12.

1 PLUMBING SYSTEMS Empire into Europe and the Mideast, these

technologies were introduced across large
Tidbits from Plumbing History
geographic areas, but knowledge was largely
4000 years ago - The ancient Minoan lost in the Middle Ages.
civilization was the first to use underground clay
Rome had 11 public baths, over 1300
pipes for sanitation and water supply. Knossos
public fountains and cisterns, and over 850
had an efficient water system to bring in clean
private baths.
water, and remove sewage and storm sewer
channels so that they overflowed when it rained Roman Plumber - The Roman plumber was an
heavily. Similarly, the ancient Greeks of Athens artisan who worked with lead. Both male and
used an indoor plumbing system for pressurized female plumbers soldered, installed, and
showers, the inventor Heron applied this repaired roofs, gutters, sewers, drains, and
system of pressurized pipes to put out fires in every part of the plumbing supply, waste, and
the city of Alexandria (Aitken humanities, 2021). storm drainage systems.

According to archaeological The term plumbing is derived from the Latin

excavations, the Greeks used methods to have a word plumbum for lead (Pb).
good quality of water such as decanters, filters,
King Minos of Crete owned the world’s first
and boiling water. Although at that time the
flushing water closet with a wooden seat and a
boiling of water was not very preferred by the
small reservoir of water, over 2800 years ago.
economic environment for long periods due to
the use of firewood and other fuels that were Archaeologists in China recently uncovered an
scarce resources. Ancient Greece was one of antique water closet in the tomb of a king of the
the first countries to build aqueducts to have Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. to 24 C.E.). It
clean water in civilizations and irrigate crops, was complete with running water, a stone seat,
just as it invented the sewage system (Aitken and a comfortable armrest.
humanities, 2021).
The decline of the Roman Empire and an
2800 years ago - It is estimated that the first outbreak of deadly bubonic plague that killed
storm sewers of ancient Rome were built an estimated one-third of the European
between 800 and 735 BC. Drainage systems population during the Middle Ages resulted in
evolved slowly and began primarily as a means the decline of public baths and fountains.
to drain marshes and storm runoff. Sanitation in
ancient Rome was a complex system similar in 500 to 1500 C.E - The period from 500 to 1500
many ways to modern sanitation systems. The C.E. was a dark age in terms of human hygiene;
Roman Empire is in many ways the highest community plumbing became almost
point of sewage management and other public nonexistent. At the end of the Middle Ages,
works in the ancient world. Famous for public London’s first water system was rebuilt around
baths and latrines with quite complex 1500. It consisted partly of the rehabilitated
engineering, Rome also excelled in the use of Roman system with the remainder patterned off
covered drains for stormwater and sewage, of the Roman design.
with some houses connected directly to the Pumping devices have been an important way
drainage system. Water conveyance in large- of moving fluids for thousands of years. The
scale aqueducts was another impressive ancient Egyptians invented water wheels with
accomplishment. With the spread of the Roman buckets mounted on them to move water for
irrigation. Over 2000 years ago, Archimedes, a Philadelphia earned the distinction as
Greek mathematician, invented a screw pump the first city in the world to adopt cast iron pipe
made of a screw rotating in a cylinder (now for its water mains. Chicago is credited with
known as an Archimedes screw). This type of having the first comprehensive sewerage
pump was used to drain and irrigate the Nile project in the United States, designed in 1885.
Valley.
Inside running water and toilets were
Modern plumbing began in the early 1800s not common in the U.S. home until well into the
when steam engines became capable of mid-1900s. The Census of 1910 indicated that
supplying water under pressure and only about 10% of American homes had inside
inexpensive cast iron pipes could be produced running water. Farms during that time relied on
to carry it. Still, it was considered unhealthy to well water, with many powered by hand pumps
bathe. and windmills.

In 1835, the Common Council of Modern Plumbing Systems

Philadelphia nearly banned wintertime bathing
Modern cities have sophisticated water delivery
(the ordinance failed by two votes). Ten years
and wastewater treatment systems. In
later, Boston prohibited bathing except on
buildings, the plumbing system performs two
specific medical advice.
primary functions: water supply and waste
Finally, it was through observation of disposal. A complete plumbing arrangement
several cholera epidemics in the mid-1800s that consists of a water supply system, a sanitary
epidemiologists finally recognized the link drainage system, and a wastewater treatment
between sanitation and public health. This system.
discovery provided the thrust for modern water
The water supply system consists of the
and sewage systems. In 1848, England passed
piping and fittings that supply hot and cold
the national Public Health Act, which later
water from the building water supply to the
became a model plumbing code for the world to
fixtures, such as lavatories, bathtubs, water
follow. It mandated some type of sanitary
closets, dishwashers, clothes washers, and
disposal in every residence such as a flushing
sinks.
toilet, a privy, or an ash pit.
The waste disposal system consists of
In America, like in Europe, colonial
the piping and fittings required to take that
hygiene and sanitation were poor. As early as
water supplied to the fixtures out of the
1700, local ordinances were passed to prevent
building and into the sewer line or disposal
people from throwing waste on public streets.
field. This system is typically referred to as a
Eventually, the use of the privy or outhouse
sanitary drainage system or drain, waste, and
slowly became accepted.
vent (DWV) system.
Boston and later New York built the
Wastewater treatment is also an
country’s first waterworks to provide water for
important component of waste disposal from
firefighting and domestic use for about 1700.
building plumbing systems. Although most
The wooden pipe system, laid under roads,
buildings rely upon district or community water
provided water at street pumps or hydrants. In
treatment plants to dispose of their sewage,
1804,
some buildings and facilities operate their own
operations. These are generally known as septic The freezing point of water is 32°F
or on-site sewage treatment (OSST) systems. (0°C).

Plumbing system is a network of pipes, Fundamental Units

fittings, and valves that carry and control the
Several fundamental units describe the
flow of supply water and wastewater to and
properties and behavior of water in building
from points of use known as fixtures.
plumbing systems. Customary and SI unit
Fixtures - are components, receptacles, conversions for water based on weight,
or pieces of equipment that use water and pressure, flow, and volume are provided in
dispose of wastewater at the point of water Table 12.3.
use.
Specific Weight (Density)
Piping - is a series of hollow channels
Specific weight (w) or density is the
that carry water to and wastewater from
weight per unit volume. Water density varies
plumbing fixtures.
with temperature; it is most dense at 39°F (4°C).
Fittings - are used to connect lengths of Below this temperature, crystals begin to form,
pipe in the piping network. increasing their volume and therefore
decreasing their density.
Valves - are used to regulate or control
the flow of water. Types of plumbing pipes, Water attains a specific weight of 62.42
fittings, valves, and fixtures are discussed in this lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) at a temperature of 39°F (4°C).
chapter because they relate to the water supply Above and below 39°F, water is less dense; for
and sanitary drainage systems. example, the specific weight of water at 80°F
(27°C) is 62.2 lb/ft3 (0.996 kg/L). Specific weight
12.2 WATER: THE SUBSTANCE
of 62.4 lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) is commonly used for
Any study of a plumbing system must liquid water in engineering computations.
begin with the substance it carries, water.
Specific Gravity
Water is the name given to the liquid
compound H2O. A molecule of water is The specific gravity (s.g.) of a fluid or
composed of one oxygen atom and two solid is the ratio of the specific weight of the
hydrogen atoms. In a pure state, it is tasteless fluid or solid to the specific weight of water at a
and odorless. temperature of 39°F (4°C), the temperature at
which water is most dense (62.42 lb/ft3 or 1.00
The standard atmospheric pressure of
kg/L).
Water is 14.696 psi, 101.04 kPa
Materials with a specific gravity of less
The boiling point of water is 212°F or
than 1.0 are less dense than water (e.g., oil)
100°C. The temperature at which water boils
and will float on pure water; substances with a
decreases with elevation increase.
specific gravity of more than 1.0 are denser
Ex. 5000 ft (1524 m) above sea level = 202.4°F than water and will sink. The specific gravity of
(94.7°C). water is assumed to be 1.0 at common
plumbing system temperatures.
10 000 ft (3048 m) above sea level = 193.2°F
(89.6°C) Example: Raw sewage is found to weigh 60.5
lb/ft3. Determine its specific gravity.
s.g. = 60.5 lb/ft3/ 62.42 lb/ft3 = 0.969 SI system. Determine the volumetric flow rate,
in L/s, for water flowing out of a faucet based
Volume
on 6 L in 8 s.
Volume (V) is the amount of space
Q = V/time = 6 L/(8 s (1 min/60 s)) =
occupied by a substance.
45L/s
Water volume is typically expressed in the
following: in cubic inches (in3) or cubic feet (ft3)
in the customary system, and in cubic meters
(m3) or liters (L) in the SI system.
Velocity
In plumbing system design, volume is
Velocity is the rate of linear motion of a
commonly expressed in gallons (g or gal).
substance in one direction. The magnitude of
There are 7.48 gallons in a cubic foot (ft 3). A
velocity, known as speed, is usually expressed in
gallon is approximately 3.8 L.
terms of distance covered per unit of time.
Volumetric Flow Rate
In the customary system of weights and
Volumetric flow rate (Q), frequently measures, velocity is expressed in inches per
called the flow rate, is the volume of a second (in/s) or feet per second (ft/s). In the
substance that passes a point in a system per international system of measure (the SI
unit of time. system), velocity is expressed in meters per
second (m/s).
Flow rate expression in SI system:
In a fluidic system such as a plumbing
 Liters per second (L/s)
system, water velocity is expressed as an
 Liters per minute (L/min)
average velocity because water molecules each
 Cubic meters per second (m3/s) have different speeds and directions of travel;
Flow rate expression in the customary system: that is, water molecules flowing in the center of
a pipe tend to travel faster than water
 Cubic feet per second (cfs or ft3/s) molecules at or near the inner wall of the pipe.
 Cubic feet per minute (cfm or ft 3/min)
 Gal per second (gps or g/s) The average velocity (v) of a fluid (such
 Gal per minute (gpm or g/min) as water) flowing through a pipe may be found
by the following equations based upon average
Volumetric flow rate (Q) may be determined volumetric flow rate (Q) and cross-sectional
with volume (V) and time: area (A) or inside diameter (Di). Units must be
consistent in these equations (e.g., volume,
Q = V/time
area, and diameter must be expressed in units
Example: of in, ft, m, and so on).
Customary system. Determine the volumetric Formula : V = Q/A = 4Q/π Di2
flow rate, in gpm, for water flowing out of a
The following equation, in customary
faucet based on 2 gal in 23 s.
units, is useful in plumbing system design. It
Q = V/time = 2 gal/(23 s (1 min/60 s)) = may be used to find the average velocity (v) of a
5.2 gpm fluid flowing through a pipe, in ft/s, based on
the volumetric flow rate (Q), in gpm, and an In the customary system of measure,
inside diameter (Di) of the pipe, in inches: pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch
(lb/in2 or psi) or pounds per square foot (lb/ft2
Formula : v = 0.409Q/Di2
or psf). In the international system (SI),
Example: pressure is expressed in Newton per square
meter or the Pascal (N/m2 or Pa). Although
Determine the average velocity for water flow units of lb/in2 are dimensionally correct, the
in a pipe under the following conditions: acronym “psi” will be used for pounds per
a. A 3⁄4 in diameter, Type L copper tube (0.875 in square inch of gauge pressure because it is
outside diameter and 0.785 in inside diameter) universally accepted in the plumbing industry.
carrying water at a volumetric flow rate of 10 The acronym “psia” will be used for absolute
gpm. pressure.

V = 0.409Q/Di2 = (0.409)(10 gpm)/(0.785 in) 2 Standard atmospheric pressure (Ps) is

=6.6 ft/s the typical barometric pressure of air at sea
level and 70°F (21°C). It is equal to 14.696 psia
b. A 2 in. diameter, Schedule 40 chlorinated (101 325 Pa). Atmospheric pressure varies with
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe (2.375 in outside weather conditions and elevation. In Denver,
diameter and 2.047 in inside diameter) carrying Colorado, atmospheric pressure is about 11.8
cold water at a volumetric flow rate of 40 gpm. psia because Denver is about a mile above sea
V = 0.409Q/Di2 = (0.409)(40 gpm)/(2.047 in) 2 level; it is above about 20% of the earth’s
= 3.9 ft/s atmosphere.

The following equation, in SI (metric) Gauge pressure (Pg) is the pressure of a

units, may be used to find the average velocity fluid (gas or liquid) excluding pressure exerted
(v) of a fluid flowing through a pipe, in m/s, by the atmosphere. Pressure can be expressed
based on the volumetric flow rate (Q), in L/min, in terms of absolute and gauge pressure:
and an inside diameter (Di) of the pipe, in mm: Absolute pressure (Pa) is the pressure of a fluid
(gas or liquid) including pressure exerted by the
V = 21.22Q/Di2 atmosphere:
Example: Pg + Ps = Pa
Determine the average velocity for water flow Example:
in a 20 mm diameter copper tube (21.4 mm
outside diameter and 19.9 mm inside diameter) a. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7
carrying water at a volumetric flow rate of 40 psia (101 325 Pa). A pressure gauge placed at
L/min. the bottom of an 8 ft (2.45 m) deep tank filled
with water measures a water pressure at the
V = 21.22Q/Di2 = (21.22) (40 L/min)/(19.9 mm) 2 tank bottom of 3.5 psi (24 130 Pa). Determine
= 2.14 m/s the absolute and gauge pressure.
Pressure Gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank is 3.5
psi (24 130 Pa).
Pressure (P) is the force per unit area
exerted by liquid or gas on a surface such as the Absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is
sidewall of a container or pipe. 18.2 psia, as found by:
Pg + Ps = Pa suction pressure. It is expressed as negative
gauge pressure.
3.5 psi + 14.7 psi = 18.2 psia
Saturation vapor pressure is the
(24 130 Pa + 101 325 Pa = 125 455 Pa)
pressure that water vapor molecules exert
b. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 when the air is fully saturated at a given
psia (101 325 Pa). A bicycle tire (at sea level) is temperature. Saturation vapor pressure is
inflated to 50 psi (344 737 Pa). Determine the directly proportional to the temperature: it
gauge and absolute pressures in the inflated increases with rising temperature and falls
tire. with decreasing temperature.

The inflated tire has a gauge pressure of In plumbing systems there are three
50 psi (344 737 Pa). additional classifications of pressure: Static
pressure is the pressure that exists without any
The inflated tire has an absolute flow. It is the pressure available at a location in
pressure of 64.7 psia (446 062 Pa) because: the system. Residual pressure is the pressure
Pg + Ps = Pa available at a fixture or outlet during a period of
maximum demand. It is the pressure that exists
50 psia + 14.7 psia = 64.7 psia after pressure losses from friction from water
(344 737 Pa + 101 325 Pa = 446 062 Pa) flow, elevation change, and other pressure
losses in the system are subtracted. The
discharge pressure is the pressure of the water
at the point of discharge, such as at the mouth
c. In Denver, atmospheric pressure is about 11.8
of a showerhead, faucet, or hose bibb.
psi (81 358 Pa). A bicycle tire (in Denver) is
inflated to 50 psi (344 737 Pa). Determine the The constituent gases that make up a
gauge and absolute pressures in the inflated mixture of gases such as air each exert a partial
tire. pressure that contributes to the total pressure
exerted by the gas mixture. For example,
The inflated tire has a gauge pressure of
atmospheric air consists of about 75%
50 psi (344 737 Pa).
nitrogen, by weight, so 75% of the total
The inflated tire has an absolute pressure exerted by atmospheric air is from
pressure of 61.8 psia (426 095 Pa) because: the nitrogen constituent. Thus, under standard
conditions (14.696 psia), the partial pressure of
Pg + Ps = Pa
nitrogen is 11 psia, 75% of the total pressure.
50 psia + 11.8 psia = 61.8 psia The partial pressure of a constituent gas in a
mixture of gases equals the pressure it would
(344 737 Pa + 81 358 Pa = 426 095 exert if it occupied the same volume alone at
Pa) the same temperature.
A gauge is frequently used to record the Water vapor pressure is the pressure
pressure difference between the system and that the water vapor molecules alone exert in
the atmospheric pressure. Normally, if the air. It is based on the amount of water vapor
pressure in a system is below atmospheric that exists in the air. Like all constituent gases in
pressure, it is called vacuum pressure or a the air, water vapor exerts a pressure, which is
known as vapor pressure. Water vapor pressure
is the contribution of water vapor to the total surface water during periods of high runoff and
pressure exerted by a gas. In buildings, this gas release water during periods of low runoff.
is atmospheric air. Surface water is typically treated to provide the
potable water required. Where non-potable
A difference in pressure in a system is
water may be used, no treatment of the water
required for a fluid to flow; for example, a pump
is necessary.
increases the pressure of the liquid passing
through it, thereby causing flow. Flow will Surface water can be collected in a
always be from a high-pressure region to a low- storage tank called a cistern. A cistern can fill
pressure region. Pressure difference is the with rainwater as it drains from the roof of a
driving force behind water flow. An increase in building or a more elaborate collection system.
pressure difference will increase flow. Collected water is then pumped into the supply
line of the building for use. (See Figure 12.1.)
The need for water is so important on certain
islands that the government has covered part of
the land surface (usually the side of a mountain
or a hill facing the direction from which the
12.3 WATER SUPPLY rains usually come) with a plastic film so rain
can be collected and stored for later use.
Water Sources
Groundwater
A supply of good water is more
important to human survival than food. Potable Groundwater seeps through the soil
is clean water that is suitable for human and is trapped on an impervious stratum, a
drinking. It must be available for drinking, layer of soil or rock that water cannot pass
cooking, and cleaning. Non-potable water may through. The water collects in pores of
be used for flushing water closets (toilets), permeable stratum; a layer of porous earth that
irrigating grass and gardens, washing cars, and water can pass through such as sands, gravels,
for any use other than drinking, cooking, or limestone, or basalt. A saturated permeable
cleaning. An abundant supply of potable water stratum capable of providing a usable supply of
that is easily distributed is vital to a prosperous water is known as an aquifer.
economy. Rain and snowmelt are the sources of Groundwater can be captured at many
most of the water available for our use. By layers below a building site—that is, there may
definition, surface water is the rain that runs off be several aquifers at different depths. Very
the surface of the ground into streams, rivers, deep-lying groundwater can remain
and lakes. Groundwater is water found below undisturbed for thousands or millions of years.
the surface of the earth. It is water that has However, most groundwater lies at shallower
percolated through porous soil until it reaches depths. An aquifer can serve as an underground
an impervious stratum, upon which it collects. reservoir with almost unlimited capacity.
Surface Water However, if water is removed from the aquifer
at too rapid a rate, the water level may drop so
Surface water readily provides much of drastically that groundwater can no longer be
the water needed by cities, counties, large reached. (See Figure 12.2.)
industries, and others. However, this source is
dependent on recurring rain. Reservoirs hold The level of groundwater is referred to
as the water table. The distance from the
ground surface to the water table is referred to agricultural runoff (e.g., pesticides, herbicides,
as the water table depth. The depth of a and so forth) and industrial runoff (e.g.,
shallow water table can vary considerably. metals, mine tailings, and so on). Some toxic
Generally, shallow water table depth will vary bacteria can spawn algae in warm, shallow
with the amount of rain. During a long dry spell, water and turn it green.
the water table depth will usually drop and
Surface water generally contains larger
during the rainy season, it will likely rise. Depth
quantities of turbidity (cloudiness) and bacteria
of a water table can also change artificially by
than groundwater. Groundwater generally
seepage from a nearby stream, lake, reservoir,
contains higher concentrations of dissolved
or irrigation ditch.
chemicals. Seawater contains high
Because the water table is formed by an concentrations of dissolved chemicals and
accumulation of water over the impervious some microscopic organisms. As surface water
stratum, the availability of water follows the runs over the ground, it may pick up various
irregular path of the stratum. At one location organic substances. These include algae, fungi,
the water table may be close to the surface bacteria, vegetable matter, animal decay and
while dropping well below the surface nearby. wastes, fertilizer, garbage wastes, and sewage.
The underground supply of water flows This contaminated runoff returns to the river,
approximately horizontally. If it reaches a low lake, or reservoir. Unless treated, these waters
spot in the ground surface, it may outflow as a remain tainted and are not potable.
spring or seep out creating a swampy area. If
As groundwater percolates down
the flowing underground water becomes
through the soil, it dissolves minerals such as
confined between impervious strata, significant
calcium, iron, silica, sulfates, fluorides, and
pressure may be built up. Under this condition,
nitrates, and may also entrap gases such as
if the water pressure is released by drilling
sulfide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon dioxide. It
through the top stratum or through a natural
may also pick up contamination from public or
opening in the stratum, the water will be forced
private underground garbage and sewage
upward creating an artesian well.
wastes. Generally, as it percolates, it will filter
Groundwater may require treatment to out any organic matter that may have been
be potable, but often it does not. When accumulated at the surface or in the ground.
treatment is required, it is generally less
Characteristics of water sources will
treatment than is required when making
vary greatly. Impurities in the surface water and
surface water potable.
groundwater may be harmful, of no
Impurities in Water importance, or even beneficial to a person’s
health. To determine what is in the water, it
All water sources contain some
must be tested.
impurities. It is the type and amount of these
impurities that affect water quality and Water Testing
suitability for a particular use. Whenever animal
All potable water supplies should be
or human fecal material connects with a water
tested and certified before being put in use
source, it is possible one or more pathogenic
and periodically recertified during use. The
(disease-causing) microorganisms could invade
governmental entity (e.g., special district, city,
the water source. Chemicals and toxins can
municipality, and so forth) that controls the
also contaminate the water source such as
supply of water to a community regularly tests
its water to be certain it is potable. Testing of enforceable mandatory standards that apply to
private water supplies, such as wells and public water systems and that protect public
streams, is the responsibility of the property health by limiting the levels of contaminants in
owner or user. The responsible governmental drinking water. A partial list of contaminants in
health entity often refers the users of private drinking water, maximum acceptable levels,
water supplies to independent testing common sources of contaminants, and
laboratories. potential health effects from ingestion of water
is provided in Table 12.4. These standards apply
The test for potable water provides a
to public water systems that provide water for
chemical analysis of the water, indicating the
human consumption through at least 15 service
parts per million (ppm) of each chemical found
connections, or regularly serve at least 25
in the water. A separate test is made for the
individuals. Public water systems include
bacteriological quality of the water, providing
municipal water companies, homeowner
an estimate of the density of bacteria in the
associations, schools, businesses,
water supply. Of particular concern in this test is
campgrounds, and shopping malls. The
the presence of any coliform organisms, which
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
indicates that the water supply may be
(NPDWR) are legally enforceable
contaminated with human or animal wastes
primary standards and treatment
(perhaps seepage from a nearby septic tank
techniques that apply to public water systems.
field or animal pasture). A written analysis of
Primary standards and treatment
the test or a standardized form is included with
techniques protect public health by limiting the
the test results, indicating whether the water is
levels of contaminants in drinking water.
potable or not.
The National Secondary Drinking
Drinking Water Standards
Water Regulations are guidelines regulating
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) contaminants that may cause undesirable
was originally passed by Congress in 1974 and cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth
amended in 1986 and 1996. Its purpose is to discoloration), aesthetic effects (e.g., taste,
protect public health by regulating the nation’s odor, or color), and other characteristics (e.g.,
public drinking water supply. The SDWA corrosivity, pH) in drinking water. These
authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection secondary contaminants include metals (e.g.,
Agency (EPA) to set national health-based copper, aluminum, iron, manganese, silver, and
standards for drinking water to protect against zinc) and other chemicals (e.g., chloride,
both naturally occurring and human-made fluoride, sulfate, and so on). Individual states
contaminants that may be found in drinking may choose to adopt these secondary standards
water. Protecting America’s drinking water is a as enforceable standards. EPA believes that if
top priority for EPA. EPA has established these contaminants are present in your water at
protective drinking water standards for more levels above these standards, the contaminants
than 90 contaminants, including drinking water may cause the water to appear cloudy or
regulations issued since the 1996 amendments colored, or to taste or smell bad. This may cause
to the Safe Drinking Water Act that strengthen a great number of people to stop using water
public health protection. from their public water system even though the
water is actually safe to drink.
In the United States, the National
Primary Drinking Water Regulations are legally Water Treatment
Water quality and taste vary where seawater is the only source of water
considerably from place to place, depending available or where groundwater is high in
on the water source of the area, the chemical saline. Desalination plants provide much of the
and bacteria contents of the water, and the potable water on islands such as the Bahamas,
amount and type of treatment given to the Malta, and Catalina and in arid countries such as
water before it is put into the system. Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Qatar.
Although the desalination process is successful,
Potable water can have an
the cost of treating seawater is much higher
objectionable odor and taste and even be
than that of treating high salinity in
cloudy and slightly muddied or colored in
freshwater.
appearance. Although the odor, taste, or
appearance of potable water may not mean you
want to drink it, it is still safe to drink. Several
Additionally, desalination is used when
methods are used to improve water quality and
river water is overused for irrigation; salt that
taste:
dissolves from soil and rocks becomes
• Problems with undesirable taste and concentrated in the water that returns to the
odor are overcome by the use of filtration river.
equipment or by aeration of the water.

• Bacteria are destroyed by the addition

of a few parts per million of chlorine. The taste
of chlorine is then removed with sodium sulfite. Water Use
• Suspended organic matter that Traditionally, water use rates are
supports bacterial life and suspended mineral described in units of gallons per capita per day
matter is removed by the addition of a (gpcd) or liters per capita per day (Lpcd). Of the
flocculating and precipitating agent, such as potable water supplied by public water systems,
alum, before settling or filtration. only a small portion is actually used for
drinking.
• Excessive hardness, which renders the
water unsuitable for many industrial purposes, The United States uses more water
is reduced by the addition of slaked, or than other industrialized countries, even those
hydrated, lime or by an ion-exchange process. that are equally well developed. Significant
amounts of water are used for lawn and
In addition to treating water for quality
garden sprinkling, automobile washing, and
and taste, artificial fluoridation of public water
kitchen and laundry appliances. According to
is done in many U.S. communities. It is an
an American Water Works Association study on
established method of reducing tooth decay in
residential end uses of water in the United
children.
States, daily indoor per capita water use in a
In many regions, the need for an typical single-family home in the United States
additional potable water supply has forced the is 69.3 gal (262.4 L). See Table 12.5 for a
development of processing water. In the breakdown of end-use. The average daily
desalination process, saline (salt) is removed domestic demands in commercial/industrial
from water (e.g., seawater) thereby making settings range between 20 and 35 gals per day
the water potable. This process is used in areas
(gpd) per employee. The amount of water we just a 5-min shower consumes 25 gal (95 L) of
use in residences varies by time of day: water. Reduced-flow showerheads with 1.8 to
2.5 gpm (6.8 to 9.5 L/min) flow are now
• Lowest rate of use—11:30 PM to 5:00
commonplace. Reduced flow not only conserves
AM
water but also energy used to heat water.
• Sharp rise/high use—5:00 AM to noon
Similar savings are realized by using
(peak use from 7:00 AM to 8:00 AM)
modern water-saving toilets. Originally, the
• Moderate use—noon to 5:00 PM (low water tank used to flush a toilet bowl was
around 3:00 PM) mounted high on the wall so the water would
gain enough velocity to flush away the waste.
• Increasing evening use—5:00 to 11:00 This could be accomplished with between 1 and
PM (second minor peak, 6:00 to 8:00 PM) 11⁄2 gal (3.8 to 5.7 L) of water. Over the years, it
Commercial and industrial businesses became fashionable to put the tank lower, and
also place heavy demands on public water finally units were designed that were single low-
supplies in developed countries. In most water profile units. All of these improvements meant
supply systems, the predominant number of that more water volume was necessary to wash
user connections is residential, but the few away the waste, and each flush used from 5 to 7
connections to nonresidential customers gal per flush (gpf, 19 to 26 Lpf) of water.
typically account for a significant fraction of the U.S. Energy and Water Conservation
system-wide water use. Standards require toilets manufactured after
January 1, 1994, use no more than 1.6 gpf (6
Lpf). In addition, there are a number of devices
Water Conservation available for use in existing water closet tanks
Potable water is not an infinite to cut the use of water by 50% and more.
resource. As the population and demand for Additionally, urinals must operate at 1 gpf or
water grow, it is in short supply and is becoming less, whereas the historic (pre-1994) flush rate
more expensive, particularly in arid and for a urinal was 3 gpf (11 Lpf). Showerheads
semiarid climates and in all regions during must operate at or below 2.5 gpm (9.5 L/min).
periods of a long drought. Efforts are underway Kitchen faucets are limited to 2.2 gpm (8.4
to cut back on its use. The introduction of L/min). These installations save significant
running water and waste systems in buildings is amounts of potable water. In addition, they
a rather new experience, occurring only in the greatly reduce the amount of water that must
last hundred years. During this time, we have be treated by sewage treatment plants and
progressed from taking a bath once a week (the reduce the need for additional treatment
Saturday night bath) to bathing once or twice plants.
daily. Use of Untreated Water
Conservation methods, such as flow Presently, potable water is used for
restrictors on all water outlets (such as sinks many functions that could be done with non-
and showers), can reduce the amount of water potable water. As the potable water supply
used by 50%, depending on the type installed. becomes more valuable and costs increase,
For example, an older showerhead may have a more communities will require the use of non-
water flow of 5 to 7 gpm (19 to 26.6 L/min), so potable or untreated water wherever possible.
These communities are installing separate
water mains to provide nonpotable water to
homes and businesses to preserve their supply
of potable water. Water from nonpotable
supplies is typically used for landscape
irrigation. In some communities, the cost of
potable water is so high that many of the
residents have put in shallow wells that
provide them with irrigation water for lawns
and gardens and for washing cars.

Use of Gray Water

Another approach to conserving

potable water is a water reuse system. This
system, known as a gray-water system, involves
the processing of household wastewater for
reuse. In the design of the gray-water system,
the water from the bathtub or shower and the
washing machine is run into a collection tank
instead of going into the sewer lines. From the
collection tank, the water is filtered and
chlorinated and then reused as water to flush
the toilets. This water reuse system cuts water
consumption by about one-half.

In another experiment, all of the

household water, except that from the garbage
disposal and water closets, is processed for
multiple reuses in the system. This results in
savings of up to 70% of overall household
water consumption. In addition to the reduced
amount of water required, savings from such a
system result in the following:

1. Smaller community or private sewer

systems.
2. Smaller community treatment
plants are required to treat sewage.
3. Smaller community treatment
plants required to treat supply
water (when required).