as the death of a loved one, an
important change in jobs or relationships, or chronic tension and
hostility at home—can increase the chances of schizophrenia in a
person biologically predisposed to the disease. In addition, stressful
events can trigger a relapse of symptoms in a person who already
has the illness. Individuals who have effective skills for managing
stress may be less susceptible to its negative effects.
Treatment
Although there is no cure for schizophrenia, effective treatment
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exists that can improve the long-term course of the illness. Most
physicians use antipsychotic drugs to treat people with schizophrenia.
Skills training and rehabilitation programs may also help people with
this illness function in the community.
Antipsychotic Drugs
Antipsychotic medications, discovered in the mid-1950s, can
dramatically improve the quality of life for people with schizophrenia.
The drugs reduce or eliminate psychotic symptoms such as
hallucinations and delusions. The medications can also help prevent
these symptoms from returning. People with schizophrenia usually
must take medication for the rest of their lives to control psychotic
symptoms. Antipsychotic medications appear to be less effective at
treating other symptoms of schizophrenia, such as social withdrawal
and apathy.
Antipsychotic drugs help reduce symptoms in 80 to 90 percent of
people with schizophrenia. However, those who benefit often stop
taking medication because they do not understand that they are ill
or because of unpleasant side effects. Minor side effects include
dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, dizziness, and drowsiness.
Other side effects are more serious and debilitating. These may
include muscle spasms or cramps, tremors, and tardive dyskinesia,
an irreversible condition marked by uncontrollable movements
of the lips, mouth, and tongue. Newer drugs, such as clozapine,
olanzapine, and risperidone, produce fewer of these side effects.
However, clozapine can cause agranulocytosis, a sometimes fatal
blood disease. For this reason, people taking clozapine must have
weekly tests to monitor their blood.
Skills Training and Rehabilitation
Because many patients with schizophrenia continue to experience
difficulties despite taking medication, other types of treatment are often
necessary. Social skills training helps people with schizophrenia learn
specific behaviors for functioning in society such as making friends,
purchasing items at a store, or initiating conversations. Behavioral
training methods can also help them learn self-care skills such as
personal hygiene, money management, and proper nutrition.
Family intervention programs can also benefit people with
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schizophrenia. These programs focus on helping family members
understand the nature and treatment of schizophrenia, how to monitor
the illness, and how to create a low-stress environment that helps
patients make progress towards greater independence. Because many
patients have difficulty obtaining or keeping jobs, employment
programs that help patients find and maintain jobs are a helpful part
of rehabilitation. Despite the severity of schizophrenia, treatment that
combines medication and rehabilitation can improve the long-term
prospects for people with this mental illness.
Related Disorders
Several other psychiatric disorders are closely related to
schizophrenia. In schizoaffective disorder, a person shows symptoms
of schizophrenia combined with either mania or severe depression.
Schizophreniform disorder refers to an illness in which a person
experiences schizophrenic symptoms for more than one month but
fewer than six months. In schizotypal personality disorder, a person
engages in odd thinking, speech, and behavior, but usually does not
lose contact with reality .Sometimes mental health professionals refer
to these disorders together as schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.

8. Types of Antibiotics

Following is a list of some of the more common antibiotics and

examples of some of their clinical uses. This section does not include
all antibiotics nor all of their clinical applications.
Penicillins
Penicillins are bactericidal, inhibiting formation of the cell
wall. There are four types of penicillins: the narrow-spectrum

159
penicillin-G types, ampicillin and its relatives, the penicillinase-
resistants, and the extended spectrum penicillins that are active
against. Penicillin-G types are effective against gram-positive strains
of streptococci, staphylococci, and some gram-negative bacteria
such as meningococcus. Penicillin-G is used to treat such diseases
as syphilis, gonorrhea, meningitis, anthrax, and yaws. The related
penicillin V has a similar range of action but is less effective.
Ampicillin and amoxicillin have a range of effectiveness similar to
that of penicillin-G, with a slightly broader spectrum, including some
gram-negative bacteria. The penicillinase-resistants are penicillins
that combat bacteria that have developed resistance to penicillin-G.
The antipseudomonal penicillins are used against infections caused
by gram-negative Pseudomonas bacteria, a particular problem in
hospitals. They may be administered as a prophylactic in patients
with compromised immune systems, who are at risk from gram-
negative infections.
Side effects of the penicillins, while relatively rare, can include immediate
and delayed allergic reactions-specifically, skin rashes, fever, and
anaphylactic shock, which can be fatal.

Cephalosporin
Like the penicillins, cephalosporins have a β-lactam ring structure
that interferes with synthesis of the bacterial cell wall and so are
bactericidal. Cephalosporins are more effective than penicillin against
gram-negative bacilli and equally effective against gram-positive
cocci. Cephalosporins may be used to treat strains of meningitis
and as a prophylactic for orthopedic, abdominal, and pelvic surgery.
Rare hypersensitive reactions from the cephalosporins include skin
rash and, less frequently, anaphylactic shock.
Aminoglycosides
Streptomycin is the oldest of the aminoglycosides. The
aminoglycosides inhibit bacterial protein synthesis in many gram-
negative and some gram-positive organisms. They are sometimes
used in combination with penicillin. The members of this group
tend to be more toxic than other antibiotics. Rare adverse effects
associated with prolonged use of aminoglycosides include damage to
the vestibular region of the ear, hearing loss, and kidney damage.
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Tetracyclines
Tetracyclines are bacteriostatic, inhibiting bacterial protein
synthesis. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics effective against
strains of streptococci, gram-negative bacilli, rickettsia (the bacteria
that causes typhoid fever), and spirochetes (the bacteria that causes
syphilis). They are also used to treat urinary-tract infections and
bronchitis. Because of their wide range of effectiveness, tetracyclines
can sometimes upset the balance of resident bacteria that are normally
held in check by the body’s immune system, leading to secondary
infections in the gastrointestinal tract and vagina, for example.
Tetracycline use is now limited because of the increase of resistant
bacterial strains.
Sulfonamides
The sulfonamides are synthetic bacteriostatic, broad-spectrum
antibiotics, effective against most gram-positive and many gram-
negative bacteria. However, because many gram-negative bacteria
have developed resistance to the sulfonamides, these antibiotics
are now used only in very specific situations, including treatment
of urinary-tract infection, against meningococcal strains, and as a
prophylactic for rheumatic fever. Side effects may include disruption
of the gastrointestinal tract and hypersensitivity.

9. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

The causative agent of
AIDS is HIV, a human
retrovirus. Researchers have
known since 1984 that HIV
enters human cells by binding
with a receptor protein
known as CD4, located on
human immune-cell surfaces.
HIV carries on its surface a viral protein known as gp120, which
specifically recognizes and binds to the CD4 protein molecules on the
outer surface of human immune cells. However, in 1984 researchers

161
found that CD4 by itself was not sufficient for HIV infection to take
place. Some other unknown factor, found only in human cells, was
also required. After much research, in 1996 scientists discovered
that HIV must also bind to chemokine receptors, small proteins also
found on the surface of human immune cells, to enter the cells. The
first chemokine receptor linked to HIV entry was CXCR4 (originally
called fusin), which is bound by HIV strains that dominate during the
latter stages of the disease. Researchers then determined that another
chemokine receptor, CCR5, bound HIV strains that dominate in the
early stages of the disease. Researchers are continuously discovering
more chemokine receptors.
Any human cell that has the correct binding molecules on its surface
is a potential target for HIV infection. However, it is the specific
class of human white blood cells called CD4 T-cells that are most
affected by HIV because these cells have high concentrations of the
CD4 molecule on their outer surfaces. HIV replication in CD4 T-cells
can kill the cells directly; however, the cells also may be killed or
rendered dysfunctional by indirect means without ever having been
infected with HIV. CD4 T-cells are critical in the normal immune
system because they help other types of immune cells respond to
invading organisms. As CD4 T-cells are specifically killed during
HIV infection, no help is available for immune responses. General
immune system failure results, permitting the opportunistic infections
and cancers that characterize clinical AIDS.
Although it is generally agreed that HIV is the virus that causes
AIDS and that HIV replication can directly kill CD4 T-cells, the
large variation among individuals in the amount of time between
infection with HIV and a diagnosis of AIDS has led to speculation
that other cofactors—that is, factors acting along with HIV—may
influence the course of disease. The exact nature of these cofactors is
uncertain—it is believed that they may include genetic, immunologic,
and environmental factors or other diseases. However, it is clear that
HIV must be present for the development of AIDS.

10. Antibiotics
Antibiotics (Greek anti, “against;” bios, “life”) are chemical
compounds used to kill or inhibit the growth of infectious organisms.
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Originally the term
antibiotic referred only
to organic compounds,
produced by bacteria or
molds, that are toxic to
other microorganisms.
The term is now
used loosely to
include synthetic and
semisynthetic organic compounds. Antibiotic refers generally to
antibacterials; however, because the term is loosely defined, it is
preferable to specify compounds as being antimalarials, antivirals, or
antiprotozoals. All antibiotics share the property of selective toxicity;
that is, they are more toxic to an invading organism than they are to
an animal or human host. Penicillin is the most well-known antibiotic
and has been used to fight many infectious diseases, including
syphilis, gonorrhea, tetanus, and scarlet fever. Another antibiotic,
streptomycin, has been used to combat tuberculosis.
Classification
Antibiotics can be classified in several ways. The most common
method classifies them according to their action against the infecting
organism. Some antibiotics attack the cell wall; some disrupt the cell
membrane; and the majority inhibits the synthesis of nucleic acids
and proteins, the polymers that make up the bacterial cell. Another
method classifies antibiotics according to which bacterial strains they
affect: staphylococcus, streptococcus, or Escherichia coli, for example.
Antibiotics are also classified on the basis of chemical structure, as
penicillins, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, macrolides,
or sulfonamides, among others.
Mechanisms of Action
Most antibiotics act by selectively interfering with the synthesis
of one of the large-molecule constituents of the cell—the cell wall or
proteins or nucleic acids. Some, however, act by disrupting the cell
membrane (see Cell Death and Growth Suppression below). Some
important and clinically useful drugs interfere with the synthesis
of peptidoglycan, the most important component of the cell wall.

163
These drugs include the β-lactam antibiotics, which are classified
according to chemical structure into penicillins, cephalosporins,
and carbapenems. All these antibiotics contain a β-lactam ring as a
critical part of their chemical structure, and they inhibit synthesis
of peptidoglycan, an essential part of the cell wall. They do not
interfere with the synthesis of other intracellular components. The
continuing buildup of materials inside the cell exerts ever greater
pressure on the membrane, which is no longer properly supported
by peptidoglycan. The membrane gives way, the cell contents leak
out, and the bacterium dies. These antibiotics do not affect human
cells because human cells do not have cell walls.
Many antibiotics operate by inhibiting the synthesis of various
intracellular bacterial molecules, including DNA, RNA, ribosomes,
and proteins. The synthetic sulfonamides are among the antibiotics
that indirectly interfere with nucleic acid synthesis. Nucleic-acid
synthesis can also be stopped by antibiotics that inhibit the enzymes
that assemble these polymers—for example, DNA polymerase or
RNA polymerase. Examples of such antibiotics are actinomycin,
rifamicin, and rifampicin, the last two being particularly valuable
in the treatment of tuberculosis. The quinolone antibiotics inhibit
synthesis of an enzyme responsible for the coiling and uncoiling
of the chromosome, a process necessary for DNA replication and
for transcription to messenger RNA. Some antibacterials affect the
assembly of messenger RNA, thus causing its genetic message to
be garbled. When these faulty messages are translated, the protein
products are nonfunctional. There are also other mechanisms: the
tetracyclines compete with incoming transfer-RNA molecules; the
aminoglycosides cause the genetic message to be misread and a
defective protein to be produced; chloramphenicol prevents the
linking of amino acids to the growing protein; and puromycin causes
the protein chain to terminate prematurely, releasing an incomplete
protein.
Range of Effectiveness
In some species of bacteria the cell wall consists primarily of
a thick layer of peptidoglycan. Other species have a much thinner
layer of peptidoglycan and an outer as well as an inner membrane.
When bacteria are subjected to Gram’s stain, these differences in

164
structure affect the differential staining of the bacteria with a dye
called gentian violet. The differences in staining coloration (gram-
positive bacteria appear purple and gram-negative bacteria appear
colorless or reddish, depending on the process used) are the basis
of the classification of bacteria into gram-positive (those with thick
peptidoglycan) and gram-negative (those with thin peptidoglycan
and an outer membrane), because the staining properties correlate
with many other bacterial properties. Antibacterials can be further
subdivided into narrow-spectrum and broad-spectrum agents. The
narrow-spectrum penicillins act against many gram-positive bacteria.
Aminoglycosides, also narrow-spectrum, act against many gram-
negative as well as some gram-positive bacteria. The tetracyclines
and chloramphenicols are both broad-spectrum drugs because they are
effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
Cell Death and Growth Suppression
Antibiotics may also be classed as bactericidal (killing bacteria)
or bacteriostatic (stopping bacterial growth and multiplication).
Bacteriostatic drugs are nonetheless effective because bacteria that
are prevented from growing will die off after a time or be killed
by the defense mechanisms of the host. The tetracyclines and the
sulfonamides are among the bacteriostatic antiobiotics. Antibiotics
that damage the cell membrane cause the cell’s metabolites to leak
out, thus killing the organism. Such compounds, including penicillins
and cephalosporins, are therefore classed as bactericidal.

11. Virus

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A Virus is an infectious agent found in virtually all life forms,
including humans, animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Viruses consist
of genetic material-either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic
acid (RNA)—surrounded by a protective coating of protein, called
a capsid, with or without an outer lipid envelope. Viruses are
between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria and hence are too
small to be seen by light microscopy. Viruses vary in size from
the largest poxviruses of about 450 nanometers (about 0.000014
in) in length to the smallest polioviruses of about 30 nanometers
(about 0.000001 in). Viruses are not considered free-living, since
they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell; they have evolved
to transmit their genetic information from one cell to another for
the purpose of replication.
Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they infect, causing
disease in infected organisms. A few viruses stimulate cells to grow
uncontrollably and produce cancers. Although many infectious
diseases, such as the common cold, are caused by viruses, there are
no cures for these illnesses. The difficulty in developing antiviral
therapies stems from the large number of variant viruses that can
cause the same disease, as well as the inability of drugs to disable a
virus without disabling healthy cells. However, the development of
antiviral agents is a major focus of current research, and the study
of viruses has led to many discoveries important to human health.
Structure and Classification
Individual viruses, or virus particles, also called virions, contain
genetic material, or genomes, in one of several forms. Unlike cellular
organisms, which have only DNA, viruses have either DNA or RNA.
Like cell DNA, almost all viral DNA is double-stranded, and it can
have either a circular or a linear arrangement. Almost all viral RNA
is single-stranded; it is usually linear, and it may be either segmented
(with different genes on different RNA molecules) or nonsegmented
(with all genes on a single piece of RNA).
The viral protective shell, or capsid, can be either helical (spiral-
shaped) or icosahedral (having 20 triangular sides). Capsids are
composed of repeating units of one or a few different proteins.
These units are called protomers or capsomers. The proteins that
make up the virus particle are called structural proteins. Viruses
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also carry genes for making proteins that are never incorporated
into the virus particle and are found only in infected cells. These
viral proteins are called nonstructural proteins; they include factors
required for the replication of the viral genome and the production
of the virus particle.
Capsids and the genetic material (DNA or RNA) they contain are
together referred to as nucleocapsids. Some virus particles consist
only of nucleocapsids, while others contain additional structures.
Some icosahedral and helical animal viruses are enclosed in
a lipid envelope acquired when the virus buds through host-cell
membranes. Inserted into this envelope are glycoproteins that the
viral genome directs the cell to make; these molecules bind virus
particles to susceptible host cells.
The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use
bacteria as their hosts. Some bacteriophages resemble an insect with
an icosahedral head attached to a tubular sheath. From the base of
the sheath extend several long tail fibers that help the virus attach
to the bacterium and inject its DNA to be replicated and to direct
capsid production and virus particle assembly inside the cell.
Disease-causing agents that resemble incomplete viruses are called
viroids and prions. Viroids are plant pathogens that consist only of
a circular, independently replicating RNA molecule. The single-
stranded RNA circle collapses on itself to form a rodlike structure.
The only known mammalian pathogen that resembles plant viroids is
the deltavirus (hepatitis D), which requires hepatitis B virus proteins
to package its RNA into virus particles. Co-infection with hepatitis
B and D can produce more severe disease than can infection with
hepatitis B alone. Prions are human and animal pathogens that
consist of only a protein and lack nucleic acids. The prion protein
(PrP) can be infectious and causes a fatal neurological disease. A
change in the shape of PrP is believed to be the key factor in the
development of the disease.
Viruses are classified according to their type of genetic material,
their strategy of replication, and their structure. The International
Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses (ICNV), established in 1966,
devised a scheme to group viruses into families, subfamilies, genera,
and species. The ICNV report published in 1995 assigned more than
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4000 viruses into 71 virus families. Hundreds of other viruses remain
unclassified because of the lack of sufficient information.

12. Alternative Medicine

Alternative Medicine, also called unconventional medicine,

involves therapeutic practices, techniques, and beliefs that are outside
the realm of mainstream Western health care. Alternative medicine
emphasizes therapies that improve quality of life, prevent disease,
and address conditions that conventional medicine has limited success
in curing, such as chronic back pain and certain cancers. Proponents
of alternative medicine believe that these approaches to healing are
safer and more natural and have been shown through experience to
work. In certain countries, alternative medical practices are the most
widely used methods of health care. However, many practitioners of
modern conventional medicine believe these practices are unorthodox
and unproven.
In a nationwide survey conducted in the United States by researchers
at Harvard Medical School in 1990, one in three respondents reported
using at least one unconventional therapy in the past year, and a
third of these respondents visited an alternative therapist. Based on
these figures, it is estimated that 61 million Americans use alternative
medicine. Reports from Canada, Great Britain, and Australia also
indicate a widespread interest in alternative therapies.

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A special report prepared for the National Institutes of Health,
Alternative Medicine: Expanding Medical Horizons, categorizes
alternative medicine practices into six fields. The first field, mind-body
intervention, explores the mind’s capacity to affect, and perhaps heal,
the body. Studies have shown that the mental state has a profound
effect on the immune system, and these studies have provoked
interest in the mind’s role in the cause and course of cancer and
other diseases. Specific mind-body interventions include meditation,
hypnosis, art therapy, biofeedback, and mental healing.
Bioelectromagnetic applications, the second field of alternative
medicine, make use of the body’s response to nonthermal, nonionizing
radiation. Current uses involve bone repair, nerve stimulation,
wound healing, treatment of osteoarthritis, and immune system
stimulation.
The third field is alternative systems of medical practice. Each
of these systems is characterized by a specific theory of health
and disease, an educational program to teach its concepts to new
practitioners, and often a legal mandate to regulate its practice.
Examples include acupuncture, Ayurvedic medicine, homeopathy,
and naturopathy.
Touch and manipulation are the mainstays of the manual healing
methods, which constitute the fourth field of alternative medicine.
Practitioners of chiropractic and massage therapy believe that
dysfunction of one part of the body often affects the function of other,
not necessarily connected, parts. Health is restored by manipulating
bones or soft tissues or realigning body parts.
The pharmacological and biological treatments that make up the
fifth field of alternative medicine consist of an assortment of drugs and
vaccines not yet accepted in mainstream medicine. Compounds such
as antineoplastins (from human blood and urine) for AIDS, various
products of the honey bee for arthritis, and iscador (a liquid extract
from mistletoe) for tumors have not been scientifically evaluated
because of the expense of conducting safety and effectiveness
studies.
Throughout the ages people have turned for healing to herbal
medicine, the sixth field of alternative medicine. All cultures have
folk medicine traditions that include the use of plants and plant

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products. Many licensed drugs used today originated in the herbal
traditions of various cultures, such as the medication commonly used
for heart failure, digitalis, which is derived from foxglove.

13. Acupuncture

A Chinese medical technique, acupuncture has been practiced for

more than 4,000 years. It is used primarily for the relief of pain but
also for curing disease and improving general health.
Acupuncture consists of inserting hair-thin needles through
particular spots in the skin (acupuncture points) into neuroreceptors
in underlying muscles. The needles are typically inserted 1/10 to
4/10 inch (0.3 to 1 centimeter) deep, but some procedures require
the needles to be inserted as deep as 10 inches (25 centimeters). The
acupuncture points are then stimulated either by gentle twirling, by
heat, or by stimulation with a weak electrical current. Acupuncture
points also can be stimulated by pressure, ultrasound, and certain
wavelengths of light.
Modern Research
Acupuncture appears to be undeniably effective in relieving
pain. Western observers have witnessed ordinarily painful surgical
operations carried out on fully conscious Chinese patients who were
locally anesthetized only by acupuncture and who exhibited no signs
of discomfort. The reasons for acupuncture’s success, however,
are not understood. One theory suggests that the needle insertions
stimulate the body’s production of such natural pain-killing chemical
substances as endorphins and enkephalins. Another theory suggests
that acupuncture blocks the transmission of pain impulses from parts
of the body to the central nervous system.

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Although still regarded legally in the United States as an
experimental medical procedure, acupuncture has been used
extensively in research projects in hospitals and medical centers
throughout Asia, Europe, and North and South America for the relief
of pain during and after dental procedures and in some surgical
operations. It has also been used to control blood pressure, to relieve
muscle spasms and arthritic pain, and to alleviate symptoms associated
with withdrawal from drug addiction, with appetite control, and
with many other conditions. In some people and in certain medical
conditions, it is not always effective. At one time it was believed
that acupuncture was related in some way to hypnosis, but extensive
experiments in animals undergoing surgery in veterinary hospitals
has disproved that assumption.
Ancient Theory and Modern Revival
It has been difficult for modern physicians to accept acupuncture
as an effective procedure for the treatment of certain conditions. This
is primarily because of the elaborate systems of fanciful theories that
were developed thousands of years ago by the early practitioners of
acupuncture to explain its mechanisms of action. For example, the
ancient Chinese designated the master force that coordinates and
controls the fundamental activities of different organs in the body as
vital energy, or ch’i. Modern science teaches that the nervous system
and various chemical and hormonal substances (neurotransmitters)
perform the functions that the ancients attributed to ch’i.
Ancient theorists also held that two opposite forces in the body,
called yin and yang, could be kept in balance by acupuncture, thereby
promoting health and controlling disease. They believed that ch’i
flowed through the body along a system of channels, or meridians, on
which more than 500 acupuncture points were located. Acupuncture
is said to affect the distribution of yin and yang in these channels,
bringing them into balance so that the ch’i could flow freely and so
bring both physical and emotional health. Modern scientific studies
have failed to demonstrate an anatomic meridian system. They have
shown, however, that acupuncture points are more richly supplied
with nerve endings than are the surrounding skin areas.

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Course Review
Do the following exercises as part of the review for your
semester-end Test

I. VOCABULARY
Part A
1. Disease, in medicine, is any state in which the health of the
human organism is_____________
a. impaired b. improved c. bettered d. excellent
2. Even when a cause is not known, a disease can almost always
be understood _______the physiological or mental processes that
are disrupted.
a. in terms of b. due to c. owing to d. as
3. Symptoms may _________ from subjective reports of pain,
such as headache or backache, to visible conditions, such as a
swelling or a rash.
a. include b. range
c. have a specified range d. reach
4. With increasing use of laboratory tests in __________physical
examinations of apparently healthy persons, doctors are more often
finding diseases without symptoms noticeable to the patient.
a. habitual b. classical c. routine d. yearly
5. Many people may be ____________ to influenza virus, for
example, but some stay well, others become moderately ill, and
weak or old people may die.
a. exposed b. sensitive c. allergic d. vulnerable
6. Exposure to cotton dust similarly ______workers to brown lung.
a. predisposes b. take c. lead d. send

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7. Another group of diseases results from a __________of the
immune system.
a. madness b. derangement c. confusion d. insanity
8. One example of a disease in which the cause is not known is
cancer, in which the normal _________________ on cell growth is lost.
a. restraint b. caution c. stress d. load
9. An infection may be local and __________to one area or
generalized and spread throughout the body.
a. confined b. bedridden c. indisposed d. shut
10. Hypertension, if left untreated, can __________heart attack,
stroke, kidney disease, or other illnesses.
a. show to b. drive to c. affect d. lead to
11. Antibiotics can lessen the __________effects and prevent
serious heart damage.
a. opposite b. antagonistic c. adverse d. negative
12. Congestive heart failure occurs when __________of the veins
serving the lungs or of those serving the rest of the body prevents
the heart muscle from being able to pump forcefully enough to
deliver an adequate supply of blood to the body. It can be caused
by disease of either the heart muscle or the valves.
a. engorgement b. absorption c. saturation d. blockage
13. A physician can __________many heart conditions before
symptoms become apparent by using an instrument called an
electrocardiograph.
a. distinguish b. expose c. detect d. catch
14. In the most radical surgery the patient may __________a heart
transplant, in which the diseased heart is replaced with a healthy
heart from a deceased donor.
a. encounter b. meet with c. undergo d. share

15. Antibiotics are effective in ___________infection.

a. making war b. combating c. causing d. reducing
16. Some diseases, such as measles and mumps, are fairly easy
to __________ by appearance.
a. treat b. deal with c. identify d. kill
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17. The __________ of body fluids or tissues to show the presence
of specific microorganisms is essential to rational treatment of
infections with antibiotics.
a. accumulation b. loss c. culture d. culturing
18. To sharpen their diagnostic skills, physicians and other medical
professionals _________regular conferences at which difficult cases
are discussed.
a. cancel b. hold c. report d. meet
19. Some physical conditions can be corrected through surgery
while others may be effectively treated by radiotherapy, which
__________ the use of X rays or other types of radiation.
a. involves b. indicates c. asks d. forbid
20. Therapeutic methods drawn from non-Western traditions
are collectively ___________ as alternative medicine and include
techniques such as chiropractic, acupuncture, and homeopathy.
a. considered b. referred to c. working d. reported
21. In the treatment of mental illness some useful therapies
include techniques that __________ heavily on verbal and emotional
communication.
a. rely b. act c. feed d. live
22. People with disabilities also benefit from recreational and
__________ therapy, which helps people master their personal and
work-related activities, such as buttoning clothes.
a. medical b. hydro- c. occupational d. physio-
23. Antibiotics are chemical compounds used to kill or _________
the growth of infectious organisms.
a. inhibit b. hasten c. induce d. facilitate
24. Some antibiotics attack the cell wall, some _________ the
membrane.
a. disrupt b. form c. line d. feed
25. Antibiotics result in the buildup of materials inside the bacterial
cell __________ever greater pressure on the membrane.
a. exerting b. calming c. suffering d. getting rid of
26. When bacteria are __________to Gram’s stain, the differences

174
in structure affect the differential staining of the bacteria with a dye
called gentian violet.
a. due b. subjected c. according d. up
27. Antibacterials can be further subdivided into narrow-spectrum
and broad-spectrum__________.
a. agents b. worlds c. species d. strains
28. Desirable effects are called therapeutic or _________
responses.
a. beneficial b. unfavorable c. adverse d. negative
29. Some drugs, such as those used to treat cancer, are known to
have toxic effects; however, the benefits _________the risks- that
is, treatment without them may result in death.
a. cause b. outweigh c. underweight d. weigh
30. Physicians constantly _________the precise levels of some
drugs in an individual’s bloodstream to prevent drug poisoning.
a. ignore b. study c. manage d. monitor
31. __________doses, taking drugs at the wrong time of the day
or with instead of before meals, and stopping drug use too soon can
markedly reduce the medical benefits of many drugs.
a. Over- b. Missing c. Correct d. Small
32. The most common side effects of drugs are drowsiness,
headache, sleeplessness, nausea, and diarrhea. Other reactions, such as
those that occur only in specific individuals for unexpected reasons,
are called ___________reactions.
a. idiosyncratic b. positive c. negative d. allergic
33. Drug _________can cause a wide variety of adverse physical
reactions.
a. effects b. abuse c. interactions d. preparations
34. One of the most dangerous effects of illegal drug use is the
potential for overdosing- that is, taking too large or too strong a
dose for the body’s systems to__________.
a. absorb b. consume c. handle d. dissolve
35. Detoxification programs are medically supervised programs
that gradually __________ an individual from a drug over a period
of days or weeks.
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a. handle b. wean c. stop d. prevent
36. The treated microorganisms used for immunization do not
cause the disease, but rather _________the body’s immune system
to build a defense mechanism that continuously guards against the
disease.
a. trigger b. tell c. get d. destroy
37. Immunization has dramatically reduced the _________of a
number of deadly diseases.
a. incidence b. population c. pain d. treatment
38. The number of cases of Hemophilus influenza type B
meningitis in the United States has __________95 percent among
infants and children since 1988, when the vaccine for that disease
was first introduced.
a. increased b. produced c. dropped d. triggered
39. In an attempt to continue the global success of eradicating
contagious diseases, the World Health Organization (WHO) has
_________the year 2000 as a target date for the immunization of
all children.
a. set b. made c. taken d. compared
40. Immunization __________real infection but presents little or
no risk to the recipient.
a. reduces b. mimics c. responds to d. treats
41. Finally, a person can be injected with live organisms that
have been__________ -that is, changed so that they do not cause
disease.
a. killed b. attenuated c. fed d. cultured
42. Immune globulin (antibody-containing plasma) for some
diseases was once ___________from the blood serum of horses.
a. derived b. prepared c. withdrawn d. sent
43. It was discovered that a single injection of measles vaccine,
first licensed in 1963 and administered to children at the age of 15
months, did not ___________protection through adolescence and
young adulthood.
a. rely upon b. confer c. depend on d. issue
44. The goal in vaccine development is to __________the highest

176
degree of protection with the lowest rate of side effects.
a. achieve b. have c. deny d. assure
45. To __________future epidemics, health authorities now
recommend that a booster dose of measles vaccine be administered
at 4 to 6 or 11 to 12 years.
a. develop b. speed up c. predict d. forestall
46. A history of the patient’s use of medications should be acquired
to prevent possible ___________interactions with anesthetics.
a. favorable b. future c. adverse d. many
47. The surgeon __________the timing of an operation, the
techniques, and the instruments and supplies to be used.
a. determines b. describes c. shows d. forces
48. ___________procedures are used to connect or dissect minute
nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues in delicate procedures.
a. Microsurgical b. Complicated c. Normal d. Abnormal
49. Specialized surgical instruments that are smaller and more
precise than those used in _________surgery were developed as
microsurgery techniques advanced, and by the 1970s surgeons were
also operating on micro nerves.
a. conventional b. plastic c. cosmetic d. normal
50. A revolutionary development utilizing state-of-the-art computer
technology allows surgeons to _________microsurgery without a
microscope.
a. establish b. perform c. set up d. discover
51. Known as three-dimensional on-screen microsurgery system
(TOMS), the new procedure utilizes two cameras in a video
microscope that __________a magnified three-dimensional image
on one or more television monitors.
a. projects b. produces c. gives d. invents
52. Viruses are not considered free-living, since they cannot
reproduce outside of a living cell; they have evolved to transmit
their genetic information from one cell to another for the purpose
of_________.
a. survival b. replication c. copying d. reproduction
53. The difficulty in developing antiviral therapies stems from the
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large number of variant viruses that can cause the same disease, as
well as the inability of drugs to __________a virus without disabling
healthy cells.
a. disable b. form c. identify d. surround
54. The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use
bacteria as their_________.
a. enemies b. hosts c. houses d. nests
55. Governments have attempted to prevent disease by requiring
greater purity of air and water and by ________the use of food
additives that cause cancer in animals.
a. supporting b. allowing c. prohibiting d. facilitating
56. Anesthesia may be the result of damage to nerves or nerve
centers by disease or injury, or it may be intentionally induced by the
administration of drugs for the prevention or _________of pain.
a. persistence b. relief c. calmer d. production
57. Thiopental sodium in small doses is sometimes used in
________because it allows patients to talk uninhibitedly.
a. hospitals b. psychiatry c. physiology d. pathology
58. Acupressure is a variant in which the practitioner uses
manipulation rather than penetration to __________pain or other
symptoms.
a. cause b. provoke c. alleviate d. test
58. Acupuncture is an ancient Chinese medical procedure involving
insertion and __________of needles at more than 360 points.
a. sharpening b. manipulation c. making d. production
60. Acupressure is __________by pressing with the fingertips –
and sometimes the elbows or knees.
a. made b. tested c. proved d. administered
61. In Chinese medicine, diseases are believed to be caused by
interrupted energy __________ .
a. flow b. means c. pressure d. point
62. Chinese surgeons _________that acupuncture is superior to
Western, drug-induced analgesia in that it does not disturb normal
body physiology and therefore does not make the patient vulnerable
to shock.
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a. claim b. deny c. accept d. take
63. _________appears to be undeniably effective in relieving
pain.
a. Penicillin b. Acupuncture c. Drugs d. This
64. The ancient Chinese designated the master force that
coordinates and controls the fundamental activities of different organs
in the body as ___________energy, or ch’i.
a. vital b. an c. rare d. useful
65. Ancient theorists also __________that two opposite forces in
the body, called yin and yang, could be kept in balance by acupuncture,
thereby promoting health and controlling disease.
a. held b. denied c. disagreed d. felt
66. Endocrine glands release hormones that increase heartbeat and
respiration, elevate blood sugar, increase perspiration, ___________
the pupils, and slow the digestion.
a. blacken b. dry c. dilate d. narrow
67. Prolonged exposure to stress __________the body’s energy
supplies and can even lead to death.
a. depletes b. increases c. enriches d. provides
68. Physicians have long recognized that people are more
susceptible to diseases of all kinds when they are ___________ to
great stress.
a. subjected b. responding c. stressful d. responsive
69. Scientists ___________at least part of the effects of stress to
evolutionary history.
a. attribute b. responsive c. responsible d. exposed
70. In order to cope with physical stress, the heart beats faster,
blood pressure rises, and other body systems prepare to __________the
threat.
a. meet b. eradicate c. attack d. withdraw
71. Ulcers are caused by a (n) _________of gastric juices or
unusual sensitivity in an area of the stomach lining, causing nausea
and pain.
a. type b. amount c. excess d. liter

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72. Emotional stress can cause or __________many skin disorders,
from those that produce itching, tickling, and pain to those that
cause rashes and acne.
a. aggravate b. reduce c. face d. treat
73. A CBC may also include a _________of white cells into
categories, which may be done visually from a stained sample on a
microscope slide or automatically using one of several techniques.
a. differentiation b. sorting c. variety d. heap
74. Although clot formation is a normal process, it sometimes
occurs inappropriately and __________a threat to life.
a. constitutes b. put c. cure d. deal with
75. Formation of abnormal hemoglobin is _________for the
hereditary defects called sickle-cell anemia and thalassemia major.
a. effective b. responsible c. good d. bad
76. Leukemia __________one-third of the cancer cases in children
under age 15.
a. constitutes b. describes c. reduces d. fights
77. The clinical symptoms of acute leukemia are irregular fever;
a _________to hemorrhage, or bleed profusely, from the gums and
mucous membranes and under the skin.
a. tendency b. response c. reaction d. refusal
78. In ultrasound, a _________called a transducer is used to
transmit sound waves and receive echoes.
a. equipment b. device c. generator d. receptor
79. If multiple births are__________, ultrasound may be used in
order to confirm the number of fetuses.
a. given b. suspected c. discovered d. known
80. Understanding of diseases depends on a clear _________of
the symptoms, which are manifestations of altered life processes.
a. delineation b. manifestation c. appearance d. list
81. Symptoms may range from __________reports of pain, such
as headache or backache, to visible conditions, such as a swelling
or a rash.
a. positive b. negative c. adequate d. subjective

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82. The state of the immune system and the overall health of the
person influence the disease___________.
a. course b. type c. name d. cause
83. Some cases of diabetes mellitus are due to an altered cell
receptor for insulin, the hormone that __________entry of sugar
into cells.
a. promotes b. forms c. inhibits d. blocks
84. People with anomalies in the way they metabolize alcohol
may be more ___________to the effects of disease than others.
a. reactive b. vulnerable c. harmful d. strange
85. Once an infectious agent enters the host, it begins
to__________.
a. work b. proliferate c. react d. respond
86. Infectious agents may enter the body of the host by
several________.
a. tubes b. tracts c. routes d. openings
87. The degree of an infection is related to the dose and _________
of the infecting agent, as well as to the resistance or immunity of
the host against that organism.
a. virulence b. size c. cost d. shape
88. Antibiotics such as sulfa drugs and other __________are used
against more severe infections.
a. pharmaceuticals b. bacteria c. viruses d. organisms
89. __________prescribed drugs for treatment of heart condition
include anticoagulants that prevent unwanted clotting.
a. Rarely b. Frequently c. Firstly d. Lastly
90. In the most __________surgery a patient may undergo a heart
transplant, in which the diseased heart is replaced with a healthy heart
from a deceased donor.
a. radical b. successful c. effective d. advanced
91. Wounds are classified as _________if they are produced by a
sharp instrument or object or punctured, if the instrument is pointed
and narrow.
a. excised b. blunted c. incised d. contuse

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92. Septic, or infected, wounds are those in which the area is
contaminated by bacteria, which can cause __________or shedding
of tissue.
a. suppuration b. inflammation c. reaction d. response
93. Antibiotics are effective in __________ infection.
a. causing b. combating c. minimizing d. increasing

PART B
Choose suitable words from within the brackets to complete
the sentences.
1. (Plastic/ Oral/ Optional) surgery consists of operations that
are not required but which the patient chooses to undergo as with
some types of cosmetic surgery.
2. (Elective/Plastic/ Urgent) surgical procedures are performed
when a patient’s condition is not immediately life-threatening, but
failure to treat it may result in death.
3. Emergency procedures must be performed within (some/many/a
few hours) of a patient’s arrival at a hospital to prevent death.
4. (Intraoperative/Postoperative/Preoperative) care includes
routine checks of vital signs including temperature, pulse, and blood
pressure, analysis of blood and urine, and a physical examination to
evaluate organ function.
5. An anesthesiologist (a physician trained to provide anesthesia)
looks for signs that might make the (application/injection/
administration) of anesthetics dangerous such as chest infections
or low blood pressure.
6. A surgeon generally will (counsel/force/require) the patient
and his or her family about the surgery and what to expect after the
operation is performed.
7. The surgeon (refuses/provides/determines) the timing of the
operation, the techniques, and the instruments and supplies to be
used.
8. The anesthesiologist (causes/ facilitates/ controls) the patient’s
pain.
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10. Depending upon the hospital, surgical assistants, physician
assistants, surgical residents, medical students, and nursing students
may also (perform/do/attend) an operation.
11. Viruses are between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria
and (consequently/hence/however) are too small to be seen by
light microscopy.
12. Viruses are not considered (non-living/living/free-living),
since they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell.
13. A few viruses (inhibit/stimulate/do not allow) cells to grow
uncontrollably and produce cancers.
14. The difficulty in developing antiviral therapies (deals with/
treats/stems from) the large number of variant viruses that can
cause the same disease, as well as the inability of drugs to disable
a virus without disabling healthy cells.
15. The development of antiviral agents is a major (surgery/
opposition/focus) of current research, and the study of viruses has
led to many discoveries important to human health.
16. The viral protective shells, or capsids are (made by/made
up from/composed of) repeating units of one or a few different
proteins.
17. The most (dangerous/elaborate/aggressive) viruses are the
bacteriophages, which use bacteria as their hosts.
18. Disease-causing agents that (differ from/resemble/attack)
incomplete viruses are called viroids and prions.
19. Hundreds of other viruses remain (infectious/unclassified/
separated) because of the lack of sufficient information.
20. Preventive Medicine (produces/nourishes/promote) health
and prevents illness.
21. Public (awareness/hygiene/ opinion) of AIDS has helped to
limit the spread of the disease.
22. (Divorce/Separation/Quarantine) is the period of time during
which a person or an animal that may have a disease is kept separate
from other people or animals so that the disease does not have a
chance to spread.
23. When you (study/examine/screen) someone, you question
or examine them carefully in order to make sure that they do not
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have a particular disease.
24. The use of food additives that cause cancer must be (promoted
/prohibited/ encouraged).
25. Serious (measures / attempts / lessons) have been made by
the local health authority to prevent the epidemic of cholera from
spreading further.
26. When a person knows or suspects (exposure/reaction/
similarity) to rabies virus, a number of actions should be taken
rapidly but carefully.
27. Many physicians (oppose /deny/recommend) reducing the
intake of cholesterol in the diet to cut down heart disease.
28. People are (encouraged/unwilling/pleased) to stop smoking
as the most effective way to combat the increasing occurrence of
lung cancer.
29. The Ministry of Health has just announced the latest (measures/
regulations/ credits) concerning drug trading.
30. Surgical anesthesia is produced by (inhalation/proprietary/
modern) anesthetics.
31. An anesthetic, usually mixed with oxygen, is either inhaled
or (pushed/ inserted/administered) into the windpipe through a
tube.
32. The (administration/ combination /order) of a narcotic, a
barbiturate, a muscle-paralyzing drug, and nitrous oxide is called
balanced anesthesia.
33. Surgical anesthesia must continue throughout the operation,
but (weakened/prolonged/limited) anesthetization can kill, paralyzing
first the respiratory system and then the heart.
34. Before administering the inhalation anesthetic, the anesthesiologist
might give (intrathecally/intramuscularly/intravenously) a short-
acting barbiturate to induce unconsciousness.
35. Surgical anesthesia must continue throughout the operation, but
(prolonged/shortened/reduced) anesthetization can kill, paralyzing
first the respiratory system and then the heart.
36. Some surgical (procedures/necks/spirits) do not require total
muscular relaxation.

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37. (General/Block/Local) anesthesia is produced by injecting
into the tissues to be affected a solution of a natural alkaloid such
as lidocaine.
38. A mild local anesthesia, useful in many minor dental and
medical procedures, can be produced by (irritating/stimulating/
numbing) the tissues with cold.
39. There are more than 360 (holes/marks/points) in the human
body.
40. Acupuncture is a method of producing analgesia by (inserting/
twirling/warming) fine, wire-thin needles into the skin at specific
sites on the body.
41. Acupressure, a (change/variant/alteration) of acupuncture,
is administered by pressing with the fingertips- and sometimes the
elbows or knees- along a complex network of trigger points in the
patient’s body.
42. In acupuncture, special needles are inserted into the skin at
specific sites on the body along a series of lines or channels called
(points/media/meridians).
43. Acupuncture is now done by sending electrical current
through the needles rather than by (manipulating/inserting/twirling)
them.
44. It has been (denied/rumored/verified) that acupuncture is
effective in some patients, but some put the effectiveness figure
close to 10 percent.
45. Chinese surgeons (claim/warn/suggest) that acupuncture is
superior to Western, drug-induced analgesia
46. In the first stage of stress, alarm, the body (finds/ fights/
recognizes) the stress and prepares for action, either to fight or
escape.
47. If the stress continues, however, the body (remains/gets/
appears) alert and cannot repair the damage.
48. Prolonged exposure to stress (creates/depletes/increases) the
body’s energy supplies and can even lead to death.
49. Stress-Related Disorders are (brought on/treated/bettered)
or worsened by psychological stress.
50. People are more susceptible to diseases of all kinds when
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they are (resisting/reacting/subjected) to great stress.
51. Although stress can (exert/get rid of/reduce) some influence
on any disease, such as a cold or tuberculosis and perhaps even
cancer, it affects some disorders directly.
52. When a person does something active to (work/cope/correlate)
with a threat, the body systems return to normal.
53. Problems (are solved/arise/ are complicated), however, when
the body is prepared to cope with danger but cannot do so.
54. Complete blood count (CBC) is a useful (sign/symptom/
indicator) of disease and health.
55. A CBC may also include a (differentiation/ difference/
sorting) of white cells into categories.
56. Anemia also results from decreased production of red cells,
(attributable to/ responsible for/ resulting in) a loss of iron, to a
deficiency of vitamin B12, or to a failure in the function of bone
marrow.
57. Formation of abnormal hemoglobin is (results from/
responsible for/ affects) the hereditary defects called sickle-cell
anemia.
58. Clot formation sometimes occurs inappropriately and
(contributes/ manifests/constitutes) a threat to life.
59. Interaction of thrombocytes with the fatty deposits found
in atherosclerotic heart disease is thought to (contribute/respond/
react) to heart attacks.
60. In a healthy animal, the blood pressure normal for its species
is (changed/altered/ maintained) within a certain average range
with great constancy.
61. Systole is the high point at which the heart contracts to
(produce/guide/empty) its blood into the circulation.
62. The cuff is (tied/wrapped/hung) around the upper arm and
inflated by squeezing a rubber bulb connected to it by a tube.
63. Abnormally high blood pressure is considered a (vital/possible/
contributory) cause of arteriosclerosis.
64. During a single cardiac cycle the blood pressure (flows/runs/
reaches) maximum during systole.

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65. Leukemia (constitutes/says/causes) one-third of the cancer
cases in children under age 15.
66. The exact cause of most leukemia (predicts/remains/says)
unknown.
67. Certain chemicals such as benzene may also be responsible
for the (remission/reduction/initiation) of leukemia.
68. A gene, called ALL-1, has been identified to be (responsive/
responsible/ reactive) for some acute leukemia in children.
69. In cases of acute leukemia, both radiation therapy and
chemotherapy leads to (indefinite/apparent/bad) cures in about 50
percent of cases, and up to 90 percent of cases show remissions of
three or more years.

PART C
COMPLETION
1. acupressure, additive, anesthesia, anesthetic, conscious, hygiene, inhaler,
melanoma, quarantine, twirl needles

1. a substance which is added in small amounts to

something such as food or petrol in order to improve
it, to make it easier to sell, or to make it last longer.

2. a tumor made up of melanin-pigmented cells

3. the period of time during which a person that may
have a disease is kept separate from other people or
animals so that the disease does not have a chance
to spread
4. the use of anesthetics in medicine and surgery
5. a drug that makes the body unable to feel pain
6. awake and aware of one’s surroundings and
identity
7. a small device for breathing in a medicine, used
especially by people who have asthma (= disease that
can make breathing difficult)

187
8. a massage with the fingers applied to those
specific areas of the body used in acupuncture
9. used to spin round and round during acupuncture
10. cleanliness conducive to maintaining health

2. Choose the definition of the following terms: anorexia, asthma,

catastrophe, activator, coagulation factor, erythroblastosis fetalis,
numbness, psychosomatic illness, stroke

1. a lack of appetite for food.

2. an eating disorder, chiefly in young men,
characterized by aversion to food and b. obsession
with weight loss, manifested in self-induced
starvation and excessive exercise

3. a chest disease which makes breathing difficult

4. a physical illness which occurs because the patient
is very worried, frightened, or unhappy
5. sudden cerebrovascular failure usually caused
by arteriosclerosis, hypertension, embolism, or
hemorrhage and resulting variously in impaired
vision and speech, coma, convulsions, paralysis, etc.
6. any great and sudden calamity, disaster, or
misfortune.
7. weakened in or deprived of the power of feeling
or moving.
8. an inorganic substance which combines with an
inactive enzyme to render it active.
9. a group of substances present in the blood
plasma that, under certain circumstances, undergo
a series of chemical reactions leading to the
conversion of blood from a liquid to a solid state.

10. a severe but rare hemolytic anemia affecting

newborn infants due to destruction of the infant’s
red blood cells by factors present in the mother’s
serum. It is usually caused by incompatibility of the
rhesus blood group between mother and infants.

188
3. Choose the definition of the following terms : hemolysis, hemophilia,
indicator, leukemia, platelet, polycythemia, rhesus factor, sickle-cell
disease, Thalassemia, thrombocytopenia
1. disintegration of elements of the blood
2. a hereditary disorder in which the blood clots very
slowly, due to a deficiency of one of the coagulation
factor (Factor VIII)
3. something which acts as a sign
4. fatal disease, with marked increase in the number
of blood leukocytes.
5. also called thrombocyte, a colorless, spherical,
non-nucleated body of the blood, which is important
in initiating the clotting of blood.
6. an increase in the hemoglobin concentration of
the blood. This may be due to either a decrease in
the total volume of the plasma or to an increase in
the number of red blood cells.
7. a group of antigens that may or may not be
present on the surface of the red blood cells; it
forms the basic of a blood group system.
8. a hereditary blood disease. It is characterized by
the production of an abnormal type of hemoglobin
in the red blood cell.
9. a hereditary blood disease in which there is an
abnormality in the protein part of the hemoglobin
molecule. The affected red cells cannot function
normally, leading to anemia.
10. abnormal decrease in the platelets in the
circulating blood.
4. Choose the definition of the following terms: amniocentesis,
arteriosclerosis, congenital, interferon, marker, myelocyte, onset,
remission, transplantation, thrombus

1. a blood clot within the heart or in a blood vessel.

2. a condition in which the walls of small arteries
become thickened due to aging or hypertension

189
3. a substance that is produced by cells infected with
a virus and has the ability to inhibit viral growth
4. a symbol or object that gives information
5. a type of large cell in the bone marrow, that
develops into a granulocyte. It is present in the
blood in some forms of leukemia.
6. the beginning of something
7. a period of time when an illness is less severe
8. the implantation of an organ or tissue from one
part of the body to another or from one person (the
donor) to another (recipient).
9. the surgical procedure of inserting a hollow
needle through the abdominal wall into the uterus
of a pregnant woman and extracting amniotic fluid,
which may be analyzed to determine the sex of the
developing fetus or the presence of disease, genetic
defects, etc.
10. existing as such at birth
5. Choose the definition of the following terms: device, dwarfism,
inaudible, smear, Spina bifida, transducer
1. tool, apparatus, machine, equipment

2. a state in which any human being, animal or plant

is much smaller than the usual one of its species.
3. unable to be heard
4. a specimen of tissue or other material taken from
part of the body and placed on a microscope slide
for examination
5. a congenital defect or opening in the spinal
column through which the spinal membranes
or spinal cord may protrude, often resulting in
hydrocephalus, paralysis…
6. any of various devices that transmit energy from
one system to another, sometimes one that converts
the energy in form.

190
Part D.
Give the Vietnamese equivalents of the
underlined words.
1. Disease, in medicine, is any state in which the health of the
human organism is impaired.
2. Even when a cause is not known, a disease can almost always
be understood in terms of the physiological or mental processes that
are disrupted.
3. Symptoms may range from subjective reports of pain, such
as headache or backache, to visible conditions, such as a swelling
or a rash.
4. With increasing use of laboratory tests in routine physical
examinations of apparently healthy persons, doctors are more often
finding diseases without symptoms noticeable to the patient.
5. Many people may be exposed to influenza virus, for example,
but some stay well, others become moderately ill and weak, or old
people may die.
6. Exposure to cotton dust similarly predisposes workers to brown
lung.
7. Another group of diseases results from a derangement of the
immune system
8. Receptors are substances on the surface of cells that allow
chemicals outside the cell, such as hormones and nutrients, to enter
the cell.
9. Some cases of diabetes mellitus are due to an altered cell
receptor for insulin, the hormone that promotes entry of sugar into
cells.
10. One example is cancer, in which the normal restraint on cell
growth is lost.
11. People with anomalies in the way they metabolize alcohol
may be more vulnerable to its effects than others.
12. An infection may be local and confined to one area or
generalized and spread throughout the body.

191
13. If left untreated, it can lead to heart attack, stroke, kidney
disease, or other illnesses.
14. Antibiotics can lessen the adverse effects and prevent serious
heart damage.
15. Congestive heart failure occurs when engorgement of the veins
serving the lungs or of those serving the rest of the body prevents
the heart muscle from being able to pump forcefully enough to
deliver an adequate supply of blood to the body. It can be caused
by disease of either the heart muscle or the valves.
16. A physician can detect many heart conditions before
symptoms become apparent by using an instrument called an
electrocardiograph.
17. In the most radical surgery the patient may undergo a heart
transplant, in which the diseased heart is replaced with a healthy
heart from a deceased donor.
18. Antibiotics are effective in combating infection.
19. Some diseases, such as measles and mumps, are fairly easy
to identify by appearance.
20. The culturing of body fluids or tissues to show the presence
of specific microorganisms is essential to rational treatment of
infections with antibiotics.
21. To sharpen their diagnostic skills, physicians and other medical
professionals hold regular conferences at which difficult cases are
discussed.
22. Some physical conditions can be corrected through surgery
while others may be effectively treated by radiotherapy, which
involves the use of X rays or other types of radiation.
23. Therapeutic methods drawn from non-Western traditions are
collectively referred to as alternative medicine and include techniques
such as chiropractic, acupuncture, and homeopathy.
24. More useful therapies include techniques that rely heavily on
verbal and emotional communication.
25. People with disabilities also benefit from recreational and
occupational therapy, which helps people master their personal and
work-related activities, such as buttoning clothes.
26. Antibiotics are chemical compounds used to kill or inhibit
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the growth of infectious organisms.
27. Some antibiotics attack the cell wall; some disrupt the cell
membrane.
28. The continuing buildup of materials inside the cell exerts ever
greater pressure on the membrane.
29. When bacteria are subjected to Gram’s stain, these differences
in structure affect the differential staining of the bacteria with a dye
called gentian violet.
30. Antibacterials can be further subdivided into narrow-spectrum
and broad-spectrum agents.
31. Desirable effects are called therapeutic or beneficial
responses.
32. Other drugs, such as those used to treat cancer, are known
to have toxic effects; however, the benefits outweigh the risks—that
is, treatment without them may result in death.
33. Physicians constantly monitor the precise levels of such drugs
in an individual’s bloodstream to prevent drug poisoning.
34. Missing doses, taking drugs at the wrong time of the day or
with instead of before meals and stopping drug use too soon can
markedly reduce the medical benefits of many drugs.
35. The most common side effects are drowsiness, headache,
sleeplessness, nausea, and diarrhea. Other reactions, such as those
that occur only in specific individuals for unexpected reasons, are
called idiosyncratic reactions.
36. Physicians constantly monitor the precise levels of such drugs
in an individual’s bloodstream to prevent drug poisoning.
37. These surgeries correct serious life-threatening conditions
such as major wounds, blockages of the intestines, or appendicitis-
-inflammation of the appendix.
38. Drug abuse can cause a wide variety of adverse physical
reactions.
39. One of the most dangerous effects of illegal drug use is the
potential for overdosing—that is, taking too large or too strong a
dose for the body’s systems to handle.
40. Detoxification programs are medically supervised programs

193
that gradually wean an individual from a drug over a period of days
or weeks.
41. These treated microorganisms do not cause the disease, but
rather trigger the body’s immune system to build a defense mechanism
that continuously guards against the disease.
42. Immunization has dramatically reduced the incidence of a
number of deadly diseases.
43. The number of cases of Hemophilus influenzae type B
meningitis in the United States has dropped 95 percent among
infants and children since 1988, when the vaccine for that disease
was first introduced.
44. In an attempt to continue these global successes, the World
Health Organization (WHO) has set the year 2000 as a target date
for the immunization of all children.
45. Immunization mimics real infection but presents little or no
risk to the recipient.
46. Some immunizing agents require repeated inoculations—or
booster shots—at specific intervals.
47. Finally, a person can be injected with live organisms that
have been attenuated—that is, changed so that they do not cause
disease.
48. Immune globulin (antibody-containing plasma) for these
diseases was once derived from the blood serum of horses.
49. It was discovered that a single injection of measles vaccine,
first licensed in 1963 and administered to children at the age of 15
months, did not confer protection through adolescence and young
adulthood.
50. The goal in vaccine development is to achieve the highest
degree of protection with the lowest rate of side effects.
51. To forestall future epidemics, health authorities now recommend
that a booster dose of measles vaccine be administered at 4 to 6 or
11 to 12 years.
52. A history of the patient’s use of medications is acquired to
prevent possible adverse interactions with anesthetics.
53. The surgeon determines the timing of the operation, the
techniques, and the instruments and supplies to be used.
194
54. Microsurgical procedures are used to connect or dissect minute
nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues in delicate procedures.
55. Specialized surgical instruments that are smaller and more
precise than those used in conventional surgery were developed as
microsurgery techniques advanced, and by the 1970s surgeons were
also operating on micro nerves.
56. A revolutionary development utilizing state-of-the-art computer
technology allows surgeons to perform microsurgery without a
microscope.
57. Known as three-dimensional on-screen microsurgery system
(TOMS), this procedure utilizes two cameras in a video microscope
that project a magnified three-dimensional image on one or more
television monitors.
58. Viruses are not considered free-living, since they cannot
reproduce outside of a living cell; they have evolved to transmit
their genetic information from one cell to another for the purpose
of replication.
59. The difficulty in developing antiviral therapies stems from the
large number of variant viruses that can cause the same disease, as
well as the inability of drugs to disable a virus without disabling
healthy cells.
60. Viruses also carry genes for making proteins that are never
incorporated into the virus particle and are found only in infected
cells.
61. The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use
bacteria as their hosts.
62. From the base of the sheath extend several long tail fibers
that help the virus attach to the bacterium and inject its DNA to be
replicated and to direct capsid production and virus particle assembly
inside the cell.
63. A change in the shape of PrP is believed to be the key factor
in the development of the disease.
64. Preventive Medicine is a medical specialty that promotes
health and prevents illness.
65. Governments have attempted to prevent disease by requiring
greater purity of air and water and by prohibiting the use of food

195
additives that cause cancer in animals.
66. The condition may be the result of damage to nerves or nerve
centers by disease or injury, or it may be intentionally induced by
the administration of drugs for the prevention or relief of pain.
67. Thiopental sodium in small doses is sometimes used in
psychiatry because it allows patients to talk uninhibitedly.
68. Acupressure is a variant in which the practitioner uses
manipulation rather than penetration to alleviate pain or other
symptoms.
69. Chinese surgeons claim that acupuncture is superior to
Western, drug-induced analgesia in that it does not disturb normal
body physiology and therefore does not make the patient vulnerable
to shock.
70. Acupuncture appears to be undeniably effective in relieving
pain.
71. The ancient Chinese designated the master force that
coordinates and controls the fundamental activities of different organs
in the body as vital energy, or ch’i.
72. Ancient theorists also held that two opposite forces in the
body, called yin and yang, could be kept in balance by acupuncture,
thereby promoting health and controlling disease.
73. Endocrine glands release hormones that increase heartbeat
and respiration, elevate blood sugar, increase perspiration, dilate the
pupils, and slow the digestion.
74. Prolonged exposure to stress depletes the body’s energy
supplies and can even lead to death.
75. Physicians have long recognized that people are more
susceptible to diseases of all kinds when they are subjected to great
stress.
76. Scientists attribute at least part of this effect to evolutionary
history.
77. The heart beats faster, blood pressure rises, and other body
systems prepare to meet the threat.
78. Ulcers are caused by an excess of gastric juices or unusual
sensitivity in an area of the stomach lining, causing nausea and
pain.
196
79. Emotional stress can cause or aggravate many skin disorders,
from those that produce itching, tickling, and pain to those that
cause rashes and acne.
80. A CBC may also include a sorting of white cells into categories,
which may be done visually from a stained sample on a microscope
slide or automatically using one of several techniques.
81. Although clot formation is a normal process, it sometimes
occurs inappropriately and constitutes a threat to life.
82. Formation of abnormal hemoglobin is responsible for the
hereditary defects called sickle-cell anemia and thalassemia major.
83. Leukemia constitutes one-third of the cancer cases in children
under age 15.
84. The clinical symptoms of acute leukemia are irregular fever;
a tendency to hemorrhage, or bleed profusely, from the gums and
mucous membranes and under the skin.
85. A device called a transducer is used to transmit the sound
waves and receive the echoes.
86. If multiple births are suspected, ultrasound may be used in
order to confirm the number of fetuses.
87. With increasing use of laboratory tests in routine physical
examinations of apparently healthy persons, doctors are more often
finding diseases without symptoms noticeable to the patient.
88. Long-term exposure to coal dust predisposes miners to a
respiratory disease called black lung.
89. Some cases of diabetes mellitus are due to an altered cell
receptor for insulin, the hormone that promotes entry of sugar into
cells.
90. Arteriosclerosis, commonly called hardening of the arteries,
includes a variety of conditions in which artery walls thicken and
lose elasticity.
91. Congenital heart disease is the heart disease present at
birth.
92. The danger in wounds includes the possibility of a ruptured
blood vessel causing hemorrhage, and septic, or infected wounds
which can cause infection.

197
93. Septic, or infected, wounds are those in which the area is
contaminated by bacteria, which can cause suppuration or shedding
of tissue.
94. A pacemaker is an electronic device that produces rhythmic
electrical impulses to regulate the patient’s heartbeat.
95. Diagnosis, in medicine, is the determination of the nature of
a disease.
96. Establishing the presence of a gastric ulcer, for example, is
helped by inserting a tube called an endoscope into the stomach.
97. A diagnosis of cancer often requires a biopsy, or microscopic
examination of tissues.
98. Therapy is any of various techniques used in the treatment
of physical or mental illnesses.
99. Like physical disorders, mental illnesses may be treated with
drugs, particularly antidepressants.
100. The final stage in treatment of physical and mental illnesses
is often rehabilitation. This may include physical therapy, which
involves exercise, massage, and the application of heat and water
(hydrotherapy) to improve or restore functioning to damaged and
weakened parts of the body.

II. GRAMMAR
Part One
Choose the BEST answers.

1. Further examination may reveal the presence of infectious

organisms, __________ detected by growth in special nutrient
solutions.
a. when b. as c. if d. is
2. Doctors are more often finding diseases without symptoms
noticeable _________ the patient.
a. for b. to c. with d. by
3. Another condition, mitral valve prolapse, in which one of the
heart valves functions abnormally, occurs in about 10 percent of all

198
persons ___________but usually causes no symptoms.
a. examine b. examining c. examined d. examines
4. Noninfectious causes of disease are also known, _________
of them are occupational.
a. much b. many c. plenty d. more
5. Once the infectious agent enters the host and begins to
proliferate, the defense mechanisms of the body react to the infection,
___________the characteristic symptoms of pain, swelling, reddening
at the site of infection, functional disorders, rise in body temperature
and pulse rate, and an increase in the number of white cells.
a. produces b. produce c. producing d. produced
6. a. Among the many infectious diseases are the common cold,
chicken pox, cholera, diphtheria, etc.
b. The many infectious diseases are the common cold, chicken
pox, cholera, diphtheria, etc.
c. Many infectious diseases are the common cold, chicken pox,
cholera, diphtheria, etc.
7. If __________ untreated, it can lead to heart attack, stroke,
kidney disease, or other illnesses.
a. leaves b. leaving c. left d. leave
8. Congestive heart failure occurs when engorgement of the veins
serving the lungs or of those serving the rest of the body prevents
the heart muscle __________being able to pump forcefully enough
to deliver an adequate supply of blood to the body.
a. by b. from c. with d. for
9. More detailed examinations can be made __________such
techniques as angiocardiography, which tracks the passage of blood
through the heart, coronary arteries, and larger vessels, computed
tomography (CT), which provides a detailed cross-sectional image of
the heart, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which can show
images of the heart in many planes.
a. to use b. using c. used d. usable
10. Frequently prescribed drugs include anticoagulants that
prevent unwanted clotting and vasodilators that widen the blood
_________.

199
a. coagulation b. clots c. vessels d. veins
11. Some diseases, such as measles and mumps, are _________
easy to identify by appearance.
a. very b. rather c. equally d. pretty
12. To sharpen their diagnostic skills, physicians and other medical
professionals hold regular conferences ________which difficult cases
are discussed.
a. in b. for c. from d. at
13. Which of the following sentence structures are correct?
a. These techniques collectively referred to as psychotherapy help the
patient to express, understand, and cope with underlying problems that
are not due to physical disease.
b. Collectively referred to as psychotherapy, these techniques help
the patient to express, understand, and cope with underlying problems
that are not due to physical disease.
c. These techniques, collectively referred to as psychotherapy, help
the patient to express, understand, and cope with underlying problems
that are not due to physical disease.
14. Patients with ________form of cancer are often considered
urgent surgical cases.
a. the b. some c. few d. much
15. An anesthesiologist (a physician trained to provide anesthesia)
looks for signs that ____________make the administration of
anesthetics dangerous such as chest infections or low blood
pressure.
a. might b. should c. would rather d. seem
16. __________upon the hospital, surgical assistants, physician
assistants, surgical residents, medical students, and nursing students
may also attend an operation.
a. Depends b. Depended c. Depending d. Depend
17. Continued improvements in both operating microscopes and
surgical instruments have made _____________________________
_____________
a. possible microsurgical procedures involving even smaller blood
vessels and nerves.

200
b. microsurgical procedures involving even smaller blood vessels and
nerves possible.
c. microsurgical procedures possible involving even smaller blood
vessels and nerves.
18. ___________as three-dimensional on-screen microsurgery
system, this procedure utilizes two cameras in a video microscope
that project a magnified three-dimensional image on one or more
television monitors.
a. Knew b. Known c. Knowing d. Knows
19. Viruses are between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria
and hence are _________small to be seen by light microscopy.
a. very b. so c. such d. too
20. Viruses are not considered free-living, ______they cannot
reproduce outside of a living cell.
a. which b. since c. although d. so
21. Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they
infect,_____________________________
a. causing disease in infected organisms
b. that causes disease in infected organism.
c. which causes disease in infected organism.
d. a and c
22. The auxiliary might in “Before administering the inhalation
anesthetic, the anesthesiologist might give intravenously a short-
acting barbiturate such as pentobarbital or sodium pentothal” is used
to talk about:
a. possibility b. deduction c. ability d. capacity
23. To allow the use of smaller amounts of the inhalation anesthetic,
special __________drugs are given.
a. muscle-paralyzing b. muscle-paralyzed
c. muscle-paralyze d. muscle-paralysis
24. The subject of the underlined verb in “…prolonged
anesthetization can kill, paralyzing first the respiratory system and
then the heart.” is
a. prolonged anesthetization b. anesthetization
c. prolonged anesthetization can kill

201
25. Block anesthesia, a much more extensive local anesthesia, is
produced by injecting the agent into a nerve trunk, next to a nerve,
or all around the operative field, __________ deadening the entire
area.
a. thereby b. and c. so d. which
26. Negative events such as the death of a loved _________seem
to cause enough distress to lower the body’s resistance to disease.
a. one b. an c. man d. woman
27. Scientists attribute at least part of this effect to evolutionary
history, _______________________________________________.
a. reasoning that at one time people had to live with constant
physical threats from wild animals and the elements, as well as from
one another.
b. who reason that at one time people had to live with constant
physical threats from wild animals and the elements, as well as from
one another.
c. who reasons that at one time people had to live with constant threats
from wide animals and the elements, as well as from one another.
d. a or b
28. Once __________ under war conditions as shell shock or
battle fatigue, PTSD gained its current name after it appeared in
many veterans returning from Vietnam as they tried to readjust to
civilian life.
a. knows b. knew c. known d. knowing
31. In addition, emotional stress can cause or aggravate many
skin disorders, from __________that produce itching, tickling, and
pain to those that cause rashes and acne.
a. those b. which c. what d. such
32. Treatment of stress-related disorders is sometimes limited to
_________the particular physical symptom involved; for example,
hypertension may be controlled with drugs.
a. relieve b. relieving c. relieved d. relieves
33. Leukemia is accompanied by a disordered increase in white
blood cells. Several types of leukemia exist, each __________by
the cells involved.

202
[Link] b. characterizes
c. is characterized d. characterizing
34. Acute leukemia is most common in children and in young
adults, __________the chronic form is found most often in middle-
aged persons.
a. what b. where c. whereas d. which
35. Chinese researchers have reported finding a mitochondrial
marker for predicting the onset of acute leukemia; if proven, this
__________be important for the early treatment of the disease.
a. would b. need c. shall d. ought to
36. Images are produced that show metabolic reactions, __________
this method useful to diagnose brain tumors and strokes.
a. makes b. that makes c. making d. b or c
37. Since the 1970s new imaging procedures that utilize energy
sources other than ionizing radiation ____________essential in
diagnostic radiology.
a. becoming b. becomes c. become d. have become
38. Each of these techniques has unique features that, under
various conditions, __________it more likely to reveal clearly the
part of the body to be examined.
a. make b. making c. to make d. makes
39. The endoscope also has a channel through __________surgeons
can manipulate tiny instruments, such as forceps, surgical scissors,
and suction devices.
a. which b. that c. it d. the
40. Most endoscopic procedures are normally done
_______________________________
a. with the patient lightly anesthetized
b. with the patient lightly anesthetizes
c. with the patient lightly anesthetizing
d. None is grammatically correct.

41. Occupational therapy benefits people of all ages, from infants

to the elderly, and can improve functioning ____________the
disability results from a birth defect, accident, disease, aging, or

203
drug or alcohol abuse.
a. if b. because c. whether d. so
42. ___________aligned, segments are secured externally with
a plaster cast or splint to immobilize the fracture and to speed
healing.
a. One b. When c. Once d. As
43. A person with schizophrenia may have difficulty ____________
the difference between real and unreal experiences, logical and
illogical thoughts, or appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
a. telling b. in telling c. to tell d. a or b
44. ___________women are just as likely as men to develop
schizophrenia, women tend to experience the illness less severely,
with fewer hospitalizations and better social functioning in the
community.
a. Although b. Because c. If d. Since
45. Ampicillin and amoxicillin have a range of effectiveness
similar to _________of penicillin-G.
a. that b. those c. it d. which
46. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics effective ___________
strains of streptococci.
a. against b. for c. with d. b and c
47. __________the cuff is slowly deflated, a spurting sound
can be heard when the heart contraction forces blood through the
compressed artery.
a. As b. Whereas c. Step by step d. Gradually

Part Two:
The underlined grammar points appear in different units of
the course. Read them carefully again and ask yourselves if you
know their use.
1. Further examination may reveal the presence of infectious
organisms, as detected by growth in special nutrient solutions.
2. Doctors are more often finding diseases without symptoms
noticeable to the patient.

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3. Another condition, mitral valve prolapse, in which one of the
heart valves functions abnormally, occurs in about 10 percent of all
persons examined but usually causes no symptoms.
4. Non-infectious causes of disease , many of them are occupational,
are also known.
5. Once the infectious agent enters the host and begins to
proliferate, the defense mechanisms of the body react to the infection,
producing the characteristic symptoms of pain, swelling, reddening
at the site of infection, functional disorders, rise in body temperature
and pulse rates, and an increase in the number of white cells .
6. Among the many infectious diseases are the common cold,
chicken pox, cholera, diphtheria, German measles, influenza, malaria,
mumps, rabies, tuberculosis, and sexually transmitted diseases.
7. If left untreated, it can lead to heart attack, stroke, kidney
disease, or other illnesses.
8. Congestive heart failure occurs when engorgement of the veins
serving the lungs or of those serving the rest of the body prevents
the heart muscle from being able to pump forcefully enough to
deliver an adequate supply of blood to the body. It can be caused
by disease of either the heart muscle or the valves.
9. More detailed examinations can be made using such techniques
as angiocardiography, which tracks the passage of blood through the
heart, coronary arteries, and larger vessels; computed tomography
(CT), which provides a detailed cross-sectional image of the heart;
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which can show images of
the heart in many planes.
10. Frequently prescribed drugs include anticoagulants that prevent
unwanted clotting and vasodilators that widen the blood vessels.
11. Some diseases, such as measles and mumps, are fairly easy
to identify by appearance.
12. To sharpen their diagnostic skills, physicians and other medical
professionals hold regular conferences at which difficult cases are
discussed.
13. Collectively referred to as psychotherapy, these techniques
help the patient to express, understand, and cope with underlying
problems that are not due to physical disease.

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14. Patients with some form of cancer are often considered urgent
surgical cases.
15. An anesthesiologist (a physician trained to provide anesthesia)
looks for signs that might make the administration of anesthetics
dangerous such as chest infections or low blood pressure.
16. Depending upon the hospital, surgical assistants, physician
assistants, surgical residents, medical students, and nursing students
may also attend an operation.
17. Continued improvements in both operating microscopes and
surgical instruments have made possible microsurgical procedures
involving even smaller blood vessels and nerves.
18. Known as three-dimensional on-screen microsurgery system
this procedure utilizes two cameras in a video microscope that project
a magnified three-dimensional image on one or more television
monitors.
19. Viruses are between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria
and hence are too small to be seen by light microscopy
20. Viruses are not considered free-living, since they cannot
reproduce outside of a living cell.
21. Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they infect, causing
disease in infected organisms.
22. Inserted into this envelope are glycoproteins that the viral
genome directs the cell to make; these molecules bind virus particles
to susceptible host cells.
23. Before administering the inhalation anesthetic, the
anesthesiologist might give intravenously a short-acting barbiturate
such as pentobarbital or sodium pentothal
24. To allow the use of smaller amounts of the inhalation anesthetic,
special muscle-paralyzing drugs are given.
25. Prolonged anesthetization can kill, paralyzing first the
respiratory system and then the heart.
26. Block anesthesia, a much more extensive local anesthesia, is
produced by injecting the agent into a nerve trunk, next to a nerve, or
all around the operative field, thereby deadening the entire area.
27. Block anesthesia, a much more extensive local anesthesia, is
produced by injecting the agent into a nerve trunk, next to a nerve, or
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all around the operative field, thereby deadening the entire area.
28. Negative events such as the death of a loved one seem to
cause enough distress to lower the body’s resistance to disease.
29. Scientists attribute at least part of this effect to evolutionary
history, reasoning that at one time people had to live with constant
physical threats from wild animals and the elements, as well as from
one another, and that the body developed in a way that helped it
cope with these physical stresses.
30. Running away or fighting—the so-called flight or fight
reaction—are both successful ways of coping with many physical
threats.
31. Once known under war conditions as shell shock or battle
fatigue, PTSD gained its current name after it appeared in many
veterans returning from Vietnam as they tried to readjust to civilian
life.
32. In addition, emotional stress can cause or aggravate many
skin disorders, from those that produce itching, tickling, and pain
to those that cause rashes and acne.
33. Treatment of stress-related disorders is sometimes limited to
relieving the particular physical symptom involved; for example,
hypertension may be controlled with drugs.
34. Leukemia is accompanied by a disordered increase in white
blood cells. Several types of leukemia exist, each characterized by
the cells involved.
35. Preparations are available that contain some of the clotting
factors in concentrated form for treating some of these disorders.
36. Acute leukemia is most common in children and in young
adults, whereas the chronic form is found most often in middle-aged
persons.
37. Chinese researchers have reported finding a mitochondrial
marker for predicting the onset of acute leukemia; if proven, this
would be important for the early treatment of the disease.
38. Images are produced that show metabolic reactions, making
this method useful to diagnose brain tumors and strokes.
39. Since the 1970s new imaging procedures that utilize energy
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sources other than ionizing radiation have become essential in
diagnostic radiology.
40. Each of these techniques has unique features that, under
various conditions, make it more likely to reveal clearly the part of
the body to be examined.
41. The endoscope also has a channel through which surgeons
can manipulate tiny instruments, such as forceps, surgical scissors,
and suction devices.
42. Most endoscopic procedures are normally done with the
patient lightly anesthetized.
43. Occupational therapy benefits people of all ages, from infants
to the elderly, and can improve functioning whether the disability
results from a birth defect, accident, disease, aging, or drug or
alcohol abuse.
44. Heavy impact causes most fractures but the simple activity
of throwing a ball could cause a break.
45. X rays are the only accurate means of detecting and defining
the type of fracture.
46. Once aligned, segments are secured externally with a plaster
cast or splint to immobilize the fracture and to speed healing.
47. A person with schizophrenia may have difficulty telling the
difference between real and unreal experiences, logical and illogical
thoughts, or appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
48. Although women are just as likely as men to develop
schizophrenia, women tend to experience the illness less severely,
with fewer hospitalizations and better social functioning in the
community.
49. Ampicillin and amoxicillin have a range of effectiveness
similar to that of penicillin-G.
50. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics effective against strains
of streptococci.
51. Because of their wide range of effectiveness, tetracyclines can
sometimes upset the balance of resident bacteria that are normally
held in check by the body’s immune system, leading to secondary
infections in the gastrointestinal tract and vagina, for example.
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52. As the cuff is slowly deflated, a spurting sound can be heard
when the heart contraction forces blood through the compressed
artery.
53. However, in 1984 researchers found that CD4 by itself was
not sufficient for HIV infection to take place.
54. Although it is generally agreed that HIV is the virus that
causes AIDS and that HIV replication can directly kill CD4 T-cells,
the large variation among individuals in the amount of time between
infection with HIV and a diagnosis of AIDS has led to speculation
that other cofactors may influence the course of the disease.

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BÀI ĐỌC THÊM 1:

NGUỒN GỐC, XUẤT XỨ VÀ MỘT SỐ QUY TẮC

XÂY DỰNG CÁC THUẬT NGỮ Y HỌC

N gày nay, y văn bằng tiếng Anh rất phong phú và phổ biến
khắp nơi trên thế giới, do đó Sinh viên Y khoa ở các nước
không nói tiếng Anh rất cần phải học và sử dụng tiếng Anh thật
nhiều trong suốt cả quá trình học tập, nghiên cứu và cả trong sự
nghiệp tương lai của mình. Một trong những phần quan trọng của
các bài học tiếng Anh được giảng dạy trong trường Y là Thuật ngữ
Y học- làm thế nào để hiểu và sử dụng các thuật ngữ y học một
cách đúng đắn. Khoa học nói chung và Y học nói riêng ngày một
phát triển nên ngày càng có nhiều khái niệm mới, nhiều thuật ngữ
y học mới ra đời và được sử dụng trong công việc hằng ngày của
các bác sỹ và nhân viên y tế.
Mục đích của ngôn ngữ y học là nhằm để mô tả một cách rõ
ràng, chính xác, đơn giản nhưng đạt hiệu quả cao các hiện tượng
chúng ta cảm nhận được bằng giác quan, cùng với những ý tưởng
chúng ta xây dựng nên từ những cảm nhận đó, Hơn thế nữa, ngôn
ngữ y học cũng phải dễ thích nghi và có thể mở rộng, phát triển
được, nhằm mục đích bắt kịp với sự gia tăng thường xuyên các hiện
tượng mới trong y học, được phát hiện nhờ áp dụng các phương
pháp quan sát, chẩn đoán và điều trị mới, cùng với quá trình phát
triển không ngừng của các khái niệm mà chúng ta đưa ra. Như các
bạn sẽ thấy, từ điển Tiếng Hy lạp- La mã mà chúng ta thừa kế được
đã cung cấp cho ta một nền tảng hoàn hảo mà ngày nay chúng ta
đang sử dụng một cách sáng suốt và toàn diện.
Bài đọc này sẽ cung cấp cho các bạn sinh viên những ý tưởng
hết sức cần thiết về một trong những vấn đề quan trọng của Thuật
ngữ Y học: Nguồn gốc của thuật ngữ y học, Các quy tắc truy tìm
xuất xứ của thuật ngữ và các quy luật có tính thực hành để xây
dựng nên các thuật ngữ mới.

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1. NGUỒN GỐC CỦA CÁC THUẬT NGỮ Y HỌC
Các nguồn gốc chính của từ y học bao gồm:
1. Nguồn gốc Anglo – Saxon.
2. Nguồn gốc Hy lạp- La mã (gọi vắn tắt: nguồn gốc Hy- La)
(a) Không thay đổi hoặc chỉ cải biên rất ít kể từ thời đại Hy- La
(b) Bị thay đổi hoặc sai lạc đi trong quá trình lan tràn qua châu Âu
(c) Các từ La mã có nguồn gốc Hy- La nhưng được tạo ra ở Ý,
Pháp hoặc Tây Ban Nha
3. Nguồn gốc A-rập.
4. Nguồn gốc tiếng Đức hiện đại.
5. Các từ lai.
NGUỒN GỐC ANGLO-SAXON
Nguồn gốc này bao gồm các ngôn ngữ Tây bắc Âu- Anglo-
Saxon, Scandinavi và Teutonic. Các từ mà các ngôn ngữ này cung
cấp đều ngắn và đơn giản – arm, head, ache. Việc truy tìm nguồn
gốc của chúng thường ít được quan tâm, ngoại trừ đối với các sinh
viên học các ngôn ngữ này.
NGUỒN GỐC HY-LA
Đây chính là nguồn gốc lớn nhất sản sinh ra các thuật ngữ y học.
Tuy nhiên, một phần xuất xứ của các chữ thuộc nguồn gốc này cũng
còn là điều bí ẩn. Chúng xuất phát từ các nguồn ngôn ngữ Hy lạp
cổ, Minoan, Ai cập và các ngôn ngữ châu Á, và lần đầu tiên xuất
hiện một cách hệ thống trong các văn bản của Hippocrates (khoảng
460 trước CN.). Khi thời đại Hy lạp cổ đại suy thoái, ngôn ngữ
của Hippocrates được những người Hy lạp ở Alexandria, và sau đó
là người La mã giữ lấy. Trong thời đại Đế chế La mã, thực hành
nghề Y lại là công việc chủ yếu nằm trong tay những người Hy
lạp, trong số đó có Galen (khoảng 131 – 200 sau CN.), tuy nhiên,
người La mã cũng thực hành y khoa, theo cả kiểu chuyên nghiệp
lẫn nghiệp dư. Chủ của một biệt thự hoặc dinh thự, ở mọi cấp độ
khác nhau của các tỉnh, đều ban phát các công tác y tế, chăm sóc
sức khoẻ cho tất cả các thành viên trong gia đình và trong nhà của
họ, có lẽ cũng nhờ vào sự giúp đỡ của các nô lệ người Hy lạp. Tuy
nhiên, cho dù người thực hành y khoa là người Hy lạp hay La mã,

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chuyên nghiệp hay nghiệp dư, thì họ đều nói được cả hai thứ tiếng
Hy lạp và La mã, và họ đều sử dụng các ngôn từ y học của cả hai
ngôn ngữ này tuỳ vào các tình huống công việc sao cho thuận tiện.
Chính điều này giải thích cho sự tồn tại song song hai hệ thống
danh pháp Hy lạp và La tinh cho đến tận ngày nay.
Một số từ Hy lạp vẫn còn giữ được nguyên bản gốc của nó, một
số khác lại được Latin hoá bằng các cách như sau:
Đuôi –os­ trong các từ giống đực tiếng Hy lạp trở thành –us :
stomachos, stomachus; pyloros, pylorus.
Đuôi –e trong các từ giống cái tiếng Hy lạp trở thành –a :
theke, theca.
Đuôi –on trong các từ giống trung tiếng Hy lạp trở thành –um:
cranion, cranium.
Đuôi –a của các danh từ giống trung giữ nguyên–a : coma,
coma.
Trong số các từ mà người La mã lấy ra từ tiếng Hy lạp gồm
có: aorta, arteria, brachium, bronchus, canthus, carpus, clitoris,
colon, glutus, hepar, larynx, lochia, lumbus, meconium, meninges,
oesophagus, olecranon, pancreas, perineum, pharynx, pylorus (nghĩa
từ là: người giữ cửa), psoas, radius, retina, splen, tarsus, urachus.
Nhiều từ Hy lạp trong đó có chữ cái đầu được viết trong tiếng
Anh là h, trong tiếng Latin bắt đầu bằng s :
Hemi, semi
Hexa, sex
Hepta, septem
Hyper-, super-
Hypo-, sub-
CÁC TỪ LA MÃ
Một số các từ đến với chúng ta ngày nay không xuất phát trực
tiếp từ Hy lạp hay từ La mã mà lại từ các ngôn ngữ của các nước
bị người La mã chiếm làm thuộc địa thời xưa.
Xuất phát hoặc phát triển qua tiếng Pháp:
accoucheur, bác sỹ sản khoa.
ballottement, nghĩa từ: sự tung lên, búng lên; sự nhô lên của một

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phần thai nhi có thể sờ thấy được trên bụng mẹ
bistouri, (tiếng Anh: bistoury), một cây dao dài và mỏng
bougie (nghĩa từ: cây nến bằng sáp). Được gọi như vậy bởi vì
dụng cụ này lần đầu tiên được làm từ vải nến ở Bougie, Algeria.
bruit, tiếng thổi của tim.
cancer en cuirasse, ung thư thâm nhiễm vào da
chancre, từ chữ Hy lạp carcinos qua chữ Latin cancer, gốc ban
đầu từ này dùng để mô tả bất kỳ một tình trạng loét nào.
contre - coup, tổn thương ở phía bên đối diện với bên bị tác động.
curette, từ chữ curer, làm sạch.
débridement, lấy ra hết những mảnh chất lạ và mô chết từ một
vết thương.
douche.
folie, sự điên dại, mất trí.
forme fruste, dạng bất thường, không điển hình
goitre, tiếng Latin guttur, cổ họng.
grand mal, động kinh cơn lớn.
lavage, rửa, thụt rửa.
main en griffe, bàn tay vuốt.
massage.
migraine (Tiếng Anh: megrim). Hy lạp: hemi, một nửa; cranion,
đầu, sọ.
petit mal, động kinh cơn nhỏ.
râle, tiếng nổ lách tách, lụp bụp.
souffle, một tiếng thổi.
tache cérébrale, tình trạng không ổn định vận mạch ở da xuất
hiện trong viêm màng não.
tambour, cái trống
tampon, cái nút
tic, tic doloureux, co giật (cơ) đột ngột.
tissue, tissu, vải dệt.
tourniquet.
trocar (trois, ba, carré, cạnh).

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Xuất phát hoặc phát triển qua tiếng Ý:
belladonna, nghĩa từ: người đàn bà đẹp. Thuốc này làm giãn đồng
tử nên làm cho mắt sáng long lanh. Thuốc được dùng với mục đích
làm đẹp, long lanh mắt.
influenza, một biến thể của từ Latin influens, sự tuôn tràn, bùng
phát; lưu ý đến sự bùng phát nhiễm trùng/virus.
malaria, nghĩa từ: không khí xấu, người xưa nghĩ đây chính là
nguyên nhân gây bệnh này.
petechia, vết cắn của côn trùng hay tàng nhang.
pellagra, từ chữ pella, da, agra, thô.
Qua tiếng Tây Ban Nha:
mosquito, biến thể từ mosca, bay.
quarantine, (nghĩa từ: bốn mươi ngày), quarantina, bốn mươi.
quinine, từ chữ quina, vỏ cây.
Xuất phát từ tiếng Bồ Đào Nha:
fetichism hay fetishism (fetico, ảo thuật). Đây là tên được người
Bồ Đào Nha đặt cho các vị thần ở Tây Phi. Trong y học, từ này
có nghĩa các cảm giác tình dục được tạo ra bởi các vật thể không
phải là động vật.
SỰ SAI LẠC TỪ NGỮ
Trong quá trình lan tràn phát triển qua châu Âu, nhiều từ ngữ đã
được tích hợp, chấp nhận luôn vào trong ngôn ngữ của chính nước
mà nó đi qua, và nhiều từ ngữ trong số đó đã bị biến đổi trong cách
viết và cách phát âm. Palsy là từ sai lạc của từ paralysis. Sciatic
là từ sai lạc của ischiadic. Trong một số chữ, ví dụ chữ shingles
từ chữ cingulum, dây nịt, thì sự tương đồng về phát âm là rất rõ
ràng. Trong những từ khác thì có khi sự tương đồng này không rõ
chút nào.
Latin botellus hay botulus, bánh pudding hoặc xúc xích, tiếng
Latin về sau thì có nghĩa là ruột non; tiếng Pháp cổ boel, buel;
tiếng Anh trung đại bowel; Anh (hiện đại): bowel. Botulism: bệnh
hoại thư sinh hơi- tình trạng ngộ độc thực phẩm do ăn xúc xích
hoặc các loại thịt khác.
Hy lạp plege, một cú đánh, đập; Latin plaga; Pháp cổ plage;
tiếng Anh hiện đại plage; Anh: plague.

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Latin acutus; Pháp cổ aigue; Anh: ague.
Latin gutta, giọt; Pháp: goutte; Anh: gout. (Bởi vì gout được cho
là do sự xuất tiết chất độc từng giọt một vào trong khớp).
Hy lạp: hydrops; Latin hydrops; Pháp hydropsis; Anh: dropsy.
Latin galbus, màu vàng; Pháp: jaune, jaunisse; Anh: jaundice.
Quá trình sai lạc từ ngữ vẫn tiếp diễn. Các ví dụ trong tiếng Anh
bao gồm: polio và flu.
A-RẬP
Trong đêm dài tăm tối của văn hoá phương Tây trong suốt thời
kỳ Trung cổ (A.D. 476 – 1500), Đế chế Hồi giáo (Moslem Empire)
vẫn tiếp tục theo đuổi và đưa khoa học lên một chuẩn mực cao hơn.
Đế chế này trải dài từ A rập qua Ai cập đến bờ bắc châu Phi và đến
tận Tây Ban Nha. Từ đây chúng ta mới có được sự phát minh ra
ngành đại số và các con số, các ký hiệu toán học mà chúng ta đang
dùng. Người Hồi giáo đã diễn dịch và mở rộng các văn bản y học
tiếng Hy lạp và Latin cổ điển, những thứ mà thời đó đang bị Nhà
thờ Thiên Chúa giáo cấm đoán và bỏ đi. Ngôn ngữ y học được sử
dụng thời đó về sau này chúng ta đã gọi là Y học A rập (Arabian
Medicine). Chữ Alchemy và chemistry xuất phát từ chữ Chemia, tên
Hy lạp của nước Ai cập. Vào thời kỳ Phục hưng, những nhà nghiên
cứu về nhân văn- người đã gặp rất nhiều khó khăn trong việc dịch
các văn bản tiếng A rập, và đã như tìm thấy lại một giá trị “mới”
trong di sản bị bỏ quên từ nhiều năm qua của chính họ, nên đã quay
trở lại với những giá trị gốc ban đầu. Từ đó, chỉ còn một số ít các
từ tiếng A rập còn tồn tại đến ngày nay. Đa số các từ A rập này là
tên gọi của các chất hoá học: sugar, syrup, alcohol, alkali, elixir,
naphtha và senna. Khi các nguyên tố chính trong các chất này được
tìm thấy, người ta đã đặt cho chúng những cái tên Latin lai tạp, dựa
trên tiếng A rập: natrium (sodium) từ natri, kalium (potassium) từ
qali. Từ đó chúng ta có ký hiệu hoá học Na và K.
Trong nhóm các từ Y khoa dường như chỉ có 4 từ sau đây:
Nucha, cái cổ.
Mater (cứng và mềm). Nghĩa từ: bà mẹ rắn rỏi, nghiêm khắc: một
phiên bản dịch từ chữ A rập có nghĩa “mẹ” sang tiếng Latin trong
thời kỳ Trung cổ. Người A rập xưa nay vẫn có thói quen sử dụng
ngôn ngữ hoa mỹ đặc biệt dành cho các mối quan hệ gia đình. Do

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đó, chữ Mater có nghĩa hoặc là mẹ, hoặc các màng bao, hoặc, liên
tưởng cao nhất là người mẹ hoặc vật bảo vệ cho não bộ.
Basilic và cephalic (tĩnh mạch). Cho dù hiện nay chúng xuất
hiện một cách kinh điển, nhưng người ta lại không tìm thấy chúng
trong bất kỳ văn bản Hy lạp hay Latin nào. Chúng xuất hiện lần
đầu tiên trong bản dịch tài liệu của Galen sang tiếng A rập vào thế
kỷ thứ IX. Nguồn gốc của chúng là mờ mịt. Basilic trông giống
chữ A rập basilik, phía bên trong, trong khi đó cephalic trông giống
chữ A rập alkifal, phía bên ngoài. Tuy nhiên, tác giả Singer thì lại
tin rằng những chữ này chỉ “đi ngang qua” chứ không phải “xuất
phát từ” tiếng A rập. Basilic gợi ý đến chữ Hy lạp basileus, vua,
và cephalic gợi ý chữ Hy lạp cephale, cái đầu.
TIẾNG ĐỨC HIỆN ĐẠI
Những chữ này rất ít. Trong số đó có thể kể đến:
Anlage, Các tế bào hoặc mô của thai mà từ đó các cơ quan của
thai phát triển lên. Thuật ngữ này dùng trong phôi thai học.
gestaltpsychologie (gestalt, hình thức, hình dáng),
kernicterus (kern, hạt, tức hạt nhân, icterus Hy lạp: vàng da)
magenstrasse, nghĩa từ: con đường dạ dày, đường khuyết chạy
dọc theo bờ cong nhỏ dạ dày.
CÁC TỪ LAI
Tác giả của các tài liệu y học thường hay bị chỉ trích khi họ sử
dụng các từ lai Hy lạp - Latin, Hy lạp - Anh và Latin - Anh. Lẽ
ra họ nên tránh dùng những từ như vậy càng nhiều càng tốt. Ví
dụ nên dùng chữ phlebography thay cho chữ venography. Các chữ
như thế có thể gây khó chịu đối với quan điểm thuần tuý trong
ngôn ngữ học. Tuy nhiên, việc dùng các từ lai cũng thường không
tránh khỏi. Ngay cả trong văn nói thông thường chúng cũng nhan
nhản xuất hiện. Trong tác phẩm “Nói về nghệ thuật viết” (On the
Art of Writing) của tác giả Sir Arthur Quiller - Couch có xuất hiện
đoạn văn sau:
I was waiting, the other day, in a doctor’s anteroom, and
picked up one of those books – it was a work on pathology – so
thoughtfully left lying in such places; to persuade us, no doubt,
to bear the ills we have rather than fly to others capable of being

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illustrated. I found myself engaged in following the antics of
certain bacilli generically described as “Antibodies”.
…Now I do not doubt the creature thus named to be a poisonous
little wretch. Those who know him may even agree that no word
is too bad for him. But I am not thinking of him. I am thinking
of us: and I say that for our own self – respect, whilst we retain
any sense of intellectual pedigree, “antibody” is no word to throw
even at a bacillus. The man who eats peas with his knife can at
least claim a historical throwback to the days when forks had
but two prongs and the spoons had been removed with the soup.
But “antibody” has no such respectable derivation. It is, in fact,
a barbarism, and a mongrel at that. The man who uses it debases
the currency of learning.
Thực sự là một phê phán nặng nề! Tuy nhiên, các bạn hãy xem,
ngay trong câu đầu tiên của đoạn văn, chính tác giả phê phán này
lại sử dụng chữ anteroom, một chữ lai căn chưa từng thấy trước
đây- một nửa Latin và một nửa Teutonic.
LỢI ÍCH CỦA NHỮNG THUẬT NGỮ CỔ ĐIỂN
Y học ngày càng phát triển phức tạp hơn, đòi hỏi chúng ta phải
tạo ra nhiều từ mới để đặt tên và mô tả các bệnh tật mới phát hiện,
các mối quan hệ mới được quan sát thấy giữa các triệu chứng và
các quan niệm mới về các quá trình bệnh lý. Trong các cấu trúc từ
thì người ta luôn luôn sử dụng những thành tố Hy lạp - La mã mà
không bao giờ dùng các thành tố Anglo - Saxon. Có nhiều lý do
để giải thích cho việc này:
1. Các từ Anglo - Saxon không đi vượt ra khỏi nền y học dân
gian sơ khai. Mặt khác, ngay trong các chữ cổ điển (Hy - La),
chúng ta đã có được một hệ thống từ ngữ đã được sử dụng cho
các quan niệm rất mới rồi. Hơn thế nữa, mãi cho đến thế kỷ thứ
XVIII thì Latin là ngôn ngữ chung được sử dụng trên khắp Tây Âu
để dạy và học ở các trường lớp, bao gồm cả ba ngành khoa học
trí tuệ lúc bấy giờ là Thần học, Y học và Luật học. Sự thống nhất
ngôn ngữ này đã mang lại một lợi ích vô cùng lớn, bởi vì nó đã
tạo cơ hội cho các học giả của nhiều nước khác nhau có thể hiểu
và làm việc được với nhau mà không nhất thiết phải học thêm một
ngôn ngữ khác. Trong thời kỳ Trung cổ, nhiều người Anh đã tạo
được cảm hứng cho mình từ các trường Y ở Ý và Pháp. Do đó mà

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ngày nay, việc đa số các nước thực hành sử dụng các gốc từ cổ
điển (Hy - La) được xem như là sự phục hồi phần lớn cái gọi là
một ngôn ngữ quốc tế.
Một điều may mắn cho người Anh là họ đã đứng trong dòng
chảy của ngôn ngữ cổ điển. Người Đức, những người ở xa trên
phương Bắc của dòng chảy này đã bị bỏ qua, và do đó họ phải xây
dựng các từ ngữ của họ dựa vào các nền tảng ngôn ngữ Teutonic
của chính họ. Điều này dẫn đến một hệ thống ngôn từ rất dài dòng
và vụng về: wurmfortsatzentzündung, wormlike– process burning-
hiện tượng nóng đỏ mỏm hình con sâu- để chỉ viêm ruột thừa;
zwölffingerdarmgeschwür, twelve-finger-intestine ulcer- loét đoạn
ruột mười hai ngón tay- để chỉ loét tá tràng. Người Đức ngày nay
đã dần dần tiếp nhận luôn cả hệ thống từ ngữ cổ điển (Hy- La).
2. Do tất cả mọi ngành khoa học đều sử dụng các gốc từ cổ
điển Hy- La nên các ý tưởng phổ biến đối với các gốc từ này có
nhiều nghĩa tương tự nhau. Ví dụ, proto- (đầu tiên) được dùng trong
proton, một phần trong cấu trúc của nguyên tử; và những gốc từ cổ
điển như thế cũng đi suốt sang ngành sinh học và y học. Cortex và
medulla chỉ phần ngoài và phần trong của các cơ quan, kể cả trong
cơ thể thực vật cũng như động vật.
3. Trong tiếng Anh, những phần nhỏ của lời nói- đại từ, giới từ
và trợ động từ là những phần quan trọng. Khi sử dụng chúng một
cách nhuần nhuyễn, các từ chính trong câu có thể được “làm nhẹ
đi”, điều này đã góp phần làm cho ngôn ngữ Anh thêm phong phú,
giàu sức tưởng tượng, nhất là trong thơ ca và văn học:
“He fell from off the seat backward by the side of the gate,
and his neck brake, and he died; for he was an old man, and
heavy” (I Sam. iv. 18).
Với tính cách đơn giản và trực tiếp, đoạn văn trên đây có thể được
coi là một bằng chứng y khoa tại một cuộc điều tra chính thức (về
một trường hợp chết). Tuy nhiên, trong khi mô tả các vấn đề phức
tạp hơn, người ta cần thiết phải loại bỏ bớt một số phần nhỏ của lời
nói/ viết và sử dụng các từ pha trộn. Ví dụ, agranulocytosis: a, phụ
tố mang nghĩa phủ định, không có; granulum, granule- hạt; cytos,
tế bào; -sis, một trạng thái. Một trạng thái thiếu hụt loại tế bào có
các hạt bên trong. Một từ có mười lăm chữ cái đã thay thế nghĩa
cho một cụm có mười hai từ với tổng cộng năm mươi mốt chữ cái

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(A state of deficiency in the kind of cells which have granules).
4. Bằng cách sử dụng các chữ cố điển Hy- La, chúng ta có thể
diễn tả những bệnh lý đã được biết. Acromegaly, nghĩa từ: các cực
đầu lớn. Nói “một người có các bàn chân bàn tay lớn” có thể chẳng
mang lại ý nghĩa gì cả, bởi vì cũng có nhiều người bình thường
vẫn có thể được mô tả như vậy, do đó không chỉ đúng đích danh
bệnh này (Acromegaly).
2. CÁC NGUYÊN TẮC TRUY XUẤT, TÌM NGUỒN GỐC
THUẬT NGỮ
Có vô số tên gọi được bắt nguồn từ sự tương đồng với các công
trình kiến trúc, các động vật cũng như thực vật, hoặc các bộ phận
của chúng, với các nhạc cụ, các vật dụng trang trí, các công cụ trong
nông nghiệp, các dụng cụ và cả vũ khí nữa. Khi tham khảo các tài
liệu hoặc textbook có cùng chủ đề, các bạn sẽ tìm thấy rất nhiều
các tên gọi và các từ như thế. Trong phạm vi bài viết này, tôi chỉ
đề cập đến những nguyên tắc cơ bản có liên quan mà thôi.
Để có thể minh họa xuất xứ của các tên gọi từ những vật dụng
xung quanh chúng ta, ta có thể hình dung về cuộc sống trong nhà
ở thời Hy- La cổ đại, như sau: Một khoảng không gian trống để
tập hợp mọi người hoặc để mua bán trao đổi hàng hoá được gọi
là agora (từ đó có chữ agoraphobia- chứng sợ các khoảng không).
Một không gian đóng kín, nếu là rộng, được gọi là claustrum, (từ
đó có chữ claustrophobia- chứng sợ bị nhốt trong không gian kín);
và nếu nhỏ, được gọi là areola (có chữ areolar tissue, nghĩa từ là
mô của các khoang nhỏ). Trong một ngôi nhà, cái vestibulum (phòng
trước- tiền phòng) dẫn đến cái atrium (phòng nhỏ) (đối với người
Anh thì chữ này đồng nghĩa với chữ auricle). Có lẽ người ta đã đặt
tên như vậy vì ở chính giữa phòng thường có một ngọn lửa và do
đó các bức tường sẽ đen sạm do khói (ater, màu đen).
Một phòng bên trong hay Phòng ngủ ở Hy lạp được gọi là
thalamos, từ này sau đó được Galen dùng mô tả một buồng nhỏ bên
trong cấu trúc não (đồi thị). Một bức tường dùng để ngăn chia được
gọi là phragma (từ đó ta có chữ diaphragm - cơ hoành) ở Hy lạp
và gọi là septum ở La mã. Nơi đặt bếp lửa được gọi là focus, từ đó
ta có nghĩa hiện đại- trung tâm của nhiệt độ và ánh sáng. Một cây
xà, bè (trên mái nhà) được gọi là trabs, từ đó có chữ trabeculum.
Các lối đi được gọi là fauces.

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Bên cạnh đó còn có các chữ via, con đường, fornix, cái vòm, cái
khung, stylos, mỏm nhô ra hình cột, hình trụ (pillar/styloid process).
Nước được dẫn đi bởi các ductus, fossa (hào, rãnh, mương), fistula
(ống) or cloaca (cống nước thải). Cũng có thể có cả latrina (tiếng
Anh: latrine- nhà xí). Một ngôi nhà lớn có thể có cả giếng phun
nước, fontana, ở trong sân, từ đó ta có chữ fontanelle (cái thóp- chữ
này được dùng qua tiếng Pháp), được dùng như vậy vì khi sờ tay
vào thóp bé sơ sinh ta thấy mạch đập phập phồng, tương tự như
tiếng nước sôi. Nếu chủ nhân có một vườn nho, ắt hẳn họ phải
có một cái torcula (ép rượu). Trong số các vật dụng gia đình có
penicillia (cái chổi) và cribra (cái sàng). Porta, cái cổng, xuất hiện
trong chữ tĩnh mạch cửa (portal vein), Galen gọi như vậy là vì ông
ta cho rằng rãnh tĩnh mạch cửa là cửa đi vào của gan.
Các ví dụ về nhạc cụ gồm salpinx, kèn trumpet, tympanum,
cái trống; các vật dụng trang trí bao gồm fibula, cây trâm cài tóc,
peroneus, phần lưỡi của cây trâm; các dụng cụ nông nghiệp bao
gồm vomer, lưỡi cày, falx, lưỡi hái, lưỡi liềm; các dụng cụ khác
bao gồm malleus, cái búa, incus, cái đe; các loại vũ khí bao gồm
ensis, cây gươm (ensiform, hình gươm). Một hàng lính được gọi
là một phalanx. Các đốt ngón tay (phalanges) được gọi như vậy vì
chúng sắp xếp thành hàng.
Trong đa số các ví dụ nói trên và trong nhiều ví dụ khác nữa,
các tên gọi được lấy sử dụng luôn mà không thay đổi gì. Khi người
ta thấy so sánh có vẻ ít giống nhau hơn thì các tên gọi đó sẽ được
thay đổi chút ít, như sau:
1. Trong tiếng Hy lạp, các chữ được thay đổi bằng cách thêm–oid
(eoids, hình dạng).
2. Trong tiếng Latin, các chữ được thay đổi bằng cách thêm
–iform.
3. Bằng tiền tố para (bên cạnh, gần). Paratyphoid, gần giống
với typhoid (thương hàn). (Chú ý rằng trong chữ này thì ý nghĩ
tương tự đã được nhân đôi: chữ Paratyphoid được biến đổi từ chữ
typhoid, mà bản thân chữ typhoid này cũng là một biến tướng từ
chữ typhus).
4. Bằng tiền tố pseudo- (pseudes, giả).

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SỰ LIÊN TƯỞNG, LIÊN QUAN
Thông thường một thiết bị sử dụng sẽ được đặt tên từ một vật
nào đó hoặc một vật có liên quan với một vật nào đó. Có rất nhiều
hình thức khác nhau:
1. Một Vật liệu hoặc con vật được sử dụng.
Histology, từ chữ histos, khung cửi dệt vải. Tên gọi đó được chuyển
qua đặt cho vật liệu được sản xuất ra từ cái khung cửi (vải).
Vaccination, từ chữ vacca, Latin có nghĩa là con bò.
Graft, từ chữ graphein, viết, qua tiếng Pháp cổ là graffe, tiếng
Pháp là greffe, Tiếng Anh trung đại grift. Người Gauls (một nước
cổ ở châu Âu bao gồm có Pháp) được người La mã dạy nghệ thuật
ghép trong làm vườn, cành cây ghép lúc đó được vót nhọn giống
như cây bút chì.
Inoculate. Một lần nữa ở đây ta lại thấy ý tưởng của việc ghép
cây, cái chồi non được ghép trở thành “con mắt” (oculus). Ví dụ
mắt khoai tây.
2. Một thuộc tính:
Anopheles, nguy hiểm (côn trùng).
Sacrum, Latin: Xương này được coi là linh thiêng và được sử
dụng trong các nghi lễ hiến tế. Bởi vì nó là cái xương cuối cùng bị
mục rữa nên người ta tin rằng cơ thể (người/ vật) sẽ được tái sinh
lại xung quanh xương đó (xương cùng).
Jejunum, Latin: trống rỗng, bởi vì nó trống rống sau khi (người)
chết.
Cornea, Latin: horny. Ban đầu là chữ tela cornea, mô sừng.
Caecum, Latin: mù.
Deciduas, tính từ giống cái: rơi rụng xuống; membrana, màng.
Melaena (melaina, giống cái của melas, màu đen (cổ điển đi kèm
với danh từ giống cái nosos, bệnh).
Lumen, Latin: sáng, từ đó có nghĩa một vật thể dẫn truyền được
ánh sáng, tức là một khoảng trống không.
Trachea, thô; cổ điển gọi là arteria trachea, các ống dẫn khí
thô.
Beri – beri, một từ châu Á mô tả tình trạng không có sức mạnh,
không có năng lượng, ám chỉ đến tình trạng của bệnh nhân mắc

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bệnh này.
Duodenum, Latin: một khoảng rộng bằng 12 khoát ngón tay
(chiều dài).
3. Sử dụng một cơ quan.
Thenar. Theinein, bắt tay (nghĩa cổ), đánh, đập; đây là những
hành động thường phải dùng phần này của cơ thể để thực hiện.
Buccinators. Latin bucina, kèn trumpet. Cơ ở má cần thiết sử
dụng khi thổi kèn trumpet.
Sartorius. Sartor, thợ may. Cơ được dùng để bắt chéo chân.
4. Đặc tính của một chất hoặc một con vật:
Anthrax và carbuncle (Latin carbo) cả hai đều có nghĩa là than,
tính chất của nó là dễ đốt cháy. John of Trevisa (1535), khi dịch
bộ Tự điển toàn thư lớn thời trung cổ, De Proprietatibus Rerum,
viết bởi Bartholomeus Anglicus, một cuốn sách có thể đã được
Shakespeare sử dụng, đã tìm thấy câu:
“Anthrax is a postume whyche cometh of ful wood matere and
venomous. It is callyd also ‘carbunculus’ for it brennyth like a
cole”.
Alopecia, từ chữ alopex, con cáo, nói lên tính chất lông xác xơ
trên đầu con vật này. Trong cuốn từ điển toàn thư nói trên Trevisa
cũng tìm thấy câu sau:
“By that euyll callyd Allopicina nourysshynge of heer is
corrupte and fayllyth, and the foreparty of the heed is bare, such
men fare as foxes.”
5. Mối liên quan/liên tưởng gián tiếp.
Quinsy từ chữ cyon, con chó, anchein, máy kéo chỉ, bộ điều chỉnh,
qua tiếng Pháp cổ squinancie và tiếng Pháp hiện đại esquinancie. Ý
tưởng ở đây rõ ràng là xuất phát từ hình ảnh một con chó bị tròng
dây (xích chó) vào cổ. Đầu tiên hết, chữ này được dùng để mô tả
bất kỳ sự thắt nghẹt nào ở cổ.
Idio-, trong chữ idiopathic, idiosyncrasy có nghĩa là riêng biệt
thuộc về một ai đó. Vào thời Hy lạp cổ idiotes có nghĩa là một
người “riêng tư” nào đó, “riêng tư” trong ý nghĩa rằng anh ta chỉ
biết đến anh ta mà thôi và không tham gia gì với bất kỳ công việc
chung nào. Một hành vi như thế được xem là bần tiện, đáng khinh.
Từ đó nó có nghĩa là người không hiểu biết gì, ngu dốt, và đó chính
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là nguồn gốc của chữ idiot.
Carotid, caros, ngủ, bởi vì người cổ đại đã ép vào các động mạch
này để gây ra tình trạng mất tri giác. (so sánh với tiếng Pháp có
garrotter- buột chặt).
Pupil (của con mắt), Latin pupilla, một con búp bê hoặc một cô
gái nhỏ, xuất phát từ hiện tượng ai đó có thể thấy được hình ảnh
nhỏ bé xíu của mình trong mắt người khác.
Glene, từ Hy lạp có nghĩa là con ngươi, có nghĩa là cái gương
và cũng chuyển tải một ý nghĩa tương tự, nhưng nó cũng có nghĩa
là một khoang cạn, và với nghĩa này nó xuất hiện trong chữ glenoid
(thuộc về ổ chảo).
Myopia, myein, đóng lại, ops, con mắt, xuất phát từ ý rằng người
cận thị luôn phải nheo mắt lại khi nhìn.
Pudenda, Latin: cơ quan sinh dục ngoài, từ chữ Latin pudere,
xấu hổ.
Thorax, nguồn gốc: cái bảng ở ngực. Chuyển nghĩa thành cái bộ
phận được bao bên ngoài bởi cái bảng này.
Climacteric, climakter, thanh ngang của một cái thang. Năm (tuổi)
mãn kinh/ mãn dục. Số bảy và các cấp số của nó từng được xem
là các năm tuổi quan trọng, tuổi “quan trọng” nhất (mãn dục/ mãn
kinh) từng được xem là tuổi 63, tức 7 x 9.
Oestrus, động dục, một từ hiện đại. Ở một số loài động vật, sự
hung phấn về tình dục cũng giống như một cảm giác đau nhói,
quặn thắt.
THAY ĐỔI NGHĨA
Qua nhiều thế kỷ, các từ đã trải qua nhiều biến đổi về nghĩa
của chúng. Người ta đã nhận ra nhiều quá trình như: thu hẹp nghĩa,
mở rộng nghĩa, chuyển nghĩa và đảo ngược nghĩa.
Thu hẹp nghĩa
Đã trở thành thông lệ rằng trước khi hiểu được bản chất thực sự
của bệnh, người ta thường dùng triệu chứng nổi bật nhất của bệnh
để miêu tả bệnh đó. Chữ Fever đã được sử dụng trong nhiều thời
đại để chỉ nhiều tình trạng bệnh lý khác nhau. P.U.O. (pyrexia of
unknown origin) là tên gọi hiện đại được dùng cho tình trạng sốt,
không đề cập đến nguyên nhân sốt là gì. Khi đã phân biệt được

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các bệnh với nhau thì một thuật ngữ trước đây được dùng cho một
nhóm bệnh nay sẽ chỉ được dùng một cách hằng định cho một bệnh
thuộc nhóm đó mà thôi.
Morbilli, Latin nghĩa là bệnh sởi, từ chữ Latin morbus, nghĩa
là bệnh.
Typhus (typhos, khói hoặc sương mù) là một cách để diễn tả có
tính chất hình dung về tình trạng mơ màng, choáng váng khi nhìn,
gây ra do sốt cao nói chung.
Eclampsia (ek, từ, lampas, ánh sáng) được Hippocrates dùng để
mô tả mọi bệnh lý xuất hiện một cách đột ngột như một tia sáng
loé lên. Tuy nhiên, ý tưởng này cũng có thể xuất phát từ việc bệnh
nhân thấy được những tia sáng loé lên.
Cele (sưng, phồng) được áp dụng cho sự sưng phồng mọi loại,
bất kể đó là do khối u, khối thoát vị hay bất kỳ nguyên nhân nào
khác. Thuật ngữ này sau đó chỉ hạn chế sử dụng cho những khối
sưng phồng có chứa dịch bên trong mà thôi: cystocele, hydrocele,
haematocele, meningocele.
Glaucoma (glaucos, màu xanh lá cây- xám) được áp dụng mọi
trường hợp trong đó mắt có màu xám nhạt.
Halitosis xuất phát từ chữ halitus có nghĩa là thở hoặc bốc hơi
nói chung; nay chỉ còn mang nghĩa một trạng thái có hơi thở hôi.
Impetigo (Latin: impetere, tấn công) được áp dụng cho nhiều
bệnh lý khác nhau của da, và herpes (Hy lạp: creep) áp dụng cho
mọi tình huống bệnh lan tràn.
Hypopyon, chữ này trước đây dùng để chỉ mọi trường hợp nhiễm
trùng khu trú, nay nghĩa của nó bị giới hạn lại chỉ còn là tình trạng
ứ mủ trong tiền phòng (mắt).
Leprosy. Cổ điển thì Lepra có nghĩa là bất kỳ tình trạng nào
làm da có vảy.
Sự thu hẹp nghĩa tương tự cũng được áp dụng đối với các bộ
phận của cơ thể.
Hymen cổ điển có nghĩa là bất kỳ sự ngăn cách nào.
Mở rộng nghĩa
Có một vài ví dụ về sự mở rộng từ một nghĩa đặc thù thành
một nghĩa tổng quát:

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Epithelium cổ điển có nghĩa là bề mặt bao phủ trên núm vú (epi,
trên, thele, núm vú) hoặc những vùng có nhú lồi lên khác. Cùng với
một chữ có họ hàng với nó (endothelium) ngày nay chúng được áp
dụng cho bất kỳ bề mặt thuộc loại nào.
Nausea (naus, tàu) trong thời Hy lạp cổ chữ này có nghĩa là
bệnh say tàu- say sóng, nhưng đến thời Hippocrates nó được chấp
nhận với nghĩa dùng như hiện nay.
Chuyển nghĩa
Asphyxia, mạch không có (không bắt được) hoặc mạch yếu (a,
phủ định, không; sphyxis, mạch), chuyển thành nghĩa hiện đại vào
thế kỷ XVIII.
Atheroma (athere, cháo đặc) có nghĩa là nang bã đậu, xuất phát
từ đặc tính của chất nó chứa bên trong. Nghĩa của chữ này đươc
chuyển thành một bệnh lý của động mạch chủ (mảng xơ vữa) vào
thế kỷ XIX, cũng chính là do sự gần gũi về đặc tính của nó (mảng
vữa và chất bã đậu).
Rheumatism (rheuma, một dòng chảy). Trong tiếng Anh cổ, rheum
có nghĩa là chất xuất tiết từ mũi hoặc mắt; từ đó nó có nghĩa là
một dòng chảy của dịch thể nói chung. Dòng chảy dịch thể đó từng
được người ta tin rằng chính là nguyên nhân của bệnh này.
Arachroid, trông giống như một con nhện hoặc mạng nhện.
Hippocrates sử dụng chữ arachnoides để chỉ lớp váng trên bề mặt
nước tiểu. Galen lại dùng để chỉ một đám rối mạch máu hoặc thần
kinh. Nghĩa hiện nay của chữ này xuất hiện từ thế kỷ XVII.
Condyle (condylos, lồi, ụ) thoạt tiên mang cả hai nghĩa khớp đốt
ngón tay và lồi xương, trước khi được dùng chỉ để chỉ một loại lồi
nhất định của xương. Condyloma, một loại u nhú hoa liễu.
Parenchyma (para, bên cạnh, en, trong, chyme, nước ép; rót nước
ép vào trong). Một thuật ngữ được Erasistratus (300 B.C.) sáng tạo
ra để miêu tả điều ông ta thấy rằng máu được đưa vào trong các
cơ quan và đông lại ở đó. Chữ này hiện nay có nghĩa là các tế bào
(nhu mô) đặc thù của một loại cơ quan nào đó, khác với các mô
đệm xơ và mạch máu ở trong chính cơ quan đó.
Nystagmus, cổ điển có nghĩa là tình trạng mơ màng, từ đó có
nghĩa đầu (bệnh nhân) gật gà gật gù trong tình trạng mơ màng- ngủ
gà. Nghĩa hiện nay: tình trạng giật nhãn cầu.

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Hippus, cổ điển có nghĩa nhấp nháy, lấp lánh, tương đương với
nystagmus; hiện nay chuyển sang nghĩa co và giãn mống mắt.
Tarsus, cổ điển có nghĩa một cái rổ cạn, dẹt; mở rộng thành
nghĩa bất kỳ một bề mặt nông hay phẳng nào, bao gồm cả lòng
bàn chân và dây chằng mí mắt. Nghĩa đã được mở rộng từ lòng
bàn chân sang các xương.
Đảo nghĩa
Trong một số trường hợp, nghĩa hiện nay của chữ lại ngược với
nghĩa cổ điển:
Phlegmatic có nghĩa là lạnh hoặc lạnh nhạt, thờ ơ, mặc dù có
xuất xứ từ chữa phlegein, đốt nóng. Tuy nhiên, nghĩa đối lập đó lại
rõ ràng hơn nghĩa thực của chữ. Người Hy lạp cổ xem chứng chảy
nước mũi như là một ví dụ điển hình của tình trạng viêm nóng. Hậu
quả của tình trạng viêm nóng này là chảy dịch tiết và chất nhầy,
thứ mà Hippocrates lại miêu tả trong tác phẩm The Nature of Man
là chất dịch tiết lạnh nhất.
Symposium, ngày nay có nghĩa là một cuộc hội thảo (tranh luận và
học hỏi), thời Hy lạp cổ lại có nghĩa là một bữa tiệc rượu. Nghiên
cứu kỹ hơn một chút ta sẽ thấy ý nghĩa sâu xa của chữ này. Thật
sự thì những tác phẩm sáng giá nhất trong triết học, trong đó có
Symposium của Plato, có xuất xứ từ những buổi gặp gỡ, họp mặt
đầy sảng khoái như thế. Người Hy lạp đã tiếp thụ được nhiều cảm
hứng từ cốc rượu của họ hơn là người Anh đã tiếp thụ được từ
tách trà của mình.
Valgus cổ điển có nghĩa hai chân vòng kiềng (tức khi đứng thẳng
thì phần gối cong ra ngoài); ngày nay nó mang nghĩa ngược lại (tức
khi đứng thẳng thì phần đầu gối cong / khép vào trong).
Những chữ mang nghĩa nước đôi
Nyctalopia (nyx, nycto-, ban đêm, alaos, mù, không thấy đường,
opsis, tầm nhìn) từ thời cổ đã được dùng và cho đến ngày nay
vẫn được dùng với hai nghĩa đối lập, mù ban đêm và, nếu bỏ đi
phần al, có nghĩa là tầm nhìn ban đêm hoặc tầm nhìn tốt hơn vào
ban đêm. Galen dùng chữ này với nghĩa đầu nhưng lại trích dẫn
Hippocrates đã sử dụng chữ này với nghĩa sau. Tương tự như thế
là chữ hemeralopia (hemera, ban ngày) cũng được dùng với cả
hai nghĩa: mù ban ngày và nhìn tốt hơn vào ban ngày. Những chữ
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này nên được dùng theo đúng nguyên nghĩa từ của nó thì tốt hơn:
nyctalopia, mù ban đêm, tình trạng quáng gà; và hemeralopia, tình
trạng mù, nhìn quáng gà ban ngày.
Những chữ có nguồn gốc khó hiểu hoặc không rõ nguồn gốc
Trong nhiều trường hợp chúng ta rất khó tìm thấy nguồn gốc
của chữ, bởi lẽ người cổ, cũng giống như chúng ta vậy, có khi đã
sử dụng một chữ nhưng với rất nhiều nghĩa khác nhau. Trong Kinh
thánh ta thấy có rất nhiều nghĩa của chữ reins. “God trieth the hearts
and reins” (Ps. Vii. 9). “My reins shall rejoice” (Prov. xxiii. 16).
Trong tiếng Anh trung đại, reins vừa có nghĩa là cảm giác vừa có
nghĩa là thận.
Amnion có nghĩa là thịt cừu cũng đồng thời có nghĩa là cái chén
để đựng máu của các con vật hiến tế. Lần đầu tiên chữ này được
dùng chỉ một màng thai xuất hiện trong các bài viết của Empedocles
of Agrigentum (504 – 433 B.C.), nhưng không tìm thấy có lý do
nào gợi ý rằng ông ta đã kết nối nghĩa đó với những nghĩa khác
đã được biết đến của chữ này, có lẽ là trí tưởng tượng của ông ta
đã bay quá cao chăng?
Astragalos có không dưới 8 nghĩa. Cả trong tác phẩm Iliad và
trong Odyssey nó đều được dùng để chỉ đốt sống trên của cổ. Nó
cũng có nghĩa là một cái xương khớp ở bàn tay. Hippocrates dùng
chữ này để gọi cái mà ngày nay ta gọi là xương sên. Dường như
nó cũng được chỉ bất kỳ cái xương nào dùng trong chơi đánh bạc.
Những con xúc xắc thực tế lại được gọi là tali. Với mục đích này
(đánh bạc) thì người Hy lạp thích các đốt xương sống cổ thứ nhất
và thứ hai, còn người La mã lại thích dùng xương sên.
Thymus (thymos, cây cỏ xạ hương) lần đầu tiên được dùng cho
bất kỳ chỗ sùi hay ụ lồi dạng nhú nào, xuất phát từ ý nghĩ cho rằng
nó tương đồng với hình ảnh một bụi cỏ xạ hương. Galen là người đã
lần đầu tiên dùng đặt tên cho một tuyến (nội tiết). Tên gọi này gợi
ý cảm giác ngọt, và những người hàng thịt ở Anh thỉnh thoảng gọi
nó là cái bánh mì ngọt ở cổ, để phân biệt với tuyến tuỵ, tuy nhiên
ý nghĩ cho rằng cảm giác ngọt là một sự liên tưởng thì quả là quá
xa. Thymos (với một cách phát âm khác cũng có nghĩa là cảm giác).
Do đó ta có chữ cyclothymia (chứng bệnh thay đổi tâm tính).
Cataract, bên cạnh nghĩa phổ biến hiện nay, chữ này còn có

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nghĩa một cái gì đó chặn một dòng nước chảy (cataract có nghĩa từ
là một dòng thác nước chảy). Từ đó nó mang nghĩa một cái gì đó
chặn tầm nhìn của mắt lại. Ambroise Paré (1550) có một cataracte
on coulisse – khung lưới sắt chắn ở cổng thành.
Mydriatic (mydros, đốt). Sự liên tưởng là rất mờ mịt. Có thể ý
nghĩ này xuất phát từ chỗ sự giãn đồng tử có thể xảy ra do người
ta sợ hãi khi bị đốt nóng.
Cheloid hay keloid. Nguồn gốc có thể được quy về từ nhiều chữ
khác nhau như kele, khối u, kelis, vết nhơ, và chele, càng của con
cua hay móng của con ngựa.
Cretin- người đần độn- có thể đã xuất phát từ chữ tiếng Pháp
cretin, một chữ sai lạc của chrétien, Christian. Nếu quả vậy thì lý
do là không rõ. Nó có thể là một từ chỉ sự nhạo báng người Thiên
chúa giáo. Tuy nhiên chữ đó cũng có nghĩa là một con người để
phân biệt với con thú. Như vậy, thuật ngữ đó có thể nói lên rằng
cretins là con người, mặc dù bề ngoài trông giống con thú. Một cách
giải thích khác là rằng người Thiên chúa giáo đã bị ngược đãi, đày
đến những thung lũng xa xôi, và ở nơi đó họ đã trở nên đần độn.
Điều này có vẻ không đúng, bởi vì ở những thung lũng xa xôi này
có cả những người ngoại đạo, người chống lại Thiên chúa giáo.
Abdomen, Latin (không rõ nguồn gốc).
Abscess, Latin: abscessus, đã thoát ra xa, (ý nói nội dung bên
trong).
Acne, có thể là một chữ sai lạc của acme, một điểm.
Aorta (aorter, cái đai, hoặc cột bằng đai, bằng dây), được
Hippocrates dùng để chỉ phế quản.
Fomes, chữ Latin số nhiều fomites, ngày nay dùng chỉ áo quần
hoặc các vật khác có thể mang theo tác nhân lây nhiễm. Trong tiếng
Latin nó có nghĩa là cái bùi nhùi.
Hernia, Latin, có thể xuất xứ từ chữ Hy lạp hernos, cái mầm,
cái chồi.
Hydatid, có lẽ là các bong bóng nước.
Jugular, Latin jugulum, xương đòn, hoặc Latin, jugum, cái ách
để cặp trâu, bò. Các tĩnh mạch cảnh (jugular veins) được đặt tên
như vậy là vì nó nằm gần xương đòn.
Lupus, Latin: con chó sói (không rõ lý do).

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Os Innominatum, Latin. Không tìm thấy tên nào cho chữ này.
Peristalsis (peri, xung quanh, stellein, đặt vào), được dùng bởi
Hippocrates để chỉ sự co thắt.
Rickets. Hy lạp: rhachis, cây thông, hoặc tiếng Anh trung đại
wrikken, vặn xoắn.
Temple, temporal. Có lẽ có liên quan với chữ Latin tempus, thời
gian. Chữ Hy lạp temnein, cắt, cắt đúng thời điểm (?), Một vị trí
tốt để đánh (?); Hoặc cũng có thể do mái tóc ở vùng này điểm bạc
sớm, cho thấy dấu ấn của thời gian.
Valvulae conniventes. Latin conivere, nháy mắt.
Vitiligo. Vitis, Latin: cây nho, or vitium, vết nhơ, điểm xấu.
Các chữ có xuất xứ từ Thần thoại và Lịch sử
Một số tên gọi có xuất xứ từ các nhân vật thần thoại hoặc lịch
sử đã được dùng nhiều từ thời kỳ cổ đại, tuy nhiên gần đây, các
nhà tâm lý học cũng đã thêm vào nhiều chữ khác nữa, dựa trên
những tài liệu mà họ đọc được trong văn học cổ đã miêu tả những
hành vi bất thường khác nhau.
Có không dưới 3 chữ có liên quan đến tình yêu:
Venereal (thuộc về bệnh hoa liễu) từ Venus, Nữ thần Tình yêu
của người La mã.
Aphrodisiac, loại thuốc kích thích ham muốn tình dục; xuất phát
từ Aphrodite, Nữ thần Tình yêu của người Hy lạp.
Erotic, gợi tình, nhục dục, từ chữ Eros (phát âm như air – rose,
không phải là ee – ross), Một vị thần Ái tình khác của người Hy
lạp khác, tương ứng với Thần Cupid của người La mã.
Atlas, được gọi tên như vậy là vì nó chống đỡ cả cái đầu ở trên.
Atlas là một người khổng lồ mạnh mẽ đã bị Thần Zeus bắt buộc
phải đội cả Thiên đình trên vai. Người đã đặt tên này cho cái xương
đó (đốt sống cổ thứ nhất) chính là Vesalius.
Atropine (a, tropos, không xoay chuyển được- không linh hoạt
được). Atropos là tên một vị Thần tước đoạt mạng sống trong thần
thoại Hy lạp.
Caesarean section (Mổ lấy thai). Julius Caesar được giả định là
đã ra đời bằng cách này.
Hermaphrodite, một cá thể không có giới tính rõ ràng.

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Hermaphrodites là con trai của Hermes and Aphrodite. Ông ta trở
nên hợp nhất về cơ thể với nữ thần Salmacis.
Hygiene, từ chữ Hygeia (sức khoẻ), một trong những người con
gái của Thần Aesculapius.
Lesbianism. Quan hệ tình dục giữa hai người nữ. Les – bos, một
hòn đảo trong Aegean, nơi ở của Sappho, người nghiện với kiểu
quan hệ tình dục này.
Masochism. Khoái cảm tình dục được tạo ra bởi sự tàn bạo của
người bạn tình khác giới. Xuất phát từ Sacher – Masoch, một tiểu
thuyết gia người Áo đã lần đầu tiên mô tả vấn đề này.
Caput medusa. Các tĩnh mạch giãn đi ra từ rốn trong trường hợp
tắc nghẽn tĩnh mạch cửa. Medusa là một trong những Nữ thần tóc
rắn trong Thần thoại Hy lạp. Athene đã biến tóc của vị thần này
thành những con rắn.
Morphia. Morpheus, Thần của những giấc mơ. Lưu ý rằng đây
cũng chính là gốc của chữ morphe, hình thức/hình thái, Morpheus đã
xác định những hình thức/hình thái mà các giấc mơ đã mang lại.
Narcissism, quá tự phụ, kiêu căng, tự yêu mình, quá chú ý đến
vẻ đẹp của mình và hướng nội. Hội chứng tự mê. Narcissus, một
thanh niên đẹp trai cứ nghĩ rằng hình ảnh của mình phản chiếu bên
dòng suối là một tiên nữ. Khi anh ta cố gắng với lấy cô Tiên nữ
thì đã bị chết đuối.
Oedipus complex, phức cảm Oedipus, một tình yêu lầm lạc của
đứa con dành cho mẹ của nó, sau khi nó trở nên căm thù cha nó.
Trong thần thoại Hy lạp, Oedipus Tyrannus đã giết cha mình là
Laius và đám cưới với mẹ mình là Jocasta.
Panacea, loại thuốc chữa bá bệnh. Panacea là một trong những
người con gái của Aesculapius.
Priapism. Chứng cương dương vật. Priapus là một vị thần của
sự sinh sản.
Sadism, bạo dâm, tình dục truỵ lạc liên quan đến những hành
động tàn bạo. Được đặt tên như vậy xuất phát từ tên của người
trình bày, diễn giải hoạt động này rất nổi tiếng, Marquis de Sade
(1740 – 1814).
St. Anthony’s Fire, chứng viêm quầng.
St. Vitus’s Dance, múa giật.

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Syphilis. Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus, tên một bài thơ được
viết bởi Fracastoro, nhà thơ người Ý năm 1953. Một trong những
nhân vật của bài thơ có tên là Syphilus, người này bị bệnh đó (giang
mai). Chữ Syphilus được đặt tên này có nghĩa là người chăn lợn
(sus, con heo, phil-, yêu thương). Fallopius thì lại cho rằng chữ này
xuất phát từ syn philos- đồng hành với tình yêu.
Tendo Achillis. (Gân Achilles - gân gót). Để làm cho con trai
mình là Achilles không thể bị thương, bà Thetis- mẹ của Achilles
đã nhúng Achilles xuống dòng sông Styx. Do bà phải cầm gót chân
của Achilles để nhúng nên gót của Achilles đã không được ngập
trong dòng nước. Vì thế, Achilles đã chết do bị thương ở gót.
3. CÁC QUY LUẬT XÂY DỰNG THUẬT NGỮ
Việc xây dựng nên các thuật ngữ tuân theo các quy luật cụ
thể.
Quy luật 1. Như đã nêu trên, phần đuôi của một chữ sẽ chỉ ra
loại bệnh tật. Trước phần đuôi này có thể sẽ xuất hiện:
(a) Cơ quan hoặc mô cơ quan bị ảnh hưởng. Ví dụ: bronch|itis,
fibros|itis.
(b) Một thành phần bất thường nào đó; khi đó phần cơ quan trong
cơ thể bị ảnh hưởng sẽ được hiểu ngầm: silic|osis, asbest|osis.
(c) Một tính từ để chỉ tình trạng chung của một bệnh hay một
tình trạng bệnh: cyan|osis.
Đứng trước tên của cơ quan hay mô cơ thể bị ảnh hưởng có thể
có một tính từ, hoặc để mô tả cơ quan hay mô cơ thể đó, như trong
chữ astro|cyt|oma, khối u chứa các tế bào hình sao, hoặc nói lên
bản chất của rối loạn hay bệnh lý đó, như trong erythro|dermia- da
có màu đỏ.
Đứng trước hết, tức là phần đầu tiên của một chữ, thường
có một bộ phận của chữ biểu hiện sự vượt quá hoặc sự thiếu
hụt: a|granulo|cyt|osis- tình trạng không có bạch cầu hạt;
hypo|prothrombin|aem|ia, quá ít prothrombin trong máu.
Quy luật 2. Bộ phận của chữ dùng mô tả sự thừa hay thiếu
có thể đứng giữa tên của cơ quan/mô và phần đuôi của chữ:
thrombo|cyto|pen|ia, thiếu- hiếm (pen xuất phát từ chữ Latin paene)
các tế bào đông máu.

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Quy luật 3. Khi cần thiết nhấn mạnh về một rối loạn chức năng
nào đó, hơn là nhấn mạnh về một phần nào đó của cơ thể thì mối
liên quan này sẽ được đặt ngay trước phần đuôi của chữ, thường là
dưới dạng một động từ. Đứng trước phần này có thể là:
(a) Một chữ chỉ hướng: dia|rrhoe|a, sự chạy xuyên qua.
(b) Một chất có liên quan: meno|rrhag|ia, nghĩa chữ: kinh nguyệt
ra ào ạt.
(c) Đặc tính của chất có liên quan: leuco|rrhoe|a, nghĩa chữ: sự
chảy ra của chất màu trắng.
(d) Một trạng thái dư thừa, thiếu hụt hoặc cảm giác khó khăn:
a|phas|ia, nghĩa chữ: không nói được; dys|meno|rrhoe|a (dys, khó
khăn hoặc đau khi hành kinh); dys|phag|ia, khó khăn khi ăn.
Quy luật 4. Tên của phần cơ quan bị ảnh hưởng chính là đuôi
của chữ và trước đó là một yếu tố hay một chất bất thường:
pneumothorax, pyopneumothorax.
Quy luật 5. Có khi cũng cần thiết phải diễn tả tính chất phân biệt
của một tình trạng bằng một tính từ đứng riêng, đứng ngay sau từ
chính. Polycythaemia vera. Ở đây, vera, thực sự, nói lên rằng tình
trạng này chính bản thân nó thực sự là một bệnh lý, để phân biệt với
một tình trạng tương tự nhưng gây ra do bệnh lý tim bẩm sinh.
Quy luật 6. Hiện tượng tĩnh lược. Điều này có nghĩa là một phần
quan trọng nào đó của chữ đã được ngầm hiểu và bỏ qua. Chúng
được sử dụng thường xuyên trong mô tả các tình trạng của máu:
Leuco|cyt|osis thay thế cho chữ hyper|leuco|cyt|osis, một tình
trạng có quá nhiều tế bào bạch cầu; eosino|phil|ia thay cho
hyper|eosino|phil|ia, một trạng thái có quá nhiều tế bào màu nhuộm
eosin trong máu; leuco|pen|ia thay cho leuco|cyto|pen|ia, quá ít
tế bào bạch cầu; Natri|uresis và kali|uresis lần lượt thay thế cho
hyper|natri|uresis và hyper|kali|uresis.
Thoạt nhìn thì tên gọi đầy đủ có thể gợi ý một sự mâu thuẫn
về thuật ngữ: trong chữ hyper|chromic an|aem|ia, hyper có nghĩa
là quá nhiều và an có nghĩa là quát ít. Thuật ngữ này có nghĩa là
trong khi số lượng hồng cầu thiếu trầm trọng (anaemia), thì mỗi tế
bào hồng cầu lại chứa nhiều chất màu (chrome).
Pseudo|hyper|trophic muscular a|troph|y. Nghĩa chữ: lãng phí các
cơ có sự phát triển quá mức một cách giả tạo. Các cơ bị thiếu chất

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gây co cơ, nhưng lại lớn hơn bình thường, do nó chứa quá nhiều
các chất không có tác dụng co cơ. Aleuk|aemic leuk|aem|ia. Bệnh
bạch cầu nhưng không có hình ảnh xét nghiệm máu đặc trưng của
một bệnh bạch cầu.
Quy luật 7. Trong các từ đồng nghĩa Hy lạp và Latin được xây
dựng từ các chữ Latin thường thiếu các hình thức tính từ và thiếu
các tiếp đầu ngữ, ngoại trừ trong các từ có dấu gạch ngang giữa,
như: cerebro – spinal; tuy nhiên, khi hai danh từ hoặc một danh
từ và một động từ được nối với nhau người ta dùng chữ Hy lạp:
Latin ren|al, supra|renal, nhưng lại nephro|pexy; Latin testicul|ar,
nhưng chữ Hy lạp: orchid|ectomy. Cách này được xem là truyền
thống cổ điển tốt nhất, bởi vì người La mã không chấp nhận thói
quen của người Hy lạp thường hay gắn các phần lớn của lời nói
vào với nhau. Tuy nhiên, quy luật này không phải là bất biến, bởi
vì đã có rất nhiều từ lai xuất hiện.

Tài liệu tham khảo:

1. FFrangcon Robert (1954). Medical terms- Their origin and construction.
4th edition. Thomas Publisher.

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BÀI ĐỌC THÊM 2:

CÁC THÀNH PHẦN CẤU TẠO

CỦA THUẬT NGỮ Y HỌC

H iểu và sử dụng thuận tiện ngôn ngữ tiếng Anh trong Y học là
một vấn đề quan trọng góp phần cho sự thành công trong sự
nghiệp của một bác sỹ nói riêng và một nhân viên y tế nói chung.
Khả năng giao tiếp và viết tiếng Anh một cách lưu loát rất quan
trọng đối với sự an toàn của bệnh nhân, nâng cao chất lượng chăm
sóc y tế, tương tác với các đồng nghiệp y khoa khác và chứng minh
được khả năng của mình như một người chuyên nghiệp.
Bạn sẽ tự tin hơn khi sử dụng các thuật ngữ Y học nếu bạn
hiểu được những lý do tại sao người ta lại xây dựng từ các thành
tố riêng biệt trở thành các thuật ngữ như thế. Ngoài ra việc hiểu
được lý do đó cũng giúp chúng ta phân tích, tách rời các thành tố
cấu tạo nên một thuật ngữ nào đó, để có thể hiểu được nghĩa của
thuật ngữ một cách sâu sắc hơn. Hơn thế nữa, qua việc phân tích
thuật ngữ, chúng ta cũng biết cách dùng những thành tố cấu tạo đó
để xây dựng nên những từ mới hơn.
1. GỐC CHỮ (ROOT):
Thành phần cốt lõi của mọi thuật ngữ chính là Gốc chữ. Hầu
như tất cả mọi thuật ngữ y học đều có một gốc chữ, đó chính là
thành tố mang nghĩa cốt lõi của thuật ngữ đó. Chín mươi phần trăm
các gốc chữ xuất phát từ các chữ Hy lạp và La mã, và rất nhiều từ
trong số đó đã được dùng trong hơn 2000 năm qua. Ví dụ:
Gynecologic có gốc chữ Hy lạp là GYNE-, có nghĩa là nữ.
Dermatitis có gốc chữ là DERMAT- từ chữ Hy lạp có nghĩa là da.
Arthroscopy có gốc chữ là ARTHR- xuất xứ từ chữ Hy lạp có
nghĩa là khớp.
Respiratory dùng gốc chữ RESPIR- từ chữ Latin là thở.
Có nhiều thuật ngữ chứa hơn một gốc chữ, ví dụ gastroenterology

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có gốc gastr- từ chữ Hy lạp có nghĩa dạ dày và gốc enter- từ chữ
Hy lạp có nghĩa là ruột.
Bảng 1. Ví dụ về các gốc chữ:
Thuật ngữ Thuật ngữ Gốc chữ Phân tích chữ
tiếng Anh Hy lạp
hoặc Latin
Skin- Da dermatos dermat dermat/itis: Tình trạng
(Hy lạp) viêm của da
Một chữ chỉ một bệnh
của da.
cutis (Latin) cutane cutaneous: thuộc về da
Một chữ chỉ một cấu
trúc giải phẫu
Mouth- stomatos stomat stomatitis: Viêm miệng
Miệng (G.) Một chữ dùng chỉ tình
trạng viêm của miệng
oris (L.) Or oral: thuộc về miệng
Một chữ chỉ một cấu
trúc giải phẫu

Kidney- Thận nephros nephr nephroma: Khối u của

(G.) thận
Một chữ chỉ một bệnh
lý của thận
renes (L.) ren renal: thuộc về thận
Một chữ chỉ một cấu
trúc giải phẫu

2. NGUYÊN ÂM NỐI (COMBINING VOWEL):

Bạn xây dựng các thuật ngữ y học dựa trên các gốc chữ. Thêm
vào đó một nguyên âm nối vào cuối gốc chữ để nối gốc chữ đó với
các thành phần khác của chữ. Bản thân nguyên âm nối này không
có nghĩa gì cả. Nó chỉ là một phương tiện dùng để gắn các thành
phần khác nhau để tạo ra một thuật ngữ y học mà thôi. Đồng thời
nó cũng làm cho thuật ngữ ấy dễ đọc hơn. Tạo ra một thuật ngữ

235
cũng giống như gắn các mảnh ghép trong trò chơi ghép hình nhiều
mảnh vậy.
Nguyên âm “o” là một nguyên âm nối, ví dụ như trong chữ
“gynecologist” dưới đây:
GYNE- -O- -LOGIST
(gốc- nữ) (nguyên âm nối) (người nghiên cứu)
Nguyên âm “a” cũng là một nguyên âm nối, như trong chữ
“respiratory”:
RESPIR- -A- -TORY
(gốc- thở) (nguyên âm nối) (liên quan đến)
“O” là nguyên âm nối phổ biến nhất. các nguyên âm như “a”,
“i” và “u”cũng được dùng nhưng ít phổ biến hơn.
Có một số chữ có nhiều hơn một nguyên âm nối. Chữ
“Gastroenterology” có hai nguyên âm nối, nối với các gốc chữ
khác nhau.
Một nguyên âm nối có thể được sử dụng để nối hai gốc chữ,
ngay cả khi gốc chữ thứ hai bắt đầu bằng một nguyên âm, ví dụ
như trong chữ “gastroenterology”:
GASTR- -O- -ENTER- -O- -LOGY
(gốc-dạ dày) (nguyên âm (gốc- (nguyên âm (nghiên cứu)
nối) ruột) nối)
3. CẤU TRÚC NỐI (COMBINING FORM):
Một gốc chữ nối với một nguyên âm nối tạo thành cấu trúc nối.
Ví dụ, gốc abd- + nguyên âm “o”, hay abd/o-, có nghĩa là bụng, là
cấu trúc nối cho từ abd/o-men, hay abdomen.

Bảng 2. Các ví dụ của cấu trúc nối:

Gốc Nguyên âm Cấu trúc nối Nghĩa
erythr o Erythro Hồng, đỏ
gastr o Gastro Dạ dày
hepat o Hepato Gan
immun o Immune Miễn dịch, an toàn
nephr o Nephron Thận
oste o Osteo Xương

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Và các cấu trúc nối tạo thành các thuật ngữ y học như sau:
CARDI/0- -LOGY = CARDIOLOGY
(cấu trúc nối-tim) (ngành học)
GYNEC/O- -LOGIST = GYNECOLOGIST
(cấu trúc nối- nữ) (người nghiên cứu)
RESPIR/A- -TORY = RESPIRATORY
(cấu trúc nối- thở) (thuộc về)
Một ví dụ cho một thuật ngữ có hai cấu trúc nối là gastroenterology,
các thành phần của chữ này có thể cắt ra thành từng mảnh như sau:
GASTR/O- ENTER/O- -LOGY =GASTROENTEROLOGY
(cấu trúc (cấu trúc (ngành học)
nối- dạ dày) nối- ruột)
Bảng 3. Các thành phần của thuật ngữ y học

CÁC THÀNH PHẦN CỦA MỘT THUẬT NGỮ Y HỌC:

prefix - Tiếp đầu ngữ - Phần bắt đầu của một chữ
root - Gốc chữ - thành phần chính của chữ mang lại nghĩa chính
của chữ đó
combining vowel - Nguyên âm nối - một nguyên âm nối kết gốc
chữ này vào gốc chữ khác hoặc nối gốc chữ vào phần tiếp vỹ ngữ.
combining form - Cấu trúc nối - Nối kết một gốc chữ với một
nguyên âm nối
suffix - Tiếp vỹ ngữ - Phần cuối cùng của chữ

Bảng 4. Gốc chữ:

GỐC CHỮ
Là thành phần cố định, không thay đổi của một thuật ngữ y học
Thường có gốc từ tiếng Hy lạp hoặc Latin
Gần như tất cả các thuật ngữ y học đều có một hoặc nhiều gốc chữ

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Bảng 5. Nguyên âm nối:

NGUYÊN ÂM NỐI:
Tự nó không có ý nghĩa nào
Nối một gốc với một gốc khác
Nối một gốc với tiếp vỹ ngữ
Làm cho chữ dễ đọc hơn
“o” là nguyên âm nối phổ biến nhất, đứng sau nó là nguyên âm “a”

Bảng 6. Cấu trúc nối:

CẤU TRÚC NỐI:

Nối một gốc chữ với một nguyên âm nối
Có thể nối với một gốc hoặc một cấu trúc nối khác
Có thể đứng trước một Tiếp vỹ ngữ

4. TIẾP VỸ NGỮ (SUFFIXES):

Bạn nối một tiếp vỹ ngữ vào phần cuối của một chữ để biến đổi
nghĩa cốt lõi của chữ và tạo ra một nghĩa mới. Ví dụ, trong chuyên
ngành Cardiology (tim mạch), một bác sỹ tim mạch (Cardiologist)
sẽ thường phải chẩn đoán bệnh tim (Cardiopathy).
Bảng 7. Tiếp vỹ ngữ:

TIẾP VỸ NGỮ
Một nhóm các chữ cái
Đặt vào cuối của một thuật ngữ y học
Nối vào phần cuối của một gốc hay một cấu trúc nối
Có thể có nhiều hơn một nghĩa
Nếu một tiếp vỹ ngữ bắt đầu bằng một phụ âm thì ta hãy nối thêm một
nguyên âm vào gốc chữ
Nếu tiếp vỹ ngữ bắt đầu với một nguyên âm thì không cần có cấu trúc
nối nữa
Một số thuật ngữ y học có 2 tiếp vỹ ngữ

Một ví dụ khác về việc sử dụng tiếp vỹ ngữ là trong chuyên

ngành Da liễu (Dermatology), trong đó bác sỹ (Dermatologist) thường
xuyên phải chẩn đoán Viêm da (Dermatitis).

238
Bảng 8. Sử dụng Tiếp vỹ ngữ:

Thuật ngữ Cấu trúc nối Tiếp vỹ Nghĩa của Nghĩa của thuật
hoàn chỉnh ngữ tiếp vỹ ngữ ngữ

Dermatitis dermat- (gốc) -itis Viêm Viêm da

dermatologist Dermat- (gốc) -logist Người Người nghiên cứu

nghiên cứu về da- Bác sỹ da
liễu

Dermat- (gốc) -logy Ngành học Ngành/chuyên khoa

da liễu

Trong chữ dermatitis, tiếp vỹ ngữ –itis bắt đầu với một nguyên
âm nên không cần có một nguyên âm nối nào nữa, và tiếp vỹ ngữ
được nối trực tiếp vào gốc chữ.
Trong một ví dục khác, một bác sỹ phẫu thuật chỉnh hình mổ
trên khớp có thể thực hiện thủ thuật soi khớp (arthroscopy), làm
cứng khớp (arthrodesis), hoặc tạo hình khớp (arthroplasty). Bảng 9
ghi rõ các thuật ngữ này:
Bảng 9. Nghĩa khác nhau của các tiếp vỹ ngữ:

Thuật ngữ Cấu trúc nối Tiếp vỹ Nghĩa của Nghĩa của thuật ngữ
hoàn chỉnh ngữ tiếp vỹ ngữ

arthroscopy arthr/o- -scopy Thăm khám Thăm khám bằng

bằng cách cách nhìn vào trong
nhìn khớp (nội soi khớp)

artrodesis arthr/o- -desis Cố định Cố định (làm cứng)

khớp
arthroplasty arthr/o- -plasty Mổ sửa Sửa chữa lại khớp
chữa (tạo hình khớp)

5. TIẾP ĐẦU NGỮ (PREFIXES):

Để tiếp tục kéo dài các thuật ngữ xuất xứ từ các gốc, ta có thể
đặt một tiếp đầu ngữ vào ngay đầu chữ. Các tiếp đầu ngữ được
nối trực tiếp vào gốc chữ hoặc vào cấu trúc nối mà không cần có
một nguyên âm nối.

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Bảng 10. Tiếp đầu ngữ
TIẾP ĐẦU NGỮ:
Một chữ cái hoặc một nhóm chữ cái
Đi trước một gốc chữ để tạo thành một nghĩa khác
Có thể có nhiều hơn một nghĩa
Không bao giờ cần có nguyên âm nối
Một số ít thuật ngữ y học có 2 tiếp đầu ngữ

Ví dụ, bạn có thể nối nhiều tiếp đầu ngữ khác nhau như peri- và
endo- vào một gốc chữ chung cardi-, để tạo thành nhiều thuật ngữ
khác nhau, pericardium và endocardium, hai chữ này có nghĩa rất
khác nhau, như trong bảng 11. Nhớ rằng -um là một tiếp vỹ ngữ
có nghĩa cấu trúc.
Bảng 11: Sử dụng tiếp đầu ngữ:
Thuật ngữ Tiếp đầu Nghĩa của Nghĩa của thuật ngữ
hoàn chỉnh ngữ tiếp đầu ngữ
Pericardium peri- Xung quanh Cấu trúc xung quanh
tim (ngoại tâm mạc)
Endocardium endo- Bên trong Cấu trúc bên trong tim
(nội tâm mạc)

Tương tự như thế, chúng ta có epigastric, hypogastric và

endogastric, tất cả đều có chung một gốc chữ gastr-, nhưng do chúng
có nhiều tiếp đầu ngữ khác nhau là epi-, hypo- và endo-, nên có
nhiều nghĩa rất khác nhau, như trong bảng 12. Chú ý đuôi –ic có
nghĩa là thuộc về.
Bảng 12: Các nghĩa khác nhau của Tiếp đầu ngữ:
Thuật ngữ Tiếp đầu Nghĩa của tiếp Nghĩa của thuật ngữ
hoàn chỉnh ngữ đầu ngữ
Epigastric epi- Trên Thuộc về phía trên dạ
dày (thượng vị)
Hypogastric hypo- Bên dưới Thuộc về phía dưới dạ
dày (hạ vị)
Endogastric endo- Bên trong Thuộc về bên trong dạ
dày

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6. PHÂN TÍCH VÀ ĐỊNH NGHĨA THUẬT NGỮ
Với các thuật ngữ bạn cần xác định, trước hết hãy nhận diện
tiếp vỹ ngữ.
Ví dụ, trong thuật ngữ endocarditis, tiếp vỹ ngữ đứng cuối là
–itis, có nghĩa là viêm.
Sau đó còn lại endocard-. Bạn đã biết rằng card- là một gốc có
nghĩa là tim. Như vậy, nghĩa của thuật ngữ này là Viêm ở tim.
Card + itis = tình trạng viêm ở tim
Tiếp theo là endo-, bạn đã biết tiếp đầu ngữ này có nghĩa là bên
trong. Do đó bạn có thể nối kết các mảnh ghép này lại để tạo thành
thuật ngữ Endocarditis- Viêm nội tâm mạc.
ENDO- -CARD- -ITIS = ENDOCARDITIS
Tiếp đầu ngữ gốc tiếp vỹ ngữ Viêm nội tâm mạc
(bên trong) (tim) (viêm)
Chúng ta cũng đã biết tiếp vỹ ngữ –um có nghĩa là một cấu trúc.
Do đó endocardium có nghĩa là một cấu trúc bọc lót bên trong của
tim (nội tâm mạc).
ENDO- -CARDI- -UM =ENDOCARDIUM
Tiếp đầu ngữ gốc tiếp vỹ ngữ (cấu trúc lót bên trong
(bên trong) (tim) (cấu trúc) tim- nội tâm mạc)
Do đó bạn có thể hiểu được thuật ngữ endocarditis được dùng để
chỉ tình trạng lớp lót bên trong tim bị viêm nhiễm. Cả card- cardi-
đều là gốc có nghĩa là tim.
Một ví dụ khác là chữ hemorrhage. Tiếp vỹ ngữ –rrhage đi theo
sau nguyên âm nối “o” được mượn từ chữ Hy lạp có nghĩa là chảy
nhiều, chảy mạnh. Gốc chữ hem- cũng xuất phát từ chữ Hy lạp có
nghĩa là máu. Như vậy các thành phần của thuật ngữ y học này được
ghép lại với nhau tạo thành chữ có nghĩa là sự chảy (nhiều) máu.
HEMO- -RRHAGE = HEMORRHAGE
(Cấu trúc nối) (tiếp vỹ ngữ) chảy nhiều máu
(Máu) (chảy nhiều)
Tài liệu tham khảo:
1. David M. Allan, Karen D. Lockyer. (2011). Medical language for
modern health care. Mc Graw Hill. 2nd Edition.
2. Barbara Gylys, Marry Ellen Wedding. (2013). Medical terminology
systems- A body systems approach. F.A. Davis Company-Philadelphia.
7th Edition.

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APPENDIX 1:
Vocabulary Check List
A □ ailment
□ airway
□ abdomen □ albumen
□ abnormal □ alimentary
□ abnormality □ alkalosis
□ abortion □ allergic
□ absorption □ alleviate
□ abscess □ ambulance
□ accelerate □ amenorrhoea
□ accident □ amino acid
□ accumulate □ amnesia
□ ache □ amniocentesis
□ acid □ amniotic
□ acidosis □ amylase
□ acquired □ anaerobic
□ acromegaly □ analgesia
□ acne □ analgesic
□ activate □ analyse
□ acupressure □ analysis
□ acupuncture □ anaphylaxis
□ acute □ anaplasia
□ adhesion □ anaplastic
□ adipose □ anastomosis
□ adjacent □ anatomical
□ adjust □ anatomy
□ administer □ anesthesia
□ administration □ anesthesiologist
□ admission □ anesthetic
□ admit □ anesthetization
□ adrenaline □ aneurysm
□ adverse (effect) □ angina
□ aerobic □ angiocardiography
□ a(e)tiology □ angiogram
□ agents □ ankle
□ aggravate □ ankylosing spondylitis

242
□ anorexia □ behavior
□ anoxemia □ benefit
□ anoxia □ benign
□ antacid □ betablocker
□ antenatal □ bicarbonate
□ antianxiety □ bilateral
□ antibiotic □ bile
□ antibody □ bilirubin
□ anticoagulant □ biopsy
□ antidepressant □ bitter
□ antigen □ bleeding
□ antihistamine □ block
□ antiseptic □ blood bank
□ anuria □ blood cell
□ anus □ blood circulation
□ aorta □ blood clot
□ apnea □ blood corpuscle
□ appendectomy □ blood culture
□ appendicitis □ blood flow
□ appendix □ blood group
□ appetite □ blood sugar level
□ appointment □ blood pressure
□ approach □ blood supply
□ armpit □ blood typing
□ arrhythmia □ bond
□ arteriosclerosis □ booster
□ artery □ botulism
□ asbestos □ breathlessness
□ asthma □ bronchitis
□ atherosclerosis □ bruise
□ auricle □ burn
□ bursitis
B □ bypass

□ barbiturate c.
□ basophil
□ bed-bath □ cadaver
□ bedpan □ calcification

243
□ canal □ circulatory
□ calculus □ cirrhosis
□ cancer □ claustropphobia
□ carbohydrate □ clinic
□ carbondioxide □ clinical
□ carcinoma □ closure
□ cardiac □ clot
□ cardiac arrest □ coagulation
□ cardiomegaly □ celiac
□ caries □ collagen
□ cartilage □ colon
□ cataract □ colporrhaphy
□ catabolism □ combat
□ cathecholamine □ complaint
□ catheter □ complication
□ catheterization □ communicable
□ causative agent □ compound
□ cesarian □ computed tomography
□ cavity □ concentration
□ cell □ confirm
□ centrifuge □ confused
□ cerebellum □ confine
□ cerebral □ concentration
□ cerebrospinal fluid □ congenital
□ cerebrovascular accident □ congestion
□ cervical cancer □ conjunctiva
□ cervix □ consciousness
□ chamber □ contaminated
□ chemotherapy □ contamination
□ chicken pox □ constriction
□ chill □ consult (a doctor)
□ chiropractic □ consultant
□ choke □ consultation
□ cholelithiasis □ contagious
□ cholesterol □ contract
□ chromosome □ contraceptive
□ chronic □ control
□ circulation □ contused

244
□ contusion □ depressant
□ conventional surgery □ depression
□ convalescence □ dermatology
□ convalescent □ deteriorate
□ cope with □ diabetes
□ coronary artery □ determinant
□ corpse □ diagnose
□ corpuscle □ diagnosis
□ cosmetic □ dilate
□ cough □ diarrhea
□ counseling □ diastolic
□ course □ diazepam
□ cramp □ diet
□ cranial □ differential (diagnosis)
□ creatinine □ diffuse
□ crisis □ dilate
□ critical □ dilator
□ cross-infection □ dilution
□ crutch □ diphtheria
□ culture □ disability
□ curable □ discharge
□ cure □ disease transmission
□ cutaneous □ disinfect
□ cyanosis □ disorder
□ cyst □ dissect
□ cystic fibrosis □ distribution
□ cystitis □ disorder
□ cytology □ displacement
□ disturbance
D □ diuretic
□ dizziness
□ deaf □ dosage
□ deafness □ dose
□ degeneration □ drainage
□ dehydrated □ dressing
□ delirium
□ delivery
□ dementia

245
E
□ euthyroid
□ eczema □ evacuate
□ effect □ examination
□ effusion □ excess
□ electrocardiograph □ excessive
□ electrocardiogram □ excision
□ electroencephalogram □ excreta
□ elevate □ excretion
□ embolism □ exopthalmos
□ eliminate □ expectoration
□ embryo □ expiration
□ emergency □ exploration
□ emesis □ exploratory
□ emphysema □ expose
□ empyema □ exposure
□ endemic □ extract
□ endocarditis □ extremity
□ endocrine □ exudate
□ endoscope
□ endothelial F
□ endothelium
□ endotracheal □ fetus
□ enema □ fibrillation
□ enlargement □ fistula
□ ENT(ear, nose and throat) □ fit
□ enteric fever □ flow
□ enteritis □ flora
□ environment □ fluid
□ enzyme □ fluoroscopy
□ epidemic □ food additives
□ epidemiology □ forceps
□ erosion □ fracture
□ erythema □ frequency
□ erythrocyte □ function
□ eruption □ functional
□ epilepsy □ fundus
□ eradication □ fundoscopy

246
G □ haematology, hematology
□ haematuria, hematuria
□ gallbladder □ haemoglobin, hemoglobin
□ gammar globulin □ haemolytic, hemolytic
□ gastric □ haemopoiesis, hemopoiesis
□ gastrointestinal □ haemoptysis, hemoptysis
□ gender □ haemorrhage, hemorrhage
□ gene □ haemorrhoids, hemorrhoids
□ general anesthesia □ haemostsis, hemostasis
□ generalized □ haemothorax, hemothorax
□ genital □ hallucination
□ genetic □ handicapped
□ gentian violet □ hard of hearing
□ geriatrics □ headache
□germ □ heal
□ gestation □ healing
□ gigantism □ health
□ gland □ health official
□ glandular □ healthy
□ glucose □ heartbeat
□ glycogen □ heartburn
□ glycosuria □ heart failure
□ goiter, goitre □ heart murmur
□ gonorrhoea, gonorrrhea □ heart sound
□ gout □ hemiparesis
□ gown □ hemiplegia
□graft □ hemophilus
□ granulation □ hepatic
□ granule □ hepatocellular
□ groin □ hereditary
□ growth □ heredity
□ guinea-pig □ hernia
□ gum □ hereditary
□ gut □ hiatus hernia
□ gynaecology, gynecology □ histology
□ hoarse
H □ homeopathy
□ homeostasis
□ haemetemesis, hematemesis

247
□ hormone □ indigestion
□ hospitalize □ induce
□ host □ infarction
□ hydatidiform □ infant
□ hydrochloric acid □ infection
□ hydrotherapy □ infectious
□ hygiene □ infectiousness
□ hypertension □ inflammation
□ hypnosis □ inflammatory
□ hypophysis □ influenza
□ hypotension □ infusion
□ hypothalamus □ inhale
□ hypothyroidism □ inhalation
□ hypoxia □ inherited
□ hysterectomy □ inhibit
□ hysteria □ inhibitor
□ inject
I □ injectable (drug)
□ injure
□ idiopathic □ injury
□ idiosyncratic □ in-patient
□ immobilization □ insertion
□ ileum □ insidious
□ immune □ inspiration
□ immunity □ insufficiency
□ immunization □ insulin
□ immunize □ insulin intensive care unit
□ immunosuppression (ICU)
□ impair □ interfere
□ impairment □ intermittent
□ impotency □ internal
□ implantation □ intervention
□ incidence □ intestinal
□ incised □ intolerable
□ incision □ intoxication
□ incontinence □ intramuscular
□ incubation □ intravenous pyelogram
□ indication □ intravenously

248
□ intubation □ laxative
□ inavasion □ lesion
□ invasive □ lethargy
□ investigation □ leucocyte, leukocyte
□ iodine □ leucocytosis, leukocytosis
□ iron □ leukemia
□ irreversible □ life-threatening
□ irritant □ limb
□ irritation □ lining
□ irritability □ lipase
□ ischemia □ lipid
□ itching □ lobe
□ lobotomy
J □ lobular
□ localized
□ jaundice □ locate
□ jejunum □ longevity
□ joint □ lotion
□ lozenge
K □ lumen
□ lumbar
□ keto-acidosis □ lymph
□ ketone □ lymphatic
□ kidney □ lymphocyte
□ kidney dish □ lymphadenopathy
□ lymph node
L
M
□ labia
□ laboratory □ macrocyte
□ labor, labour □ macrophage
□ lacerated □ malaise
□ laceration □ male
□ lactate □ malnutrition
□ lactic acid □ malignant
□ laparatomy □ malnourished
□ laryngitis □ management
□ lateral □ manifest

249
□ manifestation □ myelocyte
□ manipulation □ myocardial infarction
□ manual □ myxedema, myxoedema
□ margin
□ marijuana
□ marker N
□ marrow
□ mass nausea
□ measles nervosa
□ magnetic resonance nervous
□ measles neurophysiologists
□ meatus numbing
□ medial nutritious
□ measles
□ medicament O
□ medication
□ melancholia □ obese
□ melanoma □ obstetrics
□ meningitis □ obstruction
□ menorrhagia □ occlusion
□ mental □ occult
□ metabolic □ occupational therapy
□ metabolism □ odor, odour
□ metastasis □ oedema, edema
□ microsurgery □ ointment
□ mitochondrial □ onset
□ mole □ operating field
□ monocyte □ operation
□ morbidity □ opiate
□ morphine □ organic
□ mortality □ organism
□ mucosa □ orifice
□ mucus □ orthopaedics, orthopedics
□ mucoid □ orthopnea
□ multiply □ osmosis
□ mumps □ outbreak
□ musculoskeletal □ out-patient
□ myalgia □ oxygen

250
P □ petechiae
□ phagocyte
□ pacemaker □ pharmaceutical
□ pad □ pharmacology
□ pediatrics, paediatrics □ pharmacy
□ painless □ physical disease
□ palate □ physician
□ pale □ physiology
□ palliative □ physiotherapy
□ palpable □ pigment
□ palpitation □ pituitary
□ pancreas □ plasma
□ paralysis □ platelet
□ parasite □ pleura
□ parasympathetic □ pleuritis
□ parietal □ pneumococcus
□ parenterally □ pneumonia
□ paresis □ points
□ pathogen □ poisoning
□ pathogenic □ poisonous
□ pathology □ poliomyelitis
□ patient □pollution
□ pelvis □ polyp
□ penetrating □ positive
□ pepsinogen □ posterior
□ peripheral □ postmortem
□ peptic ulcer □ postpartum
□ percussion □ postoperative
□ perforate □ postural
□ period □ potential
□ peripheral □ predispose
□ peristalsis □ pregnant
□ peritoneum □ preoperative
□ permeability □ prescribe
□ permeable □ prescription
□ pernicious anemia □ preventive medicine
□ persistemt □ primary
□ perpiration □ probe

251
□ procedure Q
□ proceed □ quarantine
□ proctoscope □ quarter
□ prodromal
□ prognosis R
□ progressive
□ prolonged □ rabies
□ proliferate □ radiation
□ promote □ radiological
□ prosthesis □ radiology
□ prosthetic □ radiotherapy
□ protein □ rash
□ proteinuria □ rate
□ prothrombin □ ratio
□ proximal □ reaction
□ psoriasis □ receptor
□ psychosomatic □ recovery
□ psychotherapy □ rectum
□ pulmonary □ recur
□ puncture □ recurrence
□ pupil □ reduce
□ purify □ reference
□ purpura □ reflex
□ purulent □ regurgitation
□ pus □ rehabilitation
□ pustule □ release
□ pylorus □ relief
□ pulse □ relieve
□ puncture □ remedy
□ pupil □ remission
□ purify □ removal
□ purpura □ renal
□ purulent □ renal dialysis
□ pus □ reproductive
□ pustule □ research
□ pylorus □ resection
□ resident
□ resistance

252
□ respiration □ sensitive
□ respond □ sensitivity
□ restore □ septic
□ response □ serious
□ restraint □ serous
□ resuscitate □ serum
□ resuscitate □ sex
□ retina □ sexual
□ rheumatic fever □ sharp (pain)
□ rheumatoid arthritis □ shiver
□ rhinorrhea □ shiatsu
□ rotating nurse □ shock
□ route □ shortness of breath
□ routine □ shot
□ rupture □ shunt
□ sickness
S □ side effect
□ sigmoid colon
□ sac □ sigmoidoscopy
□ saline □ sign
□ saliva □ sinoatrial node
□ salivary discharge □ sinus
□ sample □ sleeplessness
□ saturation □ smallpox
□ scale □ smear
□ scalpel □ smell
□ scaly □ solid
□ scar □ soluble
□ scarlet fever □ sore
□ scheme □ spasm
□ screening □ specimen
□ scrub nurse □ speculum
□ secondary □ sphincter
□ sedative □ sphygmomanometer
□ sediment □ spinal canal /column/cord
□ sedimentation rate □ spine
□ seizure □spleen
□ sensation □ sporadic

253
□ sterilize □ tender
□ stroke □ tenderness
□ spontaneous □ tendon
□ sprain □ testis
□ stitch □ tetanus
□ stool □ therapist
□ stress □ therapy
□ subacute □ thermometer
□ subcutaneous □ thorax
□ subject □ tooth decay
□ subside □ tract
□ sulfuric acid □ transmitted disease
□ superficial □ transplantation
□ suppress □ trigger points
□ suppuration □ tumor
□ surgeon □ twirling
□ surgery □ typhoid fever
□ surgical
□ survey U
□ survive
□ susceptible □ ulcer
□ suture □ ulceration
□ swab □ ulcerative
□ swallow □ unconscious
□ symptom □ undergo
□ synapse □ underlying
□ syncope □ undernourished
□ syndrome □ uremia
□ synthetic □ urea
□ syringe □ ureter
□ synovial fluid □ urethra
□ systole □ urgent
□ systolic □ urinary
□ urine
T
V
□ tablespoonful
□ tachycardia □ vaccination

254
□ vaccinate □ virulence
□ vaccine □ virus
□ vagina □ viscera
□ vaginal □ vision
□ vagus □ vital
□ valvular □ volatile
□ varices □ vulnerable
□ varicosity □ vulva
□ vascular
□ vena cava W
□ ventilation
□ ventricle □ ward
□ ventricular □ wean
□ vertebra □ weaning
□ vertigo □ wheel stretcher
□ vessel □ whooping cough
□ victim □ withdrawal
□ viral □ worms
□ virulent □ wound

APPENDIX 2:
COMMON MEDICAL ABBREVIATIONS
abd:abdomen Misc: miscarriage
ac: before meal, acute MOH: ministry of health
ACTH:adrenocorticotrophic N: negative
hormone n: born
ag: antigen NA: not applicable
AIDS: acquired immune defi- NAD: nothing abnormal de-
ciency syndrome tected
AG: antiglobulin ND: natural death, normal
AN: antenatal delivery
C/O: complaint of NDA: new drug application
M: male, married, malignant NE: not examined
Med Tech: Medical Technician NND: neonatal death
MI: myocardial infarction nocte: at night

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norm: normal qod: every other day
NS: nervous system, not seen R: respiration
NT: no test Re: response
NV: next visit RL: right lower
om: every morning RNA: ribonucleic acid
NYD: not yet diagnosed RS: respiratory system
OA: on admission SOB: shortness of breath
OBGYN: obstetrics & gynecol- Sp: spine
ogy spt: sputum
OD: overdose SVC: superior vena cava
OE: on examination Sx: symptom(s)
op: out patient T: temperature, treatment
P: patient, pulse t: three times
PA: prior to admission T4: thyroxine
PET: pre-eclamptic toxemia tab: tablet
PH: past history TB: tuberculosis
PM: post mortem tbsp: table spoon
PMP: previous menstrual temp: temperature
period Tx: treatment
PNI: peripheral injury, postna- UV: ultra violet
tal infection V: vaccinated
PR: pulse rate VDRL: test for syphilis
PS: pulmonary stenosis VE: vaginal examination
PT: patient, pulmonary tuber- Vet: veterinary
culosis VU: very urgent
PTA: prior to admission WBC: white blood cell (count)
PX: physical examination WHO: World Health Organiza-
Px: past history, prognosis tion
qds: four times a day wt: weight
qid: four times a day

256
APPENDIX 3:
The Language of Doctor
and Patient
The people providing medical care and possessing specialized
knowledge, such as doctors and nurses, often use a specialized
vocabulary, especially when they communicate between themselves.
This language is not always shared by their “customers” – the patients
– who have their own expressions for describing illnesses, symptoms,
parts of the body, and so on. A selection of common medical terms
and their general, everyday equivalents are given below.

Medical Description General Description

alopecia baldness, to be bald, thin on top
analgesic painkiller
ankylosing spondylitis bamboo spine, bow legs
anus arse
arteriorsclerosis hardening of the arteries
bacteria bug
breast chest, bosom
brucellosis undulant fever
bursitis housemaid’s knee
cancer a growth, tumor
caries tooth decay
cerebral palsy Little’s disease
conjunctivitis pink eye
contusion bruise, the skin is bruised, goose-egg
convulsion fit
coronary thrombosis heart attack
coryza head cold, cold in the head
cranium skull
diabetes mellitus sugar
diarrhea to have the run, loose bowels
edema dropsy
encephalitis lethargica sleepy sickness/sleeping sickness
enuresis bed wetting, the wet the bed
epidemic parotitis mumps

257
epilepsy fits
exophthalmos bulging eyes, protruding eyes
extraction to have a tooth (taken) out, removed, pulled
dilation and curettage a D. and C., a scrape
dysmenorrheal period pains, cramps
furuncle boil
genitals private parts
gingival gum
halitosis bad breath
her condition has (she) has got better, well again
been improved
hemorrhoids piles
hernia rupture
herpes simplex cold sore
herpes zoster shingles
hordeolum stye
hydrophobia rabies
hyperglycemia high blood sugar
hypoglycemia low blood sugar
hypertension high blood pressure
hypotension low blood pressure
incontinence cannot hold one’s water
infective hepatitis catarrhal jaundice
influenza flu
leucorrhea whites, discharge
lymphadenoma Hodgkin’s disease
maxilla upper jaw
mandible lower jaw
menopause the change of life
micturate (v) to go to the john, pass water, pee, piss,
do a number one
myocardiac infarction heart attack
myopia short-sight
nasal congestion The nose is blocked up, a stuffy nose,
stuffed nose
neuralgia face ache
nephritis Bright’s disease
obstetrics midwifery

258
orbis eye socket
orgasm climax
palate root of the mouth
parturition to be in labor
penis cock
placenta the afterbirth
poliomyelitis infantile paralysis, polio
pruritus itch, to be/fell itchy
recurrent appendicitis grumbling appendicitis
retinitis inflammation, redness of the retina
rubella German measles
running nose runny nose
sanitary towel pads, STs, sanitary napkins
scabies the itch
scarlatina scarlet fever
sedative sleeping pills
sexual intercourse to make love
spine backbone
stomach guts, belly, tummy
subluxation dislocation
syncope fainting. To black out, pass out
talipes club foot, to be club-footed
testicles balls, gonads
tetanus lockjaw
thrombus blood clots
thorax chest
thrombosis, embolism apoplexy, stroke, blood clot
thyroid cartilage Adam’s apple
tinnitus ringing in the ear
uterus womb
urticaria nettle rash, hives, heat spots
varicella chickenpox
variola smallpox
vagina pussy
vomiting to bring it up, to throw up, to heave
vertigo dizziness, fell dizzy
verruca wart
virus bug

259
APPENDIX 4:
Surgical and Medical Equipment

260
261
262
263
APPENDIX 5: Medical Terminology

Medical language uses many professional term. Learning them

is a bit like learning a new language. Many of these terms derive
from Greek and Latin. Each term may be composed of two more
than two word parts, which are: prefix, word root, combining vowels
(o or i), and suffixes. These word parts are often combined to form
new, compound words. The tables below give examples of word
parts that often appear at the beginning, in the middle or at the end
of medical terms.
1. Table of prefixes

WORD PART MEANING TERM

a-, an- not, without anorexia, apnea

ante- before antenatal, antepartum,
ante mortem
anti- against, counter antibiotic, antibody, antigen,
anithistamine
arter(io) artery arteriosclerosis
bi- two biceps, bilateral, bisexual
brady- slow bradycardia, bradykinesis
bronch- windpipe bronchitis, bronchiole
carcin(o)- cancer carcinoma, carcinogenic
cardi(o)- heart cardiology, carditis
contra- against, counter contraceptive, contraindication
crani(o)- skull cranial, cranioslerosis
derm(at)- skin dermatitis, dermatology
dys- bad, painful dyspepsia, dystocia
ec(to)- extra, outside ecctoderm, ectoplasm
en(do)- in, within endocrine, endoderm, endo
scope
enter(o)- intestine enteritis, enterocentesis
epi- upon epiderm, epigastrium
ex(o)- out, outside excretion, exoderm
hemi- half hemisphere, hemiglossectomy
hepat(o)- liver hepatectomy, hepatitis

264
hyper- above, beyond hyperplasia, hypertension
hypo- deficient, below hypoglycemia, hypotension
hyster(o)- womb hysterectomy, hysterospasm
in- in, on insomnia, insertion
in- not insomnia, indigestion
inter- among, between intercellular, intercostal
intra- within intramuscular, intravenous
macro- large macrocyte, macrocephalic
mal- bad malfunction, malnutrition
meso- middle mesoderm
micro- small microscope, microorganism
peri- around pericardium, peritoneal
poly- many polycellular
post- after, behind postnatal, postoperative
pre- before prenatal
pseudo- false pseudopod
re- again recur, relapse, remission
retro- behind, back retroperitoneal
semi- half semipermeable
sub- under subacute, sublingual
super- above, beyond superinfection
tachy fast tachycardia
tox(ico)- poison toxemia, toxicology
vas(o)- vessel vascular, vasocardiology

2. Table of word endings in compound words

WORD PART MEANING TERM

-centesis puncture amniocentesis, paracentesis

-pexy fixation gastropexy, colpopexy
-tomy surgical incision gastrostomy
-ectomy surgical removal nephrectomy
-stomy surgical opening duodenostomy
-rrhaphy suture gastrorrhaphy
-ectasis stretching angiectasis
-emesis vomiting hematemesis
-genesis production carcinogenesis, pathogenesis
-iasis condition, formation of lithiasis, psoriasis

265
-itis inflammation arthritis, nephritis
-lysis destruction dialysis, hepatolysis
-osis diseased condition arthrosis, hepatosis
-pepsia digestion dyspepsia
-plasty surgical repair facioplasty, rhinoplasty
-tripsy to crush, break lithotripsy
-ptosis splitting hemoptosis
-rhage, -rhagia bursting forth of gastrorrhagia, hemorrhage
-rhea flow, discharge rhinorrhea, menorrhea
-rhexis rupture angiorrhexis, hysterorrhexis
-sclerosis hardening arteriosclerosis
-spasm contraction pylorospasm
-stasis stopping, controlling cholestasis
-stenosis tightening, stricture enterostenosis

3. Table of word roots describing the body

The following word roots are used to describe various parts and
organs of the body as well as their funtions
WORD ROOT MEANING TERM

-cephal head encephalograph

-ophthalm- eye ophthalmology
-rhin nose rhinitis
-crani head craniometry
or- mouth intraoral
ot- ear otitis, parotid
dent- tooth dentist, dental, dentistry
thyr- thyroid thyroidectomy, thyroxin
phren- mind schizophrenia
phob- fear photophobia
audi- ear auditory
odont- tooth ondontology, orthodontia
cerebro- brain cerebrospinal
nas- nose nasal
sial- saliva polysialia
laryng- windpipe laryngoscope
aden- gland adenoma
psych- mind psychosomatic

266
faci- face brachiofaciolingual
glot- tongue glottic
cheil- lip cheiloschisis
cost- rib intercostal
cyst- bladder nephrocystitis
duoden- duodenum duodenostomy
rect- rectum rectalgia
cardi- heart carditis, cardiac
nephr- kidney nephritis, nephrosis
ile- ileum ileostomy
bronch-, pulmo(n)lung bronchoscopy, pulmonary
thorac- chest thoracic
rachi- spine rachischisis
vesic- bladder vesicovaginal, vesicofixation
gastr- tomach gastric, gastritis
vagin vagina vaginitis, vaginoplasty
hepat- liver hepatitis, hepatectomy
pancre- pancreas pancreatic, pancreatitis
splen- spleen splenomegaly, splenectomy
pneumo(n)- lungs pneumonia, pneumocentesis
mamm- breast mammary
orchi- testicle orchiopathy
mast- breast gynecomastia, mastectomy
colp- vagina endocolpitis
enter- intestine enteritis, enterology
proct- anus proctitis
pod- foot podiatry, pseudopod
arthr- joint arthritis, arthrosis
brachi- arm brachialgia
chondr- cartilage chondromalacia
oss- bone ossification
ost(e)- bone osteochondritis
phleb- vein phlebitis
arter(i)- artery arteriole
neur(o)- nerve neurology
hema(a)t- blood hemangioma
cyt- cell cytology
cut- skin subcutaneous
mening- membrane meningitis
267
ENGLISH IN MEDICINE 2
LÊ MINH DIỆU
PHAN GIA ANH BẢO

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268