ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Integumentary System
Body Membranes
- Functions of body membranes
Cover body surfaces
Line body cavities
Form protective sheets around organs
Classified according to tissue types:
Epithelial Membranes
Epithelial membranes are simple organs
Specific Serous Membranes
Also called covering and lining membranes
These membranes contain: ֎ Peritoneum
֎ Epithelial Tissue Layer Abdominal cavity
֎ Connective Tissue Layer ֎ Pleura
Around the lungs
֎ Pericardium
Cutaneous Membranes Skin Around the heart
o Dry membrane
o Outermost protective boundary
Connective Tissue Membranes
o Construction
Synovial Membranes
Epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified
o Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial
squamous epithelium
Dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue tissue)
o Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
Line bursae
Line tendon sheaths
o Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs moving
against each other during muscle activity
Mucous Membranes (mucosae)
o Moist membranes
o Line all body cavities that open to the exterior body
surface
o Adapted for absorption or secretion
o Construction
Epithelium type depends on site
Loose connective tissue (lamina propria)
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integument means covering, and the integumentary system is one of
the more familiar systems of the body to everyone because it covers
the outside of the body and is easily observed.
Integumentary system consists of the:
Skin (cutaneous membrane)
Skin appendages
o Sweat glands
Serous Membranes (serosae) o Oil glands
o Line open body cavities that are closed to the exterior o Hair
of the body o Nails
o Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a
visceral and parietal layer FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
o Construction Insulates and cushion deeper body organs
Simple squamous epithelium Protects the entire body from:
Areolar connective tissue Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
Chemical damage (acids and bases)
Thermal damage (heat or cold)
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)
Microbes (bacteria)
Desiccation (drying out)
Aids in loss or retention of body heat as controlled by the
nervous system
Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
Synthesizes vitamin D
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
1
Not technically part of the integumentary system
Composed mostly of adipose tissue
Attaches the skin to underlying bone and muscle and
supplies it with blood vessels and nerves
Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper tissues
- Melanin
Melanin is a pigment produced by
melanocytes
Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum
basale of the epidermis
Color is yellow to brown to black
Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound
granules called melanosomes
Amount of melanin produced depends
Two Kinds of Tissue compose the skin: upon genetics, hormones and exposure to
sunlight
- Epidermal dendritic cells
Alert and activate immune cells to a threat
(bacterial or viral invasion)
- Merkel cells
Associated with sensory nerve endings
Serve as touch receptors called Merkel
a. Epidermis—outer layer discs
Stratified squamous epithelium
Keratinization - the cells become filled with the b. Dermis
protein keratin which makes them more rigid and Composed of dense collagenous connective tissue
durable/ hard and tough containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and macrophages.
Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and
fibrous protein called keratin lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis
Avascular Underlies the epidermis
Composed of five layers (strata) From deepest to Two layers of the dermis:
most superficial o Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contains
o Stratum basale projections called dermal papillae
- Deepest layer of epidermis - Indent the epidermis above
- Lies next to dermis - Many projections contain capillary loops, and
- Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the others house pain and touch receptors
two together - On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase
- Cells undergoing mitosis friction and gripping ability
- Daughter cells are pushed upward to become - Fingerprints are identifying films of sweat
the more superficial layers o Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
o Stratum spinosum - Blood vessels
- Cells become increasingly flatter and more - Sweat and oil glands
keratinized - Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)
o Stratum granulosum
o Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)
- Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
- Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms
of hands and soles of feet
o Stratum corneum
- Outermost layer of epidermis
- Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin
(protective protein prevents water loss from
skin)
o Other Dermal Features
- Cutaneous Sensory Receptors
- Phagocytes – Cells that fight infections
- Collagen and Elastic Fibers
- Blood Vessels
SKIN COLOR
Three pigments contribute to skin color
2
Integumentary System
1. Melanin - Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit
Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments and genitals
2. Carotene - Begin to function at puberty
Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables - Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and
3. Hemoglobin proteins (milky or yellowish color)
Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries - Play a minimal role in body temperature
Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
regulation
Hair
Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment, inflammation,
hypertension, fever, or allergy Hair is found everywhere on the skin, except on the palms,
Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such as fear), the soles, the lips, the nipples, parts of the genitalia, and the
anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood flow to an area distal segments of the fingers and toes.
Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder due to a Produced by hair follicle
high bilirubin level Root is enclosed in the follicle
Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin
Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands
Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum basale
Sebaceous (oil) glands
o Located all over the skin except for palms and soles
o Found in the dermis, reticular layer
o Produce sebum (oil)
- Makes skin soft and moist
- Prevents hair from becoming brittle
- Kills bacteria
o Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others
open directly onto skin surface
o Glands are activated at puberty
Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
o Produce sweat
o Widely distributed in skin
o Two types of sudoriferous glands:
a. Eccrine glands
- Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s
surface
- Produce acidic sweat
Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic
waste
- Function in body temperature regulation
b. Apocrine glands
3
Hair Anatomy HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
֎ Central medulla Infections and Allergies
֎ Cortex surrounds medulla Athlete’s foot
֎ Cuticle on outside of cortex o Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis)
o Most heavily keratinized region of the hair o Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
o Caused by inflammation of hair follicles
o Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria
Cold sores (fever blisters)
o Caused by human herpesvirus 1
o Blisters itch and sting
Contact dermatitis
o Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic
responses
Hair Follicles o Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
Composed of an epithelial root sheath and fibrous sheath
Impetigo
Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb o Caused by bacterial infection
(deepest part of the follicle)
o Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose
Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull
Psoriasis
hairs upright when we are cold or frightened
o Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or
stress
o Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales
that itch, burn, crack, or sometimes bleed
Nails
Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the
epidermis
Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, which is
responsible for growth
Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
Parts of a nail:
o Free edge
o Body is the visible attached portion
o Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the Burns
nail; the cuticle is the proximal edge Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV
o Root of nail is embedded in skin radiation, or chemicals
Associated dangers
o Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix
o Protein denaturation and cell death
o Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
o Circulatory shock
Result in loss of body fluids and infection from the invasion
of bacteria
֎ Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of nines
o Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation
o Each area represents about 9 percent of total body surface
area
The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum)
represents 1 percent of body surface area
4
Integumentary System
o Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet
(UV) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds
o Cancer can be classified two ways
1. Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
2. Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other
body areas
o Most common types of skin cancer
1. Basal Cell Carcinoma
- Least malignant and most common type of skin
cancer
- Arises from cells in stratum basale that are altered
so that they can no longer make keratin
- Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that
develop a central ulcer
2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- Believed to be induced by UV exposure
- Arises from cells of stratum spinosum
- Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules that
gradually form shallow ulcers
First-degree burn (superficial burn) - Early removal allows a good chance of cure
o Only epidermis is damaged - Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed
o Skin is red and swollen
Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn)
o Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged
o Skin is red, painful, and blistered
o Regrowth of the epithelium can occur
Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
o Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless
o Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible
o Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black
Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
o Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons) 3. Malignant Melanoma
o Appears dry and leathery - Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts for only 5
o Requires surgery and grafting percent of skin cancers
o May require amputation - Arises from melanocytes
- Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
- Detection uses ABCDE rule for recognizing
melanoma
o A = Asymmetry
Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
o B = Border irregularity
Borders of mole are not smooth
o C = Color
֎ Criteria for deeming burns critical (if anyone is met):
Different colors in pigmented area
o Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns
o D = Diameter
o Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree
Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
burns
o E = Evolution
o Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet, or
One or more of the ABCD characteristics is
genitals
evolving
o Burns affect the airways
o Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have
occurred
֎ Skin cancer
o Most common form of cancer in humans
5
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN AND
BODY MEMBRANES
Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth or sixth
month of fetal development but disappears by birth
Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at birth
Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and disappear
by the third week
Acne may appear during adolescence
In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive
sunlight
Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are
genetically determined; other factors that may contribute
include drugs and emotional stress
