Mathematical

Topic Detailed Explanation Key Concepts

Representation
- Current Law (KCL): Sum of
currents at a node = 0
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Voltage Law (KVL) are - Voltage Law (KVL): Sum of
fundamental principles in electrical circuit analysis. KCL voltages in a closed loop = 0
KCL: Σ I = 0
Kirchhoff's Laws states that the sum of currents entering a node equals - Applicable to both DC and
KVL: Σ V = 0
zero, while KVL states that the sum of voltages around AC circuits
any closed loop in a circuit is zero. - Used for circuit analysis
and solving complex
network problems
- Applicable to linear circuits
A linear circuit analysis method where the response in any - Works with independent
Response = Σ
Superposition branch is the algebraic sum of the responses caused by voltage and current sources
(Individual source
Theorem each independent source acting alone. This allows - Simplifies circuit analysis
responses)
breaking down complex circuits into simpler components. - Helps determine individual
source contributions
- Current leads voltage by
90°
In a purely capacitive circuit, current leads voltage by 90
AC Voltage in - Maximum current occurs
degrees. The current is proportional to the rate of change I = C * dV/dt
Purely Capacitive when voltage is changing
of voltage. No power is consumed; only reactive power Phase Angle = 90°
Circuit most rapidly
exists.
- No real power dissipation
- Purely reactive circuit
Series Resonance:
- Minimum impedance
- Maximum current
Series Resonance: Occurs when inductive and capacitive
- Zero phase angle
reactances are equal, resulting in minimum impedance.
Series vs Parallel Series: XL = XC
Parallel Resonance: Occurs when inductive and capacitive
Resonance Parallel Resonance: Parallel: BL = BC
susceptances are equal, resulting in maximum
- Maximum impedance
impedance.
- Minimum current
- Infinite impedance at
resonance
- Circuit impedance Z = √(R² + XL²)
Series R-L Circuit Calculation of current and power factor for a series R-L calculation I = V/Z
Calculation circuit connected to AC supply. - Phase angle determination Power Factor =
- Power factor analysis cos(θ)
- Equivalent current source
A circuit theorem that states any linear two-terminal
- Parallel equivalent IN = Short-circuit
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent current source in
resistance current
Norton's Theorem parallel with a single resistor. Simplifies complex circuit
- Network reduction RN = Open-circuit
analysis by reducing networks to simpler equivalent
technique equivalent resistance
circuits.
- Applicable to linear circuits
- Constant power delivery
- Reduced conductor
Three-phase circuits provide more efficient power material
Three-Phase Power = √3 * VL * IL *
transmission and generation compared to single-phase - Higher power transmission
Circuit Advantages cos(θ)
systems. efficiency
- More compact design
- Better load balancing
- Frequency at which
reactive components
Parallel R-L-C neutralize
Derivation of resonance frequency for parallel RLC circuit,
Resonance - Maximum impedance f = 1 / (2π * √(LC))
where reactive components cancel each other.
Frequency condition
- Determines circuit
behavior
Balanced Load:
- Equal phase impedances
- Symmetric current
distribution
Balanced Load: Equal magnitude and phase in three-
Balanced and - No neutral current Balanced: VR = VY =
phase systems. Unbalanced Load: Variations in
Unbalanced Loads VB
magnitude or phase.
Unbalanced Load:
- Asymmetric current
distribution
- Potential neutral current
- Active Power (P): Real
power consumed
Active, Reactive, - Reactive Power (Q): Power S = √(P² + Q²)
and Apparent Defines different power components in AC circuits. exchanged between source Power Triangle
Power and reactive components representation
- Apparent Power (S): Total
power in the circuit
Series RLC Circuit For a series RLC circuit with R = 1000 Ω, L = 100 mH, C =
Calculations Step-by-Step Formulas Used
Analysis 10 pF, and V = 100 V:
Q = (1/R) * √(L/C)
Quality factor (Q) represents the sharpness of resonance
Q-Factor Q = (1/1000) * √(0.1/10e-
in a circuit. It indicates the ratio of energy stored to energy Q = ωL/R = 1/(ωRC)
Calculation 12)
dissipated in one cycle.
Q = 316.23
f₀ = 1 / (2π * √(LC))
Resonance The frequency at which inductive and capacitive
f₀ = 1 / (2π * √(0.1 * 10e-12)) f₀ = 1 / (2π√LC)
Frequency reactances cancel out, resulting in minimum impedance.
f₀ = 50.33 kHz
BW = f₀ / Q
The frequency range where circuit response remains
Bandwidth BW = 50.33k / 316.23 BW = f₀ / Q
effective.
BW = 159.2 Hz
Half-Power Point Frequencies where power is half of its maximum value f₁, f₂ = f₀ ± (f₀/2Q) Δf = f₀/Q
Proof Steps:
1. Consider voltage source
Fundamental theorem in DC circuit analysis stating the with internal resistance
Maximum Power
maximum power is transferred from source to load when 2. Load resistance varies PMax = (V²) / (4R)
Transfer Theorem
load resistance equals source internal resistance. 3. Derive power equation
4. Differentiate to find
maximum
η = (RL / (RS + RL)) * 100%
Maximum Efficiency = (Output
Demonstrates the conditions for optimal power transfer in Maximum occurs when RL
Efficiency Power / Input Power)
electrical circuits. = RS
Derivation * 100%
Maximum efficiency = 50%
Comprehensive analysis of current behavior in series RLC Current Calculation:
Current in Series I = V * √(1/R² + (ωL -
circuit considering voltage, impedance, and phase I=V/Z
RLC Circuit 1/ωC)²)
relationships. Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²)
- Series Components
Graphical representation showing series connection of
Circuit Diagram - Voltage Source Schematic Drawing
Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor
- Component Orientation
- Magnitude Representation
Visual representation of voltage and current phase Phasor Vector
Phasor Diagram - Phase Angle Relationships
relationships Calculations
- Vector Diagram
Conversion Rules:
Technique to convert voltage source with series - Maintain same
Source
resistance to equivalent current source with parallel Thevenin/Norton equivalent Vs/R = Is
Transformation
resistance -V=I*R
- Preserve circuit behavior
Applies to:
Fundamental theorem stating the sum of power in a - Linear Networks
Tellegen's Theorem Σ(Vi * Ii) = 0
linear, passive, bilateral network is zero - Passive Components
- Bilateral Systems
Key Characteristics:
Principle stating that the response at one point in a linear Response
Reciprocity - Linear Networks
network due to a source at another point remains Independent of
Theorem - Constant Response
constant if source and response points are interchanged Source Location
- Source Interchange
Duality Rules:
Mathematical principle where electrical circuit
- Voltage ↔ Current Transformation of
Principle of Duality relationships can be transformed by replacing certain
- Series ↔ Parallel Circuit Elements
quantities with their dual counterparts
- Inductor ↔ Capacitor